GCS Part 3_Infras:GCS Part 3_Infras 4/9/06 14:42 Page 144

CHAPTER 6

THE CHURCH, THE MOSQUE, AND GLOBAL CIVIL SOCIETY following has a transnational character, the leaders can have a broad and potentially global impact (see Mark Juergensmeyer Berger 1999; Beyer 1994; 2006; Rudolph and Piscatori 1997; Thomas 2005). In this chapter I want to examine this multi-levelled significance of places of worship in global civil society by focusing on two very specific sites in two quite Introduction transnational sacred centres it attracts devotees not different parts of the world. I might have chosen Religion has always been global. Its ideas and only because of the historical significance of the site Mecca and the Vatican, but it seemed to me that it adherents have never been easily contained within the but also because of its mystery and the sheer force of would be more useful to focus on two somewhat less boundaries of polities, whether they were kingdoms, the multitudes. famous sites, and to find sacred locations that carry empires, or nation-states. The old cartographic ploy It would be easy to dismiss the political and social political and social significance both locally and in © of colouring a map with blue for this religion and implications of these transnational religious centres their transnational connections. Caroline Penn Iman Ali Mosque green for that one has never really worked. There have and assert that, like rock concerts, they give the One of the two examples that I have chosen is the always been dense centres of religious communities illusion of transnational community without the Imam Ali Mosque associated with Grand Ayatollah the reputation of local religious centres and the in a few particular places, and a wondrous mixing of substance of it. To some extent this is true, in that Sayyid Ali Husaini Sistani in Najaf, Iraq. The other is charisma of some Muslim leaders put them in hues almost everywhere else. Yet, as Map 6.1 worshippers come and go with the reward of personal the Windsor Village United Methodist Church, a positions of influence and authority not unlike those of indicates, many of the sacred centres of the world’s spiritual transformation, but without necessarily mega-church led by the Reverend Kirbyjon Caldwell in their powerful Christian counterparts. And like them, religious traditions have been significant global undergoing any changes that would affect the socio- Houston, Texas, in the United States. Despite the they play an expanding role in the public life of the markers for members of their faiths and have served political sphere. Moreover, the appeal of some of the many differences between the two religious centres societies of which they are a part, and in the as transnational loci, places of interactive encounter most potent new religious movements is precisely and their leadership, both are influenced by the winds globalisation of the religious culture of their on both social and symbolic levels. because they do not have traditional religious centres. of global cultural change, and both contribute to the traditions. One should not presume, however, that these global As Box 6.1 indicates, many new religious movements growing transnational character of their respective centres are the ‘headquarters’ of the religious are seen almost like rogue states, potentially religious traditions. The mosque traditions with which they are associated. Only the dangerous in part because they are so hard to pin One can find parallels to the Imam Ali Mosque in The Imam Ali Mosque in Najaf is one of the most Vatican really performs that function, and even in the down geographically. Najaf and the Houston mega-church in virtually every remarkable sites in Shi’a Islam. Though only a small case of the papacy its administrative control is more Even those religious traditions that have a global society – including leading Hindu temples of Banares percentage of the world’s Muslims are Shi’a – the rest symbolic than real. Within a mile of the Vatican centre are not necessarily agents of the status quo. and Vrindavan and their attendant Brahmin leaders; are almost all associated with the dominant Sunni quarters in modern Rome many members of the Many rebel against the forces of modernity and the Dalada Maligawa Temple in Kandy, Sri Lanka, with version of Islam – they constitute the majority in Roman Catholic faith cheerfully ignore the church’s secular globalisation, and have more of a its adjacent coterie of influential Theravada Buddhist southern Iraq. Shi’ites are also found in southern edicts regarding birth control, abortion, transforming social effect than might initially meet monks; and the Golden Temple of Sikhism at Lebanon, Pakistan, and especially in Iran, where 90 homosexuality and the like. Yet most would affirm the the eye (see Berger and Huntington 2003; Beyer 1994; Amritsar, Punjab, with its powerful panchayat of per cent of the population is Shi’a of a particular form. significance of the papal see as their religious 2006; Hopkins 2001; Juergensmeyer 2004; 2005; religious leadership installed in the Akal Takht located Like the Shi’a in Iraq they are followers of the Ithna community’s transnational home. 2006). For one thing, the appearance of a global in the temple’s precincts. As Map 6.1 shows, every Ashari (Twelver) brand of Shi’ism, which is based on In other cases it is not so much the comfort of home community can lead to a sense of transnational religious tradition has significant religious sites with the belief that there will be 12 great leaders, or that attracts as the awesome force of spiritual power. identity. When Malcolm X, the American political attendant communities and leadership roles, though imams, in world history. Shrines like those at Lourdes or Najaf may become activist, came to Mecca on pilgrimage in 1964 he was the way that religious organisations function within What makes the Najaf mosque significant is that it S S places of pilgrimage because of their mystical or deeply affected by the fact that his fellow Muslims their traditions can be quite different. is not only a place of worship but also a location for E E R R historical significance. In other cases, such as the came in every shade of skin colour, from the whitest The roles of mosque and church, for example, are pilgrimage, since it serves as the tomb of the founder T T N N E E mega-churches of modern evangelical white to the deepest black. He abandoned some of the not equivalent. There are no priests or pastors in the of the Shi’a line of leadership. It holds the mortal C C S S Protestantism, it is the excitement of the crowds and more racist teachings of his Black Muslim faith soon Islamic tradition. Rituals do not mediate in one’s remains of Ali Ibn Abi Talib, son-in-law of the prophet U U O O I I the charisma of the preachers that attract. The after. salvation in the Islamic tradition in the way they do in Mohammed, who is regarded by Shi’ites as the first G G I I L L largest religious gathering on the planet is the Kumbh Moreover, these transnational centres of religion Roman Catholic Christianity, nor does the mosque imam and the first caliph in Islamic history. For this E E R R Mela at the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna can become bases of social and political power that constitute local communities of faith in the same way reason it is one of the most important sites in the L L A A rivers in India, where every 12 years tens of millions of can enhance the importance of the clergy and leaders that churches function in Protestant Christianity. Shi’a tradition. N N O O I I devotees converge. At the most recent event in 2003 it associated with them. In the current political climate, Muslim clergy lead worship, and they adjudicate the Shi’a clerics that are associated with the Imam Ali T T A A N N is said that numbers approached 70 million. Annually where cultural affiliations can purchase political laws and norms of the tradition, but they do not play Mosque understandably are accorded a great deal of S S N N over 2 million come to Mecca on the Haj, the influence, religious leaders with significant followings the same role in a follower’s path to salvation that a reverence in Shi’a society. At present the Mosque’s A A R R T T pilgrimage required of all faithful Muslims. Like other can make striking claims on public life. When their Christian priest or pastor does. Yet, as we shall see, most visible clerical celebrity is the Grand Ayatollah

