DOCUMFNT RFSUMF ED 021 282 24 CG 002 483 By- Costin, Lela B. Ii1PROVED USE OF STAFF, FINAL AN ANALYSIS OF THE TASKS IN SCHOOLSOCIAL WORK AS A BASIS FOR REPORT. Illinois Univ., Urbana. Graduate School ofSocial Work. Spons Agency- Office of Education (DHEW),Washington, D.C. Bureau of Research Bureau No- BR- 6- 8315 Pub Date 28 Feb 68 Grant OEG- 3- 6- 068315- 1306 Note-155p EDRS Price fulF- $0.75 HC-$6.28 Descriptors-CASEWORKERS FACTOR ANALYSIS*PROFESSIONAL SERVICES *SCHOOLSOCIAL WORKERS SOCIAL WORK, *SOCIAL WORKERS The two basic questions investigated inthis study were: (1) thefunction of school social work and its relative importance asdefined by social workers,and (2) whether this definition provides a basisfor experimentation in assigningresponsibilities to social work itaff with differentlevels of training. A comprehensivelist of the school social worker's tasks was assembledarid each task was written inbehavioral terms to describe an activity. A rating scale wasdevised for the tasks and givento 254 school social workers. A factor analysisrevealesi a meaningful structure amongschool social work tasks. These nine factorsemerged: (1) leadership andpolicy making: (2) casework services to parentsand child;(3) clinical treatmentfor children; (4) educational counseling to parents and child;(5) liaison between family and communityagencies; (6) interpretifigthe childto the teacher;(7) personal service to theteacher; (8) interpreting school social work services;and (9) case load management.(ph) .111111110kurint
FINAL REPORT
Project No. 6-8315 Grant No. OEG 3-6-068315-1306
AN ANALYSIS OF TffE TASKS IN SCHOOLSOCIAL WORK
AS A BASIS FOR IMPROVED USE OF STAFF
Lela B. Costin The Jane Addams Graduate School of SocialWork University of Illinois Urbana, Illinois
February 28, 1968
The research reported herein was performed pursuantto a grant with the Office of Education, U. S. Department ofHealth, Education, and Welfare. Contractors undertaking such projects under Government sponsorship are encouraged to express freely theirprofessional judgment in the conduct of the project.Points of view or opinions stated do not, therefore, necessarily representofficial Office of Education position or policy.
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Office of Education Bureau of Research TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 T. Background of the Study 1 Problem
Basic questions 2 Impetus for the Study
Prdblems of social wort% manpower School conditions andeffects upon pupils 14 Assumptions Underlying theStudy 16 II. Development of School SocialWork 16 The Period 1906-1930
The beginnings Influences in thedevelopment of school socialwork Early definie.on ofschool social work Expansion in thetwenties--emphasis upon strategic position of schools Primary function re-affirmed Influence of the mentalhygiene movement Summary of period1906-1930 36 The Period 1930-1960
Shifting goals in schoolsocial work in the thirties Emphasis upon caseworkservice to the individualchild Work with others in thechild's behalf Attention to deleteriousschool conditions Summary of period 1930-1960 54 The Period 1960-1968
Changing goals and methods Confusion among roles of theschool specialists Summary of period 1960-1968
69 III. Method of the Study 69 Identification of Tasks
69 Construction of a Rating Scale
71 Sample 72 Analysis of the Data TABLE OF CONTENTS
74 IV. Results ,4 Description ofFactors
Leadership and policymaking Casework service tothe child and hisparents emotional problems Clinical treatmentof children with and his parents Educational counselingwith the child community agencies Liaison betweenthe family and Interpreting thechild to the teacher Personal service tothe teacher Interpreting schoolsocial work service Case load management Work Tasks 82 Relative Importanceof School Social
Principal findings different geographical Importance oftasks according to regions different sizeschool Importance oftasks according to systems importance of schoolsocial Summary offindings regarding work tasks Other Personnel 88 Assigning SchoolSocial Work Tasks to
Principal findings of tasks Summary of findingsregarding delegation 92 V. Conclusions--Implications 92 The Basic Questionsand the Conclusions
School sottial work as aresidual service Differential use ofschool socialwork staff
and Education 98 Implications forSocial Work Practice
Learning aboutthe problems Reformulation of goals Changes in services Staffing patterns
ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
acknowledgement is madeto the following personswho helped Grateful with the progressof this study: Barbara Moore, Professors JaneWine, Florence koole,
Graduate School ofSocial Work, and John Aldersonof the Jane Addams Joseph P. Hourihan,Frances Priest, University ofIlliaois; Profesnors University S;hool of Social Work;Pro- and Betty Welshof Wayne State of Social Work; fessor Robert B.Rowen, Universityof Tennessee School Welfare, Universityof California Robert Wasser,Lecturer in Social John Nebo, Director,Division School of Socialbelfare, Berkeley; Mr. Pupil Personnel Services,Board of of Schcol SocialWork, Bureau of Visiting Education, City ofChicago; Miss Helen J.Hill, Consultant, Richmond, Virginia; Mts. Teacher Service, StateBoard of Education, Social Work, Stateof Florida Mabel M. Brantley,Consultant, School All these persons sup- Department ofEducation, Tallahassee,Florida. in the constructionof the rat- pled useful criticismsand suggestions workers from which ing scale and incompiling a rosterof school social
to select thestudy sample. Assistant, Statistical M. Richard G.Montanelli, Research programmed the PrincipalAxes Service Unit, Universityof Illinois,
Analysis.
Professor FrankCostin, Departmentof Psychology, Uriverai-
important suggestionsand criti- ty of Illinois, gaveencouragement and
cally reviewed a draftof this final report. for the partial sup- In addition,appreciation is expressed by the U. S. Departmentof port of the projectwhiel was provided Education, Bureau of Research. Health, Education, andWelfare, Office of
iii An Analysis ofthe Tasks inSchool Social Work
I. BACKGROUND OF Ta STUDY
Problem
Basic Questions two basic questions: The study reportedhere has sought to answer school social workand the (1) What is the contentof the function of social work- relative importance of itsparts as defincaby professional (2) Does such adefini- ers closelyrelated to this fieldof practice? in tion of fuactionprovide a promisingbasis for experimentation staff with differentlevels assigning responsibilitiesto social work
of education or training? in the publicschools Social workers arebeing used increasingly specialists who helpthe indi- as one of the groupsof noninstructional handicapping obstacles vidual pupil, or groupsof pupils, to overcome said that the that interfere with learning. Generally, it has bee, educational setting is toadd social worker's specificfunction in the teachers, administrators,and his professional competenceto that of youth with variousproblems other specialists inhelping children and goals. The aim which keep them from achievingappropriate educational maximum use of theiropportunities is to enable thesechildren to make of society. to learn and tco becomecontributing members professional social In view of today'scritical shortage of school systems, ithas become workers and the pressingproblems of most profession define more ex- increasingly urgent that thesocial work If there is plicitly the nature of itsdistinct role inthe schools. innovations in to be maximum use ofsocial work staffand appropriate
1 An Analysis of theTasks in School SocialWork
need for a clear andvalid identi- school social workservice, there is workers consider mostimportant for fication of thetasks which social within a school system. the attainment ofsocial work goats
Impetus for theStudy
for this study: rrwo current problemsprovided the stimulus
the recruitmentand utilization (a) unsolved questionsin relation to in the public of social workpersonnel,and (b)disturbing conditions the nature of aneffective school schools today whichhave bearing upon be discussed brieflybelow. social work service. Each of these will
Problem of Social WorkMenpower workers who wish to A most compellingproblem facing social setting of further the aims oftheir profession byworking within the increasingly familiar toall who are a publicschool is one which is the shortage of manpowerto employed in the fieldof social welfare: The perform the tasksrequired for attainmentof agency objectives. by shortage is not new,although the high degreeof concern engendered
trained personnel forthe social wel- it is. Insufficient numbers of least the past three fare field have been acontinuing problem for at adequate numbersof decades. During that time therehave never been newly created by qualified persons for programsalready existing or which legislation, to saynothing of additional personsto man programs system of social communities have wished toinaugurate to improve a
services. professional schools Social workers witheducation in graduate For example, are especially inshort supply in allfields of practice. An Analysis of the Tasks inSchool Social Work
of the more than 150,000 personswho provide social services in volun-
tary and public agency programstoday, only about one-fourth are grad-
uates of professionalschools of social work; the remainingthree-fourths
have baccalaureate degrees or lessand are trained for their jobs, if 1 formally trained at all, through agencyin-service programs. Projected
estimates of manpower required by1970 indicate that about 100,000 more
social workers with graduate professionaleducation will be needed for
the public servicesalone.2
The number of accredited schools ofsocial work has grown con-
siderably, as have the numbers of studentsaccepted for professional
education; this trend is expected to continue. Nevertheless, in spite
of very substantial achievements inthe growth of education fc social
work, there is little likelihood thatgraduate schools will be able to
meet c,e,.ront and future demandsfor personnel under the existing two
years Master'sprogram.3
Many of the areas of social welfarepractice, in view of tha
characteristics of their services andtheir client population, need
social services on a substantial scale. This is true of the public
schools, one of the settings for socialwork practice.
111. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Closing the Gap in Social Work Manpower: Report of the Departmental Task Force on Social Work Education and Manpower(Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office), November, 1965; Council onSocial Work Education and National Association of Social Workers, YourStake in the Social Work Manpower Crisis, 1966. 2Closing_theap_InSocianower, op. cit" p. 41.
3Ernest F. Witte, "The Current Situationand Foreseeable Trends in Social Work Education",Manower.AConnta2xtResonsthilitin.Arden House Workshop, August 13-16, 1967. New York: National Association of Social Workers, 1968, p. 20.
-3 An Analysis of the Tasks in SchoolSocial Work
For the past twenty years, thenumber of social workers employed in public school systems hasincreased steadily; even so, thetotal number has remained far short of the growingdemand for them. By 1960, there were about 2300 school social workers,one-third of whom had graduate social work education. By 1964, the total number of social workers on staffs of public schools had grown toalmost 3000 with a larger percent professionally prepared bygraduate social work education.
At that time, on a national average,there was approximately oneschool
social workerfor every 14,000 school children. However, these workers
were not spreaa evenly;they were found largely in metropolitan areas,
with many school districts having no socialwork service at811.1
Using a conservative estimate as to amountof staff needed for
effective school social work service (onesocial worker to every 2000
school children), by 1970 seven times as manyschool social workers will
2 be needed as are now available. But these demands do not take into
consideration the nature or extent of neededsocial services for new
programs.3 For example, in addition to the traditional program areas for
the application of social work skills inthe schools, there are social
welfare as well as educational implications in recentlegislation such
as the Economic OpportunityAct and the Elementary and SecondaryEduca-
tion Act, legislation which focuses directly uponconditions of poverty
and disadvantage which affectchildren's opportunity for ed=ation. It
is significant that Title I of the Elementaryand Secondary Educatior
ig12210:-ShL.gg2_in Social Work Manpower, op. cit, p. 21
2 Ibid.
3Robert B. Rnwen, "Impact of Federal Legislation onSchool Social Work", Social Work, Vol. 12, No. 2, April 1967, pp.109-115.
-4- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
Act specifically calls for ". . . social work services designed to enable
and encourage persons to enter, remain in, or repenter educational pzo-
1 grams." In many school systems staff persons with varying titles and
kinds and levels of training have been added to carry out social work
tashs in relation to the Headstart programsor as school-home coordinators
in selected depressed areas.2
It is clear that in view of the critical shortage of social work
manpower in all of social welfare, new answers to staffing problems must
be discovered. In some instances, agencies (including social work staffs
in public schools) have recruited workers at both the baccalaureate and
graduate level without developing any differential assignment,so that
members of a social work staff share much thesame responsibilities re-
gardless of education or training. But generally, there has been recog-
nition of the need for new kinds of staff assignments and differential
use of various levels of personnel. This has been reflected during the
decade of the sixties in numerous ideas, conferences, recommendations,
descriptions of trial and error experimentation and planned demonstra-
tions to effect better uzie of social welfare manpower at all levels of
training.3 All that is being tried in various social welfare settings
1111Mnr ...2...w.M1 almmwis.
1Report of the Committeeon Labor and Public Welfaze of the U.S. Senate, "Elementary and Secondary Edncation Act of 1965", SenateReport No. 146, 89th Congress, 1st Session, April 6, 1965,p. 46. 2 As one example, see: Pauline R. Coggs and Vivian R. Robinson, "Training Indigenous Community Leadersfor Employment in Social Work", Social Casework, Vol. XLVIII, No. 5, (Iay 1967),pp. 278-281.
3 For a review and evaluation of many of these efforts,see Robert L. Barker and Thomas L. Briggs, "Trends in the Utilizationof Social Work Personnel: An Evaluative Review of the Literature", New York: National Associatijn of Social Workers, 1966. (mimeo)
-5- An Analysis of the Tasksin School Social Work
as an attempttowards better use of limitedstaff resources is not
known, but in any case, it appearsthat much of it is being carried out
without any reporting of systematicassessment of results, therev
limiting movement towards solutionswhich have wide applicability.
School Conditions and EffesSillsolLjnIELLE
The second problem area which, aiongwith the social work manpower
problem, provided impetus for this studyis the existence of certain
perturbing conditions in the publicschools today--conditions whichhave
bearing upon the nature of an effectiveschool social work service.
These unsatisfactory school conditions arereflected in the large numbers
of childrea who do not learn, whodrop out of school, or whograduate
from high school po -ly preparedfor an effective transition intoeither
higher education or employment.
For some time professionaljournals and books, literaryjournals
of opinion, and the nev-p-rs havecarried a profusion of articles
questioning the quality oi education inthis country and its appropri-
ateness in the face of the serioussocial problems which aboundtoday.
Chief among these major social ills are(a) lack of jobs for certain
groups of youth and headsof families, (b) deplorablehousing for large
numbers of the population, (c) high ratesof delinquency, and (d) a
pervading sense among manyindividuals that they lack the powerof self-
direction and are subject to therestrictive rules of bureaucracies
which limit their daily experiencesand those of their children.
As the public has become awareof the anomaly of widespread
poverty in the midst of affluenceand the social problems growing outof
this discrepancy, concern has developedabout the ability of the schools,
.6- An Analysis of theTasks in SchoolSocial Work
educate the childrenof the poor, as they arepresently functioning, to This concern has been as well as someof the children ofthe affluent. imlue to the individualof the coupled with a renewedemphasis upon the tools for futurelearning, capacity for learning, notonly to provide essential ingredient or skills to usein earning aliving, but also as an
of mental health. Escalona has statedit thus:
One of the primary egofunctions that sustain
adaptation, and thatprovide means of coping
with stress and ofovercoming obstacles,is
the capacity for formalstructured learning.
learning, and the . . The experience of
perception of the self as onewho can learn,
generates a senseof the self as anactive
being, and a sense ofthe self as thecarrier
of power and competence. It also makes avail-
able a source of pleasureand of satisfaction
that is not directlydependent upon thequality
of interpersonalrelationships. Last, not least,
each instance ofsuccessful learning makesthe
world moreintelligible.1 development of intelligence Modern theories oflearning and of the and education which, have brought more accurateknowledge about teaching within school systemswhich in turn, has focusedattention on conditions
Process and 1Sibylle K. Escalona,"Mental Health, The Educational Vol. /WWII, No. 1, The Schools", American Journalof Orthopsychiatry., (January 1967), p. 2.
-7- An Analysis of the Tasks inSchool Social Work either enable students to grasptheic determining opportunity foredu- cation or cause them tobe pushed aside and to fail. It is recognized, of course, that thefamily and the community alsocontribute very sub- stantially to poor scholasticperformance. For example, some children enter school with serious"cultural" deficiencies which complicatethe school's teaching function and presentobstacles which are difficult to overcome. These children frequently comefrom homes where housing is
seriously inadequate, where there isovercrowding and familyinstability, where parents rely upon child-rearingpatterns which are notconducive These to social acceptabilityin formal situations such asclassrooms.
children live in slum ghettos and bythe time they come to schoolhave
had a dearth of experiences outsideof this restricted life. As a con-
sequence they tlegintheir formal schooling witheducational handicaps
such as inferior visual and auditorydiscrimination, communication styles
which are strange to their teachers,inferior judgment concerning time,
numbers and other basic concepts, anunfamiliarity with adults as a
source of informationand reality testing, lack ofexperience with
books and writing materials, poorimpulse control, and a short attention
span.
However, while acknowledgingthese obstacles to learning which
must be overcome, therehas been increasing evidencethat it is not only
the family and community but also theschools themselves which contri-
bute to the educational failureof many children and youth. Because
of certain deficiencies in manyschool systems, the lacks in large
number of children who enter school are notdealt with effectively and
their particular life experiences are notbuilt on in a logical and Social Work An Analysisof the Tasksin School
deleterious schoolconditions andpractices meaningful way. Some of these of an effectiveschool socialwr-U, which have bearingupon the nature
service arediscussed brieflybelow. One of thecontinuing, unsolved Racial andeconomic segreption: although almostfifteen problems of theschools lies inthe fact that racial 1954 Supreme Courtdecision outlawed years havepassed since the widespread, and has even segregation in thepublic schools,it is still metropolitan areas. As middle and increased in centralcities of major out of theinner cities,economically upper incomefamilies have moved attend The result isthat most pupils segregated groupshave remained. and like themselves,both racially schools composedlargely of students findings of a nationalstudy commissioned economically. One of the major under the Act of 1964,and carried out by Congress inthe Civil Rights was thatpupil aspirationsand auspices of theOffice of Education, the educationalbackgrounds and achievements arestrongly related to Children who attend performances of otherpupils in the sameschool. achievement is atlow levels are more schools where mostof the student those whose schoolshave a apt to be lowin their ownachievement than of students whoachieve at cross sectionof pupils andlarger numbers pupils (and they arefrequently high levels. Non-white or low-income levels of educationalper- the same), canbe expected toattain higher pupils from across-section of the formance if theyattend schools with predominantly middleclass or white. population, orschools which are balance in schoolsincrease Furthermore, notonly does racialand economic from homes withoutmuch edu- the achievement ofminority group children without bringingthe more advantaged cational strength,but it does this
9- An Analysis of the Tasksin School SocialWork
is little different child down to a lower level. This child's achievement himself.' than what it would be in aschool composed onlyof others like that schools are per- If these findings are correct,then to the extent low petuated with racial andeconomic segregation,the probability of and youth is in- achievement and failure for largenumbers of children
creased. In many Belief in the limitedotential of disadvantagedpupils:
school systems there is stillwidespread acceptance ofthe stereotyped
view that most lower incomeand non-white pupilshave limited capabilities,
that most are "slow learners",and that not too much canbe accomplished potential as a result. As a consequence of thisbelief in the limited with an expectation of disadvantaged pupils,which is usually coupled
that certain school program areasand services will beused by certain encouraged to learn groups of students,these pupils frequently are not
very much, academicgoals are lowered becauseit is assumed they are not
interested in learning, and thechildren and youth, responding tothis
negative perception on the partof school staff, fulfillthe substandard
performance which is expected ofthem.2
Related to this belief in thelimited potential ofdisadvantaged
pupils is the use made in someschools of ability andachievement tests.
