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The World of Indigenous North America

Robert Warrior

“Anasazi” No More

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203122280.ch3 Joe E. Watkins Published online on: 22 Dec 2014

How to cite :- Joe E. Watkins. 22 Dec 2014, “Anasazi” No More from: The World of Indigenous North America Routledge Accessed on: 29 Sep 2021 https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203122280.ch3

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The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:01 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780203122280, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203122280.ch3 W small andmedium-sizedgame animals.Still,becauseearlyarchaeologistsfound Paleoindian culturesusedcombinations ofstrategiestosurviveincludinghuntingmany ials culturefound(usually) inassociationwithancientandextinctanimals,these “Paleoindians” basedonthe stonetools,animalremains,andothersortsofmater- wandering groupsofpeopleroamedacrosswhatisnow theUnitedStates.Named OncehumansestablishedthemselvesinNorthAmerica, ageneralizedcultureof and humanadaptation. and differencestoprovideanswersgeneralizable cultural studies,chronologies, around them.Thearchaeologistswhostudylargeareas usethebroadsimilarities many smallerculturalgroups,eachgroupperhapsslightly differentfromtheothers these sharedtechnologiesasameansofcreating“regional cultures”comprisedof material culturesaswell.Archaeologistsutilizethe similarities anddifferencesof the climaticandenvironmentalvariationsofgeographicregions,theyadapttheir gists.” Archaeologistshavelongbeenawarethat,asNativepopulationsadaptto their materialculture,architecture,andhabitationsitesarecalled“archaeolo- inform humanbehaviorinthepresent.Peoplewhostudypastculturesusing same timetryingtounderstandhowhumanbehaviorinthepastcanbeused mation thatcanbeusedtoinfertheculturespeoplemighthavehadwhileat environment wheretheylive.Archaeologylooksatmaterialculturetogatherinfor- the adaptationshumanshavemadeovertimeastheyattempttosurvivein the archaeologicalandcontemporarypopulationswhoinhabitthisarea. culture area(Kroeber1939)basedonthesimilaritiesofmaterialculturesleftby values whileparticipatingfullyinthetwenty-firstcentury. Ithasbeendefinedasa occupied theiroriginalhomelandsandretainlanguages,customs,beliefs, Archaeologyisthestudyofhumanpastandinvolvedintryingtounderstand it ishometothelargestnumberofNativepeopleswhohavecontinuously ithin thecontiguousUnitedStates,AmericanSouthwestisuniqueinthat Ancestral PuebloCulturesoftheAmerican “ANASAZI”NOMORE EARLY “SOUTHWESTERNERS”

CHAPTERTHREE Joe E. Watkins Southwest ᇺ 51

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:01 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780203122280, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203122280.ch3 from themountaincoldto thevalleywarmth.Inthisway, localknowledgeserved from valleysinthesummer tonearbymountainswheretheclimatewascooler, or people undertooklongmigrations; inothers,thepeoplestayedwithinlocalregimes— and habitationeithermore difficultormorecomfortable.Insomesituations the and foodsourcesbecameavailable, andwhenthelocalclimatewouldmakesurvival time allowedthelocalpeopletoknowwhereestablish camps,wherelocalwater cialization. “Archaic” byarchaeologists,wasatimeofgrowing regional andgeographicalspe- families andotherneeds.Thisperiodfollowingthe Paleoindian period,calledthe or otherproducts,andtheneedforunrelatedpeople toserveasnewmatesfor resources whichtheydidnothave,suchasstonerawmaterial, certaintypesofplants aware ofthenecessityinteractingwithothergroups ofpeopleinordertogain animals congregatedand/ormigratedthroughtheirregions; theyalsobecamemore were dangerous;theyabletounderstandthemovements andlocationswhere numbers grew, peoplebecamemoreawareofwhichplantswereedibleand called “big-gamehunters.” evidenceofearlygeneralizedhuntersassociatedwithlargegame,theyhaveoftenbeen National National Forest Forest 89 89 Capital Reef Capital Reef Dixie Dixie 12 Peopleadaptedtolocalandregionalenvironments.This regionaladaptationover Asthepeoplebecamemoreadjustedtoenvironment,andastheirpopulation National National Forest Forest Glen Canyon Lake Powell Recreation Recreation National National UTAH UTAH Area Area 24 264 Reservation Reservation Navajo 160 95 276 Reservation Reservation Hopi 276 163 95 Colorado RiverRiv Monument Monument 264 Valley Valley River 160 Canyonlands er GreenCanyonlands River Figure 3.1 National National Manti-La Sal Manti-La Sal Park Park National National JeE akn — JoeE.Watkins — Forest Forest 191 Four Corner Four Corner 211 191 Monument Monument Chinle Monticello Monticello 191 191

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46 r Shiprock Shiprock Pinnacle Pinnacle 52 64 Reservation Reservation 40 Reservation Reservation Mountain Mountain Gallup Gallup