144 145 GCS Part3_Infras:GCS3_Infras4/9/0614:42Page146

146 TRANSNATIONAL RELIGIOUS CENTRES M a p 6.1: World P R St Reli re redomi el ig a ligi t M M Neu M M B Ch ( E Ch N M J H gio e no ew ons n u in io u a in in a on Sh O Si Bu Chr Chin Korea I Hin Ju Ja u s p thn in r dd jo jo s t d o o la is khi d tr her -r i d lim us ol in d es r r r r u n a d hi tia is a m al s , dh na o eligio i su in t s i t es u s is s n icy e a) o tia s r -religi u m is n m n c t t is t fr i eligi m p ppo e univ erf er s n en m reli n or m m reli eedom ity t ference t us erence t r owa tr r ersi gio t onis ou gio eli es n s st n gio t r cen d n re tres lig i an o n d r eligious Chi Ethno Neo-r nese No -reli n-relig elig Chr B univ udd fr M Atheis g H us io io is eed ers Sikh ind tia nis nis hi lim io sts is us us ns om, ts ts ts s s t Top 2005 10 a 500 d h Relig er en t 1,0 00 s i ous , gl ob Gr a 1,5 00 l l y oups (m i ll i 2,0 00 on s ) 2,5 00 I ndia and S ri La nka I s r ae l a nd P a l e s ti ni a n A ut h o r it y 147

