Proceedings of The 16th Conference of Pan-Pcific Association of Applied Linguistics

“Why Do We Need to Learn English in Taiwan?”: English Language Ideologies in a Country Seeking Internationalization

Minhui Lu

English Department, National Taiwan Normal University [email protected]

Abstract economic and trading center and invested massive Since 2005, English has been a compulsory subject resources in promoting internationalization. A for Taiwanese students from the to the consensus has gradually formed that the first step in first year in . However, little research has internationalizing Taiwan is to increase its citizens’ explored why English acquires so much emphasis English proficiency through sound EE, reflected in and how Taiwanese students perceive English the constant revisions of English led by education. The present study endeavors to disclose Ministry of Education (MOE). The age for EE has English language ideologies in Taiwan by been lowered from the in the conducting a discourse analysis of English Standards issued in 1968, downwards to the sixth educational curriculums, a questionnaire survey grade in the 1990 Guidelines, to the in with 156 senior high school students, and the 2001 Guidelines, and to the third grade in the participant observations in the English classrooms. 2005 Guidelines. Since 2005, all Taiwanese Results show that English is connected to students are required to take at least one class advancement and taken as an instrumental aid. period of English per week, from the third grade to While the Taiwan government aims to approach to the first year in college. Out-of-school instruction the center of the world, the students’ objectives are for raising exam scores is popular. One quarter of oriented to socio-economic mobility. Future the elementary school students have attended researchers may investigate the mediating roles of additional English tutoring, and more than 90% of assessments between language planning and high school students in big cities have reported the students’ learning or the relationships between same experience (Hsieh, 2010). For what purposes English language ideologies and the ongoing do Taiwanese people need to spend so much energy processes of developing Taiwanese national and time learning a foreign language? identity and building alliance with the USA. 1 Language planning, English Keywords education, and English language language ideology; language planning ideologies Language planning (LP) is a long-term, sustained, Introduction and conscious effort which is often authorized by Taiwan is probably most well-known for its the government in attempt to alter a language’s electronic goods exported around the globe and its function, solve communication problems, and relationship with China. Being an island country establish ideal linguistic landscape (Wright, 2004). limited by its land size and constantly facing Because of its foundation on the societal desirable weapon threats across the Straits, Taiwan has long forms of language use, LP is influenced by and also been aware of the need to develop a strong reproduces language ideologies (Blommaert, 2006; economy and international alliance, particularly Woolard, 1992). Michael Silverstein (1979) defines with the USA. As observed in Chen’s (2006) and language ideologies as “sets of beliefs about Tsao’s (2008) studies regarding the language language articulated by users as a rationalization or planning (LP) situation in Taiwan, its foreign justification of perceived language structure and language policies, often equated to English use,” (p. 183). In other words, language ideologies education (EE) in Taiwan, are significantly oriented are conceptions for one’s attitudes towards a certain to such political and economical considerations. language’s status, function, norm, ownership, etc. The steadily increasing emphasis on English The English language ideologies (ELI) the current reached its peak in the 1990s, when the government study explores are the beliefs based on which decided to build Taiwan as the Asian-Pacific Taiwanese policy makers and students perceive and

