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Freedom from Choice. the Persistence of Censorship in Post-1968 American Cinema

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Freedom from Choice. the Persistence of Censorship in Post-1968 American Cinema FREEDOM FROM CHOICE. THE PERSISTENCE OF CENSORSHIP IN POST-1968 AMERICAN CINEMA . A thesis submitted to The University of Manchester for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Humanities 2011 HENRY THOMPSON SCHOOL OF ARTS HISTORIES AND CULTURES Freedom from Choice. The persistence of censorship in post-1968 American cinema. LIST OF CONTENTS Page Abstract . 4 Declaration . 5 Copyright statement . 6 Acknowledgements . 7 Chapter 1: Components of the Censorship Debate . 11 Chapter 2: The New Rating Program, 1968-1974 . 28 Chapter 3: Years of Change, 1974-1994. 67 Chapter 4: Corporate Control, post-1994 . 104 Chapter 5: Conclusion; a distorted marketplace. 142 Bibliography . 151 Word count: 80,156. Page 2 of 155 Freedom from Choice. The persistence of censorship in post-1968 American cinema. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ARCHIVES Page Abbreviations . 8 Archives . 9 Page 3 of 155 Freedom from Choice. The persistence of censorship in post-1968 American cinema. ABSTRACT The University of Manchester Henry Thompson Doctor of Philosophy Freedom from Choice. The persistence of censorship in post-1968 American cinema. January 2011. Jack Valenti, then President of the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA), formally announced the commencement of a new Motion Picture Code and Rating Program on November 1, 1968; a mode of industry self-regulation designed to replace the, by then discredited, Production Code. Despite the Program’s intended role in providing freedom of choice, censorship has persisted after 1968. Censorship is defined here as the efforts by some to restrict the viewing options of others, for reasons of personal morality, commercial self-interest or ideological necessity. American moviegoers and other consumers of American cinematic culture have, paradoxically, been freed from choice. The availability of 24/7 porn on cable television and the undoubted explosion of explicit violence in mainstream cinema after 1968 are superficial distractions from the homogenising effects of both the pressure to make movies that can be screened to large predominantly teenage audiences and the pressures not to upset vocal pressure groups. In extending and mapping out the territory of the consumer the industry has, both in the types of movie on offer and in the mode of regulation chosen, effectively curtailed the space for the citizen to ask more demanding questions either about movie content or about the benefits of allowing a small number of media conglomerates to construct the viewing menu. The Program remains in place but its efficacy has been widely questioned. The thesis breaks the development of the Program into three phases organised around Richard Heffner’s operation of the Program between 1974 and 1994. In the early years, despite the self-styled liberalism of the New Hollywood renaissance, both ideological and commercial constraints were applied to content. Only after Heffner’s arrival in 1974 did the Program begin to function as Valenti had originally envisaged. However, the slow emergence of narrowcasting and the expansion of conglomerate ownership ensured the continuance of commercial self-censorship. These changes found maturation in a third phase of the Program’s operation, after 1994. The research considers evidence of commercially motivated self-censorship as well as evidence of politically motivated censorship. The cumulative effect of industry change has been a commodification of entertainment- a denial of any interest other than that of the consumer- and the privatisation of a key part of the process of setting cultural norms. The thesis considers the risks for a functioning democracy posed by the emergence of a global entertainment complex that has an overwhelming economic interest in shaping the ‘marketplace of ideas’. Page 4 of 155 Freedom from Choice. The persistence of censorship in post-1968 American cinema. DECLARATION No portion of the work referred to in the thesis has been submitted in support of an application for another degree or qualification of this or any other university or other institute of learning. Page 5 of 155 Freedom from Choice. The persistence of censorship in post-1968 American cinema. COPYRIGHT STATEMENT i. The author of this thesis (including any appendices and/or schedules to this thesis) owns certain copyright or related rights in it (the “Copyright”) and s/he has given The University of Manchester certain rights to use such Copyright, including for administrative purposes. ii. Copies of this thesis, either in full or in extracts and whether in hard or electronic copy, may be made only in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (as