High School Identity Climate and Student Identity Development ⇑ Yisrael Rich , Elli P

Home , Identity formation, School climate

Contemporary Educational Psychology 37 (2012) 218–228

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Contemporary Educational Psychology

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High school identity climate and student identity development ⇑ Yisrael Rich , Elli P. Schachter

School of Education, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan 52900, Israel article info abstract

Article history: This research investigated whether schools characterized by high school students as being rich in identity Available online 19 September 2011 promoting features contribute to student identity development. A theoretical model posited that student perceptions of teachers as caring role models and their school as cultivating the whole student will foster Keywords: student exploration and confidence about future identity development. Hypothesized mediators of these Identity development effects were student perceptions of a positive social climate, of experiencing meaningful studies and of School identity climate affirmation of their agency and exploration. Participants were 2787 male and female students from Teacher caring the Jewish public-religious sector in Israel in 152 classes of 25 high schools. Results indicated that (a) Teachers as role models schools with identity promoting features contribute to student identity development, (b) teachers as role Identity exploration models is a more potent variable than teacher caring in predicting student identity development and (c) experiencing meaningful studies is an especially important contributor to student exploration and identity confidence. Ó 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Kong, 2008), and organizational (e.g., Dumay, 2009) facets (see Fraser, 1998). Underpinning the considerable interest that educational resear- Researchers also began investigating the relationship between chers and administrators have displayed in school climate over the school climate and different student variables in addition to stu- last several decades is the assumption that aspects of the school dent achievement (e.g., Lee & Shute, 2010) such as adjustment climate have important effects on the quality of students’ school (e.g., Wang, 2009), attitudes (Battistich, Solomon, Kim, Watson, & experiences and on their educational accomplishments. Following Schaps, 1995), bullying (Gregory et al., 2010), drug use (LaRusso, several early comprehensive studies that reported associations be- Romer, & Selman, 2008) and others. Although some researchers tween student academic achievement and types of school environ- employed objective features of the school environment as the cli- ments in the US and UK after controlling for SES (Brookover, Beady, mate measure (e.g., teacher–student ratio), most researchers opted Flood, Schweitzer, & Wisenbaker, 1979; McDill, Rigsby, & Meyers, for defining climate according to the perceptions of stakeholders, 1969; Rutter, Maughan, Mortimore, Ouston, & Smith, 1979), school usually students (Ludtke, Robitzsch, Trautwein, & Kunter, 2009). climate research proliferated, branching out in different directions. A key assumption underlying much of this research is that estab- Some researchers began investigating school contexts such as lishing a positive school climate is a worthy goal of education be- classroom climate (e.g., Fraser, 1998; Moos, 1974; Walberg & cause it promotes multiple developmental goals and not only Anderson, 1968) and the climate in particular subject matter typical school goals such as academic achievement (e.g., Eccles & classes (e.g., Fraser, 1994). Others took interest in school climate Roeser, 2009; Jia et al., 2009). effects on certain types of students, such as low-SES youngsters An important developmental goal that has recently stimulated (e.g., Rich & Darom, 1981) or ethnic minorities (Garriott, Kanagui, significant interest among educational researchers is adolescent Strawsine, Flores, & Ramos, 2009). Another direction pursued identity formation in educational contexts. In his classic works a was delineating dimensions of school climate, such as Moos’s half century ago Erikson (1950, 1968) claimed that the primary (1974) distinction between relationship, personal development and developmental task of adolescence is the formation of a vibrant system maintenance and change dimensions. Researchers also var- identity consistent over time and place. Erikson’s theorizing about ied on the specific aspect of school climate that was the focus of identity formation has since spawned several alternative theoreti- their investigation, such as academic (Fraser, 1994), social (e.g., cal approaches offered by psychologists and sociologists (e.g., Côté & Levine, 2002; Gergen, 1991; Grotevant, 1987; Marcia, Waterman, Matteson, Archer, & Orlofsky, 1993; McAdams, 1997; Penuel & Wertsch, 1995; Schwartz, 2001; Schwartz, Luyckx, & Vignoles, ⇑ Corresponding author. Fax: +972 37384030. 2011). Some of these scholars, proponents of what has become E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Y. Rich), [email protected] (E.P. Schachter). known as the Neo-Eriksonian tradition (Schwartz, 2001), see