When these are used asthough they were stable measuresof innate poten-
tiality, without regard for the extentto which tbeyreflect past learning
1James S. Coleman, et al.,Equaliv of EducationalOpportunity., Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government PrintingOffice, 1966, p. 22, 302. 2Walter E. Schafer andKenneth Polk: "Delinquency and theSchools", Task Force Report: JuvenileDelinquency and Youth Crime.....131port on Juvenile Justice and Consultants'Papers. Task Force on Juvenile Delin- quency. The President's Commission onLaw Enforcement and Administration of Justice. Washington, D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office, 1967, pp. 236-237.
-10- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
opportunities and experiences and familiaritywith the kind of task and
situation, then a particular child's abilities maybe underestimated
and the expectation for his performancelowered. Or a child may be
grouped with other students also judged cobe less able and less"ready"
for an increase in instructional input, sothat he lowers his own ex-
pectations for himself and falls furtherbehind in hisprogress.'
Schoolractices in relation to controlof students' behavior:
A major concern of school systemstoday is the behavior of pupilswho
violate school rules, and in doing sodisrupt the learning process for
other children. Through attempts, usuallywell-intentioned, to control
such behavior, many schools havedeveloped faulty practices whichfail
to alleviate the offendingbehavior problems. Such practices are based
on "the assumptionthat misbehavior results almostentirely from the
motivation or deeper personality systemof the child, or from defective
family values and relationships."Therefore, to modify this behavior,
there must be sanctions or some form ofcounseling directed toward the
individual pupil himself. As a consequence of this wayof thinking,
"conditions in the school or classroom thathelp produce so-called "2 'emotional problems' are almost entirely ignored. Two examples follow
of ways in which the school mayinadvertently contribute to continued
and increased misbehavior.
(a) Labeling of students who showunacceptable behavior in schools
is frequent and serves toreinforce the expectation of theschool staff
011101. MMIII1111,
'Ibid.,p. 240.
2Ibid.,p. 251. An Analysis of theTasks in School Social Work
Some and the student himselfthat such behavior patternswill continue. staff lead- of this labeling is inthe form of informal exchanges among cumulative ing to "reputationdiffusion." It is also found in official
records which alert schoolstaff to "trouble", sometimes evenbefore
the pupil has appeared, sothat miwbehavior is thenanticipated and
suspicions are easilyconfirmed.1
(b) School staff frequently uave relied upon aprocess of ex-
cluding the deviant student as a meansof behavior control.This process
withdrawal of may includeexclusion from the classroom, suspension, or
privileges involving extra-curricularactivities, all of which tend to
further obstruct the pupil's chancefor new experiences and new responses
which might "bind the individual intothe system and reward himfor
achievement andconformity."2
Among the school's problemsin finding better ways todeal with
deviant behavior of pupils is thetask of co-ordinating the pointof view
and the actions of the variousprofessionals, within and outsidethe
school, who deal with pupils introuble. "The psychologist, the speech
counselor, the therapist, the social wnrker,the attendance officer, the
principal and the classroom teacherall tend to view theproblems of
students, education, and misbehaviorfrom different perspectives. Hence,
they seek out different types ofinformation and follow varying courses
of action. The result is frequent'atomization' of the school's response
1Ibi4.,p. 252, RobertD. Vinter and Rosemary C.Serie, "Malper- formance in the Public School: A Group Work Approach", SocialWork, Vol. 10 (January, 1965), pp. 3-13.
2Schafer and Polk, op cit, p.256.
-12- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work to students in trouble."' The responsibility for students in trouble may be pushed off from the school to community youth-serving agencies, with insufficient communication between school and communityagency and lack of attention to the adaptations which might be made within the school system itself--adaptations which could help the pupil, and others like him, to perform more successfully.
Communitrschooi Lack of communication between the school and the community it serves, and between the school and the homes of its pupils, is another deleterious school condition which increases the probability of school failure formany children, especially those from low income or minority group homes. Mlddle class parents, ready to speak for themselves and generally supportive of educatior,are more often in reasonably comfortable communication with school personnel. But it is different for the parents of poor children.Even though studies show that most low income and minoritygroup parents place a high value on school achievement for their children,2 they are less able to communi- cate easily or effectively with school personnel or to offer active support to achool activities. In many schools there have been insuffi- cient attempts to understand the surroundings in which poor children live
'Ibid.,pp. 256-257.
2 Frank Reissman, TheCtrallDerimaild. NewYork: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1962,p. 10.
Richard A. Cloward and James A. Jones, "Social Class: Educational Attitudes and Participation", in A. Harry Passow,editor, Education in Depressed Areas. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 1963, p. 203.
Coleman, op. cit., p. 192.
r13- An Analysis ofthe Tasks in SchoolSocial Work
this information as a and the experiencesthey have, and then to use All school personnel base line to extendthe horizons of thesechildren. community's values and interests need to make greaterattempts to know the from and the social andeconomic characteristicsof the neighborhoods for children in which their pupils come. This is especially essential unable to speak for them- poverty areas, sincetheir parents are often understood when they selves, do not feel atliberty to do so, or are not
do. inap- Aspects of school-communitydistance may be reflected in materials which intensify propriate instructionalmethods and teaching
children's feelings of alienationfrom serf ol and society. Too fre- with an avoid- quently classroom discussions areheld to neutral matters controversies which greatly ance of the pressingreal life problems and
concern children andyouth. For many secondarylevel pupils, especially
the non-college bound, theirrelevancy of theireducational experiences they encounter to real life is manifestedfurther by the difficulties services to aid when there are no occupationalplacement and follow-up world of work. them in the transition fromschool to the changing
Assumptions Underlyingthe Study provide the focus The kind of concernswhich have been described search for an appro- of the study which follows.This focus reflects a workers today as they attempt priate and effective rolefor school social society, and an to help the schools achievetheir basic purposes in
identification of ways in which avariety of personnel can be used to
study. carry out this socialwork role. Two assumptions underlie this
-14- An Analysis of the Tasks inSchool Social Work
(1) The schools occupy a strategicposition in society and in the lives of children and youth. As a social institution, the school is interdependent with other socialinstitutions and functions, some of which also have serious problems, e.g.,the family, where it Ls character- ized by instability, the public assistance system the juvenile zourt, and the labor market in relation to lowincome youth. The schools cannot attain their goals independently of the concernsand goals oe these other
institutions and functions of society. Hence, policy formulation in the
schools as it affects pupil welfare is of crucialimportance to social
workers. A definition of school social work whichhas viability in
today's world cannot reflect a residual view of socialwelfare, one which
uses up its available professional manpowerwithout sufficient attention
to the most pressing problems of theschool population and the under-
lying causes and conditions (both within and without theschool system)
which impinge upon large numbers of unsuccessful schoolchildren.
(2) If the school social work role is derived from adeinition
of function that reflects such crucial conditions andproblems within
and without the school system, then the appropriatesocial work role in
the schools will not only permit but will also requirea differential
use of social work personnel atvarious levels of education and training.
Conversely, if the definition of school socialwork is narrowed, pri-
marily to reflect and meet the needs and abilities of thegraduate social
worker, then it will be difficat to break through the problem of the
growing demand for school social workers in the face of continued insuf-
ficient numbers of them who have education at the graduate level.
-15- An Analysis of the Tasks inSchool Social Work
U. TUE DEVELOPMENT OPSCHOOL SOCIAL WORK
The Period 1906-30
21mAggiagam School social work began atabout the same time (although inde- pendently of the others' efforts) inthree cities, New York, Boston,and
Hartford, Connecticut during theschool year 1906-07. This development originated outside the school systemitself, with private agenciesand civic organizations in these localitiessupporting the work until school boards accepted its value and agreed toadminister and finance it as an integral part of the school system.
In New York City the influenceof the social settlements andof
the Public Education Association wasstrong in the origin anddirection
of "the visiting teacher" movement. Here, the szaff of several settle-
ment houses noted the needfor closer cooperation betweenhome and school,
particular:4.y ia rclation to children in the poorsections of the city;
under the supervision of settlementrepresentatives, two "visitors" were
assigned to three school districts.By the school year 1911-12 seven
visitors were employed and moreschool districts were included inthe
service. An effort was made to givepublicity to the movement and to
encourage theBoard of Education to take over andextend the service,
wicii the result that in 1913the Board of Education secured funds todo
SO.
