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Lambs of God: the Untold Story of African American Children Who Desegregated Catholic Schools in New Orleans

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LAMBS OF GOD: THE UNTOLD STORY OF AFRICAN AMERICAN CHILDREN WHO DESEGREGATED CATHOLIC SCHOOLS IN NEW ORLEANS by Terri A. Dickerson A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate F acuity of George Mason University in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Conflict Analysis and Resolution Chair Program Director Dean, School for Conflict Analysis and Resolution Fall Semester 2017 George Mason University Fairfax, VA Lambs of God: The Untold Story of African American Children Who Desegregated Catholic Schools in New Orleans A Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at George Mason University by Terri A. Dickerson Master of Arts Johns Hopkins University, 1997 Bachelor of Science University of Virginia, 1979 Director: Patricia Maulden, Professor School for Conflict Analysis and Resolution Fall Semester 2017 George Mason University Fairfax, VA THIS WORK IS LICENSED UNDER A CREATIVE COMMONS ATTRIBUTION-NODERIVS 3.0 UNPORTED LICENSE. ii Dedication For Kevin to whom I casually mentioned that I would like to conduct this research. He encouraged me to do it, and has been with me every step of the way, always willing to let me test my plans and theories against his brilliant mind. Without his love, optimism and support, this work would not have been accomplished. iii Acknowledgements I thank my husband Kevin, who has been my biggest support throughout, along with CJ, James, and Devon, who are always sources of wonderment and pride. Special thanks to George Mason University for granting me the 2016 Provost’s Award as well as the School for Conflict Analysis and Resolution for the 2015 James Lauie Award and 2016 Alumni Award. These acknowledgements gave me confidence and kept me propelled forward. I am ever grateful to my committee chaired by Dr. Patricia Maulden; she, Dr. Daniel Rothbart and Dr. Spencer Crew helped me to anchor and bring coherence to my ideas. Despite an incredibly busy schedule, Dean Kevin Avruch always took time to talk to me about my work. I am thankful to have spent a semester studying in Rome, the seat of the Roman Catholic Church. Dr. Ellen Haring was a great friend who mentored me through the Ph.D process; she and her groundbreaking work were inspirations. I am profoundly grateful for my sisters and the other Lambs of God who offered their photographs and memories and were so generous to share their stories with me. Patrice Dickerson read drafts and gave me valuable feedback. Words cannot express my gratitude for the generosity of people who helped me to find other Lambs of God, especially Archie Bertrand Sr., Reginald Bertrand Sr., Patrice Dozier, Dianne Earley, Joni Goodman, Laurie Guillaume, Clarence “Chink” Henry, Marvin Henry, and Marilyn Vandergriff. Thank you for being interested in this work and helping me so much. My cousin Pat Fletcher was a fountain of information on our family and Louisiana Creole history. I also want to acknowledge the exceptional staff of the Amistad Research Center at Tulane University, who assisted me as I spent countless hours combing through their archives. I am indebted to my parents Walter and Verna Dickerson, who knew that their children would exceed society’s expectations of us. Many wondered why they would jeopardize employment and safety to send their children to schools where we were not wanted; my parents possessed the moral courage and determination to risk jobs and social acceptance to ensure that God’s will was done. Above all, I am grateful to God to whom I constantly pray for – and receive – guidance and grace. Lastly, my deepest thanks to my community of friends, family and associates without whose constant patience, prayers, and support my accomplishments would not be possible. Over the course of a half- century, many individuals patiently listened to me as I recounted events that are the subject of this dissertation. iv Table of Contents Page List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... ix List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... x Abstract .............................................................................................................................. xi Chapter One: Introduction .................................................................................................. 1 O My God ...................................................................................................................... 5 Lambs of God ............................................................................................................... 19 Untold Stories of the Civil Rights Movement ............................................................. 20 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 22 Chapter Two: Literature Review ...................................................................................... 24 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 24 Part 1. Catholic School Desegregation and the Conflict Field .................................... 25 A violent structure ..................................................................................................... 25 A violent culture ........................................................................................................ 27 Direct violence ........................................................................................................... 29 From violence to peace .............................................................................................. 30 Conflict parties ........................................................................................................... 32 Part 2. Catholics in a Racialized Society ..................................................................... 33 Pseudo-theological justifications for segregation. ..................................................... 34 An African American religious worldview forms ..................................................... 39 Segregation in American education ........................................................................... 41 The separate-but-equal standard is established .......................................................... 43 Racial “amalgamation” theory ................................................................................... 44 The climate of violence against African Americans .................................................. 46 The desegregation resistance movement ................................................................... 50 Segregationists articulate a moralistic argument ....................................................... 51 v Part 3. The Segregation and Desegregation of Catholic Spaces .................................. 52 An African American Catholic religious identity forms ........................................... 59 Catholic leaders and desegregation ........................................................................... 61 Part 4. A Child Shall Lead Them: Children as the Desegregation Apparatus ............. 62 Cultural trauma theory for deconstructing student experiences ................................ 70 Critical race theory .................................................................................................... 72 Part 5. Catholic School Children: A Hidden Voice of the Civil Rights Movement .... 73 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 75 Chapter Three: Research Design ...................................................................................... 79 Research Questions ...................................................................................................... 79 Epistemology and Methodology .................................................................................. 79 Site of Research............................................................................................................ 83 Data and Data Collection ............................................................................................. 84 Grounded theory as a guideline for analyzing interview data ................................... 84 Interviews .................................................................................................................. 85 Participants and participant selection ........................................................................ 89 Autoethnography ....................................................................................................... 90 Ethnography ............................................................................................................... 91 Case studies ............................................................................................................... 91 Reflexivity .................................................................................................................... 93 Validity ......................................................................................................................... 94 Positionality ................................................................................................................. 96 Dissertation Report......................................................................................................
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