Landscape design guidelines for Kuwait
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Authors Al-Mutawa, Yasmin Abdullah Abdullatif, 1963-
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Landscape design guidelines for Kuwait
Al-Mutawa, Yasmin Abdullah Abdullatif, M.L.Arch.
The University of Arizona, 1993
UMI 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106
LANDSCAPE DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR KUWAIT
By
Yasmin Abdullah Abdullatif Al-Mutawa
A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the
SCHOOL OF RENEWABLE NATURAL RESOURCES
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
MASTER OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
In the Graduate College
THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
19 9 3 2
STATEMENT BX AUTHOR
This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an advanced degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under the rules of the Library. Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgement of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the major department or the Dean of the Graduate College when in his or her judgement the proposed use of the materials is in the interests of scholarship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author.
SIGNED:
APPROVAL BY THE THESIS DIRECTOR
This thesis has been approved on the date shown below:
P. FREDERICKSON DATE Processor of Landscape Architecture
'
Professor of Landscape Architecture S' WARREN D. JONES Professor of Landscape Architecture 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page LIST OF FIGURES 5
ABSTRACT 6
CHAPTER 1. BACKGROUND 7 Introduction of Problem Statement 7 History and Culture 9 Discovery of Oil . 13 Geography and Climate ...... 15 Natural History 18 Gulf Crisis Impact on Environment 20
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 22 Sociocultural Factors . 22 Social History 22 Natural History 27 Religion in the Landscape 30 Contemporary Behavior in the Landscape 32 Regionalism 34 Xeriscape 36 Drought Tolerant Plants „ 36 Irrigation Technology 38 Water Harvesting 41 Plants in the Landscape 42 Planning and Design Process 44
CHAPTER 3. THE DESIGN PROCESS 47 Introduction 47 Site Analysis 48 Activity Analysis 51 Matrix or Proximity Analysis 52 Bubble Diagram or Spatial Analysis 54 Sociocultural Factors ...... 57 Functional Factors 59 Environmental/Ecological factors 61 Aesthetic Consideration 65 Post Occupancy Evaluation 66
CHAPTER 4. GUIDELINE EVALUATION 70 Evaluation of Preliminary Guidelines for Kuwait 70 Sociocultural Factors 71 Functional Factors 73 Environmental /Ecological Factors 76 Aesthetic Factors 78 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS CONT.
Page Landscape Design Guidelines for the City of Phoenix, AZ 79 Sociocultural Factors 80 Functional Factors 81 Environmental Factors 84 Aesthetic Factors 85
Landscape Guidelines for the City of Tucson, AZ 86 Sociocultural Factors 86 Functional Factors 88 Environmental/Ecological Factors 92 Aesthetic Factors 94
Landscape Design Guidelines for the City of San Diego, California 96 Sociocultural Factors 97 Functional Factors 98 Environmental/Ecological Factors 100 Aesthetic Factors 101
CHAPTER 5. LANDSCAPE DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR KUWAIT Landscape Buffering and Screening Standards Mini-oasis Design Standards The Official Plant List Performance Standards
APPENDIX A 140
REFERENCES 148 5 LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Fig. la & lb Street Bufferyard 106 Fig. 2a & 2b Commercial Bufferyard 108 Fig. 3a & 3b Mini-Oasis 112 Fig. 4a & 4b Residential Landscape 116 Fig. 5a Public Buildings. 119 Fig. 5b Public Buildings 120 Fig. 6a & 6b Street Medians 123 Fig. 7a Maintenance 127 Fig. 8a Water Harvesting 130 Fig. 8b Water Harvesting 131 Fig. 9a & 9b Parking Lots 136 6
ABSTRACT
Prior to the Iraqi invasion and occupation, there was limited landscaping in Kuwait. Public gardens, highways, streets, governmental and private buildings had been planted to some extent.
In the post invasion days the Amir of Kuwait has set a goal to beautify Kuwait by intensified landscaping.
Responsibility for this Plan was given to the Public
Authority for Agriculture and Fisheries (PAAF) which in turn, commissioned the Kuwait Institute for Scientific
Research (KISR) to develop the Plan, in collaboration with
PAAF staff.
Currently, a Strategic and Master Plan for" Greenery"
Development (1995-2010) is being prepared. The plan will consist of guidelines for the gradual landscaping of Kuwait focusing on the urban areas.
The objectives of this thesis is to ensure the development of guidelines into a comprehensive body of knowledge which takes these categories into consideration: sociocultural factors, functional factors, environmental/ecological factors and aesthetic factors.
It is hoped that this information could be synthesized into a thoughtful, utilitarian landscape design guideline for
Kuwait. 7 CHAPTER ONE
BACKGROUND
Introduction of Problem Statement
The Amir of Kuwait has set a goal to beautify the country through extensive landscaping. A "Greenery Flan" is currently being prepared by the Kuwait Institute for
Scientific Research (KISR,1992) which will provide guidelines for the gradual landscaping of Kuwait.
Today, Kuwait has approximately 101 public gardens and 65 landscaped traffic intersections and roundabouts. The aim of the "Greenery" plan is to further landscape 65,000 hectares between the period of 1994's and 2010 (KISR, 1992).
The purpose of this thesis is to develop new approaches and ideas for landscape design guidelines for Kuwait. There is a need to revaluate landscapes as to their climatic and cultural "appropriateness".
As Kuwait urban development proceeded, designers planning the parks for Kuwait, have traditionally looked at western models as a source of inspiration. The words 'western' or
'westernization' have a negative connotation arising from the concrete wasteland that was left in the wake of the oil boom. This period, now at the end of it's first phase, has generated architecture and landscape architecture that is climatically and culturally inappropriate throughout the
Middle East (Steele, 1988). Chapter one briefly introduces the history, culture,
religion and the natural history of the area. It includes a
discussion of recent developments and changes that have
taken place after the discovery of oil and the recent war.
Chapter two is the relevant literary sources review.
Need for change will be established and new methods for the planning and design process of landscapes for Kuwait will be introduced.
Chapter three introduces general approaches to sound design and planning. This work is relevant to the preparation of guidelines for landscaping Kuwait. A thorough process for the preparation of sound design and planning will be discussed in detail.
Chapter four examines and evaluate some of the preliminary landscape guidelines for Kuwait. The established guidelines for three US cities: Tucson, Phoenix and San Diego will also be examined to gain an understanding of the approach these cities have made towards the development of landscape guidelines. These guidelines will be examined and evaluated using a careful design and planning process. Select guidelines can then be integrated towards future landscape design guidelines for Kuwait.
Chapter five is the distillation of the guidelines used in North American to ones that are relevant to Kuwait.
Landscape photographs within the cities of Tucson and Phoenix demonstrate the applied aspect of the guidelines.
History and Culture
Before oil, the old city of Kuwait, located on the eastern side of the Arabian Gulf on Kuwait Bay, was eight km2 in area. Until 1954, Kuwait was surrounded by a mud wall with four major gates beyond which lay a seemingly endless desert. The city developed in a dense, organic pattern reminiscent of many Arab and medieval urban areas.
Typical dwellings were courtyard houses which served as center for family socialization, work and relaxation. Old
Kuwait streets had simple elevations and the mud houses arranged in a haphazard way, often created interesting spaces. Mosques and market places were the main focal points in the city, while the old port served as a link to the outside world. The mosque and minaret punctuated the scene creating an element of interest to the organic build up.
Business was mainly carried out in the souk, an open market place, which ran through the city to the sea front.
Here merchants sold carpets, cloth, gold, pearls, cheap enamel, glassware and spices, while closer to the sea front the wholesalers sold rice, sugar, coffee and tea (Scarce,
1985).
The Kuwaiti people were master boat builders and their prosperity was mainly derived through trade and fishing. 10
These boats were sometimes as big as three hundred tons, in
which they went on annual trading trips to India and Africa.
Another seafaring activity was pearl diving and up until the
1920's " pearling " was Kuwait's most important trade. This
declined in the 1930's, due to the development of cultured
pearls in Japan.
The performance of every day life was based within the
framework of the Islamic religion. The basic five pillars
of Islam i.e. belief in Allah, fasting during Ramadan, prayers, charity and the pilgrimage to Mecca, guided the society in its daily activities.
Islam is much more than a system of belief. Every aspect of the believer's life is regulated by the principle of submission to God. Even types of indoor and outdoor spaces can be related to the Islamic lifestyle.
In modern Arab towns such as Kuwait, the courtyard space has been replaced by balconies in apartment buildings.
Since there still is a demand for outdoor space, it is not uncommon to see balconies used for traditional purposes such as eating or storing furniture.
Another type of courtyard was used for religious purposes such as teaching the Koran was found in colleges or madrasa.
The madrasa was surrounded by a wall creating spaces in which students used to study and contemplate. A large urban courtyard found in Arab cities is the maidan. It usually 11 adjoins the mosque to serve a wide range of public functions.
In addition to the urban pattern, Islam has a significant influence on Middle Eastern attitudes towards nature. Man is held to be the noblest of all creatures in creation and all nature is subservient to God. It is not an attitude which is helpful to conservation (Turner,1978).
However, Arabia has a long tradition of conservation in it's hema system (plural: ahmia). The hema system is one of the oldest known forms of range and resource conservation in the world. The prophet Mohammed stressed range protection in his sayings. The hema system is defined as a set of regulations controlling the extent and intensity of utilizing natural resources (Eighmy, Ghanem,1981).
Paradise is depicted as a garden in Islam. Persian poets delighted in making comparisons between earthly gardens and heavenly paradise as promised in the Koran (Wilber, 1962).
Gardens were regarded as a form of retreat, an oasis within the harsh desert environment.
The geometry of the gardens were two-fold and four-fold divisions forming a square. This symbolized heaven on earth, one of spiritual perfection and the oneness in creation (Wilber, 1962).
In plan, the square was flexible to accommodate expansion and changes. The dome, the minaret and the open court were 12 common elements. Walls were decorated using ceramic tiles arranged in geometric patterns and elaborate calligraphy from the Koran.
The sound of water was always enjoyed and gardens were built on a slight slope so that water would rush with a gurgling sound. Large pools with a sheen of water were admired for their reflecting qualities. For special effects, flower petals and candles were strewn on to the surface of the pools. This effect probably inspired the interest in the delicate carpet patterns famous in Persia
(Wilber, 1962).
Gardens in the Middle East reflect the teachings of Islam and Arab culture. Prior to the oil boom, trees in Kuwait were limited to the courtyard and were mostly Zizyphus spina-christi. Open spaces where families would congregate, were the main sources of recreation.
Prior to the Iraqi invasion, the tradition of camping in the desert during Spring was a popular activity.
Unfortunately, this activity is curbed because of the risk of stepping on mines. In December, 1992, observations were made of tents and campers near the Al-Saffar motorway.
However, this activity is carried out with risks taken into consideration.
Another form of recreation are the weekend houses on the beach known as "chalets". The linear arrangement of the 13 prefabricated houses provides a sense of privacy (Ritter,
1987). It is mostly the middle class Kuwaitis who have access to these "chalets". Public recreational facilities such as parks and gardens are frequented mostly by non-
Kuwaitis since Kuwaiti families do not find enough privacy there (Ritter, 1987). The non-Kuwaiti population living in
Kuwait comprise of Arab nationals, Asians, and Westerners.
Prior to the Iraqi invasion and occupation, there was limited landscaping in Kuwait. Public gardens, highways, streets, governmental and private buildings had been planted to some extent. However, planting is limited and plans are made to further landscape the City of Kuwait.
Discovery of Oil
For hundreds of years, Kuwait looked beyond the desert towards Mecca for spiritual inspiration and across the
Arabian Gulf for trade and contact with the outside world.
By 1938, oil had been discovered at Burgan and the oil industry eclipsed both fishing and pearl diving in income to
Kuwait. By the 1960's, the Kuwait Oil Company had over four hundred wells in operation whose products were exported world wide. By then, rapid economic and social changes had taken place (Scarce,1985).
Changes in the government were made from direct personal rule by the Sheikh and his advisors to the formation of a
Legislative Assembly. To cope with the complex changes, 14 elected members of merchant families had a greater say regarding succession and public decisions.
The immense wealth from oil revenues continues to be channeled into social services with priority given to education, medicine and housing. The old organic urban pattern gave way to western influence and modernistic architectural styles that lacked any thought. The old city wall yielded to pressures to expand horizontally and vertically.
Highways changed the character of the city along with the orthogonal housing layouts. This uprooted the people from this familiar mooring. Within a decade Kuwait was propelled into the "post- oil" passion for urbanization (Shiber,
1964). The building boom was insensitive to the climatic, cultural and social influences (Thorpe, 1988). It is senseless, however, to copy traditional forms of the past.
It is important to identify the architectural elements which make traditional forms successful, using them as an inspiration for modern architecture in Kuwait. It is also important to design and plan landscapes and architecture which are regionally and environmentally sensitive.
Once simply an exporter of crude, Kuwait also developed it's own oil industry. By mid 1980 it was processing 80% of it's crude oil in local refineries. Astute investments overseas in property and industry actually returned more 15 revenue than the sale of oil. Conservative investments in
local industries, banking and services took place for
diversification. However, Kuwait still remains heavily dependent on oil and the oil markets (Crystal,1992).
Geography and Climate
The State of Kuwait is located in the northwestern corner of the Arabian Gulf. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south and south west, Iraq to the north and the Arabian Gulf to the east.
Kuwait has harsh desert climate with extreme temperatures. The hottest months are July and August (mean maximum 44° C), and the coldest months are December and
January (mean minimum 8° C). Humidity is low ( 13% in June) and evaporation is high (24.3 mm daily in summer). The average rate of sand encroachment in Kuwait was calculated at 14m3/meter per year (Khalaf,1988). There are approximately 260 native plant species, most of them being annuals.
The desert landscape is relatively flat except for the
Jal-az-zor escarpment which lies along the northern shore of the bay. The relief reaches a height of 130 meters at Al-
Mutla (Sdirawi, 1989). The Ahmadi ridge is located in the oil town of Ahmadi. It is a plateau rising 115 meters above sea level and it runs parallel to the coast. Kuwait City is located along the southern portion of the bay offering 16
natural protection from the sand storms.
The soil is generally sandy and is derived from
sedimentary rocks and transported by sandstorm. A layer of
hardpan or "gatch" occurs at depths between 0.7 to 1.7
meters along the coastal areas up to 5 km inland.
Desert soils are chiefly sandy and calcareous in texture
showing variable degrees of accumulated salts and gypsum
(KISR, 1992). The soil has to be improved by adding mulch
and fertilizer prior to any planting.
Water resources for domestic, industrial and agricultural
uses in Kuwait is provided by various sources:
1) Underground brackish water, which is the only natural
occurring water source, could be used for irrigation
purposes. It has a relatively high salt content (4000 mg/1
TDS) which will limit the plant palette (KISR, 1992);
2) Treated Industrial and municipal water is one of the best
sources due to low salinity (1,300-2,430 mg/1 TDS) and it contains both organic and inorganic matter;
3) High subsurface water tables have been recorded over
large residential areas totalling 97.7 km2.
This water could be used with minimal chlorination and Ph adjustment; and
4) 95% of fresh water is produced at desalinization plants and the remaining, from groundwater aquifers. Both brackish and fresh water is used to irrigate private and public 17 gardens. Water is consumed at almost the same rate it is
produced at desalinization plants (KISR, 1992). As water is the limiting factor, treated industrial water would be a reliable source towards the "Greenery Plan". The planting of drought tolerant plants would also minimize the consumption of water.
Before the oil, Kuwait's population was less than 150,000 and mostly inhabited the old Kuwait City with small agricultural sites in Fintass and Jahra. The natural setting of the desert remained intact as human activities remained limited. With the oil boom, the socio-economic structure changed drastically and in 1985 the population increased to about 1.7 million (Khalaf,1988). Most of the people who live in Kuwait now are non- Kuwaiti's; they are foreign workers from the Arab world and Asia, and a few percentage from the West.
The rate of urban growth was incredible. By 1990,
Kuwait's population had reached about 2 million, with about
30% being Kuwaiti. Current estimates of the population is to be 1.2 to 1.3 million. The whole coastal area from the western tip of Kuwait Bay to the southernmost border of the country is urbanized. It is important to develop buffer zones and open spaces within the urbanized suburbs of
Kuwait.
The country is divided into five governates connected by 18
major network of highways and roads. These governates
reflect the demographics of the country. The growth led to
increased human activity in the desert, greatly affecting
the sensitive desert ecosystem and causing desertification.
There are four main factors which affect desertification:
1) The vegetation cover in Kuwait has deteriorated
significantly and this is mainly due to over grazing; 2) in
addition to overgrazing, woody shrubs are also uprooted for
fuel; 3) gravel and sand quarrying in the northern portion
of Kuwait led to extensive adverse effects. The rapid urbanization of Kuwait in the last twenty years required immense quantities of coarse aggregate as a raw material.
Gravel exploitation resulted in the removal of the vegetation cover and the excavated sand along with the tailings caused heavy dust storms; and 4) off- road traffic in the desert also is responsible for the degeneration of the top soil and vegetation cover.