153 Proceedings of The 16th Conference of Pan-Pcific Association of Applied Linguistics feel about English-speaking countries and EE, and Information of how local people who are decide to learn or not to learn English. The affected by the state’s decisions perceive EE is ideological conceptions may not be conscious or critical for LP and EE, because LP, particularly explicit (Friedrich, 1989), and therefore, need to be when enforced through educational systems, needs explored through examinations of multiple to take into account students’ attitudes to be information resources (Woolard, 1992). implemented successfully. However, little research Researchers have recorded the common beliefs has investigated Taiwanese people’s attitudes in non-Anglophone countries that EE would be towards EE. Even less investigated is how EE is beneficial to national development and that English connected to internationalization through the state’s would act as a bridge in international cooperation efforts, which may be traced in educational (Clayton, 1999, 2002; Hsieh, 2010; Mufwene, curriculums. This study attempts to fill the research 2010; Nunan, 2003; Pennycook, 1994; Wright, gaps by adopting multiple research approaches in 2004). Competing explanations have been proposed order to better our understanding of ELI and EE in for such ELIs (e.g. Fishman, 1996; Fishman, et al., Taiwan. The analysis results should offer 1977; Pennycook, 1994; Philipson, 1994; Tsuda, suggestions to English educationists and researchers 1997; for discussion, see Clayton, 1999). In the of language ideologies. national-functional paradigm, Fishman et al. (1977) maintain that national actors may make decisions 2 Methodologies favoring English under the consideration of I use the discourse analysis approach to examine political and economic interests for the nation. the ELI in the EE curriculums and ethnographic Noting the outcomes contradictory to the expected methods of interview and participant observation to interests and unequal power relations across nations, explore high school students’ attitudes towards EE. Phillipson (1994) argues that the USA and Great First, I employed Fairclough’s (1992) Britain are the deciding forces for the spread of three-dimensional framework to analyze the English language. In line with this rationale and educational objectives in the English international-critical perspective, Tsuda (1997) curriculums. After identifying the themes related to views English policies as manifestations of my research questions, I designed a questionnaire “English language hegemony” (p. 21). Pennycook for students. Data also included my field notes in (1994) further suggests that the exploitative the English classrooms and follow-up interviews potential of English is hidden behind the belief that with the relevant students. The integration of the the spread of English is “natural, neutral and two research approaches to multiple information beneficial” (p. 9). resources may better our understanding of the More recently, Wallerstein (2004) applies the top-down programmatic attempts enacted by state notions of core and periphery to explain the unequal institutions and the meanings of the EE practices to international relations and complex global individuals in their localized contexts (Canagarajah, economic networks. The world-system model 2006; Watson-Gegeo, 1988). accommodates changes over time in the national core-peripheral configurations. According to the 2.1 Data collection and analysis world-system model, EE is the effort to approach The curriculums I chose to examine are the the core countries from the peripheral positions. Guidelines for English Education at the Researchers on EE have directed their attention Compulsory Education Stage from grades one to to how peripheral nations and individuals utilize nine (hereafter, EE Guidelines 1-9) and the English as an instrument to achieve their objectives Guidelines for English Education at the Senior High (e.g. Canagarajah, 1993; Clayton, 2002). In School Stage from grades ten to twelve (hereafter, Clayton’s (2002) case study on Cambodian people’s EE Guidelines 10-12). attitudes toward the increasing emphasis on EE, the The questionnaires were completed by the 156 state-level LP is oriented to the national-functional high school students who were taking English paradigm while the general public perceives the courses with me in the 2010 fall semester. One importance of EE with individuals’ lived hundred and seven of them are from three eleventh experiences. Canagarajah’s (1993) classroom grade classes and 39 from one tenth grade class. ethnography illustrates the transformation of Sri The school is a typical suburban public school, Lankan college students’ attitudes toward EE. The around 30 minutes train ride from Taipei, with students develop strategies to sufficiently pass the students from the local community, neighboring English course requirement and fulfill the towns, and Taipei. In general, the students’ English socio-economic necessity while being detached proficiency is at the intermediate level, based on the from the alien cultural representations in the comparison of their scores on the joint entrance English textbooks. examinations to students from other schools.