TRANSNATIONAL RELIGIOUS CENTRES GCS Part3_Infras:GCS3_Infras4/9/0614:42Page148

148 TRANSNATIONAL RELIGIOUS CENTRES Ha follow apo so be are Uni the Ind it are l le arou In te Falu ho u tha be Out Box pow Je we as in an d worl La fr Paki mi w The foll ow in ha l aut i vi s om i ad te th me hovah e li oth tte ss ng re bs a h f i t hor te si e n cal an rn s rn Be con b e e e la Ce n s dw of n ar s f i t in Oth H Th Th Wi Wi as r 6 d i r d on S r tan Kr s. i t ran e te d in oc in in at i e gh rg 9,000 he Da f e yp i at e .1 i Da g h d o r it of nt nd ti S t i th th e e e tr s s g g de , M ar y ish f e i s ’s i th est Eu r Mu on e es n l tates t ’ite co n th d tic . al l e snat . . ove ral es, vote Ch Ja th a Sw i i th y u r a. ot any m m n n veral T The For e Wi t on nd e na al S y tra e som w e ran r a slim pa p op e Ch r Su pe any em be in e m ce Foun ne Isl gove el rs amin A of fice s ai nt h tte co ns rophesies he move es ional m ce trad it ne el me of e Movem ns ne ainst a t igious rce nt ial. nn mo am ct his se lped nd ove mp t s mi l is re sn n et of an d ss s ou these res n io ns se co ew rned tre ri i de d ti ara y er n rs im at vement – The go Is it es , ational is Eu reaso ca. a m it ment tsid li o con tage unt io na r s her go o vat ion ni t as s eam lam to is in es l in Am ve en m f al ive n ro at ent to in m an vern Sevent sev by ries y Ch e nect som ar ive r pu s 45 O al t e o H (t t, l pe reg , w he nm ent em co nv o o q er ica, th , , vem n t Ind ou t ho ai fa, t Ch ines e e in Mo he r or pe rm t f er fo ui c (t urc bl was rel he eral r cou radit led co m e t me nt t it t he evil ard m it io hey et bers ug r gan icise hat t e ransna ia. reli si de s 199 0s he igio vem kly en Mo ersi on h n exam st ov h im es taken Ch rist nt Is ra el. 7 h by In ed s, imp Ch ines e t mu In of ill io an ent t Da y ts ha s isatio em en ho ug ar wer Musl m hem ries. t rm us or ternat giou w he after ent nal al , t th e R cl t Sc e he gained il B especia g ni t he l ere ajnee pl so tio b icat ed t on s lio m e aims o an is ud dhis Ad ve b ia r serio us move ha ve iento , y e, h autho im ea t fte move y ns ly Un it an ned as se t o which na t s n n co Li wen the loc iona in vem mo is the b n en dured m membe mo le cre e e w o l sh, ns idered ro a Ho n nt is t o th e d ed log f in at r p ad w me nn ed a o e in st ov emen lly e 1 ff g ment t ty riti the ut l en tive v rld, ns Ahmadd wi th orldw ide ed 99 5 g r ly ue ic ial charac c ano t em e Fal appe al So -fir y S the t fo ll al l gz hi, a n in on ce s . s rs. es ts th tat e was rd tat e of t Si , o wo cie m y es a e u Ira st it em rs a c owe uts s , l hav e su s ed nce nd te he l nt s y Th e n of de cade s la im m nd ov e arin n ed from peci rld’ ty s. pros crib i pt s cent c wh o n, w rro ri or Gon g foun o i ter, s r ide som al le wi l at sai iyy a pi ci ts rs orldwi f Pe o li So by th at me 20 00 gu p whe la s Ch i do on s f Uta h. no th nerv all an d romi o ury, d ar r Kris rgel Japan, n me st t d n and 200 Mahari ru, on . ded d el nts e he s , t move y s the y ow ne to ti d e ac – re ha ve a ig act uspi 10, 000 of Afri s es o t e prac de i y gai 65 nenc is he ng hna the co s t fl n Th o ostal f ious m In c gai t wi i rans mem li gas e a n to hat out pe wit Ch i ves be c and subs u c i il l dher m ned ci pe r th move go s th e incl 1952 shi deve a. nt ry n reas ti lar ug h e rsec io n C o e e i h ce xpa tra ar conv attack n na t na . vern m the l n om mo m ons c nt Tho in ber s o i ges se uding c tra Au m Mahes n ent cri n Indi e s cal by em en t di fo in g l an d it ut i me ot ori . New h by io tria op i ntenc in g vem t In diff r dit be he Th e t ugh ent as ll o t is s na l t i iou l on a au tho ons ed be rs ly, radi of L e gr 199 9 nt of en t te wo in ional i we Sh in at ba s gi o and to s cul 19 70 s. Rus ional ety en t R owi snes h Y Bahai ho ne pre i worl r a o i h t tem pte ed Indi the n or k, ts on rldwi el tio , rs). im are t u as Yog t t he ed wh o i w s th e by t rans ri t ri ky i mp r sia ng t o t ad to 12 gi ou law . nal to he re acy he eve H f ans s) To ky dw ide r so c In ie s It i a orth i th e enam e th e ubba rd, n ligi c , G de. Hi dea hav e and mi fro Un it o, stabl has m ont ed es in c Unite p pl whe na ti s r, r eor d s Sa lt thr . ial eli rote ndu om liv on. a eth ove ll i o m tea c se d odox la r mo to The th lu de i t rol n ed ens gio ough new ing ge on sub he me on al c and ed re bee ish e its b ora ge s ons me sted La ke d Paki So by v mo . lo ck hi ngs c by us e St Harri m the C an Ba ure States i mb e s ar way. ing as e ver ts o me nt me n the rel m hu r nt t at iste em be vem rigins ne tw of m t t ound aut elf hai stan hei r j A he at oral aile e mo sio Ci el i ac c wa ig io an y it s c meri re rshi s ch o so n, Japan Sho omm d of t Aleph ty , hori t r a f ent o gi o fa he , be ligi ns he ir al s or k vem s d lar rgan i t es wor rs us an and wor o t s the hese ith no in p he ab l si and fo r f ko tandar ca n us b ous o o s ti a gel wor li v d nc e Je is unes mo n- Chi India ui ldi in cl f es. ent ag gre ese ldwid that . k to memb ldw id e e m wor l it pe re As m e sa t nown su s pr y to sci s to mo ldw id mov ove ve has it s i ligi ove ’s ud e of rsec 199 6 Poli tab il ahara, n ob abl ng s rtur co io na ds. em me nt us e in enc to ne s d. e Sou t ve Ch ri e ss non- ous me me n urts eme er an tic the a t It uted ment s is i ed. e er ive Th he e l e s over y it nt h al has o st n h ged s the e . as f ts nts g At of dawn thes thous to gained transna movem pol affili movem fict the io i tical ations e n Al and, o m Wes te writer, th f infl ents ent tional ov eme and t ough he uence accordi the has tw are rn-do econo base rel y th enty nt been o obvi e igi s ffer thro ng mi Al-Q ar d mic -fi ous ousl on e nated to banne a rs t ugh c pro ae i mov non learly his ntrus y ce da m rev totype nt par adigm pract d -chur em osques ne ury oluti ion i poli n ent t Germany, wor ice the into ch of ti o s cal nary , k an and es of ar moveme the of as t in e diane alternat imates soci politi global reli pe that Mi whe r gious- ce ddle ate t cal i nt cs, the y i re ved (wi wo ive d had m Eas wi which i t t rld base r hi c ov e as i elig th r s n t iti ac , o c ro O m the que t rder onsid d i qui hey ous- sam is gue e w nts, red a move ebsi the are in a ki er ba bands nd bin the y the a ed sed tes. se also me gl of cular an Lade obal pos t- m vie w nt Thro by alternati re u i ght t nscrupul o go l he n foll igio nat cold ugh of vernmental and a estim owing ion- gl lso us ve war thei obali s in i be state m self-he ate r us the of era. ilar sation consid tr i c several ansnatio ir s sys t omme radic aut 1 i deolog lp 0 ered horiti em that mi therapy. al rcial llion) hundr nal and jihadi is y which es. and a n orga . We challe Though etw ork ed The By hav e stern nisati the nge of on. 149