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491 ve r Uncompaghra Uncompaghra Reservoir Reservoir McGee Park McGee Park Sunray Park Sunray Park MePhee & Casino & Casino National National Farmington Farmington National National Mesa Verde Mesa VerdeVerde Cibola Forest Forest Forest Forest National National Park Park 145 Archaeological Archaeological 145 170 San Juan San Juan Ruins & Ruins & Salmon Salmon Center Center 371 160 Durango & Durango & Silverton Silverton Railroad Railroad COLORADO COLORADO 140 Narrow Narrow Gauge Gauge San Juan San Juan National National Azrec Ruins Azrec Ruins Forest Forest Wilderness Wilderness De-Na-Zin De-Na-Zin Monument Monument National National NEW MEXICO NEW MEXICO Telluride Telluride Bisti/ Bisti/ 57 Bloomfield Bloomfield Aztec Aztec

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Animas Animas Reacreation Area Animas Reacreation Area National National r Ignacio Ignacio Angel Peak Angel Peak 511 Blue Mesa Blue Mesa Reservoir Reservoir Silvertorn Silvertorn Navajo State State Lake Lake Park Park San Juan San Juan 151 550 National National Forest Forest Navajo Lake Reservation Reservation Southern Southern 64 Ute Ute 50 Reservation Reservation

Reservation Reservation N Apache Jicarilla 160 550 Springs Springs 84 Pagosa Pagosa Zia Zia Reservation Reservation Rio Grande Rio Grande National National Forest Forest Santa Fe Santa Fe Jemz National National ForestForest 84 64 25 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:01 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780203122280, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203122280.ch3 people, theynowuse ‘enemy ancestors’forthistradition,butbecausethe termisoffensivetosomany years, archaeologistsusedthename Cordell andMcBrinndiscusstheword’s etymologyanduse,writing“Formany Southwest insearchofartifactstofillmuseums the NortheastandinEurope. workers whoguidedtheearlyarchaeologistsasthey venturedintotheAmerican Classification systemin1927.SomearchaeologistsattributethenametoNavajo 2001), butitwasfirstestablishedinarchaeologicalterminologythroughthePecos archaeological culturegotitsname(seediscussioninColton ” wasinitiallycalled“Anasazi.”Itisuncertainhowthe“Anasazi”asan about thosesocialstructuresinthepastgroup. tems, tonameafew, andmustrelyoncontemporarygroupstooffersuggestions groups. We don’t knowthepeople’s kinshipstructures,religions,oreducationsys- so, sincewehaveonlyanunknownportionoftheentireculturalcataloguepast culture thatlefttheartifactsbehind,wecanneverknowtruedid by archaeologists.Whilethereislikelysomeagreementconcerningaspectsofthe resent “real”people—theyrepresentonlytheportionofculturethatcanbedescribed from archaeologicalmaterial.These“archaeologicalculturetraditions”donotrep- Thisisaperfecttimetodiscussthetermsthatareappliedculturesknownonly description andcoverageofthislargeregion. the AmericanSouthwest Pueblo. Moreinterestedreadersshouldconsultarecentvolume— each ofthesearchaeologicalculturetraditions,IintendtofocusonlyontheAncestral ology’s earlydevelopmentinthe1920sand1930s.Ratherthanprovidediscussionof , andTrincheras—were initiallyestablishedanddescribed duringarchae- Ancestral Pueblo,,andMogollon,theChihuahua,Fremont,, development ofagricultureintheAmericanSouthwest.These“cultures”—the describing theculturaldevelopmentsforpeopleduringcenturiesafter have definedarchaeologicalculturaltraditionsasameansofmoreconveniently into generallydistinctregionalculturesintheAmericanSouthwest.Archaeologists relationships. people migratedtoareaswheretheycouldsurvivewiththeircultureandhuman as ameansofadaptation—ratherthangrowthickbodyhairorextrafat,the fied culturaltraitorsuiteof artifactsdoesnotnecessarilyindicatethatthe archaeological sitestheyhave excavated.Theabsenceofanarchaeologicallyidenti- primarily onthepresence or absenceofparticularbitsinformationwithin the Warburton andBegay(2005 ), eveniffordifferentreasons. issue, asitsapplicationhasbeenquestionedbyHegmon (2002),Riggs2005and books getupdatedandrevised.Still,evenAncestral Puebloisnotwithoutsome (see Neusius&Gross2007: to encounter“Anasazi”inolderbooksonSouthwestern UnitedStatesarchaeology Thearchaeologicalculturethatcontemporaryarchaeologistscall“Ancestral Archaeologistshaverecognizedthat,aftertheArchaicperiod,peopledeveloped Archaeologistshaveinconsistently appliedlabelstoarchaeologicalculturesbased AcsrlPel utrso h mrcnSuhet — AncestralPuebloCulturesoftheAmericanSouthwest — WHOWEREANCESTRALPUEBLO? Ancestral Pueblo byLindaCordellandMaxineMcBrinn—forin-depth 45–46), butthetermisbeingrapidlyreplacedassuch Anasazi ” (2012: 53 , derivedfromaNavajowordmeaning