These largely uncontrolled activities have had an adverse effect on the desert ecology. The dust lifted as a result of meager ground cover gives rise to several tons of fine particles suspended in the air even in a mild windstorm
(Khalaf,1988)*
Natural History
Due to Kuwait's location on the western edge of the
Arabian Gulf, it is at a crossroad of two important 19 migratory routes for birds. Large numbers of birds pass through the country in spring and the fall; a surprising variety of more than 300 species have been recorded as visitors. Besides these, 50 species of birds used to be resident breeders in Kuwait, though this has changed in the last decade (Sdirawi, 1989).
Many birds have been observed in protected areas such as military and communication bases. These are the areas which are heavily vegetated and the natural desert still relatively intact. During the design process, considerations should be made for wildlife by creating afforested areas. These vegetated areas will also diminish the upheaval of sand during a storm. Even urban environments can accommodate wildlife, especially during the
Spring, by creating pockets of green spaces.
The most common reptiles seen in Kuwait are lizards, the monitor lizard being the largest in Kuwait. The most common lizard seen basking in the sun is the desert lizard locally known as Dhub. There are 11 species of land snakes reported in Kuwait of which 4 species are venomous.
The Arabian Gulf is also rich in herpefauna, these include 15 species of snakes. Marine turtles can also be sporadically seen along the coastline, but this is rare.
Also recorded are 28 species of mammals, however the status of the wildlife has changed drastically (Sdirawi, 1989). While working at the Kuwait Institute for Scientific
Research (KISR) we spent a year in the desert filming any
remaining wildlife (Revival of the Desert,1987). We were
most successful with birds which were the most conspicuous
wildlife. We did not, however, encounter any mammals in the
wild, except for a few desert rodents. Many mammals have
been overhunted and their natural habitats destroyed by off
road vehicle use and by overgrazing.
In Kuwait, wildlife used to have a symbolic, spiritual
and cultural importance enriching people's lives. Senior citizens, and nomadic bedouins recall the days when the
oryx, gazelle, cape hare, the common red fox and the fennec fox roamed the desert. Unfortunately, with four wheel vehicles and rifles, these animals were destroyed and up until today, birds and wildlife species are still fair game.
There is a need to conserve the natural habitat, creating a balance between conservation and the desire to use the natural resources. Efforts are being made by the Kuwait
Institute for Scientific Research to establish a National
Park in the northern region of Kuwait. This would be a great opportunity to preserve the remaining wildlife for conservational and educational purposes.
Gulf Crisis impact on the environment
The Gulf crisis had detrimental impacts on the human and environmental factors. Oil wells were exploded and set 21
ablaze causing an environmental disaster. Gushing oil
formed enormous lakes in shallow depressions disturbing the
sensitive ecosystem. It was estimated that 4.43 million
barrels of oil burned per day. The smoke formed large
plumes ten miles wide containing toxic gases. With the
release of 70 million m3 of gas and incomplete combustion of
oil products, health officials were concerned with the
inhalation of particulate matter (KISR, 1993).
The marine environment was also affected. The Iraqi
perpetrators released 6 to 10 million barrels of oil into
the Arabian Gulf (compare to the Exxon Valdez spill of half
a million barrels). The counter-clockwise circulation of
water transported the oil to the western shores of Saudi
Arabia. Affected by this pollution are the shrimp and fish
nursery grounds causing concerns of the quality of
consumable fish.
Devastation to the sewage treatment plants also caused
destruction to the marine environment. Untreated sewage was released into the Gulf for several months causing the accumulation of bio-pollutants in marine organisms and thus destabilizing the food web.
Preliminary cost estimates of damage due to the Iraqi invasion range from $145 to $200 billion dollars, in addition to the non-material losses, as reflected in adverse social and behavioral impacts (KISR, 1993). 22
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
The following chapter describes the sources which have influenced this thesis. The organization of this chapter is unlike that of traditional literature review. There are four sections in this chapter with headings or subjects relevant to this thesis.
The first section is a review of socio-cultural factors which are relevant to Middle Eastern societies. The second section will review the concept of xeriscape, and the third section will discuss plants in the landscape. The last section of this chapter will discuss sources for the planning and design process.
I- SOCIO CULTURAL FACTORS
A- Social History
The needs of a group of people is molded by culture. To the anthropologist, culture includes the beliefs and customs of all men, whether they be educated or not (Schusky &
Culbert,1967). The following sources are presented with the authors name the title of the publication, and the information which influenced this thesis.
Turner T.H.D., "The Design of Open Space".
Turner discusses the types of spaces appropriate for the
Middle East from the point of view of culture, tradition climate and ecology. He offers an introduction to Islam and 23 it's influences on urban open space. This article introduces the hierarchies of space with special emphasis on the function of courtyards.
Scarce J., "The Evolving Culture of Kuwait".
This book provides a comprehensive background on the history and the evolving culture of Kuwait. This work is useful in understanding and identifying some of the traditional social and cultural patterns within Kuwait city and the desert. The author introduces in some detail every day life in urban society and helps gain a sense for the region during the pre-oil era.
Al-Mutawa S., "Kuwait City Parks".
The author offers an insight to the users of various parks in Kuwait and their preferred activities. He introduces some of the traditional activities within Kuwaiti families. He also suggests changes in recreation that have occurred as a result of traveling and being exposed to new ideas. The result of this work helps one to understand user satisfaction with local parks in terms of availability of facilities, playing areas and programs offered.
Dr. Al-Mutawa has also worked directly with the Public
Authority for Agriculture and Fisheries. Interviews with
Al-Mutawa have helped me gain an understanding of some of the prevailing behavior in a government design office and also of the general public. 24
Wilber D.N., "Persian Gardens and Pavilions".
Wilber's work provides an extensive historic background
on Persian gardens. It is interesting to see how the forces
of Islam have influenced garden design. They are, images of
paradise, the availability of water, and a keen interest and
love for horticulture.
Crystal J., "Kuwait: The Transformation of an Oil State".
This work is relatively new and helps to gain an insight
on some of the social changes that have been made after the
Gulf war. Crystal describes the history, economy,
environment, politics and divisions in the social structure.
This information has influenced this thesis in that it
establishes a basic understanding of the country and some of the recent problems and impacts in the aftermath of the war.
Farah G., "The demand for recreation in Kuwait: an expenditure approach".
Farah points out the importance of recreation for the
well being of a community. He studies the preferred
activities within the Kuwaiti and non- Kuwaiti population.
The results indicate that Kuwaitis enjoy visits to the diwaniah (a place for men to meet and discuss daily issues),
participate in sports, as well as fishing and camping.
The non-Kuwaiti population enjoys visits to parks, public beaches and gardens and visits to relatives abroad. Women's activities are centered around the home, and amongst the 25 family.
These observations are useful for this thesis since it introduces some of the preferred types of activities in
Kuwait. There is a strong need for privacy among the
Kuwaiti population. This work indicates that Kuwaitis who own "chalets", would rather spend time there during the weekend or holiday, rather than a public park or facility.
Winstone H.V.F., Freeth Z., "Kuwait: Prospect and Reality".
The authors present a political and social overview of
Kuwait from the time it was founded in 1710. A section on old Kuwait describes in some detail the layout of the old city and the types of social interaction. There is even mention of the plant species used in courtyards. Living in the post-oil era, it is astounding to see how Kuwait has emerged from a small, quiet town into the 21st century in just one generation. This reference influenced this thesis in that it portrays the rapid urbanization of Kuwait within a span of one generation. This explosive suddenness of development has contributed to a variety of architectural styles and changes in peoples attitudes and perception of everyday life.
Shiber G., "The Kuwait Urbanization".
This book is one of the oldest references available on the subject of Kuwait. It is an essential piece of work as it portrays Kuwait at it's turning point from a poor fishing 26 town to an oil rich state. It contains sketches and
photographs of Kuwait showing the great transformations.
This reference is important to this thesis as it
discusses some of the earliest planning concepts, including
landscape plans. Shiber emphasizes the need for open space reserved solely for recreation, relaxation and leisure. The
first park in Kuwait was built on an unused cemetery located
Fahad Al-Salem street. Photos showing the park's design is a clear indicator for the need of trained landscape architects.
Kelsey J., "Working in the Middle East" (Landscape Design).
This article emerged after the author had gained experience in the field of Landscape Architecture in the
Middle East. He outlines some of the factors which influence landscape design, they are: 1) approach to the project 2) climate 3) soil 4) plants 5) water supply 6) social and cultural influence and 7) maintenance and management. Kelsey also discusses behavioral elements such as social patterns and how they are strongly affected by the teachings of Islam. It is relevant to this thesis, as a successful landscape design takes culture and tradition into consideration. B- Natural History
Turner T.H.D. "The Design of Open Space".
Sdirawi, F.A., "Wildlife Resources of Kuwait- Historic
Trends and Conservation Potentials".
Sdirawi's dissertation examines the wildlife of Kuwait
and the species which used to be widespread in this region.
The author mentions how in just one generation, local
population of species disappeared. Sdirawi strongly
emphasizes the need to preserve our natural heritage by
establishing a national park where native wildlife species
can be reintroduced.
This work also familiarizes us with the current attitudes towards landscape and natural history. There is a lack of desire to preserve our natural heritage. Recreational activities which include off road vehicular driving, have caused the desert to become compacted and sterile. Based on this study, it is important to redirect and educate the public's attitude towards nature. The influence of landscape architects can facilitate this by building educational landscapes such as a botanical garden or a nature trail.
Turner also offers some interesting glimpses on prevailing attitudes in the Middle East towards nature. He describes that man is held to be noblest of all creatures and that nature is subservient to him. This attitude 28
manifests itself in a lack of respect for nature and certainly is not favorable towards conservation.
Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, a film: "Revival
of the Desert".
This film is an endeavor to document any remaining wildlife existing in Kuwait. This film was aired on national television and in schools to familiarize the public with the wildlife in Kuwait. Much species habitat has been destroyed or eradicated by overhunting. This film emphasizes the need for preservation and a need for a national park.
Omar S., "Kuwait Desert Plants".
The author has recorded by photographic means the location of native flora in various areas of Kuwait. Omar lists both their botanical and common names and provides a map of their occurrence. This work is important in identifying and recording the flora of Kuwait and serves as an invaluable source for further investigations. It is important to consider native flora as potential plants for the landscape. I strongly encourage the use of native flora from the Arabian Peninsula towards the plant palette as they would be most suited to this region.
Khalaf F.I., "Desertification and eolian processes in the
Kuwait Desert".
Khalaf focuses on eolian process in the desert which 29
include: erosion, transportation and deposition of elements.
These processes result in dust storms locally called "Toz".
His study outlines the sources of disturbance to the topsoil
and their effect on the environment. His findings suggest
collaborative efforts to control sand encroachment and take
measures to control human activities which result in
desertification.
K.I.S.R. & Ministry of Health, "The Gulf Crisis Impact on
the Natural, Environmental, Food and Human Resources of
Kuwait".
This research provides an updated review of the impact of the Gulf crisis on: the non-renewable and renewable natural resources, the environmental resources, the demography of the land, health and nutrition of the people with special emphasis on the food industry and agricultural production sectors. In this paper, the role of science and technology is highlighted, along with the increasing role of women in these development processes.
Khordagni H., "Comments on Current Environmental Events in
Kuwait".
El Baz F., "Preliminary Observation of Environmental Damage due to the Gulf War".
The authors Khordagni and El-Baz describe and asses the impact of the oil spillage and oil fires. Khordagni believes that the marine ecology of the Arabian Gulf is 30 shown to be relatively resistant to the damage from the oil spillage. He also discusses the contamination of the thermal desalinization plants and recommends remedies.
El Baz discusses the visible damage to the environment caused by the Gulf war. He identifies the types of damage as being: the effects of the oil fires, the detrimental effect of the oil spill, and the disruption of the top soil.
This information helps decision makers anticipate some of the consequences of this destruction to the environment and to human beings.
C- Religion in the Landscape
" (They will be) among Lote- trees with out thorns, Among Talh trees With flowers (or fruits) Piled one above another,-
In shade long-extended By water flowing constantly, And fruit in abundance Whose season is not limited, Nor (supply) forbidden, And on Thrones (of Dignity) Raised high". The Koran, Sura LVI, The Inevitable Event (Waqi'a)
From this verse, it is understood that complete submission to Allah and conformity to the Koran and to the teaching of the Prophet is rewarded in heaven.
Wilber D., "Persian Gardens & Garden Pavilions".
This work is relevant in that it describes the forces which influence the landscape in the Middle East. The 31
author examines the history of gardens in various Persian
cities.
The work identifies Islamic gardens as being images of
Paradise, where the "Chahar Bagh" or four part garden is an
important design influence in Islamic architecture.
This work provides valuable information on the historical
development of Islamic gardens and its sensitivity to the
environment, horticulturally aware and aesthetically
pleasing.
Ady J., "The Muslim Tradition of Landscape Design"
Munton P., "Arabian Landscapes and Islam".
The two authors examine prevailing attitudes of man towards nature in dry landscapes. The landscape is experienced in humility and is designed to express moral and aesthetic needs. These articles enable designers to identify the symbolism pertaining to the geometry of gardens in the Middle East.
Quotes from different Surras in the Koran use similes, metaphors and parables based upon the desolate landscapes of
Arabia. In doing so, the Koran places man in his context amongst God's creation and demands subservience to God's will.
Eighmy J., Ghanem Y., "The Hema System: Prospects for
Traditional Subsistence Systems in the Arabian Peninsula".
This study identifies and examines the hema system. This 32 is one of the oldest collection of regulations controlling the extent and intensity of utilizing natural resources.
According to the authors, this system dates back to the times of the Prophet when he stressed range protection.
Types of hema systems are identified in this paper and stress is placed on using these established guidelines as a way to protect renewable natural resources. D- Contemporary Behavior in the Landscape
Ritter W., "The South Coast of Kuwait- A Resource Wasted?"
This article outlines traditional uses of the Kuwaiti coastline and discusses some of the problems. The author examines the coastline of Kuwait discussing the use of each sector.
This article enables us to understand that large sections of coast are occupied by private "chalets" owned by a small portion of the population. He describes the recreational activities which are mostly family oriented.
Depending on the time of year, activities are either sea or desert oriented. Ritter suggests that planners should incorporate the remainder of the population for public access. In response, the Touristic Enterprize Company provided a complex where "chalets" may be rented.
Turner T.H.D. "The Design of Open Space".
Turner briefly describes outdoor activity in the Middle
East. He outlines some of the contemporary activities such 33 as water based sports. Football is very popular and the author recommends the establishment of green belts for both players and spectators.
Arab Times- November 29, 1992.
From this daily local newspaper, it is apparent that there is a growing environmental awareness growing in
Kuwait. This article informs readers that the landscaping plan of Kuwait is being prepared. It indicates special emphasis on landscaping roads and agricultural belts. Half a million trees were distributed to citizens during afforestation week. This suggests that there is a keen interest towards landscaping of both private and public space.
Kelly K., Schnadelbach R.T. "Landscaping the Saudi Arabian
Desert".
The authors of this work relate some of the past and present attitudes the bedouins had towards the desert. In the past, the bedouins learned to use the desert effectively. Their nomadic habit protected soils and open ranges. Now, with prosperity, trucks move animals from one area to another bringing water with them causing overgrazing and deterioration of topsoil. It is also pointed out that the drawing of political boundaries has changed the grazing pattern among the animals. 34
Personal Observations.
Living in Kuwait, I have observed some of the dominant
activities in the landscape and in urban open spaces. The
types of activities are seasonal and enjoyed by many people
in Kuwait. During the spring, the desert is dotted with
tents and cars. Visitors either stay on a daily or if
during spring break, on a weekly basis in campsites.
Activity is oriented around the tent or a parked car and
is often of sedentary nature. During the summer, people visit the beach or go to the chalet. Since it does get
extremely hot, many of the activities occur at night where
families would sit under street lights on patches of grass.
This practice is especially common among teenage males who
study for their final exams under street lights!
Parks are mostly used by young children who create their own football pitches. Play structure are often poorly designed and in disrepair.
E- Regionalism
Hassan R., "Regionalism, Ethnic and Socio-Cultural
Pluralism: The Case of the Southern Sudan".
Hassan identifies the term 'region' and 'regionalism'.
From this essay it is learned that region denotes the geographical area which poses either particular characteristics which distinguish it from adjacent areas, or which serve as a unit of government, administration or 35 state. The author identifies these characters as : ethnic,
cultural, religious, industrial, economic, political,
climatic or topographic. 'Regionalism' is an administrative
practice, governmental plan, supranatural arrangement or
political movement which depends upon some or all of the
above mentioned characteristics. The author continues to
describe these terms, focusing his work on the case study of
the Sudan.
Steele J.,"Hassan Fathy".
"Soliloquy: Hassan Fathy's Role in the Arab Architectural
Renaissance".
Steele identifies Fathy's greatest achievement as his calling attention to the value of traditional integrity especially at a time when the Middle East was eradicating and denying it's natural heritage. From Fathy, we learn to
be sensitive to the consistent understanding of basic human need for context, scale, texture, beauty and psychological warmth in a surrounding.
Al-Shaikh A., Othman Z.,"The Diplomatic Quarter and Ministry of Foreign Affairs Staff Housing Project, Riyadh".
