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Still Dying for a Living: Shaping Corporate Criminal Liability After the Westray Mine Disaster by STEVEN BRADLEY BITTLE a Disse

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Still Dying for a Living: Shaping Corporate Criminal Liability After the Westray Mine Disaster by STEVEN BRADLEY BITTLE a Disse Still Dying for a Living: Shaping Corporate Criminal Liability After the Westray Mine Disaster By STEVEN BRADLEY BITTLE A dissertation submitted to the Department of Sociology in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Queen’s University Kingston, Ontario, Canada January 2010 Copyright © Steven Bradley Bittle, 2010 Abstract This dissertation critically interrogates the assumptions, agendas and relations of power that shaped Bill C-45, An Act to Amend the Criminal Code (criminal liability of organizations), revisions to the Criminal Code of Canada aimed at strengthening corporate criminal liability. Colloquially referred to as the Westray bill, the legislation was passed in the fall of 2003 in response to the deaths of twenty-six workers at the Westray mine in 1992, a disaster caused by unsafe and illegal working conditions. Using twenty-three semi-structured interviews with individuals with knowledge and insight into the evolution of Canada’s corporate criminal liability legislation, and transcripts from Canada’s Parliament regarding the enactment of this law, the dissertation critically explores the constitution of corporate criminal liability – the factors that produce legal categorizations of corporate harm and wrongdoing. Of particular interest are the official discourses that shaped conceptualizations of corporate crime and corporate criminal liability and how these discourses correspond to the broader social-political-economic context. Drawing theoretical inspiration from Foucauldian and neo-Marxist (Althusserian) literatures, the dissertation argues that particular legal, economic and cultural discourses shaped, but did not determine, corporate criminal liability in Canada. In turn, these discourses are constitutive of class struggles over the role of the corporate form in extracting surplus labour and accumulating capital, the results of which helped stabilize, reproduce and transform the class-based capitalist social formation. Overall, the dissertation suggests that the assumptions that animated Canada’s corporate criminal liability legislation and the meanings inscribed in its provisions throw serious doubt on its ability to hold corporations legally accountable for their harmful, anti-social acts. There is little reason to believe that the Westray bill will produce a crackdown on safety crimes, or i seriously challenge corporations to address workplace injuries and death. While it will hold some corporations and corporate actors accountable – and thus far it has been the smallest and weakest – the primary causes of workplace injury and death (e.g., the tension between profit maximization and the costs of safety and the relative worth of workers/employees versus owners and investors) will continue. ii Dedication On May 9, 1992, twenty-six miners were tragically killed in an underground explosion at the Westray coal mine in Pictou County, Nova Scotia. This dissertation is dedicated to their memory and the hope that someday workers can finally stop dying for a living. iii Acknowledgements There are many people that I want to acknowledge for their invaluable contributions to this dissertation. I first want to thank everyone who took the time out of their busy schedules to be interviewed for this study. Their knowledge and insights were instrumental in helping me to understand the evolution of Canada’s corporate criminal liability legislation. I also want to thank the staff in the Sociology department – Anne, Lynn and Wendy – for all of their assistance over the years. Special thanks to Michelle Ellis for her kind support and willingness to always find answers to my questions. Thank you also to Professors Rob Beamish and Vince Sacco for their support during their tenures as chair of the department. I count myself extremely fortunate for having such a wonderful dissertation committee. Professor Steve Tombs was gracious enough to be the external examiner, let alone make the trek to Kingston from the United Kingdom for the defence. The intellectual influence of Professor Tombs’ work for my own research is evident in the pages that follow. I would also like to thank Professor Paul Paton for his constructive comments and feedback on my dissertation proposal. Thank you to Professor Sergio Sismondo for graciously agreeing to join my committee and for providing such helpful feedback on my work. Professor Fiona Kay went above and beyond the call of duty to offer much needed support and encouragement, providing extensive comments and suggestions on all stages and aspects of my work. Thank you, Fiona, for all of your time and consideration. I owe an enormous debt of thanks to Professor Frank Pearce for all of his support, encouragement and guidance. Frank’s unique and thoughtful insight helped stimulate and encourage my interest in issues of political economy. I benefited immensely from his many and incredible intellectual contributions to my research. It was a pleasure getting to know Frank and having him on my committee. iv I struggle to find the words to express my gratitude to Professor Laureen Snider. Laureen was there at every stage of the process, both the highs and lows, never wavering in her commitment. Intellectually engaging and inspiring, she constantly challenged me to think critically and analytically about issues of corporate crime. Laureen is a kind and caring person who is always giving of her time and endlessly encouraging in her support of my work. It’s truly an honour to have Laureen as a friend, mentor and supervisor. I am extremely fortunate to have such a great network of friends who provided incredible support, encouragement and, when necessary, distraction. Thanks to all of you! I am also extremely grateful for all the love and support that I have received from both my family and my partner’s family. My mother is a constant source of encouragement. Thanks, mom, for always being there to offer your love and support. My father is constantly in my thoughts; I miss him always. Finally, mere thanks are not enough to express the gratitude that I owe my partner, Ruth Code. Ruth first introduced me to critical thinking when we were students together at Simon Fraser University, and since then has provided an unbelievable wealth of intellectual guidance and inspiration. Ruth’s kindness, caring and support helped me stick with it in moments of doubt, and she was an unbelievable source of hope and strength when life presented us with a few bumps along the road. Quite simply, I would not have been able to complete this dissertation without her love and encouragement. v Table of Contents Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... i Dedication ................................................................................................................................ iii Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................. iv Chapter 1: Introducing the Corporate Criminal .....................................................................1 1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................1 1.2 Contextualizing Corporate Harm ...................................................................................3 1.3 Canada’s Corporate Criminal Liability Legislation ........................................................5 1.4 Purpose and Objectives .................................................................................................9 1.5 Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................... 11 1.6 Methods and Sources .................................................................................................. 13 1.7 Summary and Outline of Chapters ............................................................................... 14 Chapter 2: Background and Research Methods and Sources ............................................... 18 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 18 2.2 Criminal Liability and the Corporate Form .................................................................. 20 Benefits and Drawbacks of Limited Liability...................................................................... 23 The Emergence of Corporate Criminal Liability ................................................................ 26 2.3 The Westray Bill’s Evolution ...................................................................................... 29 2.4 The Westray Bill in Canada’s Parliament .................................................................... 32 The New Democratic Party’s Private Members’ Bills ........................................................ 34 The Progressive Conservative Party’s Private Members’ Motion ...................................... 36 The Standing Committee on Justice and Human Rights...................................................... 39 The Introduction of Bill C-45 ............................................................................................. 40 Bill C-45: The Final Steps ................................................................................................. 42 2.5 The Westray Bill in Action.......................................................................................... 45 A Long and Protracted
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