amended) and regulations issued under it or, where appropriate, in accordance with licensing agreements which the University has from time to time. This page must form part of any such copies made. iii. The ownership of certain Copyright, patents, designs, trade marks and other intellectual property (the “Intellectual Property”) and any reproductions of copyright works in the thesis, for example graphs and tables (“Reproductions”), which may be described in this thesis, may not be owned by the author and may be owned by third parties. Such Intellectual Property and Reproductions cannot and must not be made available for use without the prior written permission of the owner(s) of the relevant Intellectual Property and/or Reproductions. iv. Further information on the conditions under which disclosure, publication and commercialisation of this thesis, the Copyright and any Intellectual Property and/or Reproductions described in it may take place is available in the University IP Policy (see http://documents.manchester.ac.uk/DocuInfo.aspx?DocID=487 ), in any relevant Thesis restriction declarations deposited in the University Library, The University Library’s regulations (see http://www.manchester.ac.uk/library/aboutus/regulations ) and in The University’s policy on Presentation of Theses. Page 6 of 155 Freedom from Choice. The persistence of censorship in post-1968 American cinema. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would firstly like to record my thanks to my research supervisor Dr. Ian Scott and the members of my research panel, Dr. David Brown and Dr. Michael Bibler for their support, help and encouragement throughout the period of this research. In particular, I would like to thank Ian for his tireless reading of multiple chapter drafts and for the many hours of conversation and debate that we have had on the topics explored here. These conversations have been as enjoyable as they have been constructive. I would also like to record my appreciation for the help provided to me by Richard Heffner, Professor of Communications and Public Policy at Rutgers University. Professor Heffner’s openness in debate, his practical help with materials and access to industry insiders and the friendship he has offered have all been defining aspects of my time undertaking this research. Thanks Dick! Finally I would like to record my thanks to my former colleagues at O2 who, in various ways, helped me survive and in due course depart the corporate world to pursue new interests. Thanks are due to Derek McManus and Sam Kemp but most particularly to Alan Charles. THE AUTHOR The author graduated in Psychology in 1981 and following postgraduate study in Organisational Psychology (MA) and relevant work experience, qualified as a Chartered Psychologist. Following work as a psychologist, and later, in commercial management, within the telecommunications industry, the author returned to part time postgraduate study in American Studies (MA) in September 2004 and commenced doctoral research in September 2006. Page 7 of 155 Freedom from Choice. The persistence of censorship in post-1968 American cinema. ABBREVIATIONS ARRB Assassination Records Review Board CARA Code and Rating Administration (Classification and Rating Administration after 1974) EIC Entertainment Industries Council FCC Federal Communications Commission FTC Federal Trade Commission GOP Grand Old Party HUAC House Committee on Un-American Activities IFIDA International Film Importers and Distributors Association MPAA Motion Picture Association of America MPPDA Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America NBCMP National Board of Censorship of Motion Pictures NBRMP National Board of Review of Motion Pictures NCOMP National Catholic Office for Motion Pictures NcoC National Council of Churches PCA Production Code Administration SMA Suggested for Mature Audiences SRC Studio Relations Committee USCCB United States Conference of Catholic Bishops USIA United States Information Agency Page 8 of 155 Freedom from Choice. The persistence of censorship in post-1968 American cinema. ARCHIVES AVS-OH Van Schmus, Albert E. Oral History. Interviewed by Barbara Hall, Academy Foundation, 1993. Oral History Program, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, Beverly Hills, California. GS -OH Shurlock, Geoffrey. Oral History. Interviewed by James L. Wall. American Film Institute, 1975. American Film Institute, Louis B. Mayer Library, Center for Advanced Film Studies, Beverly Hills, California. I-PF Ixtlan Production Files. Ixtlan Inc. Suite 322, 12233 W. Olympic Blvd., Los Angeles, California (by prior agreement) PCA-A Production Code Administration Archive. Department of Special Collections, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, Beverly Hills, California. RDH-OH Heffner, Richard D. Oral History: Reminiscences of Richard D Heffner. Interviewed by Charles Champlin.
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