The authors of this article identify elements of the traditional Arab city and discuss how it is reflected in the plan for the Diplomatic Quarter. The plan took into account the uniqueness of the site, user requirements and used contemporary planning principles to make it a modern, 36
planned neighborhood.
It is learned from this article that four types of
landscaping were used at the Diplomatic Quarter: 1)
periphery buffer planting 2) Extensive street planting 3)
mini-oasis and 4) public open spaces. The information in this article could generate some ideas for future plans to make housing and commercial areas regionally sensitive. The parks have been shown to be successful as they offer privacy to families and exciting playgrounds for children.
II- XERISCAPE
Xeriscape is the conservation of water through creative landscaping. [ From Greek xeros -dry] (Robinette, 1984).
A- Drought Tolerant Plants
Jones W., Duffield M., "Plants for Dry Climates".
The popularity of Jones and Duffield's book attests to the public involvement for a changing landscape. Part of this awareness is most visible in the reduction of turf areas and the availability of low-water use plants in local nurseries. According to Jones, arid climate plants are not necessarily restricted to indigenous plants but could include plants which have evolved from similar climatic conditions.
Jones and Duffield provide a framework of landscape themes from which one can choose. Plants can produce different effects depending on their type, building 37
materials and how they are combined and maintained. The
mini-oasis concept is examined and the different zones
within a landscape. The authors approach the climatological
benefits of plants in the landscape and assist the reader in
their selection according to the desired function.
The information on plant materials is useful for Kuwait.
Since there is a limited plant palette in Kuwait, this book
serves as a guide for expanding our plant palette and for
ways to care for these plants.
Higginbotham J., "Arizona Ambience".
This article describes the movement away from high-water
use plants to low-water use plants by Tucson homeowners.
According to the author, this transition did not occur
overnight. However, increasing water costs and a tough
conservation law motivated homeowners to embrace a plant
palette which is native to the Sonoran desert. This article
suggests the use of "hydrozones" which are landscape
sections that group plants with similar water needs
together.
SAWARA: "SAWARA Xeriscape: Landscaping to Save Water".
The Southern Arizona Water Resources Association
(SAWARA), is a local organization which promotes the idea of water conservation through publications and television programs. This study suggest seven basic steps towards a xeriscape landscape. They are: 1) Plan and design a 38
.landscape to save water 2) Use low water or drought tolerant
plants 3) limit turf areas 4) use water harvesting
techniques 5) efficient use of irrigation 6) use soil
improvements and mulches 7) and Proper maintenance. This
outline clarified the concept of xeriscape and it's
application in the landscape.
The 7th Annual Xeriscape Conference-March 12, 1993.
The 7th Annual Xeriscape Conference was presented in two
sessions: 1) Design and Development Issues 2) Maintenance
and Management Issues. Various discussions were held
relevant to xeriscape. The following are some of the topics
discussed at the conference which influenced this thesis:
Tressler S., "Winning plant combinations by water use zone". Richard G., "Xeriscape: Creative response to City/Council ordinances". Wheat J., Rademacher J., "The CAP plant palette: Tips for selecting and installing salt tolerant xeriscape plants". Murphy T., "Water harvesting and site analysis for new development". Feld M., "Water harvesting for residential retrofit".
B- Irrigation Technology
Robinette 6., "Water Conservation in Landscape Design and
Management".
Robinette presents issues such as the water cycle, the
predictable recurrences of water shortages, and competition
for water between agriculture, industry and urban
development. 39
He studies the relationship between landscape development
and water use with emphasis on strategies for water
conservation. The findings of this work are relevant since
the author identifies approaches for water conservation in
the landscape. They are: 1) careful use of available water
2) design or redesign a landscape so less water is required
3) precise and careful application of water to plants.
Kelly K, Schnadelbach R.T.," Landscaping the Saudi Arabian
Desert".
The authors examine the geographical conditions of Saudi
Arabia with special emphasis on culture and architecture.
This work is relevant due to similarities between Saudi
Arabia and Kuwait. This work serve to assist planners and
architects in understanding the desert for the purpose of
their design.
In the long range of recommendations, the authors relate
a need for research in efficient ways of recharging aquifers
and to promote ways of conserving water. Recommendations
are made on the advantages and disadvantages of various irrigation techniques. Based on this information, appropriate selections can be made for an efficient irrigation system.
Melby P.f "Simplified Irrigation Design".
This text was used for an irrigation course at the
University of Arizona and at Pima Community College. It is 40
a step by step approach to irrigation design. Aspects of
irrigation such as basic hydraulics, pipe sizing, friction
loss calculations, determining water pressure are examined.
Melby has contributed to better ways of designing an
irrigation system. Extensive drawings and photographs have
proven to be helpful in irrigation installations.
Usher S.R., Wiliens A., "Irrigation Techniques".
This article surveys sources of water supply for irrigation purposes. Willens studies and evaluates different irrigation systems emphasizing design in relation to water availability. He outlines the different irrigation systems as being: 1) surface irrigation system 2) sprinkler system 3) trickle system 4) sub-surface system. Criteria for selecting a system is based on control, efficiency, limitations and visual qualities.
Usher discusses the main branches of agricultural irrigation which have been adapted for landscape use.
They are: flood irrigation, hosepipe watering, sprinkler irrigation and hydroponics. Usher offers detailed explanations of these systems enabling a comprehensive understanding of the factors which affect a given situation.
These findings indicate that there is no ideal irrigation system for every installation and that compromises must be made. In the case of Kuwait, the ideal irrigation system should be efficient, reliable and easily maintained. 41 C- Water Harvesting
Miller J., "Design and the Environment: Landscape
Architecture and the American Southwest".
Matlock G., " Water Harvesting for Urban Landscapes".
Water harvesting techniques have been used in the Middle
East for over 4,000 years, so the concept is not a new one.
Miller briefly describes the procedure for water harvesting.
Basically, a catchment area collects rainwater and directs it into a storage facility for later use. A "catchment" is any large surface such as a roof, patio or driveway. Water runoff is then directed from these surfaces to planted areas by using dikes, berms and contouring.
Matlock's work is relevant as it offers a simple procedure for the design of a water harvesting system in a step-by-step format. Options for adding features and improving performance of water harvesting techniques are described. This work is useful for homeowners, small businesses and government agencies in Tucson who can increase the availability of water from rainfall for beneficial uses in the landscape.
Cyrus G., "Urban Form as Physical Expression of the Social
Structure in the Arid Zones of Iran".
This essay discusses some of the architectural forms in
Iran and the transformations of urban features. Cyrus identifies and examines the natural conditions and their 42
influence on the physical environment. As well as
discussing the urban and architectural elements, Cyrus
examines the canal or 'qanat' system in Iran. This system
consists of underground wells connected by canals which can
be stretched as far as ten kilometers to mountains where
water is available throughout the year. This water is then
stored in reservoirs for public use, for gardens, groves and
cultivated areas surrounding the town.
This work is interesting as it is oriented in the Middle
East and it indicates the value of water and the ancient
technologies involved in collecting this precious commodity.
The availability of subsidized water in Kuwait has led to
the loss of the value of water. Design elements in the
landscape with water harvesting features can serve as
educational purposes. It can also serve as a feature which
celebrates the rainy season.
Ill- PLANTS IN THE LANDSCAPE
Tandy C., "Handbook of Urban Landscape".
This work relates to trends in the landscape for urban
situations which includes housing, parks, open spaces,
recreation, children's play areas and gardens. It offers technical studies and forms a general guide to the design of
open space. This work helps us understand the function of
plants by providing an extensive list of their performance
in the landscape. Gery 6. Deneke F., "Urban Forestry".
Miller R., "Urban Forestry: Planning and Managing Urban
Green spaces".
The authors of these books actively pursued the science
of urban forestry. Forests and trees are identified as
being essential elements of a community and the environment.
This work assists urban foresters to manage these urban
forests. A discussion of the benefits of the urban forest are outlined.
The benefits of urban forestry are recognized as climate amelioration, engineering uses, architectural uses and aesthetic uses of plants which are discussed. This information is relevant towards this study as there is a strong need for urban forests in Kuwait.
Bruce I., Oberlander C., "Trees in the City".
Venning J.,"Growing Trees for Farms, Parks and Roadsides".
Moll 6. Ebenreck S., "Shading our Cities".
Paynton R.J.,"Tree Planting in an Urbanizing South Africa".
Bernatzky A.,"Tree Ecology and Preservation".
Contributing authors have responded to a wide spectrum of viewpoints addressed towards the concerned public and professionals. The information demonstrates how communities can both feel better and more liveable through trees. Urban forests are also seen as a positive response to the global threat of climate change. 44
From these investigations, the following outline portrays
the effects of trees: reduction in particulate matter,
reduction in gaseous matter, reduction in temperature,
protection against radioactivity, noise attenuation, oxygen
release in towns and forests, shelter belts, and positive
effects on mental and physical health.
One of the sources examines agricultural development in
Australia and the accompanying problems identified as
increased soil salinity, reduced shade, shelter and river
sedimentation. Suggestions and methods for revegetation are
discussed in a step-by-step manner. Maintenance, seed collection and propagation, herbicides are some of the topics discussed from which we can gain useful information.
IV- PLANNING AND DESIGN PROCESS
Frederickson M.P., Conversations and class lectures.
According to Frederickson, the design process is influenced by an ordering system which is outlined as follows:
I- Functional Responding to user/client needs Pedestrian and vehicular circulation Ease of construction Safety Maintenance Economy
II- Sociocultural History Cultures Various user groups Neighborhood context 45
Income levels Ages Tensions Existing building
III- Environmental Impacts on natural systems Site analysis Climate and soils Existing vegetation and fauna Drainage Noise Smell
IV- Aesthetic Cultural aesthetics Sensibilis History Attractions of west Views Features Architecture
This ordering system has greatly influenced this thesis.
It is to be used as a design guideline for designer and planners. It is especially useful for the "Greenery Plan" for Kuwait. Chapters four and five discuss the ordering system in greater detail.
Lynch K.,"Site Planning".
Rutledge A.,"Anatomy of a Park".
These studies define design as a search for forms which satisfy a program. It deals with particular solutions, while the program is concerned with general characteristics and desired outcomes. Design begins in the programming, and the programs are modified as the design progresses. During the design process, a great number of possibilities are produced.
A search is conducted over a ground prepared by
experience, the study of principles, and the analysis of
site and purpose. According to the author, relationships
are only one aspect of design. Values such as function, aesthetics, needs, contextual and budget are umbrella considerations which spread themselves over the entire period of design process.
White E., "Introduction to Architectural Programming" and,
"Space Adjacency Analysis".
Pena., "Problem Seeking".
White's and Pena's work offer techniques that help designer's better understand project needs. This work assisted us in developing design through asking careful questions. These questions are organized under headings which help us organize information about a site. The information is relevant to this thesis, especially to the
Master Plan for Landscaping Kuwait as the headings communicate ideas when beginning to respond to the contextual analysis in design. CHAPTER THREE
THE DESIGN PROCESS
Introduction
This chapter introduces a general approach to effective
design and planning. This is achieved by the hybridization
of many design processes into one which is simple, thorough
and comprehensive. There is a need for an informative
design process to be used by the Kuwait Institute for
Scientific Research (KISR) .
The design process will enable designers and planners at
KISR and at the Public Authority for Agriculture and
Fisheries (PAAF) to consider socio-cultural, environmental,
functional and aesthetic factors when proposing landscape designs.
The intention of a thorough design process, is to minimize some of the mistakes which have occurred in the past. Some of the mistakes in the past include the design of exposed co-ed showers in a park, or building elaborate features which require extensive maintenance.
A successful design or plan considers the identification of facts about a site. Typically, these facts include information such as site location, dimension, contours, features, climate. Other data may include human and sensory aspects that are not quantitative. Typical examples include good and bad views, existence of human activities and their 48 value, types of noises and smells (White, 1972).
A site is never an inert plot but is an ongoing set of very active network elements that are intertwined in complex relationships (White, 1972). When attempting to organize the types of information collected about a site, there are several headings which are useful in classifying them.
The information collected is organized under the following headings. Emphasis is given to information which communicates a great deal when beginning to respond to the contextual analysis in design (White, 1972).
Site Analysis
A thorough site analysis ensures that no important detail is left out. The following checklist highlights criteria which assist the planner or designer in identifying concerns to be included in the site analysis.
This checklist is one way of examining information relevant to the site. It may be expanded or manipulated to one that suits the needs of Kuwait. It is not a rigid method, however, for a succesful design small details must not be omitted.
A prototypical checklist includes:
1- Location: this may include a map of the site in relation to the city as a whole. This will also show distances and travel times to other parts of the city.
2- Neighborhood Context: this presents the immediate 49
surroundings of the site. This may include the existing
buildings, their age and condition. Any strong vehicular
and pedestrian traffic generating functions in the
neighborhood. It also includes architectural patterns, type
of landscaping, materials, color, sun shade patterns at
different times of the day and year.
3- Size and Zoning; this involves the dimensional aspects of
the site including boundaries, location and dimension of
easements. It also includes zoning classification with all its dimensional implications (setbacks, height restrictions,
parking etc). Analysis should also document the projected
zoning trends. Any plans by the transportation department to widen roads or any other trend that may affect the
project in the future should also be taken into consideration .
4- Legal; this category presents legal descriptions of the
property such as restrictions, covenants, present ownership
and present governmental jurisdiction.
5- Natural Physical features; this includes topographic contours, drainage patterns, soil type and bearing capacity.
Existing natural features on the site and their value in terms of preservation and conservation versus alteration or removal. On site features may include the type and size of flora and fauna. Also included are features such as rock outcrops, ground surface texture, water features, stable and 50 unstable areas.
6- Man-made features; this would document on site conditions
such as existing buildings, walls, drives, curb cuts, fire
hydrants, power lines and paving patterns. It is important
to study the character of the site. This is done by
studying fenestration, scale, material color, textures, open
spaces, visual axes, landscaping materials and patterns,
wall forms and details.
7- Circulation; presents all existing and proposed vehicular
and pedestrian movement patterns in and around the site.
Traffic analysis includes duration and peak loads for
vehicular traffic; bus stops, site access, service and
emergency access. Intermittent traffic such as parades,
public gatherings should also be taken into account.
8- Utilities; this category deals with all utilities
adjacent or near a site. Typical utilities include
electricity; gas, sewer, water and telephone.
9- Sensory; presents all visual, audible, tactile and
olfactory aspects on and surrounding the site. Position on the site where views are best, whether they are positive or
negative. It is of value to record the type, duration and intensity of the sensory issues.
10- Human and Cultural; this includes the analysis of the surrounding neighborhood in terms of cultural, psychological, behavioral and sociological aspects. 51
Potential information includes population density; ethnic
patterns, religious beliefs, age, family size, employment,
income and recreational preferences. Negative patterns,
although not pleasant, such as vandalism and other criminal
activities should also be documented. Neighborhood
attitudes about the project that is about to be designed
should be taken into consideration.
11- Climate: this presents all climatic conditions such as
rainfall, snowfall, humidity, sandstorm, temperature
variations. Also included are prevailing wind directions,
sun path and vertical sun-angles (White, 1972). Activity analysis
If a designer or planner wishes to relate to the needs of
different user groups, it is important to study all
activities that may possibly occur on a site. Activities
are closely linked to customs and culture. For a successful design, that is, one which will be used frequently, it is important to identify the culture and the needs of the user.
Activities include every movement on a site. It may be children playing, reading, sitting, walking through a site, or resting. It may also include maintenance activities such as weeding, watering and planting. There may be group activities such as family picnics, or individual activities.
It is important to identify the potential users of a site and study their habits. Do people visit a park on week days 52
or the weekend? Are children accompanied by adults, or do
they come by themselves? Do members of the opposite sex use
space differently? and if so how?
In the case of Kuwait, it is important to ask questions
like the ones above. It is very important to identify the
potential users of a park or a plaza. As Kuwait is a
cosmopolitan city, people from different countries use space
differently. What kind of sports do the children and the youth prefer? Soccer is the preferred activity by the youth
who would appreciate a small soccer field. Laborers use
parks as a respite from the heat, and domestic help use it to socialize with their country people. Critical path
diagrams help to identify activities by different user
groups.
The activities may be either public or private. People either want to see or want to be seen. In either case, the situation and the relationship between these activities should be closely studied.
Matrix or Proximity Analysis
Different activities can be studied using the matrix diagram. The matrix diagram is a two dimensional grid which is used to determine the relative importance of spaces and their proximity to one another. Where two spaces cross in the grid, the relative importance of those two spaces being near one another is noted. 53
In filling out the matrix, word sets are established to represent decisions that need to be addressed. For example, when designing for a park, word sets would include: tot-lot,
seating area, water fountain, rest rooms, parking etc.
These words would indicate the type of activities that would occur in a park.
A set of symbols are then needed in the matrix square where the space names intersect. These symbols facilitate the reading of the matrix and the interpretation of decision patterns after the matrix is completed. The symbol represents the adjacency decision. For example, A could represent mandatory adjacency, B represents desirable adjacency, C neutral and D negative adjacency.