36–37). Readerswilllikelycontinue 1943; Walters &Rogers Archaeology of information Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:01 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780203122280, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203122280.ch3 bce ancestral Basketmakerantecedents)tohavebeenpresentintheareafromabout2100 American SouthwestgenerallybelievetheAncestralPueblo(anditsevenearlier inhabitants useditemscontainingnaturalcarbonmaterials. dates allowarchaeologiststoconstructratheraccuratetimeframesforperiodsthat sites. Theuseof relatively accuratedatesforthehabitationofanddispersalfromarchaeological the traitorproduct. cannot andshouldnotbeconsideredtotherealityofpresenceorabsence actual presenceorabsenceofanarchaeologicaltraitwithinsite the artifactsweretherebutnotpreservedwithinsite.Becauseofthis, choose toembracethoseartifacts,didnothavetheneedfororthat wasn’t available,merelythattheinhabitantsatarchaeologicalsiteeitherdidnot tion, use,anddisuseofthearchaeologicalsites.Inaddition,radiocarbondating(C here andenablesarchaeologiststodevelopfairlyaccuratetimelinesfortheconstruc- use asbuildingmaterialbasedonthetreeringspresent)wasdevelopedandperfected through to contemporary Puebloan groups was defined by the addition of through tocontemporary Puebloan groupswasdefinedbytheadditionofpottery archaeologists beganwith Basketmaker II.Theprogressionfrom II people thathadnotbeendiscovered atthattime.Instead,theearlytwentieth-century that offeredinformationon thetransitionfromArchaictoagriculture-dependent with BasketmakerI,sinceit wasthoughtthatapre-agricultureculturemightbefound I–IV, followtheBasketmaker phases.Thearchaeologistsofthetimedidnotbegin pottery-making. Aseriesofculturephasesbasedonarchitectural buildingstyles,Pueblo for thosesitesinthegeneralareawhichwereinhabited priortothedevelopmentof has allowedarchaeologiststorefinethechronologies and interregionalrelationships. ological workintheSouthwesthasgrown,morespecific informationontheseareas within localareassuchastheMesaVerde, Chaco,andRioGrandeareas.Asarchae- relied onspecificcategoriesofartifactstorefinethechronological placementofsites these changesoccurredatthesametimeeverywherein theAmericanSouthwest,and the sitesusedwerebothculturallyandtemporallysensitive. Theydidnotbelievethat decided thatarchitecture(building)stylesandthepottery stylestheinhabitantsof of variousculturetraitsorelements.Thearchaeologistswhodevelopedthesephases to havegonethrough.Theseculturestagesweredefinedbythepresenceorabsence of namestodescribethedevelopmentalstagesarchaeologicalgroupswerethought development intheAmericanSouthwest. traits ofthegroupsisincludedhereinordertoprovideanoverviewcultural Ancestral Pueblogroups,andabroaddiscussionofthegenerallyacceptedculture (2012: archaeologists doingworkintheAmericanSouthwest.Again,CordellandMcBrinn ThegeneralculturechronologyfortheAncestralPueblowasproposedbyearly Becauseofthesegenerallyaccuratedatingcapabilities,archaeologistsinthe IntheAmericanSouthwest,archaeologistshavebeenblessedtobeableprovide In describing the Ancestral Pueblo, archaeologists proposed the term “Basketmaker” IndescribingtheAncestralPueblo,archaeologistsproposed theterm“Basketmaker” ArchaeologistsintheearlyperiodofSouthwesternarchaeologyproposedaseries (BeforetheCommonEra)totimeofEuropeancontactatabout1540. 74) offerabroadchronologyofthegeneralcultureperiodsproposedfor ANCESTRALPUEBLOCULTURE CHRONOLOGY dendrochronology JeE akn — JoeE.Watkins — (determiningthedatesthattreeswerecutfor 54 14 )

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:01 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780203122280, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203122280.ch3 densely inhabitedcommunities. agriculture contributedto aresultantincreaseinpopulationaswelltomore ture. Aswasmentionedearlier, theincreaseinfoodproductionthatresultedfrom but therewasageneralrelationship inchangesthearchitectureandagricul- There wasnotconsistentchange throughouttimeorthroughthegeographicalarea, culture, thearchitectureofgeneralareaessentially underwentchangeaswell. used aswellthestructuresandcommunitieswithin whichthesepeoplesurvived. Each ofthetransitionscanbeindicatedthrough materialculturethesepeople the transitionfromlargervillagesbacktosmaller, moredistinct,culturegroups. on agriculture;thetransitionfromwidelydispersedsettlements tolargervillages;and in relationtothreetransitions:thetransitionfromreliance ongatheringtoreliance archaeologically specificinformationwillbepresented. provide amoregeneraloverviewofthearchaeology oftheAncestralPueblo,less chronicle theoverallculturalchanges.Additionally, sincethischapterismeantto tend toprovidemorebroadperspectivesonlocalizeddevelopmentsinanattempt great detailabouttheparticularphasesofculturaldevelopment,butrecentauthors and shiftsinarchitecturalstructuresovertime.Atonetimearchaeologistswentinto Whilethematerialcultureunderwentchangesin sortsandtypesofmaterial Ingeneral,AncestralPueblogroupsintheAmerican Southwest canbediscussed AcsrlPel utrso h mrcnSuhet — AncestralPuebloCulturesoftheAmericanSouthwest — Figure 3.2 Basketmaker artifacts.AztecRuinsNationalMonument,NewMexico.