SOCIAL FORUMS GCS Part 3_Infras:GCS Part 3_Infras 4/9/06 14:42 Page 150

Sayyid Ali Husaini Sistani. Another leading cleric, pressured the US occupation authorities by calling for programmes. When he accepted the call to the Caldwell was asked to give the benediction. Since Sayed Mohammed Baqir al-Hakim, might have been early democratic elections that would ensure Shi’a pastorate at the Windsor Village church, its then he has been a frequent visitor to the White significant competition for Sistani’s clerical authority, political control in the country. He has also issued membership numbered only 25 souls. It is now the House. but he was killed in a bomb blast at the Najaf mosque fatwas urging Shi’ites to vote, and to avoid responding largest Methodist church in the United States. on 29 August 2003, soon after the US-led military in kind to the attacks by radical Sunni activists. Though it began as a small African-American Mosque and church in the public sphere coalition’s invasion that toppled Saddam Hussein’s community church without any particular significance This brief look at two influential centres of religious regime. Al-Hakim had been living in Iran to escape The church – certainly nothing with the historical weight of the life in Iraq and the United States, provides an Saddam’s persecution of Shi’ite Islamic leaders, and In searching for a Christian analogy to the Najaf Imam Ali Mosque – it has become something of a opportunity to make several observations about the returned to what was assumed would be a mantle of mosque, one might immediately think of St Peter’s place of pilgrimage in contemporary Protestant life. In role of religion in society at this moment of late political and religious leadership before the blast Cathedral at the Vatican and the role of the Pope, or addition to Sunday services that attract an enormous modernity and the dawn of the era of globalisation. terminated his life. It was widely assumed that Abu an important Catholic constituency in a Latin multicultural and international following, the church The first is that religious institutions are increasingly Mus’ab al-Zarqawi, or some other jihadi Sunni American country where the Church hierarchy and has its own radio and television programmes. The aware of the role that they play in the public sphere extremist, was behind the terrorist attack, which took political leadership are closely intertwined. Or one elaborate website of the church lists an array of (see Appadurai 1996; Robertson 1992). approximately 100 other lives as well. might think of a comparable pilgrimage centre, such affiliated organisations, including nine separately One could say that religion has always played a A year later, in August 2004, the Najaf mosque was as Lourdes or Jerusalem. For the purpose of this charted non-profit organisations that are significant role in public life and that there is nothing occupied by members of the Badr Brigade, a military chapter and our attempt to understand the role of administered under the rubric of the Power new about the politicisation of religion or the cadre associated with the young Muqtada al Sadr, religion in contemporary public life, however, I have Connection. religionisation of politics. While this is no doubt true, it another clerical competitor. The members of the settled on a distinctly US example – the Windsor Like Sistani, Caldwell is politically influential in an is also the case that religion has taken a back seat brigade sought safe haven in the mosque from troops Village United Methodist Church of Houston, Texas, indirect way. Tom DeLay, the once-powerful member politically ever since the secular values of the dispatched by the US occupation forces and the and its pastor, the Reverend Kirbyjon Caldwell. of the US House of Representatives, has participated European Enlightenment were imposed on Western interim Iraq government to bring al Sadr to justice for The first thing to be said about the Windsor Village in executive meetings of the church’s Power societies in the eighteenth century and thrust upon a series of crimes with which he had been charged. United Methodist Church in Houston is that it is a long Connection organisation, as have many other local the rest of he world as part of the inheritance of Sistani was out of the country at the time, seeking way from the Imam Ali Mosque in Najaf – and that the political leaders. Much of Caldwell’s political clout is colonial influence in the nineteenth and twentieth treatment for a heart condition in London. When he Reverend Caldwell is no Grand Ayatollah Sistani. This due to his relationship with another Texas politician, centuries (Masuzawa 2005). During this period the returned, a ceasefire was arranged, and the keys of distance is more than geographic. As I have George W Bush, the current President of the United doctrine of the separation of church and state was the mosque were turned over to him. mentioned, the congregational role that the Church States, who frequently attends the church in Houston often interpreted as meaning that religious influence The Grand Ayatollah Sistani was born in 1930 in plays in Protestant Christianity is quite different from and who has called on Caldwell to be an adviser on had no role in the shaping of public policy or the Mashhad, Iran. Early in his life he went to Najaf to the more public role of the mosque in Shi’a Islam, and faith-based initiatives organised by the federal choice of political leadership. In the last decades of study, and stayed there indefinitely. His mentor in the role of the clergy is also quite different in the two government. Caldwell, who calls Bush ‘Brother the twentieth century and the beginning of the twenty- Najaf was the Grand Ayatollah Abdul-Qassim Khoei, traditions. A Shi’ite Muslim ayatollah is a leader and President’, has explained his friendship by reference first, however, religion has roared back into public life who managed to steer clear of the vicissitudes of Iraqi scholar but his role is not quite that of a Protestant to their common interest in business with a vengeance. Sometimes it has laid claim to politics by declaring a separation between religion Christian pastor, and even less that of a Roman entrepreneurship. Caldwell, who has an MBA from public attention through acts of violence; at other and state. Before his death, Khoei had designated Catholic priest. One could also cite other the Wharton School of Business, in addition to a times its assertions are made more quietly through Sistani as his successor. Sistani has largely adopted dissimilarities in the organisation of religious life, the theological degree, has published a book titled the ultimately more far-reaching impact of political the position of his mentor in steering clear of direct significance of sacred sites, and the social Entrepreneurial Faith , which is a sequel to his first influence. What this means for religion is the involvement in politics, a position that likely provided a significance of religious affiliation. popular book, The Gospel of Good Success (Caldwell awareness that it has the potential to make an impact certain amount of personal security under the Yet there are also some interesting similarities. 2000; Caldwell and Kallestad 2004). Since the African- on public life (see Cowan 2002). S S Saddam regime. Both religious centres are at the heart of the societies American community in the United States tends to The political success of Caldwell and Sistani E E R R Since the fall of Saddam, however, Sistani has been in which they are set. Protestant Christianity is, like favour the Democratic Party, Caldwell was roundly indicates that this impact can be considerable indeed. T T N N E E involved in politics in several ways – directly through Shi’a Islam, the minority branch of its tradition but criticised by other African-American clergy for It can also be beneficial to the careers of religious C C S S issuing fatwas with political overtones, though never Houston is firmly in Protestant country, just as Najaf preferring Bush to Al Gore, Bush’s rival in his first- leaders. One could observe that Sistani and Caldwell U U O O I I publicly supporting particular candidates, and is in Shi’a territory. The Reverend Caldwell, the term election. Caldwell, who claims to be an have used the platforms of mosque and church to G G I I L L indirectly through behind-the-scenes political reigning cleric of the Houston Church, is, like Sistani, independent, defended his support for Bush by citing shrewd political advantage. Indeed, they are prime E E R R discussions. He is especially close to members of the enormously popular in his region. Both religious the president’s positive record on involving African- examples of the powerful role that religious leaders L L A A Supreme Council for the Islamic Revolution in Iraq centres have impressive numbers of followers. American aides in his campaign and for promising can play in an indirect way in democratic societies. N N O O I I (SCIRI), the dominant Shi’a political organisation. Caldwell has built his community church into mega- blacks a role in capitalism’s success. Caldwell was Sistani’s power in the post-Saddam era has grown T T A A N N Even before the fall of Saddam, Sistani had issued a church status with some 14,000 listed members and invited to introduce Bush to the Republican considerably. This has meant that he has S S N N fatwa calling on the Shi’a community to avoid resisting thousands more as part of a public ministry nurtured Convention that nominated Bush as its presidential extraordinary influence in the making and breaking of A A R R T T the US military invasion. In the new Iraq, Sistani through publications and radio and television candidate; and at Bush’s first inaugural ceremony candidates for political leadership, and that his