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I required the 156 students to write down three of ‘English-speaking world,’ strengthens the reasons for learning English and their own short supremacy of English. On one hand, the term and long-term learning objectives. A free-response ‘English-speaking countries’ lumps together the word association task was added to elicit countries having different levels of economic information about students’ attitudes toward development and political power and speaking English (Szalay & Deese, 1978). I required the English variations at different scales of prestige students to finish the two sentences: “I feel the (Blommaert, 2007). ‘American English’ is the norm people who have excellent English ability all the Taiwan EE targets, as shown in the textbooks look …” and “Having excellent English ability commonly used in Taiwan (cf. Chen, 2006). On the means ….” The questionnaire was written in the other hand, other developed countries whose students’ native language, Chinese. dominant languages are not English, for example, During the research time, I kept my researcher France, German, Japan, are excluded, even though journal almost every workday, recording significant these countries may have achieved multiculturalism classroom events and my brief reflections after to a degree no less than the so-called class. I also interviewed the related students and English-speaking countries have. By erasing the asked them to elaborate their responses in the peripheral English-speaking countries and the questionnaire or classroom events. highly developed non-English-speaking countries, the Guidelines connect English to the contemporary 3 Findings and discussion political hegemony, namely, the USA (cf. Irvine, Close examinations of the two EE curriculums 2001). generate two themes. First, English-speaking The association of English with the political countries and English are associated with hegemony is transformed in a way that American internationalization and advancement. Second, EE English is equated to English, which is further is programmed as an instrumental aid for real-life linked to the “leading world power with a communication and for acquiring knowledge and flourishing economy, a fabulous cultural , practicing ethics. I will discuss the two themes in and world-wide prestige” (Blommaert, 2006, p. the following sections, along with the analysis 248). English speakers are perceived to have the results of the data from students. progressive qualities of the leading world power. Such an association manifests in students’ responses 3.1 English-speaking countries and their to the free-response association item, “I feel the people who have excellent English ability all language in the modern world look ….” The analysis result yields 160 meaningful The EE Guidelines 1-9 describes the Taiwanese units from the 156 students, with four students learners’ position in relation to English-speaking offering two phrases. Among the 160 responses, countries in this way: 134 are oriented to refinement and advancement, such as “excellent,” “confident,” “vogue,” “cool,” … through English language learning, learners and “professional.” can appropriately respond to the socio-cultural The following episode occurred when the tenth activities of English-speaking countries and increase understanding of and respect for graders read the free-response association item. I multiple cultures. Furthermore, learners can use translated the Mandarin conversation into English their English language ability for preparing the and kept the key words’ Mandarin pronunciations in life in the twenty-first century. Such ability is an the parenthesis for reference. The students’ names essential quality of being a global citizen. (MOE, are pseudonyms. 2006, p. 1) Episode 1 (September 28th, 2010) In this document, English-speaking countries are Leon: People who have excellent English ability given the role of a gatekeeper for global citizenship are all bigheaded (chopi)! and their language is ratified as the language for Teacher: Really? gaining it. English education is the booth selling the Leon: They’re all snobby (shili). ticket to the English-speaking countries, to Teacher: Why? st Leon: They’re snobbish of their excellent internationalization, and to the 21 century. English ability (yingwen henxing a)! Many of English-speaking countries are upheld in the center them go to bilingual (shangyu of the modern world system, whereas Taiwan is yozhiyan). They have money. positioned as a peripheral country which needs to Teacher: Is it expensive to attend a bilingual? appropriately respond to the socio-cultural Leon: Very expensive; more expensive than activities of the English-speaking countries. normal kindergartens. One of my junior high The use of ‘English-speaking countries,’ instead school classmates went to a bilingual