In Boston, a women's civicclub established a home and school
visitor in one of the schools forthese reasons:
-16- An Analysis of the Tasks inSchool Social Work
'Lack of understanding betweenschool and home
often results in loss, sometimesin serious in-
justice to the child, but under presentcondi-
tions it is difficult for busymothers to visit
the school, and the large-sizedclasses make
it almost impossible for teachers toknow the
homes. To meet this difficu/ty . . . asocial
worker . . . has attempted by working in both
home and school to bring about greaterharmony
between the two and so make mere effective the
education of thechild.1
Following thi3, school and home visitors wereadded in other Boston
Districts by settlement houses and other privateorganizations.
School social work began in Hartford when thePsychological Clinic
of that city installed a visiting teacher towork in the Henry Barnard
School, The immediate purpose was somewhat differentthan in New York
or in Boston: it was to assist the psychologistin gathering case
history material and in carrying out therecommendations of the clinic
in relation to medical treatment, schooladjustment, or other social
services.
The first instance of school socialwork, established and sup-
ported by the school system itself without priordemonstration, occurred
in Rochester, New York in 1913. It was explained as:
kaart_s/U10,192p and School Visitor, WinthropSchool District, Boston, 1908, p. 1, quoted in Julius John Oppenheimer,The Visitim Teacher Movement With 42esia1 Reference to AdministrativeRelationships, New York: Public Education Association of the City ofNew York, 1924,p.3.
-17- An Analysis of theTasks in School Social Work
. . the first step in an attempt to meet a
need of which the school systemhas been con-
scious for some time. It is an undisputed
fact that in the environment of thechild out-
side of school are to be found forceswhich will
oftentimes thwart the school in itsendeavors.
teacher is . . The appointment of a visiting
an attempt onthe part of the school to meet
its responsibility for thewhole welfare of the
which child. . . Whatever suffering comes for
the home is responsible, comeslargely through
ignorance and necessity. It will be the func-
tion of the visitingteacher to enlighten and
aid in relieving. . . . Her aim will be to
secure maximumcooperation between thehome
and theschoo1.1 of school social work Still another directionin the development in Philadelphia can be noted inthe introduction ofthe school counselor That in 1917 under thesponsorship of theWhite-Williams 0oundation. organized in 1800 for organization formerly hadbeen the Magdalen Society, Because its the purpose of caring for"delinquent and wayward" girls. agencies in the city, it work had been largelytaken over by public
156th Report of the Board of Education,Rochester, New York, 1911) cit., p. 5. 1912, 1913. Quoted in Oppenheimer, op.
-18- An Analysis of theTasks in School SocialWork
New York, Boston, surveyed the child welfareand visiting teacher work in demonstrations were needed. and Chicago in asearch for problems where new
The focus selected wasthe study of delinquency inthe public schools,
and the work was begunwith the consent of theschool superintendent in working the Bureau of CompulsoryEducation where young people came to get education certificates. Here A:he activitydeveloped into vocational and functions) and was ex- counseling(including all the visiting teacher
tended into more of theschools and grades of the city. "Scholarship
counselors" aided children who wereabout to drop out of school bysupply-
ing scholarships and the necessaryfollowup encouragement. Short training
courses were offeredfor teachers and principals in"School Work in the
Schools".1
By 1921, school social workhad been expanded iLto themiddle-
western states, more ofteninaugurated by the Board of Educationthan by
private cencies, and it had beenintroduced into junior and seniorhigh
National schools. A national professionalassociation had emerged--the
Association of Visiting Teachers.
garly_Influences in the Developmentof School Social Work
Although the beginnings ofschool social work in differentcities
reflected individual circumstancesand somewhat differentspecified
purposes, each suchintroduction of servicerepresented A response to
the same changed conditions and newneeds within communities. The early
twentieth century was characterizedby a period of social reform,with
new interest centered uponchildren as individuals and anacknowledgement
of the responsibility of societyfor the development of"the whole child".
.111.711 AN,...11100111111iIMMM1111110MMIIIMINNINIIMW! 'Oppenheimer,op. cit., p.6. An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
Indeed, the early twentieth century is referred to in thechild welfare
literature of that time as "the century of the child". It was the period in which the Juvenile Court was establishedand mothers' pension legis-
lation passed in many states; the battle for protection of children from
exploitive or hazardous work situations was keen; official interest in
children emerged at the federal level of government with the first White
House Conference on Dependent Children and the establishment of the
Children's Bureau.
It was a fertile period for the development of school social work.
Among the important influences in its development were: (1) passage of
compulsory school attendance laws; (2) new knowledge about individual
differences among children and their capacity to respond to improved con-
ditions; and (3) realization of the strategic place of school and educa-
tion in the lives of children and youth, coupled with concern for the
411.- relevancy of education to the child's present and future. Each of these
influences will be discussed briefly. cojagasimasAtioa: As concern spread about the illiteracy of
immigrant children, and then the illiteracy of American-born children
who were found in factories rather than in schools, attention focused on
the child's right to at least a minimum of education and the state's re-
sponsibility to secure this for all children. The way in which various
social institutions and provisions of society interlock was clearly
illustrated by the necessity for concurrent progress in securing child
labor legislation and compulsory school attendance statutes. For example,
it was noted that children could scarcely realize the benefits of child
-20- An Analycis of theTasks in School SocialWork
required to go to school labor legislation ifthey were not enabled or nor could and were only turned outof the factories into the streets;
they effectively be required to goto school if thelaw permitted them
to work.
To secure legislation was notenough; the extent to whichit was Not enforced was crucial to attainingthe intended goals forchildren. education for their all parents understood andaccepted the importance of high children as provided for in newlegislation. Lack of sufficiently
wages for the adultsin a family increased the wishof parents for their
children to be old enough to become wage-earners.Without compulsory
birth registration to makechildren's ages a matter ofpublic record, it
was easy for children toclaim their "workingpapers", or "poverty per-
mits", before they were legally of ageto do so, and it was commonfor
children to speak of their "realage" and their "working age". Poor
enforcement of compulsory schoolattendance statutes was alsoaggravated
by the lack of sufficient schoolaccommodations in many cities and the
existence of "waiting lists". Florence Kelly, in her capacity aschief
factory inspector in Illinois,documented in her annual report of1895
the failure of school authoric.i.esin some places to supplyfacilities for
children who were "ready and willing to goto school". For example, "In
Alton, while 200 children under 14 yearsof age were at work in the glass
works, there were on the list ofapplicants for admission to theschools
240 children in excess of the seatsprovided."
1Edith Abbott and Sophonisba P.Breckinridge, Truancy and Non- Attendance in the Chica o Schools, Appendix III, Documents Relating to the Enforcement of Child Labor andCompulsory Education Laws in Illinois, Extracts from the Third Annual Reportof the Factory Inspectors of Illinois, 1895, Chicago: The University of ChicagoPress, 1917, p. 423.
-21- An Analysis ofthe Tasks in School SocialWork
Social workers in settlementhouses, having worked forthe passage to the lack of compulsory school attendancelaws, turned their attention Settlement cooperated withthe of enforcement. For example, Henry Street
Department of Health which"supplied us with virus pointsand authority
to vaccinate, since nounvaccinated child could beadmitted toschool."1
The lack of effective enfo,Tcementof school attendancelaws led
to such studies as Abbottand Breckinridge's onnon-attendance problems
in the Chicago gichools. This study noted the needfor school attendance
officers and held that these should besocial workers, since the reasons
for non-attendance were interwovenwith social ills of thecommunity such
as poverty, lack ofadequate adult wage levels,illiteracy, and ill-
health--conditions which existed in manyfamilies not known to any social
agency and with whichthe school alone came in contact.
If, then, there could be agood social worker
attached to every school, notonly cases of
neglect but extreme poverty,sickness, in-
capacity on the part ofthe mother of the
family, and unfavorable homeconditions of
many otherkinds would be discovered atthe
earliest possible moment,and if there were in
the community agenciesfor dealing with such
cases, their aidcould be promptly secured, or,
if special forms of needcould not be met, the
gimr.mnsmoi.....mewrawir ft 'LillianD. Wald, The House onHenry Street, New York: Henry and 1915, p. 114.
-22- An Analysis of theTasks in School Social Work
attention of the community could beeffec-
tively called to thatlack.1
Attention to individual differences:As legislatures in various states extended the scope of compulsoryeducation laws, schools were re- quired to provide not only for larger groupsof children, but for children of a wider age distribution and a greater rangeand variety of abilities and interests. Previously, no great concern had existed ia mostschools in relation to the different ortroublesome child; he did not have to attend and could drop out of school withoutquestion, or the school could drop him from the rolls since it had no legalresponsibility to provide him with education. Compulsory school attendance laws, however,requireu
teachers and other school personnel to look toother fields for under-
standing of the varying characteristics of thechildren in their class-
rooms.
Psychologists were investigating the natureof individual dif-
ferences and the varying abilities andcapacities for response with which
school ahildren were equipped. Sociologists were concerned with social
and cultural factors in the variations ofhuman behavior and the social
rules and cultural values of groups of thepopulation. Social workers in
their day-by-day work observed how childrenand families met stress and
how they could be helped to function moreeffectively when the stress in
their situation was alleviated.