150 151 GCS Part 3_Infras:GCS Part 3_Infras 4/9/06 14:42 Page 152

concerns about the role of religion in Iraqi society can non-profits deal with a variety of community services provided very good examples of global thinking, and be expressed in statements of public policy. It also including low-cost housing, business loans, health that may be true. But what is impressive about these means that his authority has been entrenched within care and educational support. examples is that even such locally powerful his own leadership circles. Religious-based charities Most Methodist pastors do not have the popularity institutions as these, to a certain degree, have an directly under his control have expanded considerably or influence of the Reverend Kirbyjon Caldwell; and ethnically and internationally inclusive world view. with government support. He has used the positive most local Shi’ite clerics do not have the political Despite the fact that al Sistani’s mosque and public response to his religious-based social service muscle of the Grand Ayatollah Sistani. Yet the Caldwell’s church are potent local forces, they both institutions to remind the Iraqi community that recognition of Sistani’s and Caldwell’s roles does raise have transnational ties. religion is often able to provide services and support awareness about the potential of the influence of The Imam Ali Mosque is almost by definition when the government will not or cannot do so. religion in public life. Though one might conclude that transnational. Because of its prime historical In the nearby setting of Palestine, the Hamas Sistani and Caldwell largely function in a self-serving importance it is a place of pilgrimage and worship for movement used the goodwill that it generated within way, they demonstrate that religion can make a pious Shi’ite Muslims from around the world. As a the Palestinian community through a network of difference in public life. In many cases this public role result the site is something of an international health clinics and other social service agencies to of religion can be quite positive. community. Sistani himself comes from Iran, where create political power. This electoral power enabled By enhancing the image of religion’s potential for Farsi was his native tongue, and he still able to speak the party to triumph over Fateh, its secular rival, at the leadership in areas of political and social service in Farsi as well as Arabic. The very fact that Islam has a January 2006 elections, to become the majority party society, these visible leaders may be making a liturgical language that is common to Muslims of all © in the Palestinian National Assembly. significant contribution. By their examples they might nationalities is something of a transnational cultural PoFsatrearhoNfoGshra/PnadnoAsyPaitcotullraehs Ali Husaini Sistani In the United States it cannot be said that the indirectly be encouraging other religious activists to tie. At Najaf, Sistani is able to communicate and serve Reverend Caldwell has anything like the political be involved in the public sphere in similar ways, or in as a spiritual leader to all Shi’ite Muslims, not only inter-married, that many tribes, including the tribe of influence of Hamas or Grand Ayatollah Sistani. Some ways that are less narrow and self-serving. There Arabic-speaking Iraqis but also Farsi-speaking interim Iraq President al-Yawar, had both Sunni and political observers have commented that no have indeed been instances in the past in which the Iranians, Urdu-speaking Pakistanis, and the Shi’a elements within it, and that Sunni Arabs evangelical leader can have much political power influence of religion on the state has helped occasional English-speaking Shi’ite from somewhere comprised 15 per cent of the support of his own under the Bush administration since President governments to become more humane. During the else in the world. The interfaith and multicultural Islamic Da’awa Party, which is regarded as Shi’ite. In George W Bush is himself a sort of religious leader. In civil rights struggle in the United States, for example, constituency of Najaf’s pilgrimage community has the 2005 elections, both the Islamic Da’awa Party and this sense he has replaced such religious politicians the moral authority of the Church was a significant helped to provide something of a diverse and even SCIRI made an effort to reach out to Sunni and other as the Reverend Jerry Falwell and Pat Robertson, who factor in pressing for the expansion of rights for international flavour to the neighbourhood of the communities and include non-Shi’ites in their have sometimes resorted to making extreme political members of minority racial and ethnic groups. At the Imam Ali Mosque. It is in microcosm an example of organisations. statements as a way of retaining public attention. If same time there are instances where being touched the globalisation of Islam (see Bayes and Tohedi 2001; Thus, political power – or perhaps more correctly President Bush is the leader of the religious right, by political power has been a good thing for religious Doumato and Posusney 2001; Mottahedeh, Schaebler the quest for greater political power – has caused Caldwell is his faithful lieutenant. Nothing in institutions. In some cases it has made them more and Stenberg 2004). local religious institutions and groups to reach out Caldwell’s statements indicates anything other than a concerned about issues of social equality and justice. The Imam Ali shrine is also respected by many beyond their own constituencies. Perhaps without kind of blind loyalty to Bush’s leadership. When Bush Because the Roman Catholic Church is aware of its Sunni Muslims both inside and outside Iraq, a fact that quite his realising how it happened, the Grand was criticised for claiming that God had instructed potential for political influence it is more attentive has not gone unnoticed by leaders such as Sistani, Ayatollah Sistani has become not just a Shi’a leader him to wage war in Iraq and try to bring peace to than otherwise to public issues and more prone to who have made efforts to meet with Sunni as well as but an Iraqi one, and a spokesperson not just for Iraq Palestine and Israel, it was Caldwell, along with the comment about ethical issues in society, including Shi’ite leaders. Sistani and SCIRI, the party with which but for moral values that relate to persons from a head of Bush’s office to promote federal support for censuring warfare and condemning the death penalty. he is largely associated, have gone out of their way to variety of ethnic and national backgrounds. S S faith-based initiatives, who was brought to a press Thus, though the newly discovered public role of make the point that they welcome support from Sunni Something of the same could be said of the E E R R conference to assure the public that Bush was not religion can be narrow and self-serving, it can also as well as Shi’a Muslims, and from members of other Reverend Kirbyjon Caldwell. Though his Windsor T T N N E E claiming to be hearing voices from God and that he expand religion’s social awareness and help society to religious communities as well. They claim that SCIRI Village United Methodist Church is almost entirely C C S S was indeed quite normal. address moral issues. does not have a pro-Shi’a political agenda. American, it is largely African American, and the U U O O I I Though Caldwell’s influence on most aspects of This point was made even more emphatically by ethnicity of most of its members is a strong reminder G G I I L L public policy in the White House may be limited to that The multicultural and transnational Abu Israa al-Malika, a member of the politburo of the that US society is not totally European in ethnic E E R R of a cheerleader, he has made a contribution to one of dimensions of local institutions Shi’ite-based Islamic Da’awa Party in Iraq, which met composition. Caldwell is attentive to the needs of his L L A A President Bush’s pet projects, the federal funding of The second observation to be made about religion’s with an international delegation of scholars, including African-American constituency and quite conscious of N N O O I I faith-based community programmes. In fact, renewed public role is its international and Mary Kaldor and Yahia Said of the London School of his connections to it, especially in addresses and T T A A N N Caldwell’s own organisation and his stable of nine transnational perspective. It might be suggested that Economics, and myself, in May 2004. Al-Malika messages aimed primarily at members of the church S S N N community-based non-profit organisations would in choosing to focus on the Imam Ali Mosque and the pointed out that the alleged Sunni–Shi’a divide in Iraq and the local community. He is fond of quoting from A A R R T T have much to benefit from such federal support. His Windsor Village United Methodist Church I have not was greatly exaggerated. He said that many families the sermons of the Reverend Martin Luther King Jr.