Photo byauthor. 55 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:01 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780203122280, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203122280.ch3 where uniqueitemsoccurred developedspecializedexportstoprovideunnecessary resources withintheterritory thattheyoccupied.Somegroupswholivedinareas able tofreelywanderinlarge regions,someregionsdevelopedcontrolofspecific people’s accesstoresourceswascurtailedorstopped.Because groupswerenolonger people wereabletoturnotherpursuitssuchasart, andornamentation. as storagevessels;lesstimewasnecessarytogather enoughfoodforsurvival, soups; firstbasketryandlaterpotterywereusednot only tocookthefoodbutalso used togrindcornandotherseedgrainsintofinemeal foruseinbakingand the vegetablematerialsintofood.Grindingstones(“manos” and“”)were area, theyalsobegantodevelopasimilar“suite”of toolswithwhichtoprocess a waythatthetwoplantssupplementeachother. a crop.Beansaddnecessarynutrientsbacktothesoil andcomplementcorninsuch nutrients beingreplenished,cornwilluseupthesoils and eventuallystopproducing seasons, buttheyalsoneedparticularelementsinthesoils.Without thenecessary a trickybusiness,astheplantsneednotonlyrainfallandrelativelymildgrowing often groupsreliedonthecropsproducedintheirgardenplots.Agriculturecanbe more sedentary. Peoplestillhuntedandgatheredwildfoods,butmore more andoften—tiedtotheplantsfarmingplots—populationsgrew long enoughgrowingseasons,availabilityofbuildingmaterials,andsoforth. centrated inparticularareasthatsupportedagriculture—goodsoils,availablewater, population grewinnumber, too,moreandpeoplebandedtogethercon- more areastogrowthecorn,beans,andsquashpeoplereliedupon.As so toodidtheneedformorecrops.Eventually, itwasnecessarytohaveaccess crops. Asthecropsincreased,sotoodidpopulation;aspopulation ably inthepast—butitalsocreatedneedformorelandonwhichtogrow be abletostorefoodforfutureneeds,somethingtheyhadnotbeendoreli- denser concentrationsofpeople.Themorereliablecropsalsoallowedthepeopleto people. in theAmericanSouthwestitledtodevelopmentofmoresettledgroups of theMesopotamiaRiverValley butinlotsofotherplacesatvarioustimes—and This sortofrelianceonagriculturehashappenedacrosstheworld—firstinarea future years,agriculturedevelopedintoamajorcontributortothepeople’s lifestyles. the plantsandactivelytookpartinplanting,protecting,selectingseedsfor Mesoamerica fartothesouth)theirdiet.Oncepeoplestopped“encouraging” 2100 took careoftheplantsanddevelopedarelianceonplantresources.Around as theyencounteredthemontheirseasonalrounds,buteventuallythepeopleactively and gatheringwildplantfoods.Initiallythesepeopleonlyencouragedplantstogrow American Southwest,peoplelearnedtorelyonacombinationofhuntinganimals survived throughhuntingandgathering,withencouragementoflocalplants.Inthe GenerallyduringtheArchaicperiod,peopleacrossNorthAmericancontinent The Transition toAgriculture Lateron,asanotheroutgrowth ofthislocalizationandincreaseinpopulation, Asthesepopulationsbegantorelyontheagricultural productsinthegeneral With theestablishmentofagriculture,andaspopulationstayedinoneplace With theavailabilityofplantresources,localareascouldsupportlargerand bce , thepeopleinSouthwestaddedcorn,beans,andsquash(derivedfrom JeE akn — JoeE.Watkins — 56 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:01 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780203122280, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203122280.ch3 for socialgatheringplaces. The“pithouse”wasnolongerusedasaprimary more importantassocialand ceremonialareasnolongerusedforliving but into theprimarylivingareas whilethebelow-groundstructuresbecamemore and and asmorepeoplelived within thearea,above-groundstructuresdeveloped and intensifiedtradewithregionsfurtheraway. technological sophisticationaswellincreasingadaptation tolocalenvironments Pueblo periods(PuebloI–IV).These“Pueblo” indicatetimesofgrowing cially thepotterystyles)toseparateculturalmanifestations intothevarious archaeologists usetheseabove-groundstructuresand theassociatedartifacts(espe- the initialSpanishexplorers,andtheycontinuetobe calledthattoday. Inaddition, interpreted assuch.Ultimately, theselargeroomblockswerecalled“”by the largegroupsofroomblockswithinternalconnecting doorwayshavebeen places wherecommunitiesgathered,andperhapsareas wherefamilygroupslived— moved intoareaslessimpactedbydampnessanddarkness. Thestructuresbecame areas. Eventuallytheabove-groundareasbecamemorefullydevelopedaspeople areas, perhapsusedduringmorecomfortableweatherforhabitationandactivity more commonplace.Theabove-groundstructuresbecamesubstantialstorage population amalgamatedintoamorecentralizedarea,thesepithousevillagesbecame storage areas. structures andoccasionallyconstructedlesssubstantialabovegroundas even withthegroundlevel.Individualfamiliesorextendedinhabitedthese within theexcavatedareasandroofsupperstructureextendedaboveor tion structuresthatwerebuiltwithinareasdugintothesoil.Postsplaced prised ofseveralsemi-subterraneanpithouses(see density increasedalongwithachangeinthestructurespeopleinhabited. as well.AtaboutthetimeofBasketmakerIII(about produced foodstuffs,thesizeanddensityofcommunitieswheretheylivedincreased Atthesametimethatcommunitieswereincreasingtheirrelianceonagriculturally The Transition to“Communities” using dendrochronology. that villageswereinhabited,basedonthepottery’s relationshipswithdatesderived The potterytypeshavebeenusedbyarchaeologiststoprovidegeneralideasofdates produced potterythatwasgrayorwhite-bodiedpotswithblackpainteddesigns. lar typesandstylesofpottery. Ingeneral,theAncestralPueblo peopleofthistime related orlinkedbytradenetworks. and, inthisway, betterunderstandwaysthatpopulations at thistimewereinter- by lookingatsomeoftheartifactswhichoccurinareasfarawayfromtheirsources groups furtherawayfromsourcelocations.Archaeologistscanrecreate“traderoutes” coal), obsidian,andothercolorfulstones.Otherscraftedproductstotradewith but covetedproductssuchasturquoise,rarebirdfeathers,jet(aformofveryhard Overtime,asmoreand peoplebecameinvolvedinagriculturalprocesses, Thesepithousevillagesprogressedovertimeasthepopulationgrew. Asthe Initially, duringBasketmakerIItimes,peoplelivedinsmallcommunitiescom- Thematerialcultureofthesepeoplewasmarkedbythemanufactureparticu- AcsrlPel utrso h mrcnSuhet — AncestralPuebloCulturesoftheAmericanSouthwest —