0361-476X/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2011.06.002 Y. Rich, E.P. Schachter / Contemporary Educational Psychology 37 (2012) 218–228 219 themselves as directly continuing Erikson’s work, and focus on claims that when adolescents perceive their high school environ- psychological properties of developing individuals related to iden- ment as high in characteristics that are theoretically supportive tity and the processes involved in this development. Other scholars of positive identity formation, they will be more confident about have criticized this approach because they believe it has an exag- their ability to cope with future identity-related challenges and gerated individualistic emphasis that pays insufficient attention they will report greater engagement in exploration, a central com- to the social, cultural and historical resources that continuously ponent of positive identity formation. empower, constrain, shape and maintain identity formation. In particular, this study examined the contribution of three Despite this criticism, the Neo-Eriksonian tradition continues to characteristics of the school climate that we presumed nurture contribute valuable research to understanding the pathways of adolescent identity development: teacher caring, teachers as role identity development and the psycho-social benefits of a well- models, and a school program that cultivates the whole student developed identity (Kroger, Martinussen, & Marcia, 2010; Meeus, rather than just academic learning. The model posits that when 2011). At the same time, identity researchers from this tradition secondary school students perceive that (a) their teachers care have come to show much greater interest in the social contexts about them as persons, (b) their teachers are objects of identifica- that are involved in the co-construction of identity. The present re- tion who serve as positive role models and (c) their school actively search follows the Neo-Eriksonian tradition while recognizing the promotes a range of developmental domains and is not exclusively importance of social elements in the formation of identity. We concerned with academics, they grow confident in their ability to broaden the research domain by focusing on the school, a central develop positive identities in the future and they engage in explo- element of the social context of the adolescent. ration activities. These two features of identity development were Numerous theoreticians and researchers have written from a chosen to accord with the developmental stage of high school stu- particular perspective on issues linking education to specific iden- dents. Research shows that advanced processes of identity devel- tity issues or domains such as ethnic identity (Banks, 2008), civic opment such as the integration of complex self-relevant identity (Youniss & Hart, 2005), religious identity (King & Roeser, information and decision-making leading to commitment follow- 2009) and career identity (Flum & Blustein, 2000). However, only ing exploration are not to be expected in middle adolescence recently has adolescent identity development attracted the atten- (see Côté, 2006, 2009). Instead we examined presumed anteced- tion of educational researchers who, cognizant of the significance ents of later mature development – a sense of confidence that fu- of social aspects of identity construction, have explored a variety ture identity issues will be resolved satisfactorily and exploration of school effects on different aspects of identity development involving information-seeking (Flum & Kaplan, 2006; Grotevant, (e.g., Faircloth, 2009; Lannegrand-Willems & Bosma, 2006; McLeod 1987). This approach also reflects Erikson’s depiction of positive & Yates, 2006; Wardekker & Miedema, 2001). Furthermore, some adolescent identity development as a ‘‘sense of knowing where educational scholars have highlighted the special promise of the one is going’’ (1968, p. 165) despite challenges and confusion. concept of identity for arriving at a deeper understanding of a vari- The hypothesized model also stipulates that the effects of the ety of educational phenomena (e.g., Gee, 2001; Kaplan & Flum, three nurturing characteristics of the school climate on student 2009; McLeod & Yates, 2006; Roeser, Peck, & Nasir, 2006; Schachter identity outcomes are mediated through their support of core edu- & Rich, in press; Sfard & Prusak, 2005). Accordingly, we deemed it cational processes involved in identity development. Specifically, important to study the possible connections between aspects of we hypothesized that the effects are mediated by students’ percep- school climate and processes of student identity development. tions that academic studies offered by the school are personally meaningful, that they feel affirmed by the school to express agency 1.1. The present study and to actively engage in exploration, and that they are in a socially safe and accepting social environment. Each of these components The present study assumes that adolescents have developmen- of the hypothesized model will now be explained in greater detail. tal identity needs, that identity develops positively in nurturing contexts and that school is a potentially important venue for iden- 1.1.1. Teacher caring and effects on students’ emerging identities tity development. Accordingly, we posed a basic question regard- Noddings (2005a) has argued convincingly that teachers’ feeling school climate and identity development: Do schools ings and ways of thinking about their students and the nature of characterized by students as being rich in identity promoting fea- the caring relations they maintain with them have important ef- tures contribute to student identity development? The theoretical fects on a variety of student developmental variables, including model developed in response to this question appears in Fig. 1.It how the youngsters think and feel about themselves. Noddings’