152 153 GCS Part 3_Infras:GCS Part 3_Infras 4/9/06 14:42 Page 154

and associating himself by implication with America’s religious constituency consists entirely of those who Box 6.2: Global religious websites civil rights movement, which that brought more rights have logged on to a site or who engage in conversation to African Americans. But outside this circle Caldwell in a web-based chat room. Such associations can Increasingly the Internet provides a transnational locale for religious communication and interaction. speaks as a public servant and a representative of the sometimes take on a kind of intense intimacy Religious websites enable traditional organisations to reach out to their membership, publicise their moral dimension of society in general, with no specific especially in the busy sites of jihadi Muslim ideologies activities, and attract new followers. At the same time many of the new websites have been launched by non- ethnic reference. He seems to make a special effort to or millenarian Christian visionaries. These are cases traditional groups. In these cases the respondents and followers who access the sites, enter web-chat rooms, reach out to the majority community in society in where cyber-communication has led to cyber- and post messages on web-bulletin boards constitute new forms of transnational religious communities. At recruiting new members to his church and in gaining community. the extreme end of this development are the militant Christian and jihadi Muslim sites, many of them with public support for his Power Connection and its The Reverent Kirbyjon Caldwell also has a website, active chat rooms and bulletin board listings, which recruit new followers and propagate their activist non-profit ventures. which is located at www.kingdombuilders.com. Interestingly, unlike the sites of most non-profit ideologies. The most secretive sites are password-protected and shift locations frequently to avoid The ambivalent relationship to global institutions, the entrepreneurially minded Caldwell government monitoring. civil society has designated it as a dot.com rather than a dot.org In part to counteract the jihadi sites, a moderate south-east Asian Muslim group supported by The fact that religious leaders such as Caldwell and site. It is the Internet location not only for the Windsor the Malaysian government has set up its own cyber mosque. It reaches out to the culturally and politically Sistani reach out to a constituency beyond their own Village Methodist Church but also for the nine non- curious through several languages, and advocates an essentially non-political version of Islam small ethnic and national circles does not mean that profit organisations associated with the Power (http://cybermosque.mpsj.gov.my). Perhaps the most informative of the Muslim websites is Islam on Line, they have become more broad-minded or global in Connection NGO administrative umbrella. It is also which offers news of developments in the Islamic world in addition to theological and devotional resources their thinking. In fact, one could argue that in their the site for several other affiliated organisations, (www.islamonline.net). attempts to harness their multicultural and including the Christian Entrepreneurial Organization Several non-denominational sites provide chat rooms for Christians interested in engaging in discussion international constituencies they are exploiting global (CEO) and an organisation called Caring for the of theological and moral issues. Usually, no attempt is made to limit the discussion, though the tenor of the civil society rather than nurturing it. But it does Nations. sites is often evangelical without being overtly political or millenarian. One such site is located at indicate that, for good or for ill, socially and politically Caring for the Nations is Caldwell’s way of updating www.christianforums.com. Another Christian site is somewhat more theologically liberal and reaches out to active religious groups in the contemporary milieu the old missionary enterprise that for over two must take into account the increasing multicultural centuries has characterised the Protestant approach agnostics and Christians who are unaffiliated with any church. It calls itself the First Church of Cyberspace, and international character of the societies of which to the world. One might say that the Roman Catholic (www.godweb.org). A Jewish site similar to the First Church of Cyberspace aims at a non-committed Jewish they are a part. It also means that to some extent, branch of Christianity is by its nature transnational, audience and calls itself a CyberSynagogue. (www.synagogue3000.org). perhaps despite themselves, they become more since it has a central administrative allegiance to the Among the many informative religious websites is a useful Buddhist cyber centre, Tricycle transnational in their thinking than they themselves Pope and a hierarchical organisational structure that (www.tricycle.com). A site that provides news and general information on all religious communities and their realise. unites all parishes and church agencies, wherever organisations worldwide is www.beliefnet.com, which claims to be the Internet’s ‘largest spiritual website’ In accessing Sistani’s website, www.sistani.org, one they are in the world, to the transnational network of and which supports itself largely through advertising. A site that provides a reasonably objective attempt to is presented with an elaborately designed Internet the Roman Church. This is not the case with the determine the actual numbers of adherents of religious communities worldwide is located at location available to the reader in a variety of Protestant branch of Christianity, in which www.adherents.com. languages, including English. Since the site is filled organisational control is vested into local hands and with complicated graphics it takes a while for it to fully the cultural context of the church communities tends load up on one’s computer screen. The first image to to be national, sometimes stridently so, and appear is a shaded outline map of the continents of the world with no national boundaries. The fact that S S Najaf appears to be located at the centre of this map E E R R would seem to signify that this is a rather imperialistic T T N N E E view of the world, with Sistani’s Shi’a community at C C S S the epicentre of worldwide cultural meaning and U U O O I I social significance. But it is indeed a global vision. G G I I L L The very fact that Sistani has a website – and a quite E E R R sophisticated one at that – indicates that he or L L A A members of his inner circle recognise the importance N N O O I I of this transnational means of communication. T T A A N N Indeed, as Box 6.2 indicates, religious organisations S S N N are increasingly reaching out to new followers A A R R T T through electronic means. In some cases the