By completing the matrix, a great deal can be anticipated about the nature of the design task ahead and about possible characteristics. Some of the cues in the matrix permit the designer to foresee design problems and opportunities. If the matrix is dense with mandatory relationships, then considerable attention must be made to the adjacency requirements of spaces to ensure it's efficiency (White,
1986).
Negative relationships in a matrix indicate that the orientation in a design is often one of separation of spaces rather than proximity of spaces (White, 1986). The main reason for the matrix is to inform the designer which spaces 54 in the design require adjacency to one another. Scanning the matrix information at this level permits one to anticipate types of space relationships. Patterns begin to emerge which evoke design ideas and their relationship with adjacent spaces. As a result of reading the matrix, more design ideas will be brought to the mind (White, 1986).
From the matrix, the bubble diagram is derived which will be further discussed below.
The Bubble Diagram or Spatial Analysis
The bubble diagram gets it's name from the circles in the drawing that represent built spaces. Each space listed in the matrix is represented by one bubble. Each space adjacency requirement recorded in the matrix is represented by a connecting line in the bubble diagram. The widths of the connecting line represent the relative importance of the adjacency requirement between the spaces.
The size of the bubble roughly represents the proportion of the space they represent (in square feet, or meters squared). Every single space relationship recorded in the matrix must be expressed in the bubble diagram. The main purpose of bubble diagrams is to illustrate space adjacency requirements.
Refining the bubble diagram is an evolutionary process.
Various aspects of the design task can be anticipated by reading certain characteristics of the bubble diagram. 55
It is an analytical tool which designers and planners at
the Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research can use to
think in terms of landscape architectural responses.
One can anticipate design ideas by reading and
interpreting the completed bubble diagram. Bubbles are then
sorted into zones or groups of spaces with similar
characteristics. At least four or five zoning diagrams
should be produced as alternative solutions.
After many levels of refinement, bubble diagrams can
promote ideas which are based on a solid foundation. The
spatial groupings of different activities within the bubble
and zoning diagram can be expressed in preliminary
conceptual diagrams. A hybrid of different conceptual
diagrams can provide an answer to the design problem (White,
1986).
Another author, Pena uses a framework which can be
extended to serve as an information index. This matrix
consists of key words which can be used to seek out
appropriate information. These key words are specific
enough to cover the scope of major factors. The designer
should look at the whole problem before trying to solve any
of it's parts.
The problem can be identified in the areas of Function,
Form, Economy and Time and information is classified accordingly. There are three key words to each 56 consideration. Function concerns activities, relationship
of spaces, people, their number and characteristics. Key words are, people, activities and relationships (Pena,1987).
Form relates to the site, the physical and psychological environment, the quality of space and construction. Key words are, site, environment and quality.
Economy concerns the initial budget and quality of construction, but it also includes consideration of operation and life cycle costs. Key words are, initial budget, operating costs and life cycle costs (Pena,1987).
Time has three classification, past, present and the future. It deals with the influences of history, the inevitability of change from the present and projections into the future. Key words are, past, present and future.
By establishing a systematic set of relationships between steps and considerations, between process and content, a comprehensive approach is ensured (Pena,1987).
The concept of ordering systems was introduced to
Landscape Architecture students at the University of
Arizona. It is a design process taught to landscape architecture students by Professor Frederickson (1986). It is similar to the work produced by White and Pena in that it serves as an information index.
It is a process relevant to this thesis as it can be used as a generic guideline for projects to be carried out in 57
Kuwait. It looks at all factors influencing design and
planning. Ordering systems are concise, explicit,
comprehensive and takes a holistic approach to design and
planning.
Ordering systems are used as a tool to serve and support
good design and planning. It takes the following into
consideration: sociocultural factors, functional factors,
environmental and ecological factors, and aesthetic factors.
Sociocultural factors
Social and cultural traditions and needs are important
considerations when designing for a community. The designer's
task is to design in such a way that the individual choices
can be met without unduly imposing personal values on others.
There can be no division between a good design and usable
design or between beauty and function in architecture.
It is important to look beyond the physical structure of the built environment to it's social consequences, to the
sorts of people and activity it will contain, and to it's
effect upon the surrounding community. This is a necessary aspect of a good design (Sommer, 1972).
Analysis of a neighborhood includes cultural, psychological, behavioral and social issues. Population, age, ethnic patterns, density, employment patterns, values, income and family structure are variables of which a designer must be made aware. 58
After the discovery of oil, there has been a strong western
influence on the built environment of Kuwait. Kuwaitis who
travel to western countries during the summer, and students
who study in the US, Britain and Australia, are strongly
influenced by the architecture and gardens they have visited.
Upon returning to Kuwait, they wish to recreate the images they have seen on their own properties.
The younger generation is open to new ideas and is willing to incorporate European or modern architectural elements into the built environment. Unfortunately, traditional
architecture and landscape architecture is viewed as being old
fashioned and is avoided. Courtyard houses have given way to three floored mansions with a front and back yard.
Fortunately, there are a few succesful architects and landscape architects who have integrated traditional middle eastern design using modern architectural principles.
Today the Kuwaiti landscape and architectural pattern is very similar to that of any large western city. The city skyline of downtown Kuwait resembles that of Phoenix and bears no resemblance of a middle eastern city such as Sana'a or
Algiers. Major highways separate neighborhoods and concrete surround building structures creating an uncomfortable and harsh setting.
The needs for Kuwait should be identified on a community basis. One of the ways this could be achieved is through 59
discussions at neighborhood meetings. There is a particular
need for recreation within the neighborhood. Inputs should be
obtained from all age groups to enhance user satisfaction.
Functional Factors
The landscape architect among other professionals is held responsible for the success of a design. Methods for assuring success is to look at functional factors during the design process, and user needs must be considered in a design.
The Master Plan for Landscaping Kuwait should consider all user groups and be aware of their needs to develop successful designs.
Functional factors include the cost of the project,, safety, maintenance, and circulation. Also taken into consideration is the potential for future growth and alteration. A project must be flexible to afford expansion.
Circulation and ease of movement within a site is an important functional factor. Circulation includes all existing and proposed vehicular and pedestrian movement patterns on and around a site. Circulation data would include duration and peak loads for traffic and pedestrian movement, bus stops, site access and intermittent traffic (White, 1983).
It is important to begin thinking about circulation for the disabled within all public and private facilities. Access to public and private facilities should be made mandatory.
Safety is another important functional factor. It is vital 60
to ensure the health, safety and welfare of the user.
Controls should be used to protect property and to control
personnel movement through careful design.
The success of construction and maintenance is highly
dependent on the person in charge. Designs of construction
details helps insure safety and efficiency. In the Middle
East, the contractor must be extremely patient and be capable of great diplomacy. Canceled appointments, changes in plan, the importation of materials are only a few of the problems that may be encountered.
Resources such as manpower, machinery and materials, and spare parts are imported, all of which cause delays. For a succesful design, it is important to think about the management and maintenance implications of a design.
Economy concerns the initial budget and the quality of construction, but it also may include operational and life cycle costs (Fena, 1987).
When tackling the problem with landscaping a site, it does not matter how sophisticated or how detailed the maintenance schedule for the different landscape elements. The scheme may fail unless the landscape designers and management consider post occupancy maintenance and upkeep. Design should also be flexible to accommodate future changes and be adaptable to different situations
Therefore, it is important that money should be invested in 61
good design as well as management and maintenance to insure
the safety and welfare of the general public.
Environmental/Ecological factors
Environmental and ecological factors are those which have
an impact on the natural system. A site analysis is necessary
to study the existing fauna and flora, and the condition of
the soil. It is important to consider the effect of climate
on a site at various times of the year. Topography and
drainage are factors which need to be taken into
consideration.
Kuwait is characterized by low rainfall, high evaporation
rate, and sparse vegetation. Overgrazing, sand and gravel
quarrying and off-road traffic are the main causes of
desertification in Kuwait (Khalaf, 1988).
The southern Mesopotamian plain, the Kuwait-Basrah area,
has the highest frequency of dust storms in the Middle East.
The area is prone to dust storms because of its low topographic relief, sparse vegetation cover, light textured top soils and recurring turbulent winds. During the summer, strong north-westerly wind blows over the bare dry soil surface carrying thousands of tons of fine sediment particles into the air in thick clouds over great distances
(Khalaf, 1988). Soil erosion is a problem due to a lack of groundcover. Some remedial measures are needed if the resources are to return (Omar, 1990). 62
The Gulf War also had detrimental effects on the desert.
The digging of trenches, building of berms and walls of sand,
foxholes to hide the troops as well as the movement of
military equipment and supplies, have all contributed to the
disruption of the desert. The result was the exposure of
expansive areas of soil to the action of wind along both the
Iraqi and Saudi border, providing source material for dust storms (El-Baz, 1992).
With these extreme environmental conditions, there are certain limitations which must be considered when landscaping.
In urban landscapes solar radiation and heat are also intense. Infrared radiation from the sun heats the human body directly when striking skin or clothing, and indirectly when reflected from other objects.
Vegetation should be designed to intercept solar radiation.
Plants block radiation from striking surfaces, and they convert some solar energy into chemical energy by photosynthesis (Miller, 1988).
Rain is scarce and torrential causing erosion. Dust storms are unpleasant and can be destructive (Clouston, 1978). Water supplies are particularly limited and groundwater is highly brackish (KISR, 1992).
However, the urban forest or the use of trees, shrubs and grass can modify these conditions by providing shade, beauty and other benefits to the city dweller. According to Grey and 63
Deneke (1986), the benefits of an urban forest can be grouped
into four major categories, improvement of climate;
engineering uses, architectural uses as well as aesthetic
uses.
The climate affects us in forms of solar radiation, air
temperature, movement and humidity. The human body exchanges
energy with it's environment by radiation, convection and
evaporative cooling to maintain a constant, comfortable
temperature of 37°C.
Cities absorb solar radiation through their surfaces such
as asphalt and concrete which are poor insulators. They gain
and lose heat more readily than vegetation and soil.
Vegetation improves the urban environment by absorbing and transmitting solar radiation and it's effectiveness depends on the density and type of foliage.
Wind movement which help in creating dust storms can be a
nuisance. Plants can be carefully situated by themselves or
as barriers can alter airflow over a landscape or around
buildings. Air movement can be controlled by obstruction, deflection and filtration using careful placement of trees and shrubs. Windbreaks have been used extensively to decrease wind velocity by 50% or more and will stop sand from drifting
(Al- Mutawa, 1985).
Trees are also important in the hydrological cycle by intercepting the rain before it reaches the surface. This 64 increases infiltration and decreases runoff rate and soil erosion. Evapotranspiration in trees and shrubs can create cool microclimates near buildings and enclosures (Grey and
Deneke, 1986).
Plants are useful for helping solve engineering problems in the environment. Soil erosion from runoff, irrigation overspray and wind must be controlled to minimize dust pollution and siltation. Soils disturbed by construction are very prone to erosion. This condition can be improved by the use of retrofitted vegetation to stabilize the soil with their roots, diminish the force of the wind, slow runoff and intercept rainfall.
Soil stabilization may also be achieved by hydromulching, hydroslonizing, or hydroseeding. Seeds or stolons are mixed with water, fertilizer, cellulose fibermulch and a bonding agent or tackifier and then sprayed over the ground surface.
Researchers have studied the ways in which sound is transmitted since World War II (Anderson, Mulligan, Goodman,
1984). These studies have demonstrated that cities need wide planting strips near the source to effectively reduce noise levels.
Acoustic researchers have shown, however, that substantially more is needed than a single row of street trees to significantly reduce pollution. Where there is little area for a wide planting strip, constructed barriers such as a 65 masonry wall, combined with a berm and vegetation, produce visually attractive and acoustically effective noise abatement. Vegetation minimizes the monotonous effect of constructed noise barriers. The planted and masonry barrier provides relief from traffic noise for residents along the traffic corridor (Anderson, Mulligan, Goodman,1984).
Control of glare, reflection and heat absorption are important in increasing the comfort level of the outdoor environment. Glare is produced by direct light from early morning and late afternoon sun. At night glare is produced from headlights, streetlight and buildings.
Reflection is produced when light is reflected off a shiny surface, such as water, paved surfaces and windows. Plants can control solar radiation by blocking and absorbing sunlight, or intercepting reflected light. Sources of glare must be identified before proper plants can be selected to control it.
Aesthetic Consideration
Plants provide beauty in the landscape and are aesthetic elements in our surroundings. They are beautiful because of their lines, forms, color and texture. Plants enhance and complement architectural elements. They enframe views, introduce a naturalness in an otherwise stark setting.
People in Kuwait enjoy plants as it provides an element of freshness in a barren desert. Traditionally, plants are loved 66
for the aroma they produce. Poetry is written on the scent of the Jasmin flower and roses. Wildlife such as the Bulbul
enjoy and sing in the shade of trees.
Especially important are edible plants such a pomegranate, figs, grapes, citrus and the date fruit. The date palm is symbolic of life. Every part of the plant was used in the
Middle East, from food and fuel to building materials.
Landscape architecture is a recent profession in the Middle
East. The plan of Kuwait and many of it's gardens are North
European designs imposed on the country. People travelling overseas wish to imitate the lush environments and designs which they have encountered. Therefore, aesthetic values have recently been developed. It is important to re-evaluate our needs to those that are more suited to a harsh environment like Kuwait by being environmentally and ecologically sensitive.
Post Occupancy Evaluation
Post occupancy evaluation or POE, is a process of evaluating buildings in a systematic and rigorous manner after they have been built and occupied for some time (Preiser,
Rabinowitz, White, 1988). Normally, POE focus on the occupants of the buildings and their needs. Knowledge gained from POE forms a basis for creating better buildings in the future.
POE are also performed on built landscapes as well as 67
buildings. The performance of the built environment is thereby evaluated. The goal in the product design is to create positive features, good value and to minimize problems and failures in future designs.
Post occupancy evaluation is a discipline of it's own. It is used in the private and public sector with standardized terms, practitioner networks, and large multi-building evaluations.
Technical elements of POE include survival issues such as safety, structural integrity, and sanitation as well as factors pertaining to durability, acoustics and lighting.
Functional elements deal with the suitability between the building and the client's activities. Functional elements in this context include operational efficiency, productivity, workflow and organization. Behavioral elements deal with perceptions and psychological needs of the building users and how these interact with the facility (Preiser, Rabinowitz,
White, 1988).
Although POE typically focus only on a few aspects of building performance, taken together they provide an indication of how buildings work generally.
To conduct a successful POE depends largely on the careful and structured preparation during the planning phase. Data collection when conducting a POE should always be combined with analysis to evaluate the environment. 68
First step in a POE would be to establish a base of operations, pilot testing and coordinating data-collection methods. Care must be taken to minimize the effect of the study on the occupants of the facility.
The second step would be the monitoring and managing of data collection procedures, which includes establishing practical guidelines. Data collection can include photography, the use of tape recorders. Other sources of information about the building would be the staff of the building.
The third step would be data analysis. The performance of the building is described and its elements. The data are then interpreted and this merit judged. The final part of the POE is to report and finalize the findings. Safety and security may be the most important on the list. For each significant finding, a recommendation for action should be made.
Recommendations may address possible implications in terms of modification or innovations to policies, procedures and techniques employed by the client.
POE are directly applicable to the programming and the design phase in the building process. The outcome of POE ensures that recommended actions are implemented and achieve the intended results. For government or other large organizations, POE activities should be carried out on a routine cyclical basis as long as effective feedback 69 mechanisms are devised.
The knowledge gained from a POE inspires design concepts that work better than previous less successful ideas. It reduces the need to reinvent the wheel and adds benefit to the quality of the building, or landscape as a whole. 70
CHAPTER FOUR
GUIDELINE EVALUATION
This chapter will examine and evaluate some of the preliminary guidelines for Kuwait and landscape guidelines published for the cities of Tucson, Phoenix and San Diego.
The purpose of evaluating the guidelines for Tucson and
Phoenix is to gain an idea of the type of landscape guidelines prepared for arid urban cities . The relevance of studying the landscape guidelines for San Diego is that it is a coastal city like Kuwait.
Four ordering systems (Frederickson, 1986): sociocultural factors, environmental/ecological factors, aesthetic factors and functional factors will be used as a tool to examine and evaluate the guidelines of the above mentioned cities.
Certain recommendations will be adapted to the landscape
Master Plan for in chapter five.
Evaluation of Preliminary Guidelines for Landscaping Kuwait
The project entitled "Preparation of Medium and Long Term
(1995-2015) Strategic Masterplan for Greenery Development and
Environmental Enhancement" is currently being developed by the
Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR) in collaboration with the Public Authority for Agriculture and
Fisheries (PAAF).
This study provides significant information on plant 71 palette development, nursery development, costs of resources
and their availability, budget preparation, an inventory of
public open space and irrigation requirements.
Sociocultural factors
One of the objectives of the "Greenery Plan" is to provide
parks and gardens for neighborhoods within various districts
in Kuwait. Also part of the plan is to promote mass
participation and the encouragement of the Kuwaiti citizen in
beautifying their streets, schools, businesses and
neighborhood.
An interview with Dr. Al- Mutawa, a retired professor at
Kuwait University has helped me gain a better understanding of
the existing viewpoints of the private sector and the general
public in Kuwait towards the "Greenery Plan" .