Fig. 1. Model relating school educational climate with student identity outcomes and mediating variables. 220 Y. Rich, E.P. Schachter / Contemporary Educational Psychology 37 (2012) 218–228 philosophical claim has received considerable empirical support in very little empirical research has been reported on the effects of recent years. A few examples will suffice to demonstrate this point. teachers as role models on adolescent identity formation. Extrapo- Wentzel (1997) revealed a positive association between percep- lating from research in neighboring fields informs us of the likely tions of attitudinal and relational expressions of teachers’ caring effects that perceptions of teachers as role models have on stu- (see Noddings, 2005a) and the pursuit of prosocial goals and aca- dents’ identity formation processes. First, some research suggests demic efforts among eighth grade students. Teacher support has that many adolescents do have positive role models or mentors been found to be related to student engagement through the (Beam, Chen, & Greenberger, 2002; Hurd, Zimmerman, & Xue, enhancement of mastery goals (Patrick, Ryan, & Kaplan, 2007). 2009), some of whom are teachers (Beam et al., 2002). Second, Hallinan (2008) found that teacher support for students has posi- many adolescents believe that they are capable of becoming like tive effects on their increased liking of school from sixth to eighth their role models even if the transformation process is quite diffi- grade. Recently, Wentzel, Battle, Shannon, and Looney (2010) re- cult (Ivaldi & O’Neill, 2010). Third, adult role models can have po- ported that teacher support predicted middle school students’ aca- sitive effects on certain personality traits of adolescents, such as demic and social motivation. Within the extensively investigated enhanced resilience (Hurd et al., 2009) and increased self esteem self determination theory (e.g., Deci & Ryan, 2009), caring has been (Yancey, Siegel, & McDaniel, 2002), especially among at-risk related indirectly to identity through educational contexts that youngsters. Finally, results of one of the few studies examining support relationship and belonging, which in turn have been teachers as mentors or role models indicate that they have a posi- related to identity exploration and development (Faircloth, 2009; tive effect on adolescents’ educational success, especially among La Guardia, 2009). Finally, in a comprehensive meta-analysis disadvantaged students (Erickson, McDonald, & Elder, 2009). Sim- Cornelius-White (2010) demonstrated moderate correlation be- ilar positive academic outcomes were found for other adult role tween positive teacher–student relations defined in various ways, models as well (Yancey et al., 2002). including several resembling caring, and multiple measures of Thus, both theoretical and empirical perspectives suggest that student cognitive and affective outcomes, including self esteem. students who view their teachers as positive role models perceive Although there is some conceptual confounding in some of this their studies as more meaningful, and have raised levels of resil- research between teacher support and teacher caring and in deter- ience, self esteem and educational accomplishment. We assumed mining the components of support and caring, in general these that adolescents with relatively high levels of these attributes will studies demonstrate that perceived teacher support and caring also feel a relatively high level of confidence in meeting identity re- can be potent factors in enhancing students’ affective, cognitive lated challenges in the future, such as filling life roles in a satisfying and behavioral domains. Research results suggest that teachers’ manner and shaping a coherent world view. Additionally, relatively expressed caring for students is positively related to students’ self high levels of resilience, self esteem and educational success should confidence (Hallinan, 2008), feelings of self efficacy (Cornelius- fortify students and enable them to engage in exploratory activities White, 2010) and feelings of competence (Deci & Ryan, 2009). without undue fear about the possible negative ramifications of the While these self perceptions are not themselves identity character- exploration. istics, they have been considered ‘identity capital’ contributing to identity development (Côté & Schwartz, 2002). The direct connec- 1.1.3. Cultivating the whole student and effects on students’ emerging tion between caring relationships and positive identity formation identities has been demonstrated in the context of families (Kerpelman & We investigated a third factor that has received less research Smith, 1999; Youniss & Smollar, 1985), but research has not yet attention but was presumed to be involved in student identity for- examined this issue in depth in schools. Accordingly, we investi- mation: the degree that teachers and school activities actively culti- gated whether high school students who experience high levels vate student growth as whole individuals, attending to a range of of teacher caring will express greater confidence in meeting iden- developmental domains and not only to academics. Dewey (1916/ tity related challenges in the future, such as being able to success- 2004) was one of the earliest and most influential scholars who high- fully negotiate life roles and to develop a coherent world view. lighted the importance of an educational focus on the whole student. Additionally, we investigated whether high levels of teacher caring More recently Noddings (2005b) has discussed the importance peo- also foster student engagement in exploratory activities. ple attribute to feeling that they are related to as ‘whole’ persons. She refers to realms such as the physical, moral, social, emotional, spiri- 1.1.2. Teachers as role models and effects on students’ emerging tual, and aesthetic, together with the academic. Other scholars have identities also suggested the benefits of integrating social-emotional (Cohen, While much of theory and research regarding identity develop- 2006; Kress & Elias, 2006) and character (Davidson, Lickona, & ment has focused on the process of identity exploration (Flum & Khmelkov, 2008) education with the academic domain. Such an Kaplan, 2006), identification processes are also an integral part of inclusive perspective enables students to integrate different aspects the Eriksonian model. Waterman (1993), for example, emphasized of the self, to find ways to become more fully engaged, and to reveal the importance of identification with role models in creating the areas of self-worth in school (Greenberg et al., 2003; Hare, 2006). foundation for subsequent identity development. Mitchener and In the Eriksonian tradition, the importance of identity is related Schmidt (1998) discussed the importance of students’ idealizations to its integrative function in personality. Identity development is through which they come to believe that they can succeed by con- understood as the individual’s growing ability to integrate signifi- necting with admired teachers. Much of the recent discourse on cant aspects of the self into a relatively coherent whole (Roeser teachers as role models is embedded in philosophical and pedagog- et al., 2006; Schachter, 2005; Schachter & Rich, in press). Therefore, ical discussions regarding teacher effects on student identifications cultivation of the whole student in school, and creating an atmo- and identity. These discussions have related mostly to two topics: sphere that does not relegate the experience of students in school the advantages and disadvantages for students of same-sex teach- to academics only (Daly et al., 2006) could enhance their confi- ers (e.g., Marsh, Martin, & Cheng, 2008) and the advantages and dence in meeting future identity development challenges and disadvantages for students of having teachers of the same race or may foster their participation in exploration. ethnic group (e.g., Cizek, 1995; Rezai-Rashti & Martino, 2010). It is noteworthy that scholars on all sides of the above discus- 1.1.4. Mediating variables sions agree that teachers can serve as role models and their effects The hypothesized model posits that the effects of the three nur- on students are significant (also see Eccles & Roeser, 2009). Yet, turing characteristics