57 Figure ce 3 ), population 500 to700),population . 3 ).Thesewerehabita- Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:01 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780203122280, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203122280.ch3 in ChacoCanyonnorthern NewMexico,aswellperhapsMesaVerde in nial orreligiousvillages.There areindicationsthatsuggestsomeofthevillages year, withmorefulloccupation atparticulartimesoftheyear—thatis,wereceremo- the calendaryearbutwere perhapsoccupiedbysmallergroupsofpeopleover the These “ceremonial”villageswereplacesthatmightnot have beenoccupiedthroughout occupation (Cordelletal.2007: it isestimatedthatmorethan20,000peoplelivedintheareaatheightofits agricultural crops.IntheMesaVerde regionofsouthwesternColorado,forexample, for foodbutwereabletosurvivebasedonthesurpluses derivedfromharvesting culture allowedthefarmerstofeedpeoplewhowere nolongeractivelysearching importance. Theselargevillageswereabletosupport adenserpopulationasagri- people congregatedwhentimesweregoodandat times of(perhaps)ceremonial more common.Thesevillagesbecameareaswhereextended familieslivedorwhere ing landbeavailabletogrowcrops,largevillageswith ceremonialstructuresbecame centers. places thatcontemporarySouthwesterngroupsusetodayasceremonialandcultural habitation structure,butthebelow-groundstructurescametobeusedas“”— Figure 3. In the American Southwest during this time, some locations increased in importance. IntheAmericanSouthwestduringthistime,somelocations increasedinimportance. Aspopulationcontinuedtogrow, andaspopulationdensityrequiredthatfarm- Reconstructed Basketmakerpithouse.UtahStateUniversityEasternPrehistoric Museum, Price,Utah.Photobyauthor. JeE akn — JoeE.Watkins — 385). 58 southwest southwest Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:01 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780203122280, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203122280.ch3 people. gists haveidentifiedclusters orconcentrationsofhabitationsAncestralPueblo of theAmericanSouthwest, butthereareotherimportantareaswherearchaeolo- and thesoutheasternportions ofUtah.TheAncestralPueblooccupiedlargeareas ern portionsofArizonaandNewMexico,thesouthwestern portionsofColorado, have beenincludedwithin“AncestralPueblo”cultures coveredmuchofthenorth- times tothenorth.Assuch,peoplewhopracticed theculturalelementsthat but thepeoplewhohavebeendefinedinthisculture alsoextendedatvarious together. Theirlocationsextendmoretothesouthfromareathannorth, Corners area”wherethestatesofUtah,Arizona,New Mexico,andColoradojoin as theAncestralPuebloweresituatedinarea generallyaroundthe“Four IntheAmericanSouthwest,archaeologicalcultures thathavebecomeknown los oftheRioGrandeencounteredbyCoronadoandhismen. established “partnerships”withothergroupsandbecameintegratedintothepueb- Verde regionmigratedtothesouthandeastintoareaswheretheyhadpreviously protection.Cordelletal.(2007)suggesttheAncestralPueblopeopleofMesa had contractedintoareasmoreamenabletolocalizedfarming,gathering,and Pueblo cultureswerenolongerasproductiveorwidespreadpreviously, butthey attacks. from theareaortorelocateinareasmoreeasilydefensibleagainstraidsand/or was perhapsaclimate-inducedcrisisthatledtheinhabitantstoeithermoveaway perhaps warfarehavebeenfoundinthearchaeologicalrecordthatsuggestthere sures ledtoconflictsbetweenpopulationsinthearea.Indicationsofconflictand archaeological sitesthatseemtoindicateenvironmentalandpopulationpres- and backintosmaller, moredispersedsettlements.Archaeologistshaveexcavated 1300, whentheenvironmentforcedpeopletomoveoutoflargervillages Southwest survivedwithintheclimateandculturesofareauntilabout Pueblo culturesthatinhabitedmuchofthenorth-centralpartsAmerican these largevillageswerenolongerabletosupportthepopulations.TheAncestral Eventually, however, asaresultofnumerousenvironmentalandsocialfactors, The Transition toDispersedSettlements and practicedvaryinglevelsofagriculturehuntinggathering. likely thatthepeopleofareaduringthistimeperiodwereverylocallyadapted and socialorganizationsuggests“periodicaggregation,notsedentism.”Itis Windes (1989: pithouse villagesisindicativeofagricultureandsettledliving.“Chip”Wills andTom or ceremonies. people livedpermanentlywhileotherscametotheareaonlyduringcertainfestivals Colorado, werenotoccupiedyear-round, butwereinsteadlocationswheresome BythetimeCoronadoenteredareafromMexicoin1540s,Ancestral However, notallarchaeologistsagreethattheBasketmakerIIItransitiontolarger AcsrlPel utrso h mrcnSuhet — AncestralPuebloCulturesoftheAmericanSouthwest —