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. He could speak English well at Guidelines for 10-12 indicate: young age. His family is super rich. His mom drove a Benz to school and picked him up. I. Enhancing English listening, speaking, Looked bigheaded... reading, and writing abilities for real-life Peter: [Interrupt] I don’t get the question. Good communications; English speakers are just normal people (jo II. Developing abilities of logical thinking, putongzen a). Aren’t there people who speak analyzing, making sound judgments, English well but speak Mandarin with a strong integration and creation; Taiwanese accent (bushi yeyozen yingwen III. Developing effective English learning shoudehenhao keshique mankotaiwangouyu)? strategies to establish a foundation for learners’ autonomy and lifelong learning; Students’ responses are ideologically mediated, IV. Cultivating interest in English learning and indicating their understanding of EE in Taiwan and active attitudes towards exploring knowledge attitudes toward English speakers. To Leon, EE is in every discipline to elevate understandings costly and consequently those who afford more EE of liberal arts, , and technology; are associated with the materialistic images V. Promoting understanding and respect for bigheaded and snobby. In supporting his argument multiple cultures and cultivating a global vision and a world view of sustainable that English speakers are distinctive from normal development. (MOE, 2010, p. 1) people, Leon associated EE with the comparatively more expensive and exclusive bilingual education, These goals cover both domains of knowledge equating “bilingualism” to excellent English ability and ethics and concern individuals as well as the and ignoring the fact that a majority of Taiwanese globe. English is a language for exploring people are bilingual in Mandarin and Taiwanese. knowledge in every discipline. Therefore, EE plays Leon’s responses support Mufwene’s (2010) an important role in learners’ lifelong learning observation that English is still a marked language (whether or not English proficiency is critical to in some Asian countries like “Japan and Taiwan” (p. their career plans). Moreover, English carries the 45). ethical value of cultivating an international vision, The surface meanings of Peter’s and Leon’s enhancing respect for multiple cultures, and statements seem incompatible, but the discourse building welfare for the whole human family. By analysis of their presuppositions indicates that they emphasizing the vital role EE plays in exploring both recognized the superior status of English. In knowledge and practicing ethics, the arguing that people who have excellent English legitimizes English supremacy and at the same time ability are “just normal people,” Peter compared positions Taiwan as a member of the global village speakers of English and Taiwanese-accented sharing the responsibility of its sustainable Mandarin (TM), a linguistic variation which is development. often linked to deficiency, backwardness, and In contrast to the comprehensive goals in the vulgarity (Su, 2008). When asked why he did not Guidelines, the students appeared more concerned compare English speakers with standard Mandarin about the socio-economic mobility that EE may speakers, Peter said, “But speaking Mandarin is create for them. The tally result of students’ normal (henputong a).” If Peter linked English to responses to the free-association item, “Having standard Mandarin—the linguistic variation often excellent English ability means …,” shows that given higher prestige than the indigenous linguistic more than half of the students viewed English variations—he would not be able to make his ability as an aid for career development rather than position any sense, at least not to most Taiwanese for any of the curriculum goals. When asked to people. His rhetorical question makes sense only by write down three reasons for learning English in contrasting two languages of status at dichotomy Taiwan, all the students thought of course (Chen, 2007), which to Peter, are TM and English. requirements or competitiveness in the future job In other words, English speakers are supposed to be market. contrasting from the deficient and unrefined TM In the follow-up interview, Lily, the eleventh speakers, although in reality, they may perform in grader who had considered changing her major the same way. from business to English but at the end of the semester changed it back, shared with me her 3.2 English as a development aid experience and perceptions of learning English: The second theme emerging from the curriculum analysis is the instrumental functions of English and Since I was a child, my mom has always told me EE. English is related to not only the state how important English is; with its mastery, you internationalization and advancement but an don’t need to worry about unemployment…. I individual’s development, as the five goals in EE like to watch English speakers in the movies.

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They look cool in the business suit and necktie, with Chinese translations (Curtin, 2007; Nunan, walking around to supervise employees. I 2003). Even in English classrooms, the grammar wanted to be like them…. But recently I feel the translation approach still dominates (Nunan, 2003). English road may be not that wide. Seems you Episode 2 illustrates how English is perceived can only be an interpreter or a secretary. as a peripheral language in the EFL classroom. (Interview note, December 27, 2010) When I told the tenth-graders that I would report