of the school climate on student identity are Y. Rich, E.P. Schachter / Contemporary Educational Psychology 37 (2012) 218–228 221 mediated by the students’ reflections regarding how positively they teenkiste, Goossens, Soenens, & Dochy, 2009; Soenens & experience certain core components of the schooling experience Vansteenkiste, 2005). that are presumed to be related to student identity development. Finally, we included a social climate measure in the model for We posited three such mediating variables: students’ perceptions both empirical and theoretical reasons. Much research has demon- that the academic studies offered by the school are personally mean- strated that the perceived school social climate can mediate be- ingful, that they feel affirmed in their attempts to express personal tween a broad range of school and teacher variables and student agency in school and to engage actively in exploration, and they feel outcomes such as self perceptions (Boulton, Smith, & Cowie, 2010), comfortable in a school-wide atmosphere of social acceptance. health and wellbeing (Ravens-Sieberer, Freeman, Kokonyei, Tho- These components reflect students’ assessments that the school mas, & Erhart, 2009), behavior (Witvliet, van Lier, Cuijpers, & Koot, identity nurturing climate encourages their engagement in purpose- 2009) and reading achievement (West, 1985). Additionally, a school ful, meaningful activities, promotes staff members’ perceptions of climate that fosters students’ positive social interactions and social them as capable of taking some responsibility for determining the acceptance can benefit identity development by creating a sense course of their lives and that this is desirable, and helps establish of community support, safety and personal affirmation that enables an accepting and supportive peer social environment. Thus, these adolescents to take reasonable risks to engage in exploration and to components are assumed to be important in determining how ado- have confidence about their future role performance (La Guardia & lescent students interpret their environment and the nature of their Ryan, 2002). Accordingly, we hypothesized that the effect of the engagement in various activities and relationships that influence three perceived identity nurturing elements on students’ explora- their future development (see Alsaker & Kroger, 2006). tion and their confidence in meeting future identity challenges Regarding the variable of meaningful studies, we assumed that would be prominent when students experience a climate of social the effects on identity development of the identity nurturing vari- acceptance that generates the perception that their school is a secure ables – student perceptions that teachers care about them person- place for identity development (see Danielson, Wiium, Wilhelmsen, ally and serve as role models worthy of respect, and the school & Wold, 2010; Malecki & Demaray, 2003; Skinner, Furrer, Marchand, tries to cultivate the whole student – would be evident if students & Kinderman, 2008). Accordingly, we included this factor as a medi- experience their academic studies as personally meaningful. This ator in the model. assumption is based on the fact that engagement with academic This study was conducted in Israeli public religious secondary tasks is often viewed as the central activity of secondary school schools which serve about 18% of the Israeli Jewish student popu- (Goodlad, 2004). We assumed that teachers’ adoption of an identity lation. In this setting students study general academic subjects as nurturing approach will more fully benefit students when their ef- well as religious topics such as Bible, Talmud and Jewish Law. Most forts are channeled through the fundamental school activity of school staff members and parents seek to combine a modern life- teaching and learning. This is because even when teachers them- style with moderate to stringent religious observance. Some selves do not serve as models for identity construction, they do mod- schools are segregated by gender and classes for religious studies el how they relate to the knowledge they teach (Higgins, 2010). The are single gender in almost all schools. The ethos of schools in school curriculum can be especially important for student identity the public religious stream strives to inculcate in students a life- by introducing ideas that become meaningful to the student in the long religious commitment combined with strong academic context of his or her life (Whitehead, 1929). Accordingly, when ado- achievements and meaningful vocational and personal contribu- lescents experience the identity nurturing components through aca- tions to the broader society (see Bar Lev, 1991; Iram & Schmida, demic activities that they deem personally meaningful, they will 1998; Rich & Leslau, 2005). The public religious stream is a partic- also likely demonstrate higher levels of task engagement and mas- ularly fitting setting for this study for two reasons. First, the reli- tery motivation (e.g., Deci & Ryan, 2009; McCaslin, 2009; Patrick gious stream holds to an educational ethos that includes student et al., 2007) and sense instrumental linkage (see Husman & Lens, identity formation as an important component of the educator’s 1999) between their current studies and successful coping with fu- task. Second, the complex task of educating youth towards a hybrid ture developmental tasks. These experiences will also likely enhance identity combining both traditional and modern identity elements their confidence that they will be able to successfully cope with within a predominantly secular socio-political and historical con- other life roles in the future. Similarly, students will likely sense text in which religious youth are a minority, has made identity is- the desirability of exploring possible future life roles and ideologies sues even more salient (Rich & Leslau, 2005; Rosenak, 1987). and feel greater comfort in doing so due to their learning experiences that enhanced their awareness of the value of meaningful engagement and their sense of personal competence to cope with future 2. Method challenges (Lens, Simons, & Dewitte, 2002; Seginer, 2009). A common-sense argument can be offered for students’ feelings 2.1. Participants that the school proactively affirms their exploration and agency. We assumed that the effects of teacher caring, role modeling and Male (N = 967) and female (N = 1820) students (N = 2787) from educating the whole person on students’ confidence in their future the Jewish public-religious sector in communities throughout Is- identity development and on their engagement in exploration will rael from grades 9 through 12 (most students aged 14–18) in be manifest when students perceive that that their school affirms 152 classes of 25 high schools participated in the study. Jewish their engagement in exploration and their expression of agency in public religious high schools cater to a mostly modern Orthodox school. This relationship was presumed to exist because students student body with a significant minority of students who hold less will be more confident about exploring their world and confronting strict standards of religious observance (Rich & Leslau, 2005). future life tasks when, in addition to viewing their teachers as caring, Schools were located in urban and rural settings and reflected a worthy of admiration, and holding a holistic perspective, they also range of socio-economic backgrounds, levels of family religious perceive a school-wide approach that empowers them and affirms observance, and different administrative arrangements such as: their right and ability to express ideas, to explore their future op- comprehensive and academic schools, mixed-gender and single- tions and to make relevant decisions. This argument builds on previ- gender schools and classes, with and without sleep-in dormitories, ous work regarding autonomy support that has shown a connection and others. Table 1 presents the breakdown of number of partici- between teachers’ autonomy support and student self determina- pants according to gender and grade level and the number of clas- tion and engagement (e.g., Jang, Reeve, & Deci, 2010; Sierens, Vans- ses per grade level. 222 Y. Rich, E.P. Schachter / Contemporary Educational Psychology 37 (2012) 218–228