154 155 GCS Part 3_Infras:GCS Part 3_Infras 4/9/06 14:42 Page 156

occasionally with a xenophobic vengeance. The great Friends Service Committee, which is sponsored by the Box 6.3: Transnational religious NGOs missionary movement of the Protestant Churches in Quakers, have also provided an important supportive the nineteenth and twentieth centuries that brought role for global civil society, especially in the area of Almost every religious tradition has organisations that provide emergency relief and social services. Some of thousands of eager American and European international conflict-resolution negotiation. One missionaries to Africa, India, China, and south-east might suggest that the Windsor Village United these are local, in that they are directly connected to churches, mosques, temples and synagogues in a Asia, were therefore on a double mission. On the one Methodist Church’s international agencies are simply particular locale. But many of these organisations are transnational, providing social services around the hand they were extensions of national influence, a carrying on a tradition of social service that is a part of world to anyone in need regardless of faith. sort of cultural parallel to economic and political every religious organisation’s image of itself as an Some of the Christian relief organisations have been accused of using their social services as a means colonialism. But at the same time they established agency of humane benefit to the world. of securing conversions or selectively serving only members of their own religious community. Some networks of transnational affiliation, thereby Thus even the most parochial and nationalistic of evangelical Protestant Christian groups have been banned in India and elsewhere for this reason. The anticipating the era of globalisation and competing religious organisations have the potential to reach out Salvation Army provides social services to all who need it, but also conducts adjacent religious activities. with the global influence of the Catholic Church. and think in terms of transnational service and World Vision International, an independent charity with a Christian orientation provides services in 96 Caring for the Nations supported by the Windsor influence. There is, of course, a great diversity of countries; it reserves 5 per cent of its funds for religious activities in countries where religious proselytising is Village United Methodist Church of Houston, Texas, opinions within the communities associated with the allowed. Catholic organisations, including Catholic Relief Service and Catholic Agency for Overseas reflects both of these dimensions of missionary Windsor Village United Methodist Church and the Development serve all in need, but often utilise existing church organisational networks to facilitate the internationalism. It replicates the missionaries’ Imam Ali Mosque. Leaders such as the Reverend distribution of relief supplies. Church World Service, the Protestant international relief service associated with patronising approach to other parts of the world in Kirbyjon Caldwell and the Grand Ayatollah Sistani presuming that people in other nations need and represent a significant element of the community, but the World Council of Churches, also uses existing church networks as well as providing relief directly in would welcome the ‘caring’ that the Houston Church’s not all of it. Yet their broader aspirations for political emergency situations. Other groups, such as the Quakers’ American Friends Service Committee, are Caring for the Nations programme provides. influence and social impact help to shape the role of committed to international relief and conflict mediation regardless of religious affiliation, and do not utilise Evangelism is one of the activities promoted by Caring religious institutions in the contemporary world. This local Christian organisations to provide their services. for the Nations, and one can only assume that the role increasingly is one that interacts – in both A similar tension (between social services that are linked to local religious networks and those that are form of Christianity that it encourages people from exploitive and supportive ways – with transnational offered directly to all in need) exists within the charitable organisations associated with other religious other nations to adopt is strikingly similar to the networks and an emerging global civil society. traditions. In Islam, one of the five pillars of the faith is Zakat (charitable offerings). These are sometimes cultural values and religious beliefs of the members imposed as a kind of tax and distributed by governments in Islamic countries, administered sometimes of the Windsor Village United Methodist Church. Yet at through local mosque-related organisations and sometimes through charitable organisations specifically the same time the organisation is pledged to provide created for humanitarian relief. Islamic Relief is an international organisation operating in 25 countries; it was social benefits, including disaster relief, health established by a Muslim doctor living in the UK to provide services similar to those delivered by Christian services and education. Many of the social services charitable organisations. Muslim Aid also offers non-denominational relief and social services, as does promoted by Caldwell’s non-profit agencies associated with the Power Connection provide social Merhamet, which is active in Bosnia and Turkey. welfare support for the needy in Houston. Thus in One of the largest Muslim charities, the Holy Land Foundation, was outlawed in the United States in some ways the Caring for the Nations movement is a December 2001. The charity claimed to be established solely to provide relief for refugees, particularly way of thinking of the Church’s relation to society in displaced Palestinians. It also provided funds to assist refugees in Bosnia and elsewhere, including aid for transnational terms. homeless people in the United States after tornadoes in Texas and floods in Iowa. But the US government In this respect the Caring for the Nations noted that its founders included leaders of Hamas, and the charity was alleged to have been a conduit for programme of the Houston church has much in funds to the militant Palestinian movement, which has been involved in suicide attacks in Israel. S S common with other transnational efforts of Christian World Jewish Aid was established by the UK Jewish community to provide emergency relief and E E R R organisations that have a positive impact on global T T development aid to those who need it throughout the world. A similar mission is stated by Shanti Volunteer N N E E civil society. As Box 6.3 indicates, international non- C C Association, an international Buddhist NGO based in Japan. In India, the Sarvodaya Movement was S S profit non-governmental organisations are associated U U established as an NGO providing village-level development and relief following the tradition of Mohandas O O I I with every religious tradition (see Smock 2001; G G I I Gandhi. In Sri Lanka, a Buddhist version of the movement called Sarvodaya Shramadana has been L L Simkhada and Warner 2005). The Protestant global E E established by A T Ariyaratne, a Sinhalese Buddhist. BAPS Care International, an international relief R R agency for social service and emergency relief, for L L A A example, is Church World Service, an agency organisation, has been established in association with the worldwide Hindu Swaminaryanan movement. N N O O I I supported by the United Methodist Church and other Some organisations that bear a religious name are not directly related to any religious organisation or T T A A N N Protestant denominations through the World Council community. The Christian Children’s Fund, though founded by a Presbyterian minister, has no connection with S S N N of Churches, the international Protestant coordinating any religious organisation. The International Red Cross and the Red Crescent, its associated organisation in A A R R T T body. Particular church groups, such as the American the Middle East, are not affiliated with any religion, despite the cross and crescent symbolism in their names.