365), workingintheChacoCanyonregion,believethatstructural WHEREWEREANCESTRALPUEBLO? 59

ce

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:01 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780203122280, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203122280.ch3 light itasoneoftheprimaryregionswhereAncestralPueblohabitationdeveloped. it isnotthepurposeofthissectiontodelvetoodeeplyintoit,butratherhigh- left thearea.ThearchaeologyofMesaVerde regioniscomplexanddistinctive; the areaatabout from theelementsaswellprotectionoutsiders.Peoplebeganinhabiting today as“cliffdwellings”underneathoverhangsintheareathatprovidedshelter Pueblo peoplebuiltpithousevillages,buteventuallydevelopedwhatareknown NearCortez,ColoradoMesaVerde isnowthesiteofanationalpark.TheAncestral Mesa Verde its socialinfluencehasbeenseenbyarchaeologiststobemuchmorewidespread area. ChacoCanyondevelopmentwasslightlyearlierthanthatofMesaVerde, and indicate thattheareawasofmajorimportancetoinhabitantsgeneral occupied atthesametimeandonayear-round occasion,thestructuresseemingly (see to constructlargecontiguousroomedstructuresconstructedfromlocalsandstone ChacoCanyoninnorthwestNewMexicoisanareawherepopulationscongregated Chaco Canyon Figures Figure 3.4 3.6 and .MesaVerde NationalPark,Colorado.Photobyauthor. ce 3.7 600, andlivedthereuntilabout1280whenmanypeople ). Whileitisnolongerconsideredthatthestructureswere JeE akn — JoeE.Watkins — 60

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:01 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780203122280, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203122280.ch3 valley. Concentratedonandbelow aterraceoverlookingtheAnimasRiver, the 200-year period,isthelargest AncestralPueblocommunityintheAnimasRiver ated thesebuildingsandnamed thesite“Aztec.”AztecRuins,builtandusedover a Earlysettlersmistakenlythought thatpeoplefromtheAztecEmpireinMexico cre- Aztec NationalMonument is BandelierNationalMonument,locatedwestofSanta Fe(see Anotherlocationwheregroupsofpeoplelivedtogether inamorecentralizedlocation Bandelier and inthecanyonbottomsbetween family unitsfromabout constructed inareasdugintovolcanictuffthecliff facewereoccupiedbysmall major drought at that time period. major droughtatthattimeperiod. decline asaplaceofmajorimportanceatabout influence heldbythepeopleofChacoCanyonfromabout discussion ofthearchaeologicalcomplex,technologicalchanges,andgeographic than thatofMesaVerde. CordellandMcBrinn( Figure AcsrlPel utrso h mrcnSuhet — AncestralPuebloCulturesoftheAmericanSouthwest — 3.5 Cliff Palacefromadownwardangle.MesaVerde NationalPark,Colorado.Photo ce 600 to1180,whilelargerpueblosbuiltonthemesatops ce by author. 1180 and1325supportedlargerpopulations. 61 2012: ce , perhaps resulting from a 1130, perhapsresultingfroma 185– ce 900 untilChacoCanyon’s ) offer an extensive 202) offeranextensive Figure 3 . 8 ).Structures