Table 1 by the respondent via the internet to the Education Ministry office Number of classes and participants according to gender and grade level. responsible for data analysis. Student responses were anonymous. Grade Number of Number of Number of Total number of Feedback on the class and school level of the Dyokan scales only level classes boys girls students (not including the identity outcome variables) was provided by 9th 49 261 711 972 the Ministry official via email to the school principal alone who 10th 40 286 486 772 acted upon the results according to his or her discretion. No other 11th 40 292 409 701 individual or educational body was privy to the results of the ques- 12th 23 128 214 342 tionnaire. These precautions were mandated by the relevant Chief Total 152 967 1820 2787 educational officer to maximize confidentiality and to minimize socially desirable responses. Scales in this study representing all components of the model 2.2. Instruments were drawn from the Dyokan administration. Dyokan items were presented on 6-point scales ranging from ‘‘agree very much’’ to 2.2.1. Dyokan questionnaire ‘‘disagree very much’’. Questions were presented in a standard or- Participants in this study responded to the Dyokan question- der to all participants with items representing each variable inter- naire. In brief, the Dyokan [Hebrew for ‘portrait’] questionnaire spersed throughout the questionnaire. Table 2 presents the mean, was designed to provide educators in Israeli public religious standard deviation and Cronbach alpha for each variable and Ta- schools a profile of the ‘identity climate’ of the school. The Dyokan ble 3 presents the intercorrelations among the different measures. provides student feedback on the degree that a high school creates a meaningful environment for identity development in a way that 2.2.2. Sample items for measures of the variables in the model coheres with the cultural and religious ethos of the communities There were three exogenous variables in the model represent- served by the school while eliciting students’ acceptance and ing: teacher caring (TC), teachers as role models (TRM) and cultiva- appreciation. It has been offered by the Israeli Ministry of Educa- tion of the whole student (SCWS). Teacher caring was measured by tion to school principals since 2004 on a voluntary basis to enable four items. A sample TC item is: ‘‘Many of the teachers here take a them to receive students’ assessments of their school regarding is- personal interest in us’’. Teachers as role models also included four sues deemed important based on consultations with prominent items. A sample item is: ‘‘I would be happy to adopt for myself many educators, community members and students. In 2010, principals of my teachers’ values’’. Five items comprised the cultivation of the of 25 public religious secondary schools chose to participate in whole student scale. An example from this scale is: ‘‘School encour- the Dyokan project. The primary Dyokan scales have been estab- ages students to get involved with social and ideological concerns and lished over the past 6 years using factor analytic techniques with not only academic studies are considered important’’. total participation of over 20,000 students and 150 schools (Rich The three mediating variables were: meaningful studies (MS), & Schachter, 2008; Schachter & Rich, 2006; Schachter, Rich, & affirming student exploration and agency (ASEA), and positive so- Rubin, 2006). Dyokan administration also includes demographic cial climate (PSC). Six items comprised the meaningful studies scale. and research items that periodically change and are not reported An example from this scale is: ‘‘There are many times in school that I to participating schools. For the 2010 cohort we added items to this learn new and meaningful things’’. There were eight items in the section to measure the identity outcomes described below. affirming student exploration and agency scale. An example of an Students responded individually to the questionnaire during item from this scale includes, ‘‘Teachers in this school encourage school hours via the internet usually in a special classroom with me to search for what I think is right for me’’. Social climate was mea- 15–20 computers. Three to five items were presented per screen. sured by three items, one of which is ‘‘students in our school can When completed, the responses were automatically forwarded count on each other’’.