156 157 GCS Part3_Infras:GCS3_Infras4/9/0614:42Page158

158 TRANSNATIONAL RELIGIOUS CENTRES Robertso n, Mottahedeh, Masuzawa, – – Juergensmeyer, Rudolph, Simkhada , Hopkins, Doumato, Cowan, Caldwell, Ca ldwell, – Beyer , – Be rg er, Ba ye s, Thom as, Ap padu rai, Smock, RE (ed) an d (ed) (2 006) and (2004) of How Oxford University Intr oduction Cases Reiner and Press. Transnational Culture Westvie w Changing Press. Expand (2006) Wholenes s Sa ge Suc cess: Un iversit y Cultural Ma cmil lan. Resurgent Rights Religion of Organisations Religion, Studies. Occasional Pro gram Peacebuilding Tr ansformati on Soul Pluralism Globalization FER (2006) Hu ntin gton , Modernity Globalisation (2005) Pete r Ja ne European of Tyler David Pete r Pu blica tion s. . Religion Globalisation Entr epr eneurial in Scott Dwight Susanne Durham: University . the Kirbyjon Ki rbyj on Publishers. God’s Eleanor Thousand and Diversity Shambhu Ar jun Politics, Catholic Roland A Tomoko for the Pre ss. an d The E Press. Pres s. . (1 994) Religion Roy, Religion (2002) 21st Road . Paper . New (e d) (2001) . (200 5) Gender: New NCE the Chicago: World’s Kingdom . Religion . as Oxfor d Mark Toh edi, N Universalism . Washi ngton, in Syracuse: (1 996) of Schaebl er, Century Mi nnea poli s: Sa muel (1 999) and (w ith and H Map Political, Duke Study (1992) (2001) York: Conflict a in Religion in and Creative Press. In ternational (2005) York: Faith-Based Geneva : and Global Oaks, and The Ram in the the and (ed) Kallestad, Posusney, The S Cultur es Handbook to Global Modernity Muslim Se al, and . Na ye reh Faith: University Fireside University The of Piscatori, . World Arab Contemporar y Global Colorado Globaliz ation: Oxford Religions/Globaliz ations: Spiritual, the Lond on: (e ds) The (2004) and Politics and CA: Humanitarian Syracuse and Internati onal Society Destruction: Fading Desecularisa tion Birgit Graduate Ma rk) Muslim DC: Was Civil Middle Launching Invention Warne r, Humanitarian Sage Un iversit y . Politics Countries Globaliza tion (2 003) Resurgence Rel ati ons Princ eton: University NGOs Walt Press. Global (e ds) of Marsha at US . of Preserved Society of Emotional, and Springs, Press. James Palg rave States Lo ndon : (2 000) Global Large: Implementing Publications. World: University East Chicago Institute (with . Many (2 001) and Social Institute Stenberg, Daniel Mi nnea poli s: World Religions: of How . Bold Org anizations or . : . . (eds) of New World The Boulder, (eds) Religions Boulder, The New Cultural International Press. Princ eton Sorensen, Religious CO: . of Cultur e, Globaliza tions: Mi nnes ota Ro utle dge. Macm illan. Action in Globalisation Th ousa nd . Theory no i t a z i l a b o l G of and Initiatives Press. Rel igion of New Gospel (eds) Struggle Yo rk: the (2001) Press. the of York: (1997) WaterBrook Religions Peace. Leif Theories An Financial Internati onal Women’s : Language Dimensions . World: Yo rk: CO: CO: (2005) Faith-Based Religion, and New Palg rave Ee rd mans . Actors Oxford of Women University (eds) Paul) and Pres s. to for Oa ks: Good Lynne Global Ox fo rd York: Or, is , and the the .