As educators moved toward assumingresponsibility for the educa-
tion of the whole child and thedevelopment of each child's individual
1Abbott and Breckinridge, op. cit., p. 241.
-23- f An Analysis of the Tasksin School Social Work
teachers and other capacities, social workerscontributed by helping
school personnel to understand howforces outside the schoolaffected provided. the child's ability to use theeducational opportunity which was
In addition, some socialworkers had ideas abouthow certain groups of only by children not in school could behelped to use education, not
improvements in home conditions,but by adaptations withinthe school permitted program. For example, a Henry StreetSettlement resident was
by the New York City Board ofEducation to form the firstclass for un-
graded pupils, children who"are unequal to the routineclassroom because
of mental defect." Thesettlement provided equipment,secured treatment interest members resources in communityclinics, and "made every effort to
of the School Board and thepublic generally in thisclass ofchildren."
Materials for lunch were providedand the older girls in the class pre-
the grade schools. pared and served the meals,the first to be provided in
"Occasionally the approval of the familieswould be expressed in extra
donations, and in the beginning thisslmetimes took the form of abottle
invite an adult member of of beer. Everyday one pupil was permitted to
his family to the luncheon,which led naturally to anexchange of visits
between members of the family andtheteacher."2 From this early experi-
mental class, "a separate departmentin the public schools wascreated
in 1908, and this year(1915) there are 3000 childrenthroughout the city
under the care of specially trainedteachers who have liberty to adapt
the school work to thechildren's peculiarneed3."3
11.11M11Mr1=1111M1irioi6Wfamslimonannimom.04. 1Wald, op. cit., p. 118.
2Ibid.
3Ibid., p. 120.
-24- An Analysis of the Tasks inSchool Social Work
Concern for the relevancof education to the child' resent and future: Social workers of the early twentieth century werekeenly aware of the strategic placeof school and education in thelives of children and youth and were impressed by theopportunities presented to
the school. Sophonisba Breckinridge, addressing theNational Education
Association in 1914, spoke of the magnitude of theschools' task and the
extent to which its importance hadgripped the conscience of the commu-
nity. "To the social worker the school appears as an instrumentof al-
most unlimited possibilities, notonly for passing on to the next genera-
tion the culture and wisdom of the past, butfor testing present social
relationships and for securing improvements in socialconditions." Her
plea was for a closer study of failures of the schooland the consequent
loss in social well-being, and for a more effective useof the school's
opportunity for "simple and natural contacts" withthe homes of the com-
munity.
At about the sama time, other social workers insettlement houses
were registering concern about the necessityfor the school to relate
itself more closely to the present and future lives ofits children.
For example:
Intelligent social workers seize opportunities
for observation, and almost unconsciouslyde-
velop methods to meet needs. They see condi-
tions as they are, and become critical of
1Sophonisba Preston Breckinridge, "Some Aspects ofthe Public School From a Social Worker's Point of View", Journal of theProceediam and Addresses of the National Education Associatioti, July 4-11, 1914, Ann Arbor, Michigan: National Education Association, 1914, p. 45.
-25- Az Analysis of theTasks in School Social Work
systems as they actand react upon the child
or fail toreach him at all.
to . Where the school fails, it appears
the social workers todo so because it makes
education a thing apart,--becauseit sepa-
rates its work from allthat make up the
child's life outside theclassroom.1
Oppenheimer noted that during theearly twentieth century, the
influence of the socialsettlements upon the developmentof school social methods used and work was very strong,"both 4.n respect to the type of For in respect to the developmentof social centers in theschools."2
example, settlement houseresidents noted the valueplaced upon education
for their children by manyof the immigrant poor andthe difficulties
the children experienced inpursuing their school work. One response
was recorded fromthe Henry Street Settlementin 1907, where study-rooms
were set aside so thatboys and girls from the crowdedtenements could
find a quiet, restful place inwhich to do their work as well asreceive
and some tutoring. Extra reading materialsfor all ages were provided
additional aids which, in otherconditions, would be given by parents or
older brothers and sisters. Similar study rooms werethen taken over
for maintenance by the Board ofEducation in numerous New YorkCity
schools, "thanks to the example setby the settlement,' thesuperin-
tendent of the New York school systemreported."3
1Wald, 9.2.1, cit., p. 106. 2Oppenheimer, 92."0, p. 2.
3Wald, p. 103.
-26- An Analysis of theTasks in School SocialWork
belief that "the Social workers insettlements stated their responsibility, as many of the schools in a great cityhave an additional
.."1 pupils are deprivedof home training becauseof extreme poverty school They noted theinsufficient numbers ofvisiting teachers to bring the schools "never and home together, andobserved that the methods of of vast numbers seemed to us sufficientlyrelated to the home conditions and influence of the city'spopulation."2One attompt to bridge the gap
the schools was theestablishment of "HousekeepingCenters".
A flat was rented in atypical Henry Street
tenement. Intelligence and taste were exer-
cized in equipping itinexpensively and with
furniture that required theleast possible
labor to keep it free fromdirt and vermin.
Classes were formed to teachhousekeeping in
its every detail, usingnothing which the
people themselves could not procure,--atiny
bathroom, a gas stove, no"model" tubs, but
such as the landlordprovided for washing.
Cleaning, disinfecting, actualpurchasing of
supplies in the shops ofthe neighborhood,
household accounts, nursing,all the elements
of home-keeping, weresystematically taught.3
'Ibid.,pp. 109-110.
2Ibid., p. 107.
3Ibid., p. 108.
-27- in SchoolSocial Work An Analysisof the Tasks
hope that whenschools fully The report went onto note the for life," such acenter might realized that''education is preparation school.' be attached toeverypublic Work Earl Definitionof School Social and National Conferenceof Charities At the annualmeeting of the subject for the programof theChildren's Correction in1916, the general Social Service". The author of one Committee was"Public Education and Data had the tasks of thevisiting teacher. paperundertook to define number of cities,and the been obtained from aquestionnaire sent to a in organization,type of work, results showedconsiderable uniformity the adjustmentof those diffi- and method.One generalaim emerged: children thatretard thechild's culties in the livesof individual This aim was seen asresolving itself development and schoolprogress.
into two phasesof work: school the The first isinterpreting to the the child's out-of-schoollife; supplementing so that teacher's knowledgeof the child . .
she may be able toteach the wholechild, . . . life of a assisting theschool to know the train the neighborhood, inorder that it may
children for thelife to whichthey look for-
ward.
=m..1=111=1111.11111.1,
lIbid.,p. 109.
-28- in SchoolSocial Work An Analysisof the Tasks
interprets Secondly, thevisiting teacher of the schooland to the parentsthe demands difficulties andneeds explains thepeculiar
1 of the child.
Schools Emphasis U onStrate icPosition of rapid expansionin the 1920'sdue School socialwork underwent a various com- of three-yeardemonstrations in in large partto a series Commonwealth Fund. After a consider- munities underthe auspicesof the in the fieldof child welfare, ation of differentpromising activities in 1921. the Preventionof Delinquency the Fund undertook aprogram for emphasized that"the visitingteacher In developingthe program it was of children'smaladjustments,including does preventivework in the field holds the strategicposition in juvenile delinquency,that the school that sound soci0.1case workis valuable regard to childwelfare work, and effective."2Consequently, among in making thework of the school more prevention, theCommonwealth other activities inrelation to delinquency manycommunitiescomprising Fund placed thirtyvisiting teachers in as
.~11 AII01.4 11111.1111IIIMM Teachers andTheir Activities", 'Jane F. Culbert, "Visiting of Charitiesand Correction, Proceedin s of theNational Conference Company, 1916, p.595. Chicago: The Hildmann Printing 2 Fund,January, 1923. Quoted knnual Report, 1922,Commonwealth in Oppenheimer, op.cit., pp.10-11.
-29- School Social Wbrk An Analysis ofthe Tasks in
1 Boards of Educationresponded by establish- both rural andurban areas. in other communities. The National Asso- ing visitingteacher positions stronger in numbersand ciation of VisitingTeachers, in turn, grew work among its increased its effortsto establishhigh standards of
members. emphasize the sig- The literatureof the early20's continued to of children andthe school as nificant role of theschools in the lives work."2For example,the Proceed- "the strategic centerof child welfare Work in 1923 carried agroup ings of the NationalConference of Social the subject of "TheSchool". of paper3 given inDivision Meetings on
One typical excerptis as follows:
Knowing its powerand influence inthe com-
munity because ofits authority overthe
child and hence its opensesame tothe
family, eiee schoolshould seek forassist-
ance through everyavenue ofscience and
service to remedythe ills of childhood
out in thesethirty 1Commonwealth Funddemonstrations were carried Bluefield, West Virginia;Burlington, communities: Birmingham, Alabama; Durham, North Carolina; Vermont; Columbus, (leorgia;Detroit, Michigan; Michigan; Lincoln, Hutchinson, Kansas; HuronCounty, Ohio; Kalamazoo, Rochester, Nebraska; Monmouth County,New Jersey;Richmond, Virginia; Ohio; Pennsylvania; Sioux City,Iowa; Sioux Falls,South Dakuta; Warren, Charlotte, North Carolina; Coatesville, Pennsylvania;Omaha, Nebraska; Rock Springs, Wyoming;Racine, Chisholm, Minnesota; SanDiego, California; Montana, (later transferredto Wisconsin; Berkeley,California; Butte, (later transferred toPortland,Oregon); Winona, Minnesota);Eugene, Oregon, Idaho; Boone County,Missouri. Tucson, Arizona; Tulsa,Oklahoma; Pocatello, Education continued the In twAnty-five of thecommunities the Boards of work after the completionof the demonstration.