their monthly exam grades in English, the students In addition to associating English speakers with objected: the professional and powerful images, Lily disclosed that the reasons why she learned English Episode 2 (December 6th, 2011) and decided not to change her major to English Students: We won’t be able to understand you. were the same: to obtain a better job. None of the Why don’t you speak Mandarin? five goals in the curriculum were mentioned. Jim: Yeah, speak Mandarin; we’re [pause] As for the short-term objective, students learn Chinese. English for course requirements or examinations. A Teacher: But it’s an English class. majority of students (132) regarded passing Student: [code-switch to English] Speak examinations as their short-term objective of Taiwanese. We’re Taiwanese. learning English, ranging from school exams or Teacher: [In Taiwanese] OK, now I’m going to college entrance exams to the standardized exams announce your English grades in English. such as the GEPT (General English Proficiency Test, Jim and other students: There will be at least one person who can’t understand you. developed under supervision from the Taiwan Teacher: Who? MOE) and TOEIC (Test of English for International Jim and other students: Peter doesn’t understand Communication, USA). Passing examinations is the Taiwanese. real-life objective of EE to most Taiwanese people. Teacher: OK, I’m going to announce your exam A simple survey on the applications for results in English and you HAVE to listen government positions and graduate schools in carefully. Taiwan reveals that they all require English grades Chad: Speak Hakka…. on some type of exam. Hsieh’s (2010) analysis Student: Then probably nobody can understand results of the interviews with the human resource her. Students: That’s true/[laughter] personnel managers of the top 50 Taiwanese industries confirm this exam-orientation culture and Despite the mischievous attempt or English the significant role that English ability plays in it. deficiency, the students’ articulations are The managers claim that personality is more noteworthy in terms of the language ideology. important than English ability but admit favoring There were displays of the monoglot ideology for a applicants with a master or doctoral degree. In “one-to-one relation between Taiwan, having the degrees means having passed national-administrative belonging and language competitive entrance examinations, most of which use” (Blommaert, 2006, p. 245), confusion about require high English test scores. In other words, national identity in naming, (Huang, 2007), and English ability decides, directly or indirectly, one’s attention to the complex multilingual use in Taiwan. qualification for an advanced education and a To these Taiwanese students, English is a language superior job. required to use in specially-made situations (e.g.

examination and educational broadcast) by policy 3.3 Real-life communication in Taiwan makers and practitioners (e.g. curriculum writers, Both of the curriculums for compulsory education test designers, and classroom teachers), but not a stage and senior high school stage place enhancing language at their disposal for real-life English abilities for “real-life communications” as communication. their first goal. The descriptions of the core abilities in Guidelines 10-12 or the competency indicators in 4 Implications Guidelines 1-9 seem to refer to real-life communications as listening, speaking, reading, and I have analyzed the English language ideologies in writing English in classrooms, public places, or the curriculums and students’ accounts. The results mass media. To most high school students, however, show that English-speaking countries are equated to the need of using English for real-life the contemporary political and cultural leading communication seems not as much as the countries, USA in particular, and English education Guidelines suppose. In the landscape and mass to competiveness and progression. English speakers, media, Mandarin is the dominant language, and whether native or non-native, share the when English appears, it is usually accompanied advancement image. English ability is a development aid not merely for a nation to build