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:01 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780203122280, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203122280.ch3 Figure 3.7 Figure 3.6 Details ofStructuresfromPueblo Bonito.ChacoCultureNationalHistorical .ChacoCultureNationalHistoricalPark.Photobyauthor. Park. Photoby author. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:01 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780203122280, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203122280.ch3 on landsownedorcontrolled bytribalgovernments,oronlandsownedother and disturbance.Sucharchaeological ruinsonfederallyownedorcontrolledlands, easily recognizedandapparent, thusmakingthemeasytargetsforillicitexcavation found throughouttheAmerican Southwest.Archaeologically, suchsitesarerelatively Thereareotherlargestructures andamalgamationofpopulationthathavebeen Others also beenacenterinitsownrightasChaco’s influencewanedafter the centertodistributefoodandgoodssurroundingpopulation.Itmayhave have beenanoutlyingcommunityofChaco,asortancillaryplaceconnectedto Canyon, thesiteofamajorAncestralPueblocommunitytosouth.Aztecmay smaller structures.TheconstructionatAztecshowsastronginfluencefromChaco people atAztecbuiltseveralmulti-storybuildingscalled“greathouses”andmany others. obsidian, andshellrevealmuchabouttheiruseoflocal resourcesandtradewith feather clothing,fibersandalsandmats,pottery, andjewelrymadeofturquoise, people. Aremarkablevarietyoffoodremains,stone andwoodtools,cotton of well-preservedartifactsthatprovideglimpsesintothe livesoftheAncestralPueblo the HopivillagesinArizona.Excavationsearly 1900suncoveredthousands existing communitiesalongtheRioGrande,southto theZuniarea,orwesttojoin ce AcsrlPel utrso h mrcnSuhet — AncestralPuebloCulturesoftheAmericanSouthwest — 1300, theAncestralPueblopeopleleftregion,migrating southeasttojoin

Figure 3.8 Bandelier NationalMonument.NewMexico.Photobyauthor. 63 ce 1100. About Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:01 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780203122280, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203122280.ch3 support smallergroupsofpeople. changed, peoplewereabletoadapt(orre-adapt)localecologicalnichesthatcould into areaswheresmallerpopulationswouldbebetterabletosurvive.Astheclimate possible inthepast,groupsmovedawayfromtheircentralizedlocationsand impossible tocontinuesupportlargepopulationsintheareaswhereithadbeen ists togrowcrops(Cordelletal.2007;Fagan1999).Whenitbecamedifficultor of whathasbeenlabeledthe“LittleIceAge”whenitwasdifficultforagricultural- populations intheareaofAncestralPueblountilabout1250,duringtime reasons. turb andlootarchaeologicalsitesfortheirartifactsmaterialsnumerous state, andtriballawsagainstillegalactions.However, manypeoplecontinuetodis- American Indianorgovernmentagencies,aresupposedtobeprotectedbyfederal, 148– talk ofmanymigrations (seeFergusonandColwell-Chanthaphonh occupied since villages, theoldestofwhich (“OldOraibi”)isthoughttohavebeencontinuously in themidstofNavajoReservation.TheHopi arecomprisedoffourteen the “Hopimesas.”TheHopiareacontemporarygroup ofpeoplewholivetoday ce while occupationofapueblosouthcurrentZuni wasoccupiedbyabout 244) note,theinitialoccupationofthispuebloprobably beganaround lies neartheborderofNewMexicoandArizona.As FergusonandMills(1987: the west,suchaspuebloofLagunaandAcoma pueblo.ThepuebloofZuni in thepueblosofAmericanSouthwestalong RioGrandeaswellto are directlyrelated(byaseriesofgenerationalgaps) tothepeoplewhonowlive lived in,andparticipatedatthearchaeologicalsitesacross theAmericanSouthwest populations. the archaeologicalruins)wereunabletoconnectthemdirectlylocalpueblo large multi-roomandmulti-storiedstructures.TheSpanish(iftheyencountered longer congregatedinareaseitherseasonallyorgeographically, butremainedin reliable economy. Whiletheypracticedsimilartechnologies,thesegroupsalsono areas alongpermanentwatercoursesandinwhereagriculturewasarelatively as wellsharedarchaeologicalhistories. dent onacentralizedstructure.Someregionalareashavesharedculturalbackgrounds themselves. Religioussystemswerelikelyintact,butmorelocalizedratherthandepen- areas suchasMesaVerde intoareaswherethepopulationscouldmoreeasilysupport nacle” ofAncestralPuebloaccomplishment.Peoplehadmovedfromthecentralized tury, localpopulationsnolongerlivedinthesitesthatarchaeologistsseeas“pin- BythetimeEuropeanexplorerCoronadoenteredareainmid-sixteenthcen- Archaeologistshavebeenabletotracethedevelopmentandcentralizationof Anothergroupofpueblosoccupythreemesasinnorthwestern Arizonacalled Still,anthropologistsbelievethatthedescendantsofpeoplewhoconstructed, TheSpanish 1275. 149).