Table 2 Number of items, Cronbach’s alpha, means and standard deviations of the variables in the model.

Measures Number of items Cronbach’s alpha Ma SD TC (Teacher Caring) 4 .87 4.01 1.13 TRM (Teacher Role Model) 4 .85 3.87 1.18 SCWS (School Cultivates Whole Student) 5 .79 4.06 1.01 ASEA (Afﬁrming Student Exploration and Agency) 8 .91 3.83 1.07 MS (Meaningful Studies) 6 .86 4.12 .98 PSC (Positive Social Climate) 3 .77 4.55 1.01 IdConf (Conﬁdence in Identity) 4 .81 4.70 .89 SE (Student Exploration) 5 .72 4.42 .86

a Range of response = 1–6.

Table 3 Correlations among variables in the model.

Measures TC TRM SCWS ASEA MS PSC IdConf SE TC (Teacher Caring) 1 .765 .714 .824 .707 .451 .346 .257 TRM (Teacher Role Model) 1 .637 .746 .749 .391 .320 .297 SCWS (School Cultivates Whole Student) 1 .746 .697 .443 .324 .291 ASEA (Afﬁrming Student Exploration and Agency) 1 .750 .476 .383 .305 MS (Meaningful Studies) 1 .461 .415 .378 PSC (Positive Social Climate) 1 .352 .245 IdConf (Conﬁdence in Identity) 1 .540 SE (Student Exploration) 1 Y. Rich, E.P. Schachter / Contemporary Educational Psychology 37 (2012) 218–228 223

The two dependent variables in the model were confidence in close fit between the hypothesized model and the data according identity development (IdConf) and student exploration (SE). Four to guidelines suggested in the literature (e.g., Blunch, 2008; Byrne, items measured the first variable. An example of this scale is: ‘‘I feel 2001; Kline, 2005; Marsh, Hau, & Wen, 2004). The chi square value that I am developing in a way that will enable me to be the person that is quite low and non-significant; GFI and AGFI are close to 1.0; RMR I really want to be’’. Finally, the student exploration scale had five is well below .05; CFI, NFI and TLI are 1.0 and RMSEA is well below items and an example is: ‘‘I frequently devote thought to the ques- .05. Despite cognizance of the need for caution in interpreting tion, ‘what do I want to do with my life’’’. these indices of quality of fit (e.g., Kline, 2005; Marsh et al., 2004), the consistency of the values emerging from different approaches to assessing fit do imply good correspondence of the 3. Results model and the data from the entire sample. Thus, results reported here support the claim that schools characterized by students as 3.1. Preliminary analyses having identity promoting features contribute to student identity development. We used structural equation modeling (AMOS 6.0) (Arbuckle, Estimates of the standard regression weights of the paths be- 2005) to test the fit of the model to the data and to estimate the tween components of the model for the entire sample appear in strength of the relationships among the components of the model. Table 5. All values are significant and in the predicted direction. Because responses of individual students to school climate mea- We will refer to standard regression weights in this study with val- sures are embedded in class- and school-level phenomena, we first ues above .40 as ‘‘substantial’’, between .20 and .40 as ‘‘moderate’’ examined whether the analysis needs to treat the data at these dif- and between .10 and .20 as ‘‘weak’’ (see e.g., Cohen, 1988; Kline, ferent levels. Accordingly, we examined the intra-class correlation 2005). A graphic representation of the relations found between coefficients for the identity confidence and student exploration the variables appears in Fig. 2. measures, the variables that are the focus of the predictions in Considering the values for the entire sample two substantial the model. These coefficients were quite low: .04 for identity con- associations are apparent: from Teacher Caring (TC) to Affirmation fidence and .03 for student exploration. For this reason we used of Student Exploration and Agency (ASEA) and from Teachers as individual student-level analysis only (cf. Ainley & Ainley, 2011). Role Models (TRM) to Meaningful Studies (MS). Moderate effects In addition, differences between males and females for the en- emerged for TC on PSC, TRM on ASEA, and moderate effects were tire sample were relatively small. Considering all the variables also found for School Cultivates Whole Student (SCWS) on ASEA, measured in the model, the average mean difference between MS and Positive Social Climate (PSC). Examination of the effects males and females was 0.14 and the average partial eta squared of the mediating variables on the dependent variables in the model differentiating between the genders was less than .01. Addition- indicates the primacy of MS which is moderately associated with ally, the goodness of fit of the data to the model was examined both endogenous dependent variables, Identity Confidence (Id- in separate analyses for males and females. As can be seen in Ta- ble 4, similar results emerged for both genders. Accordingly, we will report the combined values of males and females together for the entire sample as well as for each of the separate grade Table 5 * levels. Standardized regression weights for paths in the general and grade level models. All students 9th 10th 11th 12th 3.2. Analysis of entire sample TC ? MS .14 .15 .17 .09 .15 TRM ? MS .44 .47 .42 .47 .40 SCWS ? MS .31 .27 .30 .35 .39 Analyses using structural equation modeling were conducted SCWS ? ASEA .29 .29 .28 .28 .31 for the entire sample and were followed by separate analyses for SCWS ? PSC .23 .27 .14 .20 .35 grades 9, 10, 11, and 12 to examine variation based on grade levels. TC ? ASEA .45 .41 .50 .45 .45 The model tested is presented in Fig. 1. TC ? PSC .24 .25 .30 .21 .20 TRM ? PSC .07 .02 .07 .08 .12 As explained in Section 1.1 the model posited that student per- TRM ? ASEA .22 .25 .18 .23 .22 ceptions of teacher caring, teachers as role models, and cultivation MS ? IdConf .25 .23 .31 .26 .15 of the whole student contribute to the explanation of the student’s MS ? SE .30 .31 .31 .35 .19 identity confidence and exploration as mediated by his or her per- ASEA ? IdConf .11 .11 .10 .09 .13 ception that the school provides personally meaningful academic ASEA ? SE .06 .08 À.03 .03 .20 PSC ? IdConf .18 .18 .17 .18 .26 studies, promotes student exploration and agency and creates a PSC ? SE .09 .08 .15 .05 .05 positive social climate. N 2787 972 772 701 342 Indices for the quality of the model fit are presented in Table 4. Inspection of the values appearing for the entire sample suggest a * Values greater than .06 are significant at the .01 level.

Table 4 Goodness of ﬁt indices for all students and for grade levels.