He informed me that he has approached the co-operative
societies within each district to promote homeowner
participation in the national landscape movement. However, the members of the co-operative societies felt that it was not their responsibility to allocate their time and financial resources towards this endeavor.
Dr. Al- Mutawa also informed me that he personally approached 650 schools in Kuwait to coordinate a landscape program (1993). In collaboration with the Public Authority for Agriculture and Fisheries (PAAF), he offered to provide plant material and irrigation for each of the 650 schools. 72
The school's sole responsibility was to provide care for the
plant materials during the three hottest months in the summer.
Of the 650 schools, only 50 or 60 schools showed interest in this offer.
These two examples are just indicators of the problems the
"Greenery Flan" might encounter. The society depends on the government to take care of it's citizens at all stages of life. This dependency does not foster the idea of voluntary work or co-operation between different people. Hence, the plan's idea of mass participation could remain only as an idea.
The guidelines for landscaping Kuwait suggest ways of encouraging participation within the different districts.
Activities and incentives are being developed for the involvement of citizens, the private sector, schools and home owners. It is hoped that the use of mass media will encourage the participation of volunteers, schools and clubs.
Socially, the "Greenery Plan" has some positive incentives.
There are plans to provide training for citizens in the fields of horticulture and landscape architecture. The Kuwaiti people have shown a keen interest in plants and many homeowners have landscaped the entrances to their homes with trees to provide shade for their cars and outdoor diwanias.
A diwania is a space either indoors or outdoors that is used by men for the purpose of entertainment, relaxation and 73
general discussion about local events.
During the war, both the public and private gardens were
converted to corrals for animals and birds1 It is important
that the team working on the plan observe and understand some
of the cultural nuances that occur within different
neighborhoods in Kuwait.
So far design decisions were made by one person instead of
a team of people from different backgrounds. Landscape
architects at the Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research
(KISR) would present their prototypical designs to the Public
Authority for Agriculture and Fisheries (PAAF). The design
review process tended to be centralized rather than having a
group critique session resulting in designs that are
superficial.
There seems to be a lack of interaction between the two
governmental agencies: KISR and PAAF. This can lead to
uninspired designs which arise out of frustration and lack of communication between the two parties.
Functional Factors
Functionally, the scope of the "Greenery" project is immense. There are many tasks and sub-tasks that need to be fulfilled. The plan is still being developed to fulfill the landscaping of Kuwait on an affordable and incremental basis.
Up until this date, KISR is still in the process of writing the landscape plan and there are few design concepts 74
available. Functional issues should be a central issue in
their planning and design process.
Functional factors should consider ease of construction and
availability of materials. Safety is an issue and this is
enhanced by regular maintenance. A design should
be efficient and the potential for expansion would add
flexibility to the design and also reduce future costs.
From the economic standpoint, the "Greenery Plan" is an
expensive endeavor. The approximate area to be landscaped is approximately 154897.43 hectares (2.5 acres per hectare).
Plant types will include palms, trees, shrubs, vines, groundcover, lawns and flowers, all of which will necessarily
be imported.
As the concept of xeriscape is relatively unknown in
Kuwait, many of the plant materials listed in the plant palette are not suited for the hot climate and are sensitive to brackish water. However, many do well in the protected, shady areas of residences and fare well when watered with fresh water.
Not only do these plants have to be imported, but due to the harsh conditions and the predicted lack of maintenance, many of these plants will perish. This will greatly add to the costs of the plan.
One of the objectives of the plan is to establish a modern landscape plant production facility with tissue culture 75
capabilities. If this plan proves to be successful, employees
from the private sector can gain hands-on experience in
nursery management and production. If KISR and the private
sector do work together in improving technologies, it is hoped that experience will be gained in production technologies, irrigation, maintenance and testing of new plant materials.
However, since KISR's establishment thirty years ago, it has a reputation for retaining useful information from the general public and the private sector. It is important to disseminate information useful to the general public.
Pamphlets on the objectives of the Master Plan with examples of trees, shrubs and groundcover can be distributed to inform the general public of KISR's endeavor.
The budget for this project is Kuwaiti Dinars 842,777 with
KD 550,000 provided by PAAf. Private offices have the capabilities for producing a Masterplan for half the above quoted price.
What is ironic about the "Greenery Plan" is that PAAF has already planted 14,000 date palm trees along major roadways in
Kuwait. It seems pointless to prepare these massive plans when the client proceeds with planting without considering any of KISR's plans.
A chronic problem which Kuwait faces is the duplication of manpower. The Public Authority for Agriculture and Fisheries and the Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research have hired 76
professionals from Europe and the US. Both government
agencies are producing similar reports, proposals and
designing prototypicals for the "Greenery" Master plan.
Not only does this duplication waste financial resources,
but it causes confusion and a dilution of responsibility.
Local talent should take the opportunity to participate in
this project and learn as much as possible from the visiting professionals.
The Public Authority for Agriculture and Fisheries should
merge their resources and manpower with the Kuwait Institute for scientific Research. After all, they are both governmental agencies responsible to provide the general
public with professional services.
Environmental/Ecological Factors
I would like to take the opportunity to question the term
"Greenery" and "Greening". The term "Landscape" or "Landscape
Design and Planning" are words better suited for KISR's endeavor. Greenery describes foliage or vegetation, whereas
"Landscape" reflects both planning and design of land and water for use by a society (Laurie, 1976).
From an environmental and ecological point of view, the
"Greenery Plan" will have a positive impact on the region.
Plants will provide an oasis for relief and a retreat for pedestrians. It provides shade, shelter from the wind, visual comfort and a sanctuary for wildlife. Greenbelts on 77
the edges of the city would provide shelter to the city and
simultaneously serve as a recreation area.
Afforested open spaces may become be key locations of the
city. Trees will not only provide shade, but add interest,
beauty and humanize the city. Planting groundcover will
stabilize the soil and minimize the upheaval of dust. Street
planting could visually link the city and provide a human
scale to the environment.
KISR has compiled a plant palette and studied the water
requirements of various species. However, the optimum
recommended water quantity for plants has not been completely
studied. Most of the water requirements are adapted from
guidelines published in Arizona (Al- Mutawa, 1993).
New plant material from the arid regions of the world
should be further studied. Their water requirements, heat and
salinity tolerance, and urban conditions should be an ongoing
activity while the Master Plan is being written. The
vegetation which survived the lack of irrigation during the war should be considered for the more desolate areas of
Kuwait.
Trees should be selected carefully to tolerate heat and salinity. It is important to remember the principles of xeriscape in this project: They are: 1) Plan and design a landscape to save water 2) Use low water/drought tolerant plants 3) limit turf areas 4) use water harvesting techniques 78
5) use irrigation efficiently 6) use soil improvements and
mulches 7) Maintain properly. High water use plants should be
restricted to an oasis setting such as entrances or courtyards
of public buildings.
In the appendix, a reference to proposed plant materials
for Kuwait (Jones, Ortega, 1989) may help expand the plant
palette for Kuwait. These plants are listed by their
botanical and common name, with symbols indicating whether they are trees, shrubs or ground cover. These plants should be tested in Kuwait as they have great potential to do well in this region (Jones, Ortega, 1989).
I also think it is valuable to look into the indigenous flora as a source of potential plant material for landscaping
Kuwait. Although most of the local plants are annuals, there are perennial shrubs which have been cultivated from cuttings at the Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research. These plants are hardy, require no additional irrigation and are locally available. Unfortunately, little literature is available on propagation of native flora.
Aesthetic Factors
Aesthetics in the Landscape have not been mentioned in the
"Greenery Plan". There is no documentation of what is perceived as being aesthetically pleasing to the users of the future gardens and parks. It is important for the designers involved in this project to observe people's behavior in an 79
open space, plaza, garden or pedestrian malls.
So far, the inspiration for designing public gardens was
the English Romantic garden, and sometimes, there was no
inspiration at all. Kuwait is unique in that the social
fabric is a composition of many nationalities. The activities
of each nationality varies depending on their cultural
background. Children seem to use the parks, and rarely are
adults seen unless they are the children's nannies.
Art in the landscape is a recent phenomenon in Kuwait.
Sculptures built by contractors have been mushrooming. They are often big and bulky and usually are used for advertisement
purposes.
Designs for these sculptures have to be approved by the municipality. Driving in Kuwait, I have personally observed sculptures ranging from a tasteful marble slab, to others made from plywood, concrete and a hurried coat of paint.
Aesthetics is a personal issue and unfortunately, beauty is not seen in simplicity.
A committee comprising of artists, social workers, landscape architects, architects or a person in a different discipline, are encouraged to review aesthetic decisions.
Landscape Design Guidelines for the City of Phoenix. Arizona.
The landscape goal of the city of Phoenix is to create an environment that will serve as a backdrop for the City 80
Government. The Government Center should be a major hub of
pedestrian activity creating a sense of public pride as well
as an identity for the city of Phoenix.
The landscape objectives are to achieve an image that is characteristic of the Southwest, to set the tone for
environmental quality and to provide an educational service to the public. The image of Arizona is portrayed through the selection of low water using plants to build colorful, shaded environments (Myers, Martino, no date).
The Urban Design Guidelines for the city of Phoenix will
be analyzed using the five ordering system: sociocultural factors, economic factors, environmental/ecological factors, aesthetic and functional factors (Frederickson, 1993).
Sociocultural Factors
Phoenix is a crossroad for various cultures. There are many layers of history upon which this valley has been built.
These remnants contribute towards the heritage and the vitality of the city. The design principles for Phoenix honor the heritage of this community by enhancing and promoting the historical and cultural qualities that are inherent and distinctive to this area.
The Phoenix Design Guidelines are sensitive to the history and the culture of the area. This is portrayed by the guideline which encourages wherever possible to restore historically significant buildings and their landscape or put 81 to adaptive reuse with respect to their cultural value, and their connection with the city's heritage.
The guidelines promote spaces for activities which foster the local characteristics of the people of Phoenix. These activities take advantage of the Southwest climate and the existing natural amenities (Phoenix Zoning Ordinance, 1993).
Socio-cultural factors also includes contextual elements.
The Phoenix guidelines enhance building designs which are responsive to the existing context. These include historical patterns and cultural expectations.
Functional Factors
The design review guidelines for Phoenix cover a multitude of functional issues. The following is an evaluation of the recommendations presented in the Phoenix guidelines.
Landscape development in an arid setting requires design features which promote human comfort. These features are identified in the guidelines as being shaded areas, courtyards and colonnades. These overhangs and canopies provide shaded walking and help to encourage the use of public spaces.
Safety, a functional issue, is also addressed. For safe pedestrian and automobile traffic, proposed projects should be organized to foster a setting to facilitate circulation.
Clear walkways are necessary for pedestrian safety. This is achieved by providing pedestrian ways with a minimum clearance 82 of six feet eight inches (Phoenix Zoning Ordinance, 1993).
Streets are designed to promote safety and security and easy access between neighborhoods. Subdivision design and industrial areas should provide sidewalks to ensure continuity of existing sidewalks.
Landscape buffers are considered where subdivisions back up to streets. A minimum twelve foot landscaped easement between the subdivision wall and the back of the curb should be provided. For the safety and welfare of pedestrians, a clear separation should be expressed between pedestrian and vehicular traffic. A buffer enhances the attractiveness of a streetscape and promotes pedestrian safety.
The guidelines promote the use of comfortable street furniture such as seating, drinking fountains and trash receptacles. Information kiosks are amenities helpful to the pedestrian. The guidelines dictate the importance of accessibility to buildings and amenities for the physically disabled.
Other functional issues address site grading and drainage.
Site design should minimize removal of trees and other existing vegetation. This is because mature plant materials are valuable and expensive to replace. Slopes greater than
3:1 should be stabilized with vegetation to minimize erosion.
Surface drainage and retention should be integrated with the overall landscape to provide for the efficient use of 83
water. A landscape plan should consider water harvesting on
a site so that this water can be reused for on-site
irrigation. Maintenance, an important functional issue is highly
stressed. Sites often become hazardous and unsightly due to
lack of proper maintenance. Therefore, maintenance
specifications can facilitate the achievement of a good design. Irrigation systems should be maintained to minimize water loss. Undeveloped portions of a site should have dust, weed and debris control.
The design guidelines for Phoenix also address landscaping of open spaces and multiple family development. There is a need to ensure an appropriate residential setting, including both landscape amenities and adequate outdoor open areas.
There are minimum standards for multiple family projects.
These standards recognize the limitations in water availability as well as the need for shade, cooling and visual relief. For these reasons, these standards distinguish between landscaped areas adjacent to public streets and the exterior of projects to ones that are more internally oriented and for the use of residents.
High water use landscape is to be restricted to interior areas devoted to residents. Perimeters and front yards are to include drought resistant plant materials and waterless features. 84
Open space areas are to be provided in central locations
for active and passive recreation for use by residents of a
multiple family development (Phoenix Zoning Ordinance, 1993).
Environmental/Ecological Factors
Environmental and ecological considerations should be made during the design process. Thought must given on the impact
of the design on the natural systems. Climate, soil, drainage, existing flora and fauna are just some of the considerations. Phoenix, like Kuwait, is a desert city and water conservation is one of the most critical issues facing both cities.
The Phoenix landscape design guidelines reflect this environmental concern through the use of water conservation and irrigation technologies. Also, plant materials which are the most efficient low-water users are to be considered.
Water efficient plants are plants that provide the most leaf- mass, shade, color and size for the least amount of water.
Water features, such as fountains in the landscape should be used sparingly with every attempt made to limit the amount of water used. Water features mask objectionable noise and cool the surrounding area. They should be designed to maximize the amount of water recycled and to minimize the amount of make up water required.
Care is taken when designing sites so that they do not radically alter existing plant and animal populations in the 85
context area. It is encouraged that wildlife areas and
habitats in the desert are to be preserved.
The design guidelines also take architectural elements into
consideration. To conserve energy, buildings and structures
should be designed in a way sensitive to the climate.
Buildings should maximize public comfort by providing shaded
public outdoor areas, minimizing glare and maximizing breezes.
Aesthetic Factors
For aesthetic purposes, the design guidelines consider
elements of visual interest that may be incorporated into the
landscape. When a project occurs in a visually rich context,
it's form, materials, orientation and detailing should
incorporate the assets offered by its setting.
Art and craft are to be integrated into the built
environment. If a project occurs in a setting devoid of
visual interest, it should seek to provide a variety of forms
and texture.
The size and spacing of landscape elements should be
consistent with the size of the project and should relate to
the streetscape. This way the landscape is proportional to the development. Public art should also be integrated into the overall design for it to have a greater impact (Phoenix
Zoning Ordinance,1993). 86
Landscape Guidelines for the City of Tucson. Arizona.
Sociocultural Factors
The natural setting of Tucson is one of the most dramatic and visually appealing of the Southwest, due in part to it's unique Sonoran vegetation, varied landforms, and extensive open areas still in this natural state (The Comprehensive Plan for the City of Tucson, 1975).
Urban vegetation reflects both the cultural milieu and the physical environment. In Tucson, vegetative patterns are linked to climate, water resources, cultural heritage, urban morphology, and the values of the population (McPherson, Haip,
1989).
Tucson is located in the Sonoran Desert basin surrounded by four mountain ranges. Average rainfall is eleven inches and it arrives in two seasons, summer and winter. The seasonal rain and the hot, arid environment support an abundant and diverse desert.
Hispanic culture is an important aspect of the city's heritage. Tucson originated as a Spanish settlement along the
Santa Cruz River in 1775. As in many other western American cities, the horizontal, low-density development pattern reflects the post-World War II population expansion and the importance of the automobile.
Currently, more than 650,000 people live in metropolitan
Tucson, and the population is projected to reach 1.6 million 87 by 2025 (McPherson, Haip, 1989).
The design guidelines for Tucson provide landscaping requirements and performance standards which, enhance and promote the image of the community's desert environment and conserve ground water resources in conformance with the
Arizona Groundwater Code.
The requirements for the guidelines are very specific and are arranged in a straightforward manner under various headings with illustrations for further clarification.
The landscape design guidelines promote the enhancement of medians, vehicular use areas and property line edges for pedestrian safety and convenience. Streetscape plantings provide shade, screening and sound attenuation as well as environmental benefits. Community identity is promoted as well as the appearance of county roadways and development areas.
The landscape guidelines for Tucson do not directly address sociocultural factors. However, there is a difference in residential landscapes between the foothill areas and the older, more established areas near the city center.
The landscape in the foothill area is newer and more planned than in the older part of town. New plant materials are introduced as well as extensive use of turf areas.
Inhabitants use plants imported from the east coast of the US along with native flora. 88
The older homes in parts of Tucson still have a high wall surrounding the property or remnants there of. The landscape consists of older plant material and their arrangement seems unplanned. Color is used more frequently, such as on the walls. There is certainly a feeling of identity in this section of Tucson.
The Tucson guidelines do not address the different cultures or incorporate designs that can be identified within a community. However, a project on the Santa Cruz has proven to be succesful within a predominantly Hispanic area. Sculptures were built at the entrance of the Santa Cruz project consisting of columns and arches. The artists inlaid the sculpture with the names of families who live in this neighborhood using mosaic tiles. This gesture has not only brought beauty to this area, but also created a sense of pride within this community.