2Oppenheimer, op. flit., p.28.
-30- An Analysis of the Tasks inSchool Social Wbrk
and manhood. These menaces and ills disclose
themselves in the school more quickly and con-
cretely than anywhere else. . . . But working
together the social worker and the'teacher will
come to an appreciation of theschool's strategic
position in the community because of its hold on
the child, a position which can be strengthened
and clarified by constant interchange of method
andpractice."'
Another author took a less hopeful view and noted: "We have a
few visiting teachers, but our school rooms are inalmost total ignorance
of what goes on in the homes or streets orback alleys of the community."
He warned that: "the school occupies a strategic position forholding
the mind of childhood to futilities" and for"being able to prevent the
development of that freed social intelligence withoutwhich civilization
has no future."He speculated about needed qualitiesin school program
and organization and what could beaccomplished "if our social workers
were willing to lose theirjobs for the sake of suchschools."2
primary Function Reaffirmed
The principal activity in schoolsocial work continued to be home-
school-community liaison. Oppenheimer carried out a study to obtain a
11N. Edith Campbell, "The StrategicPosition of Programs of Social Work, From the Point of Viewof theSocial rker", Proceedin s of the National Conference of SocialWork 1923, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1923, pp. 363-364.
2Joseph K. Hart, "The Relations of theSchoolto Social Work", Proceedings of the National Conference of SocialWork,t1h9e23S,chilciin pp. 365-370.
-31- An Analysis of the Tasksin School SocialWork
delineated in the 1916defini- more detailed listof tasks than had been of three hun- tion of function. His study methodincluded an analysis interviews with visiting dred case reports, checkedand expanded after teachers teachers; it resulted in alist of 32 "corefunctions of visiting
of these tasks affirmsthe emphasis service.aAn appraisal of the nature responsibility as the mainbody of onschool-family-community liaison helping the child's school social work activity. Half of the tasks were "Advise family to use resources inthe community. Examples were:
parents of the communityagencies which will aidthem in present dif-
cooperation of relief agencieswhen ficulty." "Refer to and secure the of recreational the family is in need ofhelp.""Secure the cooperation
agencies, libraries, BiGBrothers and Big Sisters,in the prevention of
possible delinquency." with parents in An additional eighttasks involved direct work enlist relation to the child, asfor example: "Confer with parents to
their cooperation when thechild shows signs offalling below the
school's standards of scholarship,conduct, etc." "Aid mothers in plan-
ning their work so thatit will not be ahandicap and a burden to endeavor children.""Confer with parents inregard to misconduct and
to change the child'sinterests or help him todrop bad associates."
Other tasks wereconcerned with changingschool conditions to to the benefit the child or interpretingthe child or his environment examina- school personnel. Two examples are: "Secure the psychological "Secure personal and tion of children suspectedof mental deficiency."
.1111111111.11111001.1, 1 Oppenheimer, 222._slt, pp.121-126.
-32- Work An Analysisof the Tasksin School Social
which can be utilizedin social data forthe principaland the teachers effective." making educationalprocedure more functions were tasksin- Clearly missingfrom the list of core with an individualchild to volving a one-to-oneongoing relationship (The visitingteacher did, however, help him withhis personalproblems. be- in school, usuallyat recess, noon, confer sometimeswith the child examined by theschool nurse.) However, fore school, orwhen he was being child, was thehome, school,community, and the target, onbehalf of the
school conditionswhich affected him.
of the schoolsocial worker, . One of theimportant functions of school admini- Oppenheimer stated, wasto aid inthe reorganization
stration and ofschool practice. school to have It is of greatvalue to the of one who the benefit ofthe point of view staff, who is officiallyconnected with its plans and is in thoroughsympathy with its to- methods and yetconstructively critical vision of ward them; onewho adds to this a environment of the outside lifeand social
. . The the children who areits pupils. .
constantly bring- visiting teacherwho is not
ing in a pictureof the needs ofindividual of children as well asthe needs of groups
opportunity to school childrenloses a rare 1 aid in educationalprogress.
1Ibid., p. 134.
-33-, An Analysis of theTasks in School SocialWork
who had realized Oppenheimer cited instancesof visiting teachers supplying evidence of un- the opportunity and hadbeen 'very activ2 in and in pointing favorable conditions whichunderlie school difficulties
out neededchanges."
Influence of the MentalHygiene Movement social work into more In addition to theexpansion of school function as one of communities, and there-affirmation of its primary
home-school-community liaison, theliterature of the 1920'sreflects the
beginning of modifications inpractice in response tothe mental hygiene of special personnel into movement of the time. With the growing number attendance officers) thesocial the school (e.g., nurses, psychologists,
worker was faced with thenecessity to relatehimself professionally to
members of other disciplinesand to identify anddelimit his specific
2 area of work. The growing recognitionof individual differences among
children, and interest on the partof the mental hygienistsin under-
the part of visit- standing behavior problemsled to increased effort on of social malad- ing teachers to developtechniques for the prevention the literature of the day tothe justments. References can be found in reactions of newly recognized importance ofunderstanding the emotional
the child to his experiencesin school. Mental hygiene clinics were began to assist established in different schoolsand the social worker
in the diagnosis and treatmentof "nervous" and"difficult" children.
'Ibid.,p. 135.
2Howard W. Nudd, ThePurposepacjacasof Visiting,TeacherWork, New York: The Commonwealth Fund,1925, pp. 10-12.
-34- An Analysis of the Tasksin School Social Work
Although warning againstconsidering a mental hygiene program of
the school as primarily apsychiatric service leth the visitingteacher
serving as an adjunct tothe clinic, Jessie Taft wrote:
The only practical andeffective way to increase
the mental health of anation is through its
school system. Homes are too inaccessible. The
school has the time of the childand the power
to do the job. It is for us who representmental
hygiene and its application throughsocial case-
work to help the school and theteacher to see
their vital responsibility for aneducation
which shall mean the personaladjustment of
the individual through theactivities of the
1 group.
Summary of Period 1906-1930
School social work began through theefforts of private agencies
and civic organizations during thesocial reform period of the early
twentieth century. Although individual in various aspectsof its origin,
each early instance of theintroduction of social work into theschools
represented a response to certaininfluences: The passage of compulsory
school attendance laws, new knowledgeabout individual differences among
children and their capacities to respond toimproved conditions, and
1JessieTaft, "The Relation of the School tothe Mental Health of the Amerage Child", Proceedings ofthe National Conference of Social Work1923, op. cit., p. 398.
-35- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work realization of the strategic place of school and education inthe lives of children and youth, coupled with concern for therelevance of education to the child's present and future.
Social settlements contributed significantly to the development of the early methods of school social work, withthe earliest function
seen primarily as one ofhome-school-community liaison. This continued
to be the pri4cipal focus of school social workthroughout most of the
1920's. During this decade, however, certain modifications in practice
can be noted as a response to themental hygiene movement of the time.
Social work increased its efforts to develop and define its ownmethod
of social case work in the schools, and school socialworkers began to
turn more attention to work with the individualmaladjusted child at
school, in addition to their traditional work with others inthe child's
behalf--at home, in school, and in the community.
ThePeriod 1930--1960
Shifting Goals in School Social Work in the Thirties
The depression of the thirties retarded the growth of school social
work, as it did the development of all programs of children's social
services. Visiting teacher services in many communities were either
abolished or seriously cut back in volume in the schools' efforts to
remain solvent.1
1C. W. Areson, "Status of Children's Work in the United States", Proceedin s of the National Conference of Social Work, 1933, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1933, pp. 91-103.
-36- An Analysis ofthe Tasks in SchoolSocial Work
workers was In addition, thedaily activity ofschool social about the affected by the changedconditions when theschools, "panicky teachers to setabout physical needs of theirpupils, urged visiting locations there waslittle supplying these, withthe result that in some clothing shops, andother time for actual casework, since hot lunches, lengther,A, endeavors were engagingtheirattention."1 As the "emergency" to provide however, and federal programs wereintroduced into communitivi their attention to case relief to families, schoolsocial workers turned understand the "total work with individualchildren, with attempts to
personality" of the child, torefine the nature of therelationship "accept and under- established with the child orschool personnel, and to
in their acceptance stand themselves beforeattempting to help others order in which they are and understanding ofthemselves and the social
to live.112 from the de- In selecting cases forservice, priority shifted
pendeut and delinquent child; concernwas expressedthat programs "for goal of the Commonwealth the prevention ofdelinquency", as had been the negated many possibilities Fund demonsttations,"stigmatized and therefore goal of "happy, for constructiveservice."3Emphasis was given to the school social wholesome childhood for allchildren", and as a consequence, superior workers attempted to establishtheir work "in good average or
1Gladys E. Hall, "Changing Concepts in VisitingTeacher Work", Readings in Social Case Work,1920-1938, Fern Lowry, ed., NewYork: Columbia University Press, 1939, p.512, reprinted from yilitingTeachers Bulletin, Sept. 1936.