All students 9th 10th 11th 12th Male Female Chi square 3.96 8.48 3.93 2.67 10.11 4.14 2.50 df = 5 p = .56 p = .13 p = .56 p = .75 p = .07 p = .53 p = .78 GFI 1.0 .998 1.0 1.0 .993 .999 1.0 AGFI .997 .984 .990 .993 .950 .992 .997 RMR .004 .010 .006 .007 .016 .005 .003 NFI 1.0 .998 1.0 1.0 .995 .999 1.0 CFI 1.0 .999 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 TLI 1.0 .996 1.0 1.0 .984 1.0 1.0 RMSEA .000 .027 .000 .000 .055 .000 .000 224 Y. Rich, E.P. Schachter / Contemporary Educational Psychology 37 (2012) 218–228

Fig. 2. Strength of associations between components of school educational climate, mediating variables and student identity outcomes for entire sample.

Conf) and Student Exploration (SE). Both PSC and ASEA have only identity development. Also, afﬁrmation of students’ agency and weak effects on IdConf and they are unrelated to SE. Thus, the most exploration has signiﬁcant effects on the measure of student explo- robust result emerging indicates that adolescents’ assessments ration only at 12th grade. In brief, 12th graders present a largely that their teachers are positive role models foster their perceptions similar model of associations as compared to schoolmates in youn- of experiencing personally meaningful academic studies which ger grades; however, there are several important differences that promotes their identity development. did not appear earlier that require explanation.