Functional Factors
Unlike the guidelines for the city of Phoenix, the guidelines for Tucson are very strict and specific. There is no room for misinterpreting written material as there are illustrations clarifying rules and regulations.
The guidelines mainly address functional issues and requirements. One of the requirements include bufferyards consisting of fences, berms or landscaped earth berms. A bufferyard is the use of landscape elements on a site for the 89 potentially adverse impacts of adjoining, dissimilar land uses
(Pima County, 1986).
Examples of bufferyards include: streetscape bufferyards, mixed residential bufferyards, commercial and industrial bufferyards, and heavy industry bufferyards.
For each of these bufferyards, the guidelines illustrate four or five examples depending on the size of the proposed site. This method of providing illustrations enables the designer to follow the guidelines accurately and minimizes any misinterpretation (Pima County, 1986).
The design guidelines provide an outline for streetscape sculpture, furniture standards as well as standards for designing a mini-oasis. An official regulatory list of low water use and drought tolerant plants is published to meet regulations (Pima County, 1986). The official regulatory list reflects the city's concern with water conservation.
There are requirements for landscape borders, which comprise two types: street landscape borders and interior landscape border. A landscape border is a landscape area with a minimum width of ten feet, running the full length of the street property line bounding the site, except at points of entry and exit. An interior landscape border is a buffer area between two land uses and is required to be landscaped with canopy trees (City of Tucson Planning Department, 1991).
The design guidelines include screening standards in 90
addition to the landscape requirements. The purpose of these
screens is to separate the street from the property line of
the development. The word "screen" includes all types of
screens such as walls, fences, earth berms and hedges. There
are specific standards for these screens including variations
(City of Tucson Planning Department, 1991).
Standards for off-street parking and loading facilities are
also outlined. Types of parking would include residential, wholesale, business, offices, commercial and public assembly.
The minimum dimension for each parking space is outlined
(Pima County, 1986). Canopy trees are required within vehicular use areas at a ratio of one tree for every fifteen parking spaces. These trees must be evenly distributed throughout the vehicular use area (City of Tucson
Planning Department, 1991).
There are xeriscape standards whose purpose is to assure that proper techniques are used in developing landscape plans and proposals in compliance with the Tucson Zoning Code.
However, plant selection is not restricted to drought tolerant plants.
There are exceptions; there is an oasis allowance and a scenic corridor zone. Oasis areas may be landscaped with non- drought tolerant vegetation such as turf. Scenic corridors may include native material in addition to plants from the drought tolerant list (City of Tucson Planning Department, 91
1991). The scenic corridor reflects the image of the Sonoran desert and it reduces storm water runoff by absorption.
The oasis concept uses high water demanding plants which are selected and grouped together in a concentrated area, for example close to the house. Areas beyond this oasis zone, should be landscaped with plants having lower water needs
(Duffield, Jones, 1985).
Safety standards are an important part of the design guidelines for Tucson. Vegetation, such as those with spines, thorns or needles are to be planted at a safe distance from walkways, bicycle lanes and paths. Trees with the potential for overhanging a walkway must be pruned to provide a clearance of at least eight feet.
Shrubs must be carefully located at intersections to comply with sight visibility requirements. Plant materials located within the sight visibility triangles should consist of low covering vegetation (City of Tucson Planning Department,
1991).
Irrigation standards are also addressed in the Tucson guidelines. Landscaping is to be low water use with emphasis on the utilization of water conserving irrigation systems.
There are certain irrigation standards which need to be met.
These standards include system specifications and system design layout. Included in the design guidelines is the maintenance and the upkeep of irrigation systems. This is 92
necessary to conserve water and there should be a regular
maintenance program for the site.
There are also maintenance standards for plant materials
such as pruning, removal of dead plant material, weeding,
mulching, litter removal, aerating and fertilizing.
A section on inert materials is addressed. This includes hardscape materials such as benches, walls and ramadas which must be of durable matter. These structures must be able to withstand extreme desert climate and minimize heat gain or reflected heat (City of Tucson Planning Department, 1991).
The design guidelines for Tucson are straight forward and presented in a logical way. They are relevant to this thesis in that they can be adopted for guidelines for Kuwait. This, however, will be further discussed in chapter five.
The regulations are intended to contribute and enhance the economic welfare of the city and the quality of life of citizens and visitors. This is accomplished by promoting the image of the southwestern desert environment and by creating an attractive appearance along city streets.
Tourism is one of Tucson's main source of income.
Therefore, it is important to carry out design criteria for the development of scenic routes and gateway routes.
Environmental/Ecological Factors
There is great interest in environmental and ecological concerns in Tucson. Declining groundwater supplies, increased 93
water prices, and water conservation programs have changed the
city streetscape dramatically. Traditional lush plantings
have been replaced with rock mulches and low-water use
species.
Many homeowners replaced lawns and trees with rock and
cactus to promote water efficient landscaping (McPherson,
Haip, 1989). Tucson has published a regulatory list of
drought tolerant plant material. These plants require
moderate to no irrigation once they are established.
Plant selection must meet locational, aesthetic, and
functional requirements. For example, plants used for
screening may have to be evergreen, have dense foliage, and
grow to required heights. On the other hand, plants used
within sight visibility triangles, may have height
restrictions. In some applications, there may be a
requirement for native materials or a "desert or natural
appearance" (Landscape Design Manual, 1985).
Landscape designs are to be in harmony with the
environmental context. Preservation of plant materials found
on site is a primary concern for site planning.
Plant selection and placement depends on the function, water requirement and the most suitable environmental exposure.
Landscape designs are encouraged to use treated effluent to irrigate landscaped and turf areas. Tucson has developed design ethics compatible with the arid lands environment and 94
water conservation. The guidelines reflect this well by the
use of drought tolerant plants, water features to scale and a
general concern for keeping the desert intact as much as
possible
Aesthetic Factors
In 1880 the railroad reached Tucson bringing along new architectural styles and developmental patterns that transformed the desert to a garden city. Residents abandoned traditional Sonoran architectural and landscape designs for the ones imported from the east.
The first two decades of the twentieth century, public tree planting was a community activity. Neighborhoods changed dramatically as set back for houses resulted in large front and back yards planted with trees and grass. Landscaping enhanced the image of the city as a winter resort community.
The advent of evaporative cooling reduced the need for summer shade. Trees were necessary for summer shade prior to the availability of mechanical cooling. Abundant energy supplies led to the gradual demise of street lined trees.
In the 1950's and 1960's, typical tract homes emerged as a result of the postwar boom. Bermuda grass and fruitless mulberry or elm trees were planted on each parcel. Extensive landscaping was not characteristic of suburban development.
However, between 1950 and 1970, an increased number of residents began converting their horticultural plantings to 95
desert landscapes. This shift was attributed to a change in
value of leisure time and an increased appreciation of desert
plants.
Declining groundwater supplies, increased water prices and
water conservation programs have spurred a change in the city
landscape. Plantings were changed to be more compatible with
the environment. The aesthetic change from a horticultural to
desert landscape illustrates how strong sociocultural
traditions like a front lawn can be modified if people are
offered incentives, mandates and educational materials
(McPherson, Haip, 1989).
Change from a horticultural to desert landscape is
encouraged to occur in Kuwait. Lush plantings can occur in
areas of high use such as the home or during areas allocated
as a mini-oasis. However, desert landscapes should be used in
public parks, motor ways and areas in public areas. A desert
landscape does have color, texture and form.
The existing plant palette must change to one more suited to the area. It is strongly encouraged to use native flora of the Arabian peninsula. Not only are they drought tolerant,
but a sense of place can be created using native vegetation. 96
Landscape Design Guidelines for the City of San Diego.
California.
The geography of San Diego County has a unique quality. It contains all of a metropolitan region, its far flung fringes, and its associated watershed and recreation areas. It has a pleasant climate, and is an attractive area in which to live.
However, San Diego County is one of the nation's fastest growing metropolitan region. Development has reached an intensity where basic elements of environmental conservation cannot be ignored (San Diego County Regional Plan, 1965).
The juxtaposition of San Diego with Mexico has a social, economic and environmental influence on either side of the border. Over the last two decades, growth rates in border cities have far exceeded their corresponding national averages
(Planning the International Border Metropolis, 1986).
By the early 1970's, the rapid growth between the San
Diego-Tijuana border has contributed toward a cultural integration between the two cities. It also meant that the political lives of residents of each city were becoming intertwined. Economic ties in the form of growing trans- border retail, real estate transactions and labor migration were bringing the two cities into contact (Planning the
International Border Metropolis, 1986).
For the purpose of this section, two documents were examined and reviewed. The Landscape Technical Manual 97
establishes the landscape standards for both public and
private projects necessary to implement the various
requirements associated with land development in the City of
San Diego (Landscape Technical Manual, 1989).
The second document is the User's guide to the City of San
Diego Landscape Regulations, whose purpose is to improve the
appearance, quality and quantity of landscaped areas that are
visible from roadways and adjacent developments (User's guide to the City of San Diego Landscape Regulations, 1987).
Both these design guidelines for the city of San Diego will
be analyzed simultaneously.
Sociocultural Factors
The design guidelines for San Diego provide regulations to
improve the appearance, the quality and the quantity of the
visible landscape. The Landscape technical Manual outlines sections which discuss more functional and ecological- environmental requirements. There is no mention of sociocultural considerations.
However, there are projects that have been executed in San
Diego which are contextually and culturally sensitive.
The City decided to replace a run down strip at a seaside village north of San Diego, Del Mar, California. Planners and citizens held out for a project intimate in scale and related architecturally to nearby buildings. The Del Mar Plaza, a $30 million project with three-level mix of restaurants and shops, 98
was approved by voters.
The plaza is reminiscent of a Spanish hill town. Ramps and
steps lead through a series of courtyards and terraces.
Pedestrian walks take surprising twists and turns carrying
visitors past shops and restaurants that appeal to local
attitude. It has opened in 1991, winning praise for
recharging the village without the brash commercialism and
hasty architecture of so many Californian malls (Sutro, 1991).
In Kuwait, there are opportunities to develop architectural
and landscape architectural designs that reflect the Middle
Eastern style. In the past, poorly constructed pseudo Kuwaiti
"villages" were built along the corniche. This would be a wonderful opportunity to have successful plazas, market spaces and pedestrian areas in Kuwait, specifically in the Mubarikiya
Souk.
Functional Factors
Similar to the guidelines for Tucson and Phoenix, the design guidelines for San Diego are functionally oriented.
The User's Guide to the City of San Diego's Landscape
Regulations requires landscape improvements in three distinct areas of a developed property. These areas are street yards, vehicular use areas, and remaining yards. Basically, these yards are defined as the area around a property within the property lines. Illustrations in the guideline further define these terms. 99
The ordinance requires that specific percentages of landscape coverage be provided for street yards, remaining yards, and vehicular use areas. The percent of landscape coverage required for each of these varies by zone.
Examples of a typical industrial, commercial and residential project are illustrated. Other general criteria discussed include irrigation, maintenance, curb stop, wheel stop, street trees, tree spacing, tree sizing, and landscape strip requirements.
Also addressed is the separation of vehicular use areas from building fronts. Residential areas have a buffering requirement. Industrial, multi-family residential, mixed and multi-use developments must follow specific landscape area requirements.
The Landscape Technical Manual provides landscape improvements in street right-of-way and those in open space areas. Landscape improvements on the street right-of-way outline locational criteria. Plant material have to be at a certain height and not block sight triangles. Plants must be at a clear zone from fire hydrants, utility poles, overhead utility wires, street lights and underground utilities.
Criteria on plant selection, and installation are outlined as well as center island landscaping.
These San Diego guidelines are useful to Kuwait. They outline considerations which could influence future 100 development of landscape guidelines for Kuwait.
Environmental/Ecological Factors
The Landscape Technical Manual addresses five environmental/ecological related regulations.
1) The Plant Material Guidelines establishes criteria for using plant materials. Outlined are screening criteria and plant selection criteria. Listed are preferred, acceptable and a table of prohibited plants. Lawns shall be minimized and concentrated where used. Landscape improvements in vehicular use areas shall avoid obstructing views of motorists. Also addressed is site preparation, installation and maintenance criteria.
2) The Water Conservation Standards and Requirements apply to all projects for which landscaping is required and to special landscape situations such as slopes, fire hazard areas and transitional landscapes. Native vegetation is to be preserved whenever possible and irrigation requirements are outlined.
3) The Irrigation Systems are in conjunction with the water conservation standards. The types of systems to be used are temporary systems, on-grade systems, spray systems and drip systems. However, the design, installation and maintenance criteria are not considered specifications, but as guidelines.
4) The Brush Management Program establishes certain minimum requirements for brush clearance. Structures adjacent to or adjoining mountainous areas covered with flammable material 101
such as dry brush must be located with a setback dictated by
the guideline.
5) The revegetation guidelines establish the acceptable
standards for the design and installation of slope
revegetation. Revegetation of manufactured slopes and other
disturbed areas adjacent to native vegetation shall be
accomplished in a manner so as to provide visual and
horticultural compatibility with the indigenous plant
material.
Similar to the landscape guidelines of Tucson and Phoenix, the guidelines for San Diego promotes the use of indigenous flora, water conservation and the safety of the public.
Aesthetic Factors
Aesthetic factors are inherent in the guidelines but not directly addressed. However, decorative paving, fountains, water features and monument proposals within the street right of way must be approved by the Engineering and Development
Department, Planning Department and Park and Recreation department. 102
CHAPTER FIVE
LANDSCAPE DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR KUWAIT
Effective design process does not consist of formulae that
result in specific designs. However, it should provide a
basis for preparation and not diminish intuitive expression.
Effective design processes should make an intuitive jump more
informed, leading to thorough and careful decision-making
(Frederickson, 1993).
For the purpose of this chapter, the information used in
the guidelines of the three cities; Tucson, Phoenix and San
Diego will be distilled and synthesized into guidelines for
the Kuwaiti Landscape Plan.
It is not the intention of this thesis to use the
guidelines from the various cities as rigid rules. There
should be room for flexibility, common sense and creativity.
Select guidelines for design and planning U.S. cities could be
adapted and integrated into the design and planning guidelines
for Kuwait to form a unique environment.
The guidelines for Kuwait should not mimic the image of the
Sonoran desert, or the coastline of California. However,
an effort should be made to provide an atmosphere which is culturally sensitive, environmentally responsible, aesthetically pleasing and functionally sound and efficient.
In chapter four, we introduced and conceptually reviewed existing guidelines for Tucson, Phoenix and San Diego. In 103
this Chapter, we will select specific guideline categories
that have relevance to contemporary Kuwait, i.e. landscape
buffering and screening standards, mini-oasis standards, the
official plant list and performance standards.
Photographs of different landscapes will be presented to
portray ways in which the guidelines have been implemented for the cities of Tucson and Phoenix. The ordering systems will
be used as criteria to evaluate these photographs.
The photographs will represent examples of residential areas, commercial bufferyards, street bufferyards, water harvesting landscapes, parking lots, entry ways, public building, maintenance and mini-oasis. Each photograph will demonstrate the successful implementation of the guidelines.
It is important to remember that it is not the intention of this thesis to imitate landscapes in the United States and transfer it to Kuwait. However, Kuwait would greatly benefit from some of the existing landscape solutions in different arid regions.
Landscape Buffering and Screening Standards
A bufferyard is an area that may consist of a combination of plant materials, berms and a wall to screen one land use area from another. The bufferyard requirement specifies the number of plant units per one hundred linear feet of yard.
The number of plants for each bufferyard is specified by the "plant unit multiplier". This is a factor by which the 104
basic number of plants for a specific buffer yard is
determined given a change in the width of that yard.
Bufferyards in Kuwait are recommended in the industrial
area, adjacent to residential neighborhoods, commercial areas,
and in between different land use areas.
There are five major types of bufferyards which are
recommended for the landscape design guidelines for Kuwait.
They are: streetscape heavy industry, mixed residential,
commercial and industrial bufferyard. These bufferyards have
varying widths and a "plants multiplier unit". The length of the buffer yard has a variable number of plant material per
one hundred feet.
Within a bufferyard containing a fence or wall, at least
fifteen percent of the total plants required shall be located
between the fence or wall and the higher intensity use.
Suitable species and varied heights of plants shall be chosen to effectively break up and absorb sound. The wall or fence shall be located between the berm and the higher intensity use.
This guideline is responsive to functional, environmental/ecological and aesthetic issues. From an environmental standpoint, a bufferyard minimizes dust upheaval, and when in conjunction with a wall, it reduces noise pollution. Bufferyards help control and utilize stormwater runoff (Pima County, 1985). 105
From a functional point of view, bufferyards preserve property values and add character to the neighborhood. It screens incompatible land uses and increases traffic safety.
Aesthetically, bufferyards enhance and promote the image of a community. It provides for a visual continuity and harmony within the environmental context (Pima County, 1985). 106 Street Bufferyard
Fig. la
Fig. lb 107
The above photographs of highways are aesthetically pleasing as the median and both sides of the highway have been landscaped. The use of evergreens and deciduous plants provide form, color and texture all year round. All plants are watered using drip irrigation. The use of drought tolerant plants reduces water costs and reflects the image of the Sonoran desert. The construction of a high wall, the use of berms or mounds in conjunction with plant material mitigates the noise. Plants line the walls on the neighborhood side for aesthetic and environmental purposes.