157 Proceedings of The 16th Conference of Pan-Pcific Association of Applied Linguistics relations with the political powers and approach to maintaining the Chinese cultural heritage while the center of the world but also for an individual to resisting against its political threat, and seeking enter higher education and job market. Students alliance with the USA. learn English mostly for satisfying the educational requirements or pursuing socio-economic mobility, 4.2 English education rather than seeking internationalization. These To achieve the educational goal of cultivating a results offer implications to language ideology global vision while avoiding reproducing English studies and English education. hegemony, English education should integrate the concepts of world Englishes (Matsuda, 2002), 4.1 Language ideology studies English as an international language (McKay, 2003), The English language ideologies in Taiwan are and English as a lingua franca (Bruthiaux, 2003). complicated and cannot be fully explained by one English variations around the world and their users single theory. The national-functional perspective from different ethno/nationalities should be and multinational attachment model may explain introduced so students are more likely to understand the state’s emphasis on EE but not individuals’ lived English variations and their communicative experiences. Most Taiwanese students learn English functions across ethno/nationalities. Moreover, in to satisfy the localized requirement for guiding students to transfer their English learning socio-economic mobility. Although a few of the experiences to learning its variations and other students link English language and education to languages and cultures, EE can enhance negative images, such critical reflections as multiculturalism. Investigation of the feasibility and “chasing modernization while looking down upon strategies of such integration in the Taiwanese high local traditions” or “forgetting cultural heritage” are schools under pressure of examinations is beyond rare and may reflect the personal emphasis on the scope of this study yet warrants future research. Chinese cultural heritage rather than the awareness This study also reveals that most of the students of the English exploitive potential proposed by learn English for passing examinations and implies Phillipson (1994) or other international-critical that assessments cast decisive impact on EE in scholars. The supremacy of the USA in the modern Taiwan. To direct the societal attention to the world system is ascribed by national actors and communication goal of language education via the strengthened through requirements of English washback of high-stake examinations, the joint ability in course assessments and entrance entrance examinations must adopt communicative examinations to advanced education. The forms (Yalden, 1983), or alternatively, legitimize examination culture is further strengthened by the the results of the holistic examinations, such as employment recruitments. However, in terms of GEPT and TOEIC, as a substitute for the current real-life communication in Taiwan, English is a traditional examinations. In addition, the MOE peripheral language. To the EFL learners, English should encourage exchange students to Taiwan or appears to have situated statuses in accordance with sponsor Taiwanese students for study abroad to their situated needs. While the EE goals equip them with opportunities of and needs for programmed by the national actors may be seen as using English in international communication. “the authoritarian imposition of socio-cultural value that makes learners subservient” (Widdowson, 2004, References p. 361), the EFL students may learn English for Blommaert, J. (2006). Language policy and national utilitarian, situated, and disposable purposes. In this identity. In T. Ricento (Ed.), An aspect, neither the state’s EE goals nor students’ introduction to language policy: Theory learning objectives emphasize the communicative and method (pp. 238-254). Malden, MA: function of the language as an expression of one’s Blackwell. identity. Blommaert, J. (2007). Sociolinguistic scales. Research on LP or EE needs to attend to the Intercultural Pragmatics, 4, 1-19. local cultural and political context which, in Bruthiaux, P. (2003). Contexts and trends for Taiwan’s case, refers to the abiding emphasis on English as a global language. In H. examinations and its complicated relations with Tonkins & T. Reagan (Eds.), Language in China and USA. Future researchers may investigate the twenty-first century (pp. 9-22). the mediating roles of assessments between Amsterdam: John Benjamins. language planning and students’ learning. Another Canagarajah, S. (1993). 