2 Ibid.
3Ibid.,p. 513.
-37- Work An Analysisof the Tasksin School Social
attempting work in lessprivileged school districts in manycities bafore
stigma and to make itpossible to work with ones, inorder to avoid any
e:hildren coming fromall types ofhomes." avoid aa image ofauthority or School socialworkers began to such as attendance,since such involvement withlaw-enforcement duties, stigma, which prevents agood work- activity was seen as"not without its with many childrenand their ing relationship'sbeing established
parents . (in schools and other As members of thesocial work profession refinement of methodand techniques, agencies) devotedthemselves to the thirties gave warningof the need to some leadingsocial workers in the within proper perspective. see the roleend potential ofsocial case work casework within theschools For example, CharlotteTowle, in discussing
noted:
We are coming notonly to recognizethe
futility of persistingin situationswhich but are beyond the scopeof case work help,
to realize also oursocial responsibility
for revealing theinadequacy of social case
work in these instances,in order that in-
ter(Ast and effort maybe directed toward
social action. . . . I can imagine
..111.111.1M
1Ibid.
2Ibid., pp. 513-514.
-38- An Analysis of theTasks in School SocialWork
the visiting . . that within the school
teacher frequently isasked to compensate to
the child for what theschool lacks. Because
of the absence of certaineducational facil-
ities the child's needs arenot being met and
the visiting teacher maybe asked to take him
on as a casework problem becausecertain be-
havior has been inducedby the school irade-
quacies. In such instancesher responsibility
lies in making case worklimitations known, and
in revealing theeducational treatment issue.
As case workers,let us cease to be the great
pretenders. Case work is not auniversal
elsewhere, panacea. . . In this field, as
our responsibility ascase workershas assumed
broad social implicationswhich we cannotignore.1
In another examinationof social case work and its properuse i--,
the critical times of thethirties, Bertha Reynolds wrote:
It is clear that thecontribution of social case
work is ta supplement thebest public administra-
tion, not to struggle tomake up for the mistakes
of a poor one. If a faulty schoolcurriculum is
1 Charlotte Towle, "Discussionof Miss Hall's Paper",Lt.css.Lia Social Case Work 1920-38, op. cit., pp. 525-526,reprinted fromEL.sisina Teachers Bulletin, September, 1936.
-39- An Analysis of theTasks in School SocialWork
causing every yearthousands of 3chool fail-
ures, itwould be stupid to engagevisiting
teachers to work individuallywith the un-
successful children. Why not change the
curriculum and do awaywich that particular
1 problem at one stroke?
Generally, however, schoolsocial workers continued theirefforts
to insure "as far aspossible the development of awell-balanced person-
ality for all children", achallenge which they saw asappropriate both
to social work and toeducation. Emphasis was placed on thesocial
worker in the school as a helping personwhose service enabledchildren
to achieve "acceptanceand use of familiar schoolroutine", accomplished
largely by using interviews"to come close to the real feelingof a
2 child."
In contrast to the statementsof the early settlement workers
who had urged school socialworkers to become critical of school systems
and conditions as they act and react uponthe child, Edith Everett in
1937 emphasized that school socialworkers should show acceptance of
existing school conditions in order:
=0.1. 'BerthaC. Reynolds, "Social CaseWork: What Is It?What Is Its Place In The World Today?" Readings in Social Case Work, 1920-38,224_211., p. 141, reprinted fromThe Family, December, 1935.
2EdithM. Everett, "The Importanceof Social Work in a School Program", mieing_thtirsdAialshool Child,Grace Lee, ed., New York: National Association of Social Workers,1959, pp. 52-55, reprinted from Thp_Eamilm,Vol. 19, No. 1 (narcn, 1938), pp.3-8.
-40- Social Work An Analysisof the Tasksin School
on helpingchildren to . . to concentrate
accept them asimpersonal andinevitable as
the change of seasonsand to put their energy in fight- into growth ratherthan dissipate it
ing or evasion.
laws and This should notimply that attendance
achievement standards maynot--or shouldnot--
through children's change. They will, but not
fighting them, orsocial workers'ignoring or the school criticizing them. The caseworker in their value to her must acceptthem, recognizing
not only inthe helpful limitationthey provide,
but equally in thefact that her acceptance
affirms her place as aninherent part of the
school. Her influence upontheir change will
be the influence ofher service inmaking
schools more awareof individual needsof
children, and the waysin which they arefail-
adapted to ing to providelearning experiences by-product, not fit those needs. But this is a 1 a reason forsocial work in theschools. of some visitingteachers Everett also apokeagainst the practice outside the field of who took on a broadercommunity responsibility,
1 Ibid., p. 57.
-41- Work An Analysisof the Tasksin School Social
result of a good manyyears ofexperience casework. "Hy own feeling, as a school system, is that wecan be mosthelpful in connectionwith a city responsibility to doing, aswell as we by limiting ourprofessional itself." humanly can, ourcasework job withinthe school Individual Child Emphasis Upon CaseworkService to the sod.al work began anotner With the decade ofthe forties, school communities as itmoved towards its period of expansioninto alditional integral part ofschool systems. present-day general acceptanceas an
increasedmarkedly2and it The volume of schoolsocial work literature
1 Ibid., p. 58. this period were 2Many of the articles onschool social work in Association of SchoolSocial published in the Bulletinof the National discontinued when thatorganization became a Workers.This journal was in 1955, theNational Associa- part of a singleprofessional organization social work literatureof tion of Social Workers. For representative the period see: School Social WorkPractice Mildred Sikkema, Reportof a Studv of AmeLlcan Associationnf Social Workers, in Twelve Communities,Ne-, York: 1953. Selected Grace Lee, edHel inthe Troubled SchoolChild National Associa- &adiamin School SocialWork, 1935-1955, New York: tion of SocialWorkers, 1959. Practice.Proceedings Virginia Quattlebaum,Schogl Social Work Lake Forestt_plinoist.lula of the Workshop Held atLake Forest Academ School Social 'orork 1-6,...1956.2_122Dsored la_theCommittee on Practice New York: National Section NationalAssociation of SocialWorkers. Association of SocialWorkers 1958. New York: National Social Work in theSchools, Selected Papers. Association of SocialWorkers, 1960. Social Work. Pro- Jcm C. Nebo, ed.,Administration of School .2eedirlts1_322 Held atLake Forest t.s.axLakeForest, the Committee onInterpro- Eainoi.s.._Aya13-1.2,A5s_,__§22Lyisoredb Association fessional Relationshi sSchool Social WorkSection National Social Workers,1960. of Social Workers. New York: National Association of
-42-
11111141111"11111111111111.01111111111111111111011111111111 in SchoolSocial Work An Analysisof the Tasks
1960 about the views from1940 to at least showed a nearunan4mity of social work andthe methods andtechniques appropriate functionfor school of the periodcorrectly reflects which were employed. If the literature focus fully completedfrom an earlier its practice,then a transition was clinical conditions andscal change to a on schooland neighborhood of the individualschool child. orientation to thepersonality needs social casework wasthe primary It was generallyagreed that maladjusted child wasthe target method employedand that theemotionally specialized form school socialwork as "a of concern. Smalley described with and is a partof the prograa of social casework. It is identified of helpingindividual children use of the publicschool. It is a method school them." A major study ofthe practice of what the schooloffers social in 1953 affirmedthe emphasis on social work intwelve communities casework servicefrom one casework and noted arange inthe concept of with symptoms to oneof full studyawl which attempted todeal primarily Hourihan, in astudy of duties treatment in aclinical teamprogram.2 teacher in Michigan,recommended and responsibilitiesof the visiting responsibilities which arerelated limiting work to"those duties and maladjustedchildren" and, as ways to assistingindividual emotionally attention making it moreeffective, giving more of extendingservice and
111.1.11/IL
"School Social Work asa Partof the School 'RuthE. Smalley, 61-62, Troubled SchoolChild, 2p. citt., pp. Program", in Lee,Helping the April 20, 1944. reprinted fromEducationforyistori,
2Sikkema, op. cit., pp.20-21.
-43- School Social Work An Analysis ofthe Tasks in
agencies, moreconsultation with teachers to referrals toother casework and more extensive useof psychiatric in relation toindividual children,
1 consultation. through the individual School social work wascarried on primarily established thereby was thekey interview, and thecasework relationship within which the to the helpoffered the child. "It is a relationship that he is accepted as an child can trust himself tobe himself and know
112 worker's casework individual. Weston identifiedthe school social client is philosophy as one of"relationship therapy"in which "the problems" as a means helped to identify and screenhis feelings about his them.3 Walker summed up the nature of of deciding what hewill do about helping the child totake school social work thus: "In short it involves appropriately his, responsibility for that partof his problem that is
felt by the school's person- helping his parents tofeel the same concern helping parents andchildren nel for the child'sdisequilibrium in school, of the child can best be utilize existing communityagencies if the need child."4 met this way, andhelping the schools toindividualize the
1 Responsibilities of the Visit- Joseph P. Hourihan,"The Duties and University, 1952, pp. ing Teacher", DoctoralDissertation, Wayne State 165, 169, 172. 2 cit., p. 10. Lee, Helping theTroubled School Child, op. Lee, Helping the 3Helen E. Weston,"School Social Work 1953", in from the Bulletin of Troubled School Child, op.cit., p. 121, teprinted 30, No. 2 (December1954), the National Associationof Social Workers, Vol. pp. 20-30.