Mass planting in a swooping fashion, creates an interesting effect while driving on the highway. 108
Comercial Buf feryard
Fig. 2b 109
These commercial bufferyards occur on the periphery of a
super market and a botanical garden. They provide physical
and visual barrier between a main road and the commercial
area. It is functional by providing shade to the pedestrians
and cars. Strategic planting facilitates circulation in and
out of the commercial area. It is environmentally sensitive
as the plant materials are native to this area. The lack of turf reduces maintenance and water costs. Maintenance can be
also minimized by not trimming the shrubs into topiary and
leaving them to grow in their natural shape. It is also
aesthetically pleasing as it adds texture, form and color to this area as well as reflecting the image of the Sonoran
desert.
Note the use of decomposed granite, the stone, gravel and
ground cover. These components minimize stormwater run-off,
reduce erosion, encourage percolation and are aesthetically
pleasing. 110
Mini-oasis Design Standards
A mini-oasis is an area in the landscape where high water consuming plants are concentrated. This includes limited lawn area, treasured tropicals and small flower beds (Black,
Dunmire, Edinger, Williamson, 1989). The Tucson design guidelines have defined a mini-oasis as an area that shall be functionally oriented on a site i.e. areas located near main buildings, or areas of high pedestrian activity.
The mini-oasis encompasses sociocultural, functional, environmental and aesthetic issues. It is an area of repose, such as seating, assembly, rest, dining or employee break.
It enhances the main pedestrian ways by providing a retreat from the heat and by adding texture and color to the landscape.
A mini-oasis concept is environmentally sensitive in it's use of similar plant materials having compatible water requirements.
The location of a mini-oasis is important. It is to be situated in an area with low evaporation potential from wind and heat. The use of supplemental irrigation by a water harvesting system or the use of storm runoff is encouraged
(Pima County, 1985).
The mini-oasis encompasses sociocultural, functional, environmental and aesthetic issues. It is an area of repose, Ill such as seating, assembly, rest, dining or employee break.
The landscape design guidelines for Kuwait should advocate the use of the mini-oasis in high intensity use areas. These areas would include courtyards, intimate spaces within public buildings, and private residences. 112 Mini-Oasis
Fig. 3b 113
These are examples of a mini-oasis concept in a commercial area. The mini- oasis concept uses high water demanding plants which are selected and grouped together in a concentrated area, for example close to the built structure.
Areas beyond this oasis zone, should be landscaped with plants having lower water needs (Duffield, Jones, 1985). The mini- oasis provides a respite from the heat and it is aesthetically pleasing as it provides shade, color, form, line and texture.
The water fountain adds a cooling and calming element in the landscape. High maintenance is a necessity where there is turf, perennials and the pruning of trees. 114
The Official Plant List
The official plant list published within the Tucson guidelines contains an extensive list of plants which are successful in the Tucson area when used in appropriate design applications.
All designs for Pima County must use plant materials outlined on the official plant list for Pima County.
Applications for additions, deletions or exceptions to the list may be submitted to the Department of Water Resources.
All the plants use less water than traditional high water use landscape plants. The list provides variety to accomplish any landscape design need such as color, texture and form as well as functional purposes.
The appendix A in this thesis covers plant materials which have been recommended by Professor Warren Jones for landscaping Kuwait (Jones, Ortega, 1989). This list is relevant to this thesis as the list contains an extensive variety of drought tolerant plants. The introduction of new species to Kuwait will greatly broaden the existing plant palette which consists of approximately 300 species.
Trial planting at experimental farms, or in existing parks, could stimulate homeowners curiosity. This may lead to further landscaping by citizens who wish to try the "newest" plant available. Demonstration gardens and prototypical designs for public spaces could provide the perfect forum for 115 exhibiting new plant materials.
There is great potential for new plant materials, especially from the arid regions of the southwest United
States, Mexico, Australia and parts of Africa. Brochures outlining information on the plant requirements will increase the awareness of the buyer. 116
Residential Landscape
Fig. 4b 117
These residential landscapes reflect the native Sonoran desert. The use of drought tolerant plants minimizes the use of water. High water use plants such as turf is planted in the back yard for every day use. The ground cover is clustered together according to similar water requirements.
These landscapes provide an excellent habitat for wildlife by providing cover, shelter and food. Landscape elements enhance visual qualities by providing form, color, line and texture.
Perennials provide color, the ocotillo provides line, hardscape provides form and the tree canopies form texture. 118 Performance Standards
This section of the landscape design guidelines provides standards for bufferyards, landscape designs and landscape plans. The following standards have the potential of being integrated into the landscape design guidelines for Kuwait.
1. The proposed landscape should create a sense of place and contribute to the uniqueness and character of a community.
Landscaping should enhance the textural qualities of a project, in addition to providing a functional purpose. The size and spacing of landscape elements should be consistent with the project and be identifiable with the existing streetscape.
On-site vegetation must be preserved as much as possible, especially specimen plants. Specimen plants are plants which are focal points of the landscape, also known as accent plants. 119
Public Buildings
Fig. 5a. 120
Fig. 5b
These public buildings, a school and a courthouse, have minimized or eliminated the use of turf and planted native flora at the entry way. The palm tree provides a sense of scale and enframes the view. This landscape provides texture, line, form and color. The landscape reflects the image of the
Sonoran desert and it enhances, complements architectural the forms. Pruning shrubs into topiary is more appropriate in a formal garden than in a naturalistic landscape. Topiary is strongly discouraged since it requires high maintenance and it is an unnecessary practice. Once more, gravel is used to enhance percolation, as well as stabilizing the soil. The gravel is locally available in different sizes and color. 121
2. Wherever undisturbed desert cannot be preserved, landscape
design and construction shall promote the use of transplanted,
on-site desert plants, container plants and seeded plants.
3. The mini-oasis concept of plant selection and placement
according to the water needs shall be used in all proposals.
4. The use of turf for large areas such as that required for
schools, parks and recreational facilities must be approved by the Ministry of Public Works, Kuwait.
5. Selected plants must be low water use, except for areas within the mini-oasis.
6. Trees and shrubs: trees and shrubs must be at least five gallons in size at planting time. Trees and shrubs must be planted to avoid interference with service lines, traffic triangles, property rights.
7. Groundcovers: inorganic groundcover when used in combination with live groundcover shall not exceed two-thirds of the total area of applied groundcover. Turf use shall not exceed twenty percent of the total project site landscaped area. This will demonstrate the water conservation ethic to the public.
8. Irrigation and water accent features: planting shall be served by underground irrigation, or a water conserving irrigation system, unless otherwise approved. Tertiary treated effluent water is encouraged to irrigate turf areas.
Storm water harvesting and drip irrigation are the preferred 122 irrigation methods.
Landscape designs must integrate earthwork, grading and hydrology to maximize the use of stormwater irrigation.
Features such as ponds must be in scale with the design and compatible with the arid land environment water conservation ethic.
9. Natural features: earth berms shall transition existing grade and the slope cannot exceed 2:1. It shall be covered with plant material, ground cover or rip-rap to control erosion. Natural drainageways and existing natural vegetation may be used for screening and amenity landscape credit if approved.
10. Streetscape sculpture and furniture must be approved by a design review committee. Public art creates a greater impact if it is integrated into the overall context of the area.
Light fixtures and other appurtenances help to reinforce the design theme of the project. 123
Street Medians
Fig. 6b 124 The medians in these photographs portray an example of
several concepts. One shows the entry way to the University
of Arizona as the sign indicates. The planting design
reflects the image of the Sonoran desert through the use of
native plants. In both photographs the xeriscape principles are evident through the use of mulch, drought tolerant plants, and the construction of swages for water harvesting. The mulch and river rock minimizes and controls water runoff and it acts as a soil stabilizer. A combination of deciduous plants and evergreens are used to provide for year round color and texture. A cultural statement is being made in this landscape and it also is functional as its purpose is to direct traffic. Environmentally, it conserves the use of water and it provides a habitat for the native fauna. 125
11. Safety design standards: walls, fences, signs and other
structures shall avoid the visual obstruction of roads.
Landscape design should be coordinated so that the placement
of utility elements does not conflict with plant material as
it matures. Trees adjacent to pedestrian walkways should have
a minimum clearing of six feet, eight inches to enhance the
health/ safety and welfare of the public.
12. Plant materials may be grouped, clustered, or unevenly spaced to prevent the creation of an unnatural appearance in the landscape (Pima County, 1986).
13. Maintenance Provisions: The final approval of any subdivision or developmental plan must include the approval of the landscape maintenance plan. The plan must ensure the continued maintenance of landscaping, buffering and associated irrigation systems.
Maintenance is one of the most important issues which must be addressed when designing in Kuwait. Unfortunately, little care is provided to a project after it has been installed.
There is also a lack of concern for quality craftsmanship and installation unless it is very carefully supervised.
Responsibility of maintenance should be assigned to the property owner, agent or other liable entity. To assure compliance personnel from the Ministry of Public Works or any responsible agency in Kuwait should regularly spot inspect the landscape. 126
Trees must be watered infrequently but deeply to promote deeper rooting. Plants must be pruned in accordance with professional trimming standards to maintain their intended shape and sizes. Any dead plants must be removed and dead branches pruned. Shrubs and vines used for screening trash receptacles must be pruned to maximize screening while allowing access.
The guidelines may be too prescriptive, allowing little leeway for flexibility and for artistic interpretation. There is the danger that developers will implement the bare minimum prescribed by the guidelines to minimize development costs.
This can be expected from guidelines which specify minimum requirements.
In the case of Kuwait, where there are no screening or bufferyard requirements for commercial, industrial or residential areas, guidelines will likely have a positive impact. The city is covered in concrete and compacted soil and is in need of planting requirements which improve the image of the city. 127
Maintenance
saw*
Fig. 7a
Maintenance is one of the most important functional issues, especially in Kuwait. This photograph exemplifies the importance of maintaining the landscape through regular horticultural practice. Regular visits to built projects is important to ensure that all elements of the landscape are in sound condition. 128 14. Site Grading: The proposed grading should be designed
with slopes and topographic features which match the natural
grade and context area. Abrupt grade changes can create
barriers and disrupt drainage. Sites should avoid steep
slopes of 3:1 or greater to minimize soil erosion.
Vegetation, rock and plant material should be used to help
stabilize soil.
All slopes greater than 3:1, shall be planted with one
gallon native trees at an average rate of one per 900 square
feet. All manufactured slopes must be covered with vegetation
within 30 days of completing grading with geotextile or mulch to control erosion.
Plant materials used shall include annual, perennials,
woody groundcovers and shrubs capable of surviving without
supplemental watering. Indigenous species are preferred for the site condition. Seeding on non-irrigated areas shall be
done when the available soil moisture is 75% of the field capacity.
Washes should be kept in their natural state. Any changes can disrupt this ecologically sensitive landscape. The removal of mature trees and other existing vegetation on a site should be minimized.
15. Drainage: Where appropriate, the landscape plan should consider the establishment of a water harvesting system. This is the collection, storage and reuse of on-site-water for 129
irrigation. Integrating the drainage into the overall
landscape can provide for more efficient use of water as well as being aesthetically pleasing.
Even though water is scarce, it pours when it rains in
Kuwait creating flash floods. Extensive paving causes water to run down the streets. If medians were swaled instead of paved, plant materials can greatly benefit from the water harvested. After all, water harvesting is not such a new phenomenon in Kuwait. Up until the pre- oil era, water was collected and saved in earthenware. 130 Hater Harvesting
Fig. 8a 131
•irfcrf**. j^#*W\*.
Fig. 8b
A catchment area collects rainwater and directs it into a stotage facility for later use. A "catchment" is any large surface such as a roof, patio or driveway. Here, water runoff is directed from the parking lot and directed to the planted areas by using dikes, berms and contouring. A combination of hardscape and turf is used to reduce the speed of water and to encourage percolation. The use of swages and contours in the landscape is not only functional but adds an element of interest to an otherwise flat landscape. 132 16. Hardscape: Hardscape is inert material used to form the
structural elements in the landscape. Hardscape would include
walks, walls, ramadas, benches etc. Hardscape design should
avoid the overuse of unshaded hardscape. Paving materials
should be chosen to minimize reflected light and glare. This
enhances the environment and the pedestrian experience.
Pavement for pedestrian traffic must be firm and slip
resistant. Irregular surfaces must be avoided, yet alterative
paving materials should be considered which permit the
infiltration of water. Accessibility to the physically
disabled should not be hindered by the use of irregular paving
material.
There is an excessive use of paving materials in Kuwait.
Medians, areas in front of homes, areas surrounding commercial
buildings are mostly paved. It is realized that the reason
for these large paved areas is to minimize sand upheaval.
However, this approach can change, medians can be swaled to
harvest water. Mulches such as pea gravel can be used to
percolate scanty rainfall into the root system.
Areas in front of homes can be converted into mini-gardens that can be used for the still traditional habit of camping outdoors. Trees planted not only beautify the neighborhood, but create a sense of place, beauty as well as shade for people and their vehicles.
17. Ground Cover: High water use landscaping such as turf 133
grass should be no more than 50% of the landscaped area or 10%
of the net lot area. High water use landscapes should be
limited to areas which are used more frequently.
For phased projects, property being reserved for future
development should be landscaped using drought tolerant
plants. At least 50% of the landscaped area should be treated
with living vegetation, this includes ground cover, shrubs and
trees.
Ground cover is not effectively used in Kuwait. Ground cover, especially if it is drought tolerant, is an excellent replacement for turf. Saline tolerant ground cover should
also be tested and used in public areas.
18. Water Elements: Water features can provide relief from the extreme desert temperatures. However, they must be used sparingly with every attempt as the city must project the image of using it's limited resources as efficiently as possible.
Fountains and other water features should be designed using equipment which minimize leakage throughout it's life cycle.
The water features should maximize the amount of water recycled and minimize the amount of water required for the fountain. This is accomplished through proper design of the catchbasin of the water feature. Where there is a significant risk of overspray, wind shut-off valves should be incorporated into the system. 134
Even though there are many fountains in public parks in
Kuwait, non are in working condition. Fine particles
suspended in sandstorms, clog up the pumping system. It would
be more advisable to limit the use of small fountains to areas which are widely used such as major shopping areas.
19. Movement and Circulation: To be of greatest benefit to all users, landscaping should be dispersed throughout the parking area. Five percent of the parking lot must be landscaped.
This excludes the perimeter and the front setbacks. Parking areas must be buffered from adjacent land uses and the streets so that cars are not visible below the average height of the head lights.
Landscape planters for trees in parking lots should be a minimum of five feet wide. This space is large enough for shade trees and it enhances the street character.
Access drives, internal circulation drives, parking, and pedestrian must be designed for the safety and convenience of both pedestrians and motorists. Surface parking design should utilize shared access drives with adjacent, similar zoned properties.
For office and retail projects, every parking space should be no greater than 150 feet from the sidewalk leading into the building. Shade and accessibility enhances the comfort and safety of the pedestrian. An adequate number of handicapped parking spaces should be conveniently located near the 135
building and facilities.
20. Parking Structure Design: The parking structure should
be integrated with form and materials of the site or the
scale, form, color and materials of adjacent uses. This
minimizes the impact on the surrounding uses.
There should be a convenient, safe, clear internal circulation system. An appropriate view angle and pedestrian crossing at exits and entrances should be provided in all
parking structures.
Parking lot and parking structure design should consider future planning and be able to integrate with the surrounding.
Ways should be considered to enhance the parking structure and the surrounding area. Appropriate landscaping at all levels may substantially enhance the structure. For safety reasons, branches should be maintained at 60 inches above finished grade. Plant materials with surface root problems should not be used in vehicular use areas.
In Kuwait covered garages greatly reduced the need for out door parking. However, there still is a parking problem especially in the commercial district of Kuwait. Parking lots are usually insufficient and trees are almost non existent.
It strongly recommended to plant trees at 20 feet on center to provide shade and enhance any parking lot. Fig. 9a
Fig. 9b 137
The top photograph of a parking lot caught my attention as it was one of the more creative ones found. Here the use of hardscape is quite evident through the use of retaining walls, planters, stairs and paving materials. The trees are planted on the west and south sides to provide full shade, minimizing reflected heat and glare. The planters contain ground cover which add to the cooling effect by reducing heat radiation.
The lower photograph shows a less formal parking lot, yet it is more environmentally sensitive. The use of gravel instead of asphalt minimizes storm water runoff and glare. The curb cut allows water to run into the central island which is planted with native plants. 138
21. Signage: Signs are important and should be located to
provide their functional purpose of communication. They
should also conform to the character of the context area.
Signs are one of the most effective ways of creating a unique
image for an area within the community. Any landscaping
should not obscure the sign as it may reduce the sign's
effectiveness.
In conclusion, the guidelines for Tucson, Phoenix and San
Diego serve as a supplement to the Master plan for
Landscaping Kuwait. The different points of the guidelines
serve as ideas or as an approach towards formulating design
guidelines. It is not the intention of this thesis to use these guidelines blindly. It is the responsibility of
professionals in various fields, such as architects, landscape
architects, planners, hydrologists, horticulturists etc. to
design guidelines which are suited for Kuwait.