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language policy. In T. Ricento (Ed.), An Matsuda, A. (2002), “International understanding” introduction to language policy: Theory through teaching world Englishes. World and method (pp. 153-169). Malden, MA: Englishes, 21, 436-440. Blackwell. McKay, S. L. (2003). Toward an appropriate EIL Chen, H-X. (2007). Hanyu fanwenju xingshi yu pedagogy: Re-examining common ELT yiyi fenxi [Structures and pragmatics of the assumptions. International Journal of rhetorical question in standard Mandarin Applied Linguistics, 13, 1-22. Chinese]. Journal of Chinese Language MOE. (2006). Guominzhongxiaoxue jionienyiguan Teaching, 2, 21-29. kechenggangyiao yuyuanxuexilingyu: Chen, S-J. (2006). Simultaneous promotion of Yingyu [The guidelines of English indigenization and internationalization: education at compulsory education stage]. New language-in-education policy in Ministry of Education document. Retrieved Taiwan. Language and Education, 20, March 10, 2011, from 322-337. http://www.edu.tw/eje/content.aspx?site_co Clayton, T. (1999). Decentring language in ntent_sn=15326. world-system inquiry. Language Problems MOE. (2010). Putonggaojizhongxue bixiokemu and Language Planning, 23, 133-156. “yingwen” kechenggangyiao [The Clayton, T. (2002). Language choice in a nation guidelines of the required English courses under transition: The struggle between for senior high schools]. Ministry of English and French in Cambodia. Education document. Retrieved March 10, Language Policy, 1, 3-25. 2011, from Curtin, M. L. (2007). Language ideologies on http://www.edu.tw/HIGH-XCHOOL/conten display: Local, regional, and t.aspx?site_content_sn=20674. (trans)national identities in Taipei’s Mufwene, S. S. (2010). Globalization, global linguistic landscape. PhD diss., University English, and world English(es): Myths and of New Mexico. facts. In N. Coupland (Ed.), The handbook Fairclough, N. (1992). Discourse and text: of language and globalization (pp. 31-55). Linguistic and intertextual analysis within Oxford: Blackwell. discourse analysis. Discourse & Society, 3, Nunan, D. (2003). The impact of English as a 193-217. global language on educational policies Fishman, J. A. (1996). Introduction: Summary and and practices in the Asia-Pacific region. interpretation. In J. A. Fishman, A. W. TESOL Quarterly, 37, 589-613. Conrad & A. Rubal-Lopez (Eds.), Pennycook, A. (1994). The cultural politics of Post-imperial English: Status change in English as an international language. former British and American colonies London: Longman. 1940-1990 (pp. 3-12, 623-641). Berlin: Phillipson, R. (1994). English language spread Mouton de Gruyter. policies. International Journal of the Fishman, J. A., Cooper, R. L., & Conrad, A. W. Sociology of Language, 107, 7-24. (1977). The spread of English: The Silverstein, M. (1979). Language structure and sociology of English as an additional linguistic ideology. In P. R. Clyne, W. F. language. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. Hanks & C. L. Hofbauer (Eds.), The Hsieh, P. J. (2010). The impact of globalization on elements: A parasession on linguistic units foreign language education policy in and levels (pp. 193-247). Chicago, IL: Taiwan: Policy initiatives and industrial Chicago Linguistic Society. demand. International Journal of Su, H-Y. (2008). What does it mean to be a girl with Educational and Psychological Assessment, qizhi?: Refinement, gender and language 5, 237-254. ideologies in contemporary Taiwan. Huang, C. (2007). Language planning for naming Journal of Sociolinguistics, 12, 334-358. and its socio-cultural connotations: A case Szalay, L., & Deese, J. (1978). Subjective meaning study in Taiwan. Current Issues in and culture: An assessment through word Language Planning, 8, 305-319. associations. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Irvine, J. (2001). “Style” as distinctiveness: The Tsao, F. (2008). The language planning situation in culture and ideology of linguistic Taiwan. In R. B. Kaplan & R. B. Baldauf differentiation. In P. Eckert & J. R. (Eds.), Language planning and policy in Rickford (Eds.), Style and sociolinguistic Asia (pp. 285-230). Bristol, UK: variation (pp. 21-43). Cambridge: Multilingual Matters. Cambridge University Press. Tsuda, Y. (1997). Hegemony of English vs. ecology

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of language: Building equality in international communication. In L. E. Smith & M. L. Forman (Eds.), World Englishes 2000 (pp. 21-31). Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii and the East-West Center. Wallerstein, I. (2004). World-system analysis: An introduction. Durham: Duke University Press. Watson-Gegeo, K. A. (1988). Ethnography in ESL: Defining the essentials. TESOL Quarterly, 22, 575-592. Widdowson, H. G. (2004). A perspective on recent trends. In A. P. R. Howatt & H. G. Widdowson (Eds.), A history of English language teaching (pp. 353-372). Oxford Unveristy Press. Woolard, K. A. (1992). Language ideology: Issues and approaches. Pragmatics, 2, 235-249. Wright, S. (2004). Language policy and language planning: From nationalism to globalization. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Yalden, J. (1983). The communicative syllabus: Evolution, design and implementation. Oxford: Pergamon.

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