CONTEMPORARY PEOPLESOFTHEAREA ce conquistadores 1200. Inaddition,Hopitraditional storiesandoralhistories JeE akn — JoeE.Watkins — encounteredgroupsofpeoplelivinginlocalized

64 ce 2006: 1325, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:01 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780203122280, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203122280.ch3 Neusius,SarahW. andG.Timothy Gross,2007 Lekson, Stephen H.,2001“FlightoftheAnasazi.” Kroeber, AlfredLewis,1939 Kloor, Keith,2009“WhoWere theAnasazi?” their currentlocations. pueblo populationsofNewMexicoandArizonawerefairlywellestablishedwithin peripheral areas.AtthetimeofEuropeancontactinsixteenthcentury, the waned, withpopulationmovingfromtheregionalcenterstomorediffuseand however, asaresultofclimaticandotherpressures,theAncestralPueblosystem population centersstationedthroughouttheAmericanSouthwest.Atabout organization intheareadevelopedintoalargeandcomplexseriesofnear-urban with foodproductionandstorage.ThroughouttimetheAncestralPueblosocial foodstuffs suchascorn,beans,andsquashwellthetechnologyassociated game. Overtime,theybegantorelymoreheavilyonintroducedandencouraged hunting-and-gathering economythatreliedheavilyonnaturalplantsandwild (Warburton &Begay2005: Kantner Navajo Nationtracessomeoftheirclanstowhattheycontinuecall ancestrytotheAncestralPueblopeopleofFourCornersregion.Even AllthecontemporarypueblopeoplesofAmericanSouthwesttracetheir Hegmon,Michelle,2002“RecentIssuesintheArchaeologyofMimbresRegion ofthe ———andChipColwell-Chanthaphonh,2006“ Ferguson,T.J. andBarbaraMills,1987“SettlementGrowthofZuniPueblo:AnArchitectural Fagan,BrianM.,2005ChacoCanyon:ArchaeologistsExploretheLivesofanAncient Society, Fagan,BrianM.1999Floods,Famines,andEmperors:ElNiñotheFateofCivilizations, Fagan,BrianM.,1995 Cordell,LindaS.,CarlaR.Van West, JeffreyS.Dean,andDeborahA.Muenchrath,2007 Cordell,LindaS.andMaxineE.McBrinn,2012 Colwell-Chanthaphonh,Chip,2010 Colton,HaroldS.,1943“ReconstructionofAnasaziHistory,” Ubiquitous SpatialPerspective,” American Archaeology , NewYork: OxfordUniversityPress. University ofCaliforniaPress. North AmericanSouthwest”, Traditions inArizona’s SanPedroValley . Tucson: UniversityofArizonaPress. History,” New York: OxfordUniversityPress. New York: BasicBooks. New York: ThamesandHudson. Ancestral PuebloMigration”, “Mesa Verde SettlementHistoryandRelocation:ClimateChange,SocialNetworks, Walnut Creek,:LeftCoastPress. Archaeology , Lanham,Maryland:AltamiraPress. Philosophical Society 86(2):264–269. AcsrlPel utrso h mrcnSuhet — AncestralPuebloCulturesoftheAmericanSouthwest — , John,2008“TheArchaeologyofRegions:FromDiscreteAnalytical Toolkit to The 52(4):243–266. Ancient NorthAmerica:TheArchaeologyofaContinent ,

Cultural andNaturalAreasofNativeNorthAmerica 535). Peopleintheareadevelopedoutofageneralized Journal ofArchaeologicalResearch 10(4):307– Kiva 72(4):379–405. Journal ofArchaeologicalResearch 16(1):37–81. CONCLUSIONS BIBLIOGRAPHY Living Histories:NativeAmericanandSouthwestern 65 Archaeology 62(6):18–695pages). Seeking OurPast:AnIntroduction toNorth History isintheLand Archaeology oftheSouthwest , Archaeology 54(5): 44–48. Proceedings oftheAmerican ” Multivocal Tribal 357. 2nd edition, 3rd edition, . Berkeley: Ánaasází 1350,

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 23:01 29 Sep 2021; For: 9780203122280, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203122280.ch3 Wills, W.H. andThomasC.Windes, 1989“EvidenceforPopulationAggregationandDispersal Wills, W.H., 2009“CulturalIdentityandtheArchaeologicalConstructionofHistorical Warburton, MirandaandRichardM.Begay, 2005“AnExplorationofNavajo-Anasazi Walters, HarryandHughC.Rogers,2001“Anasazi‘ Vivian, R.GwinnandMargaretAnderson,2002 Riggs,CharlesR.,2005“LateAncestralPuebloorMogollonPueblo?AnArchitectural Reid,JeffersonandStephanieWhittlesey, 1997 54(2): 347–369. during theBasketmakerIIIPeriodinChacoCanyon,NewMexico,” Theory 16:283–319. Narratives: AnExamplefromChacoCanyon,” Relationships,” Kiva 66(3):317–326. Fagan (gen.ed.),NewYork: OxfordUniversityPress. Perspective onIdentity”, University ofArizonaPress. Ethnohistory 52(3):533–561. Kiva 70(4):323–348. JeE akn — JoeE.Watkins — 66 The ArchaeologyofAncientArizona Chaco Canyon Journal ofArchaeologicalMethodand Anaasází : Two Words, Two Cultures,” , Digging forthePast, American Antiquity , Tucson: Brian