3.3. Analysis of sample by grade levels 4. Discussion

Investigation of the quality of fit values for 9th, 10th, and 11th While the relationship between the educational process and grades appearing in Table 4 presents a similar result. In each of student identity development has not been a topic of extensive these grades the chi square value is relatively low and non-signif- theory or research, there is good reason to believe that there are icant. GFI and AGFI are close to 1.0, RMR is quite low, CFI, NFI and important linkages between them (Schachter & Rich, in press). TFI are about 1.0 and RMSEA is very small. Thus, the data appear to Identity development has been associated with adolescence, ado- fit the model very well in each of these grades. Results for the lescents spend much of their time at school and school is certainly twelfth grade present a slightly different picture. The chi square one of the most important social institutions that adolescents is larger approaching a significant value (p = .07). However, the experience. Additionally, identity development is often considered chi square divided by the degrees of freedom was 2.02 and this va- a product of the interaction between intra-personal and interper- lue is acceptable. All other measures suggest very good quality of sonal factors and the effects of social institutions (Côté & Levine, fit. Thus the measures of quality of fit indicate that the data from 2002; Kroger, 2007; McCaslin, 2009; Penuel & Wertsch, 1995; each of the grade levels, as in the entire sample, correspond very Sfard & Prusak, 2005). Since identity development is considered a well to the hypothesized model. crucial antecedent of productive and satisfying adult functioning, Examination of the standardized regression weights at each it is very important to expand our limited knowledge about what grade level appearing in Table 5 reveals that the two substantial schools can and should do to enhance identity development. associations found in the entire sample, TC to ASEA and TRM to This study focused on connections between students’ percep- MS, maintain their strength at all grade levels. Indeed, there are tions of aspects of the school climate and processes of their identity only relatively minor differences between grades 9, 10 and 11 development. Results of this research demonstrate that identity regarding the associations between the exogenous variables, the nurturing components of the high school, as these are experienced mediating variables and the dependent measures. by students, are indeed associated with enhanced processes re- Twelfth grade again presents a somewhat different picture than lated to student identity development. The present study adds to the other grade levels. First, the effects of MS on IdConf weaken in earlier research on identity development in schools (e.g., Faircloth, 12th grade as compared to younger students. A similar weakening 2009; Lannegrand-Willems & Bosma, 2006) by specifically assess- appears for MS effects on SE in 12th grade. This occurs despite the ing the effects of student perceptions of dynamic aspects of the monotonically increasing role of SCWS on MS from 9th to 12th school identity climate—teacher caring (TC), teachers as role mod- grade. Second, PSC effects on IdConf become somewhat stronger els (TRM) and cultivation of the whole student (SCWS)—on two in 12th grade. Third, the role of ASEA becomes more prominent. age-appropriate components of identity development, exploration Only at 12th grade does ASEA have an effect on SE and it is consid- (SE) and confidence in meeting identity challenges in the future erably larger (.20) as compared to younger grades. In other words, (IdConf). Furthermore, this research demonstrated that the effects among these high school seniors the meaningfulness of academic of perceptions of the school identity climate on adolescents’ iden- studies loses strength whereas a positive social climate gains tity development are mediated by variables reflecting students’ be- strength regarding their effects on students’ confidence in their liefs that their studies are personally meaningful (MS), that they Y. Rich, E.P. Schachter / Contemporary Educational Psychology 37 (2012) 218–228 225 feel encouraged to act in an agentic manner and to engage in academic and social-emotional aspects of schooling do not neces- exploration (ASEA), and that they are in a socially and psychologi- sarily offset one another, but can instead reinforce each other cally safe school climate (SC). (e.g., Cohen, 2006; Kress & Elias, 2006). The size of the effects on the measures of student identity In contrast, we observed only limited effects of teacher caring development is significant and moderate. Clearly the school is on the two measures of identity development. Although teacher but one important arena in which adolescent identity develops caring is strongly related to affirmation of student agency and and it is inappropriate to expect that schools bear primary respon- exploration, and is significantly related to the other two mediating sibility for identity growth or are the chief force capable of foster- variables, it appears to contribute primarily to confidence in iden- ing student identity development. However, the effects are tity development and relatively little to student exploration. substantial enough to demonstrate that certain schools, as experienced by students, are doing things that are associated positively 4.2. School identity climate and paths of identity development with student identity development. This is an important finding that warrants further inquiry into how schools might contribute Why does TRM seem to be a more potent variable than TC? We proactively to adolescent identity development. will briefly consider two reasons. First, the former measure has greatest impact on perceptions of studies as meaningful (MS) 4.1. Comparative effects of TRM, SCWS and TC whereas the latter is most closely linked to perceiving the school as affirming student agency and exploration (ASEA). Meaningful Two components of the model, teachers as role models and studies had a stronger association with both identity outcomes school cultivation of the whole student (TRM and SCWS), are espe- than the affirming stance of teachers. Possibly, two separate path- cially noteworthy, as they have not received much attention in the ways of identity development are available to students in school research literature. TRM appears to be an especially robust variable settings. The first is based on building identity through processes that contributes through its effect on meaningful studies to both of of identification. In schools this usually means identification with the identity outcomes investigated. It appears that student percep- respected teachers and meaningful ideas encountered in the cur- tions of teachers as worthy of identification and admiration are riculum. The second path of identity formation in school is com- associated with their capacity to discover personal meaning and prised of students’ efforts to create a separate and valued interest in the class lessons presented by teachers. This enhanced individuated self through exploration. In school, this entails the personal meaning and interest in classroom studies may well raise caring, encouragement and affirmation of self, communicated by lines of student inquiry that eventuate in heightened exploration teachers and other significant adults in school. In the present study (e.g., Chin & Chia, 2006). This finding is especially important as of students in public religious secondary schools, the former iden- identity development has traditionally been associated with pro- tity development path was stronger than the latter. cesses of separation and individuation, perhaps leading to the idea The relative strength of the identity formation pathways may be that identity development occurs despite adult figures, rather than a developmental issue. The Eriksonian developmental model as with their help (Adams & Marshall, 1996; Schachter & Ventura, explicated by Marcia (e.g., Marcia et al., 1993) posits that explora- 2008). The literature on the professional role of teachers does not tion need be based on a strong foundation of childhood identifica- address how they might foster and project their own image as po- tions. At this early stage of adolescent development, many high sitive identification models, although studies of teachers’ profes- school students may still be consolidating their sense of self sional self-image suggest that many do understand that they through identifying with admired models and captivating ideas play such a role for students (Nieto, 2005). Additionally, experienc- while they are only beginning to seek an individuated identity ing personal meaning and interest in class lessons may give stu- through self-directed questioning of previous identifications and dents the feeling that they are enacting their role as students in expressing personal agency. In Marcia’s identity status theory a positive manner. This can boost their confidence that they will terms they may be on the path from diffusion to foreclosure and also handle future identity related roles satisfactorily. Students’ not at the presumed later stage of moving from foreclosure towards experiencing of the academic subject matter in class lessons as per- moratorium. Perhaps at a somewhat later stage of adolescent devel- sonally meaningful may also bolster their confidence in their abil- opment the need for a personalized individuated identity becomes ity to devise coherent ways of viewing their world and of finding more salient, and with it, the concomitant need for affirmation of meaningful direction in life. Although teachers who serve as role agency and exploration. This does not mean that teacher caring models for adolescent students may also provoke undesirable reac- is not important for students at the earlier stage; rather that it is tions of compliance that blunt students’ autonomy (see Rezai- not as instrumental for identity development. Rashti & Martino, 2010), given the potential beneficial effects of This explanation is consistent with the finding that the pattern teachers as identification models further research is warranted. of relations among the variables in the model changes somewhat SCWS is another variable that deserves increased educational among the 12th graders. In contrast with the results for younger research because it holds potential for designing academic studies students, a stronger association for these students was found be- that are more meaningful to students and that foster their identity tween ASEA and SE. Complementing this are weaker effects in development. Exclusive school attention to academic studies, if the 12th grade for MS on both identity outcome variables. These done in a narrow and constricting manner, will increase some stu- students are older, they are on the verge of completing their na- dents’ feelings of alienation from school for a number of reasons, tional matriculation exams and are confronting important deci- for example because they feel that school personnel do not relate sions regarding multiple options for their immediate future to them as unique persons or that the school does not engage parts regarding military service, tertiary studies, and national service of their self that they deem important (Mitchener & Schmidt, 1998; plans as they prepare to leave school in a few months and begin Noddings, 2005b). Students however who perceived their schools a new phase in their lives. At this stage, feeling that one’s agency as relating to multiple aspects of themselves as persons found their and exploration are affirmed by significant adults as they seek to studies more meaningful, had a stronger sense of being affirmed as carve out a genuine individuated identity becomes increasingly proactive agents, and perceived a positive social climate among important whereas the effect of personally meaningful academic students. Particularly interesting was the finding that the effect studies in a period of national standardized tests begins to wane. of this holistic approach on student identity outcomes was potent This line of reasoning suggests that students’ identity development when it was mediated by MS. This result supports the claim that needs change over the course of their high school career as a func- 226 Y. Rich, E.P. 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