It is also felt that the different regions of the Middle
East should use their own cultural heritage as a basis for design. One must ask questions as to what made a space successful, how did people protect themselves from the harsh climate, or what is considered beautiful space by the local
population.
Traditionally, the maidan, or the open space outside the mosque was considered the center of civic activity. It was a place for religious congregation, an open market place, a 139 space to socialize.
That was then; today the situation has changed. Shopping centers and structured open air markets have replaced the indigenous style. The "chalet" and sea clubs has become the place for family to meet on the weekends.
It requires the combined efforts of professionals in the fields of architecture, planning, landscape architecture and community involvement during the design process to provide a successful built environment.
There is a need for continued research in the profession of architecture and landscape architecture in Kuwait. The role of the landscape architect is relatively unknown.
Kuwait University has not established a department of architecture or landscape architecture. Students wishing to study these professions have to study overseas. The Ministry of Planning has to primarily rely on foreign architects and planners for their projects. It is felt that there is a need to train local talent in the design fields to educate the general public about the benefits of urban forestry, water and environmental conservation. 140
APPEHDIX A
The following list is taken from Plants for The Greening of Kuwait, by Professor Warren Jones and Ralph Ortega. It is with Professor Jones' kind permission that I have reproduced this list. This list was developed by Professor Jones for the Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research during the first phase of the Landscape Master Plan. As can be seen from the list, there are many potential plants for Kuwait which need to be tested to see whether they could adapt to local environmental conditions. I would like to encourage anyone to exchange seeds or cuttings with the intention of expanding our plant palette.
The key indicates whether the plant is a tree, shrub, groundcover, palm, vine or an annual flowering plant.
Key: T- Tree S- Shrubs, Large Succulents, Ornamental Grasses (Non-Lawn) GC- Groundcovers, Smaller Succulents and Accent Plants P- Palms V- Vines F- Flower, Bedding Plants
+ Fail Safe Plants x For Special Places * Potential- Should be Tested
Tvoe Genus/Species Common Name
T * Acacia abyssinica Abyssinian Acacia S * Acacia aneura Mulga T + Acacia arabica Arabian Acacia T * Acacia avriculiformis Ear Pod Wattle S * Acacia berlanderi Berland's Acacia T * Acacia covenia Chilean .Acacia S * Acacia cultriformis Knife Acacia T * Acacia cyclopsis Coastal Wattle T * Acacia cymbispina Boat Thorn Acacia T + Acacia eburnea Camel Thorn Acacia T + Acacia farnesiana Sweet Acacia T * Acacia pendula Weeping Acacia T * Acacia pennatula Sonoran Featherleaf Acacia S + Acacia redolens Prostrate Acacia T + Acacia salicina Willow Acacia 141 T + Acacia saligna Blue Leaf Wattle T * Acacia stenophylla Shoe String Acacia T * Acacia tortilis Palestine Acacia T * Acacia xanthophloea Fever Tree S x Acalypha wilkesiana Copper Leaf T * Adansonia digiata Baobab Tree S + Agave americana Century Plant GC x Agave attenuata Soft Leaf Agave GC * Agave parryi var. huachuensis Perry's Agave S * Agave salmiana Salm's Agave S + Agave sisalana Hemp Plant S + Agave victoriae-reginae Victoria Agave S * Agave vilmoriana Octopus Agave S * Agave weberi Weber's Agave F + Agerataum xnexicanum Blue Floss Flower V x Alamanda catheritica Golden Alamanda Vine T * Albizzia julibrissin Silk Tree T + Albizzia lebbek Women's Tongue F + Alcea rosea ( Althaea rosea) Holly Hock S * Aloe arborescens Tree Aloe GC * Aloe aristata Dwarf Aloe GC * Aloe brevifolia S. African Aloe V * Aloe ciliaris Climbing Aloe GC * Aloe distans Jeweled Aloe S * Aloe ferox Cape Aloe GC * Aloe humilis Crocodile Jaws S * Aloe mariothi Candelabra Aloe GC * Aloe nobilis Green and Gold Crown GC + Aloe saponaria Mediterranean Aloe GC * Aloe striata Coral Aloe GC + Aloe vera (barbadensis) Medicinal Aloe GC + Alternathera ficodeae Joy Weed F x Antirrhinum majus Snapdragon V + Antignon leptopus Queen's Wreath GC x Aptenia cordifolia Heart's and Flowers S + Arundo donax Giant Reed GC x Asparagus densiflorus sprengeri Sprenger's Asparagus GC * Asparagus falcatus Sicklethorn Asparagus S * Atriplex canescens Four-Wing Saltbush S * Atriplex halimus Mediterranean Saltbush S + Atriplex lentiformis Quail Bush S + Atriplex lentiformis breweri Brewer's Saltbush S + Atriplex semibaccata Prostrate Australian Saltbush T + Azedaracta indica Neem Tree GC * Baccharis hybrid sentennial Hybrid Desert Broom S * Baccharis sarathroides Desert Broom T * Bauhinia blakeana Hong Kong Orchid Tree S * Bauhinia lunaroides Texas Orchid shrub T/S * Bauhinia punctata (B.galpinni)Red Bauhinia S * Bauhina unguigularis Chihuahuan Orchid Shrub 142
T x Bauhinia variegata Purple Orchid Tree T x Bauhinia variegata 'Candida' White Orchid Tree S/V + Bougainvillea glabra Bogainvillea S/V + Bogainvillea spectabilis Bogainvillea T * Brachychiton populnea Bottle Tree S x Caesalpinia gilliesii Bird of Paradise Shrub S Caesalpinia mexicana Mexican Bird of Paradise S + Caesalpinia pulcherrima Red Bird of Paradise F x Calendula officinalis Calendula S * Calliandra californica Red Fairy Ouster S * Calliandra eriophylla Fairy Duster S * Calliandra haematocephala Pink Powder Puff T/S + Callistemon citrinus Lemon Bottlebrush T + Callistemon viminalis Weeping Bottlebrush T/S + Calotropis procera Sodom Apple V x Campsis radicans Trumpet Creeper S x Canna indica Canna Lily S + Capparis spinosa Caper S + Carissa grandiflora Natal Plum S/GC x Carissa grandiflora 'prostata' Creeping Natal Plum GC + Carpobrotus chilensis Ice Plant GC + Carpobrotus edulis S. African Ice Plant S + Casssia artemisoides Feathert Cassia S + Cassia didymobotrya Nairobe Cassia S + Cassia eremophila Desert Cassia T * Cassia fistula Golden Shower Tree S * Cassia wizlizenii Shrubby Senna T + Casuarina cunningamiana River She Oak T + Casuarina eguisetifoloa Horse Tail Tree T + Casuarina stricta Coast Beefwood F + Catheranthus roseus Madagascar Periwinkle S * Celtis pallida Desert Hackberry T * Celtis reticulata Southwestern Hackberry F x Centarrea cyanus Cornflower T x Ceratonia siliqua Carob Tree T * Cercidium floridum Blue Palo Verde T * Cercidium microphyllum Foothills Palp Verde T * Cercidium praecox Palo Brea T * Cercidium sonorae Sonoran Palo Verde P + Chamaerops humilis Mediterranean Fan Palm T * Chilopsis linearis Desert Willow T * Chorisia speciosa Silk Floss Tree V * Cissus trifoliata Desert Grape Ivy T x Citrus cultivars Assorted Citrus F x Clarkia amoena Godetia F x Clarkia puchella hybrids Clarkia V * Clitoria terneata Butterfly Pea Vine V/S + Clerodendron inerme (C.indicum) Tube Flower T/S * Cordia boisseri Texas Olive S * Cordia lutea Yellow Cordia T x Cordia myxa Assyrian Plum 143
s * Cordia parviflora Grey-Leaf Cordia T * Cordia sebestiana Geiger Tree S * Cordyline terminalis Hawaian Ti Plant S + Cortaderia selloana Pampas Grass V * Cryptostegia grandiflora Rubber Vine T * Cupressus sempivirens Italian Cypress S X Cycas circinalis Queen Sago S X Cycas revoluta Sago Palm GC + Cynodon dactylon Bermuda Grass T * Dalbergia sissoo Sissoo Tree GC * Dalea greggii Trailing Indigo Bush GC * Dalea pulchra Lavender Indigo Bush S * Dasylirion texanum Texas Sotol S + Dasylirion wheeleri Desert Spoon T X Delonix regia Royal Poinciana F X Dianthus barbatus Sweet William S * Dichrostachys cinerea Sudanese Mimosa S X Dimorphotheca sinuata African Daisy S + Dodonea viscosa var. Clammy Hop Bush T + Duranta repens Golden Dew Drops S * Encelia farinosa Brittle Bush T * Enterlobium cyclocarpum Monkey ear Tree T * Erythrina bidwelli Bidwell's Coral Tree T * Erythrina indica Indian Coral Tree T + Eucalyptus camaldulensis Red River Gum T * Eucalyptus citriodora Lemonscented Gum T * Eucalyptus cladocalyx Sugar Gum T * Eucalyptus erythrocorys Red Capped gum T + Eucalyptus intertexta Gum Barked Coolibah T + Eucalyptus leucoxylon Yellow Gum T + Eucalyptus leucoxylon 'rosea' Red Gum T + Eucalyptus microtheca Coolibah T * Eucalyptus robusta Swamp Mahogany T + Eucalyptus rudis Swamp Gum T * Eucalyptus populnea Popular Box T * Eucalyptus spathulata Swamp Mallee T * Eucalyptus torquata Coral Gum T * Eucalyptus viminalis Manna Gum T + Ficus altissima Victoria Fig T + Ficus benghalensis Banyan Tree T X Ficus benjamina Chinese Banyan tree T + Ficus religiosa Bo Tree T X Ficus microcarpa (F. retusa) Indian Laurel Fig T X Ficus microcarpa nitida Indian Laurel Fig V X Ficus pumila Creeping Fig T X Ficus sycomorus Tree Ocotillo S * Fouquieria macdouglii Tree Ocotillo S * Fouquieria splendens Ocotillo F X Gazania rigens Clumping Gazania GC X Gazania rigens leucolina Trailing Gazania T * Geijera parvifolia Australian Willow F X Gomphrena globosa Globe Amaranth 144
S * Gossypium harknesii San Carlos Cotton T/S * Guaiacum coulteri Guaiacum S * Haematoxylon campechianum Logwood Tree F x Helichrysum bracteatum Straw Flower F x Helianthus annuus Common sunflower S * Hesperaloe funifera Giant Hesperaloe S * Hesperaloe nocturna Nightblooming Hesperaloe S * Hesperaloe parviflora Red Yucca S x Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Hibiscus P * Hyphaena thebaica Egyptian Doum GC x Ipomoea palmata (I. digitata) Tuber Rooted Morning Glory GC + Ipomoea pes-capre Beach Morning Glory T * Jacaranda mimosifolia Jacaranda (J. acutifolia) V x Jasminum grandiflorum Spanish Jasmine V x Jasminum nitidum Angelwing Jasmine S * Jasminum officinale Poet's Jasmine V x Jasminum polyanthemum Pink Bud Jasmine S x Jasminum sambac Arabian Jasmine GC * Justicia spicigera Mexican Honeysuckle F x Kochia scoparia Summer Cypress T * Lagerstromia speciosa Tropical Crape Myrtle GC + Lampranthus spectabilis Trailing Ice Plant S + Lantana camara var. Bush Lantana GC + Lantana montevidensis Trailing Lantana S * Larrea divarticata S. American Creosote Bush S + Lawsonia inerme Henna Plant T * Leucaena cuspidata Yellow Popinac T + Leucaena leucocephala White Popinac S * Leucaena retusa Texas Leadball S + Leucophyllum frutescens Texas Ranger S + Leucophyllum laevigatum Blue Texas Ranger F + Limonium sinuata Stacice F x Linaria maroccana Baby Snapdragon F x Linnum grandiflorum 'rubrum' Scarlet Flax F x Lobelia erinus Lobelia F + Lobularia maritima Sweet Alyssum V x Luffa aegyptica Luffa Sponge T * Lysiloma Candida Palo Blanco T * Lysiloma divarticata Small Leaf Feather Tree T * Lysiloma thornberi Feather Bush V x Macfadyena unguis-cati Cats Claw GC + Malephora crocea Gray Ice Plant S x Malvaviscus arboreus Turks Cap T x Mandifera indica Mango V * Mascagnia macroptera Yellow Orchid Vine F x Mathiola incana Stock S * Maytenus phyllanthroides Mungle Dulce 145
T + Melaleuca cuticularis Preiss's Paperbark T + Melaleuca guinguinervia Cujaput Tree T X Melia azedarach Chinaberry Tree T * Metrosioderos excelsus New Zealand Christmas Tree T X Morus alba Mulberry GC * Myoporum parvifolium Myoporum S X Myrtus communis Roman Myrtle S + Nerium oleander Oleander S * Nolina longifolia Mexican Grass Tree S * Nolina metapensis Tree Beargrass GC * Oenothera berlandieri Mexican Primrose T + Olea europaea Olive T * Olneya tesota Iron Wood S + Opuntia bigelovii Teddy Bear Cactus S + Opuntia ficus-indica Indian Fig S + Opuntia microdasys Bunny Ears GC x/+ Osteospermum fruticosum Trailing African daisy T + Parkinsonia aculeata Mexican Palo Verde V * Passiflora aritida Desert Passion Vine V * Passiflora foetida White Baja California Passion Vine GC +/x Paspalum vaginatum Seashore Paspalum S + Pennisetum setaceum var. Cupreum Fountain Grass F X Petunia grandiflora hybrids Petunia F X Phlox drummondi Annual phlox
P + Phoenix canariensis Canary Island Date Palm P + Phoenix dactylifera Date Palm P * Phoenix reclinata Senegal Date Palm GC +/x Phyla nodiflora Lippia T X Pinus eldarica Afgan Pine T X Pinus halepensis Allepo Pine T + Pistacia atlantica Mt. Atlas Pistache T + Pithecelobium dulce Manila Tamarind T * Pithecelobium flexicaule Texas Ebony T X Plumaria obtusa Singapore Plumaria T X Plumaria rubra Frangipani S X Plumbago auriculata Cape Plumbago (P.capensis) V * Podranea ricasoliana Pink Trumpet Vine GC X Portulacaria afra Elephant's Food F X Portulaca grandiflora Moss Rose T * Prosopis africana African Mesquite T • Prosopis alba Argentine Mesquite T * Prosopis chilensis Chilean Mesquite T + Prosopis juliflora Kuwaiti Mesquite T * Prosopis velutina Honey Mesquite T X Psidium guava Guave S X Punica granatum Pomegranate V X Quisqualis indica Rangoon Creeper 146
Rhus lancea African Sumac Ricinus communis Castor Bean Plant Rosmarinus officinalis Rosemary Rosmarinus officinalis Dwarf Rosemary 'prostratus' Russelia equisetiformis Coral Fountain Sabal mexicana Oaxaca Palmetto Sabal uresana Sonoran Palmetto Salvia splendens Scarlet Sage Santolina chamaecyparissus Lavender Cotton Santolina virens Green Santolina Scabiosa cancasia Pin Cushion Flower Schinus molle California Pepper Tree Schinus terebinthifolius Brazilian Pepper Tree Senecio cineraria Dusty Miller Setcreasia purpurea Purple Heart Plant Simmondsia chinensis Jojoba Sophora arizonica Arizona Mescal Bean Sophora segundiflora Texas Mountain Laurel Spathodea campanulata Tulip Tree Stenotaphrum secundatum St. Augustine Grass Syzygium jambos Rose Apple Tamarindus indicus Tamarind Tamarix aphylla Athel Tree Tamarix auscherana Kuwait Tamarix Tamarix chinensis Spring Flowering Tamarix Tamarix parviflora Spring Flowering Salt Cedar Tecoma stans Yellow Trumpet Tree Tecomaria capensis Cape Honeysuckle Terminalia arunja Sudanese Almond Terminalia catappa Tropical Almond Thespesia populnea Seaside Hibiscus Thevetia peruviana Yellow Oleander (T. nerifolia) Thevetia thevetiodes Giant Thevetia Tipunana tipu Tipu Tree Trechelospermum asiaticum Dwarf Star Jasmine Tropaeolum majus Ranuncula Vauquelinia angustifolia Chihuahuan Rosewood Vauquelinia californica Arizona Rosewood Verbena pulchella gracilio Moss Verbena Verbena cultivars Garden Verbena Viola cornuta Pansy Vitis vinifera Grape Vitex agnus-castus Monk's Pepper Chaste Tree Vitex negundo Chaste Tree Vitex trifoliata Evergreen Chaste (V. lucens) Tree Washingtonia filifera California Fan Palm Wedelia trilobata Yellow Dots Yucca aloifolia Spanish Bayonet Yucca baccata Banana Yucca Yucca brevifolia Joshua Tree Yucca elata Soaptree Yucca Yucca gloriosa Spanish Dagger Yucca recurvifolia Pendulus Yucca Yucca torreyi Torry Yucca Zizyphus jujuba Chinese Jujube Zizyphus spina-christi Sider 148 REFERENCES
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