4Dollie R. Walker,"A Study of Elementary SchoolTeachers' Per- cgptions and Education of theRole of the School SocialWorker." Doctoral Dissertation, University ofPennsylvania, 1963, p. 7.
-44- School Social Work An Analysisof the Tasks in
descriptive for the mostpart, The literatureof the period was to portraysuccessful work with relying upon selectedcase examples school personnel because school children who werecausing concern among
maladjustment. Sikkema's study, for of symptomsascribed to emotional studied, a largeproportion of example, found thatin all communities for behavior orpersonality referrals to theschool social worker were
1 to a 1923 studywhich showed thelargest problems. This was in contrast in scholarshipand "deficiency number of referrals werefor maladjustment
2 in lessons." young children, &s IncreasinPly, directcasework was extended to service aided inthe prevention school social workemphasized that its counterview, however,to the of more seriousdisorders. Witmer offered a of visiting teacherservices objective of preventionby means of placement
in the lower schoolgrades:
Proponents of thispoint of viewhold that
recognized and many incipientdisorders can be
checked by early treatment,and that schools
offer the mostfavorable opportunityfor
finding the casesand institutingremedial
measures. Both theory andexperience throw
doubt on the soundnessof this proposal.
After years ofresearch psychiatrists are
1Sikkema, 22.1_91/.1.2 p.24.
2 in the UnitedStates. New Jane Culbert,The Visitin Teacher of New York, 1923, p.28. York: Public EducationAssociation of the City
-45- An Analysis of theTasks in School Social Work
fairly well agreed that theprediction of later
mental disorders on the basis ofchildhood be-
havior is usually impossible. In addition
they maintain that little of benefit to
children is to be anticipated fromtelling
teachers and parants that certain typesof
behavior (excessive shyness, forinstance, or
reticence in social contact, or tempestuous
mood fluctuations) portendfuture mental di-
sease, for such anexpectation on the part of
the lay public is itself likely tohandicap a
child who is having trouble inadjusting to
1 social situations.
Sikkema's study indicated that at least someschool social workers
were not fully comfortablewith their work with youngchildren who had
been identified in school as havingproblems. Reference was made to the
IIuneasiness and almost fear of thecasework relationship with children
who are quite young" which wasexpressed by some workers in thestudy.
"Some trained workers, as well asuntrained, find it hard to explain to
a child why he is coming, toface with him the fact that aproblem exists,
and to carry out a casework-relationshipwhich cau help him to help him-
2 self."
1Helen Leland Witmer, SocialWork. An Analysis of a Social Institution, New York: Rinehart and Company, Inc., 1942, pp.360-361.
2Sikkema, plut. cit., p. 34.
-46- Social Work An Analysis ofthe Tasks in School
work method in direct One demonstrationof the use of the group It was undertaken onthe as- work with children wasreported in 1955. casework sumption that althoughschool social workconsisted primarily of relationships to teachers with children and parents,with concomitant resolve some of theirprob- and others, childrenmight also be helped to of a selected group ex- lems in interpersonalrelationships through use help the child inhis relation- perience. The primary objective was to 1 work demonstration, ships to peers and teachers. In addition to this group workers with parent a limited amountof work was reportedby school social 2 work continuedessentially education groups. Nevertheless, school social
as a caseworkservice to children.
Work With Others in theChild's Behalf school social In arldition to directwork with school children, include a varying workers during the Zortiesand fifties continued to definition of schoolsocial work. amount of caseworkwith parents in their child at school, and the The focus in their workwith parents was the schods concern intent was to help theparents to perceiveand share the for the social worker's for the child and to securesupport of the parent interpreting the activity with the child. Emphasis was placed upon about it, relieving child's problem to the parent,handling his feelings
1 Schools", The Bulletin of Paul Simon, "SocialGroup Work in the Workers, Vol. 31, No. 1 the National Associationof School Social Geptemben 1955), pp. 3-12. Special Contribution of the 2For example, AlineB. Auerbach, "The in Lee, lielpinA the School Social Worker in WorkWith Parent Groups", reprinted from The Bulletin Troubled School Child, op.cit., pp. 278-284, Workers, Vol. 30, No. 2 of the National Associationof School Social (December 1954), pp. 10-19.
-47- School Social Work An Analysis ofthe Tasks in
enabling the parent tomake necessary tensions in thefamily situation, child and to take actionin the adjustments in hisrelationship to his If problem situation in areaswhich were a parentalresponsibility. of a "family caseworkresponsi- parents hadproblems more characteristic responsibility", then a referralto a bility" than a "schoolsocial work however, no clear community resource wasexpected. For the most part,
criteria emergedfor making thisdifferentiation. social workers werebecoming There was indicationthat some school and children who dis- involved to a greater extentin work with parents school social worklitera- played attendanceproblems. While most of the maladjustment which ture focused on theemotional componentof individual interest in thedynamics contributed to non-attendance,with considerable attention to theconstructive use of school phobia,there was also some in promoting schoolattend- of authority withboth children and parents and a foundation ancel and a renewed awareness ofauthority as a dynamic
2 for help. literature of theimportance Frequent mention canbe found in the
worker's role from that ofother of differentiatingthe school social described or documented,there school personnel. Although never clearly
Awnwallm.0.111
Crosscurrents", in Lee, 1RObert C. Taber,"Children Caught in 206-207, reprinted from Helping the TroubledSchool Child, sel_Elt., pp. Workers, Vol. The Bulletin of theNational Associationof School Social 29, No. 4 (June1954), pp. 12-21. 2 Concepts of Clara B. Bryant, "TheEvolution and Broadening School Child, gp. cit., Attendance Service", in Lee,Helping the Troubled Association of p. 136,reprinted from The Bulletinof the National 1955), pp. 19-29. School Social Workers,Vol. 30, No. 3 (Aarch
-48- An Analysis of the Tasks inSchoo. Social Work were numerousreferences to the schoolsocial worker's "special competence and skill."In any case, effectiveworking relationships with other school personnel were consideredessential to the success of a school social work program.
Consultation to teachers(interviews with teachers about children whom they might not refer butwished to discuss for different reasons) was stressedincreasingly in the forties and fifties. It was used in most
instances to interpret children'semotional difficulties and to aid 1 teachers in an early recognition ofpersonality difficulty.
Collaboration with other school personnelin relation to the
educational program received some attentionin the literature, often to
stress the importance ofdifferentiating the casework relationship from
the interprofessional relationship, or toclarify how collaboration
with other school personnel could be used onbehalf of the child and his
troubled adjustment. A further view of the potential incollaboration
was set forth bySikkema. While acknowledging that "casework service
with children in school and with their parentsis the core of the contri-
bution of the school social worker",she stressed an opportunity "through
a teamwork relationshi --aninter rofessional relatiouship--to help
teachers and school administrators implementin the classroom and in
school administration a more meaningfulunderstanding of human behavior."
She believed that social workers, asmembers of a school faculty, could
11111 1 John J. Alderson, "The SpecificContent of School Social Work", in Lee, nelanathe Troubled SchoolChild, op. cit" p.41-43,reprinted from The Bulletin of the National Associationof School Social Workers, Vol. 27, No. 4 (June 1952) pp. 3-13.
-49- An Analysis ofthe Tasks inSchool Social Work
personnel to acquire newunderstanding of human go beyondhelping school assistance in helping them totranslate behavior could offer unique 11* curriculum-formulation and planning, this understandinginto practice in administration.1At the same in the classroom groupprocess, or inschool appeared, Poole pointed outin a description time that thispoint of view work that "the schoolsocial of the characteristicsof school sonial also participates withthe admin- worker, as a memberof the school staff, developing the programof the school istration and otherstaff members in procedures."2 Examples in the and in helping toformulate policies and making were infrequenthowever. literature of suchparticipation in policy social workers wereprimarilq Nebo cited one suchinstance where school practice (allowing instrumental in changing anunsound administrative children to the uniformed police officersto come to theschool and take the consent of theirparents). police station forquestioning without peziod of two yearsthrough a series This change wasaccomplished after a with police andschoolofficials.3 of conferer:es andindividual contacts
1Mildred Sikkema, "An Analysis of theStructure and Practice of the Troubled SchoolChild, School Social WorkToday", in Lee, Helping Social Service Review,Vol. 23, No. 4 op. cit., p. 98,reprinted from the (December 1949), pp. 447-453. Characteristics of School 2Florence Poole,"Am Analysis of the 48, reprinted Social Work", in Lee,HelintheTroulild, p. 4 (December 1949), pp.454-459. from Social ServiceReview, Vol. 23, No. Social Welfare Services 3%John C. Nebo,"Interpretation of School Who Serve theSchools", in Lee, to Educators andOther Professionals 305, reprinted fromThe Hel inthe Troubled SchoolChild, op. cit., p. Social Workers, Vol.30, Bulletin of the NationalAssociation of School No. 3 (March 1955), pp.3-11.
-50- School SocialWork Az Analysis ofthe Tasks in
of children traditionally hadmade referrals School socialworkers in the agencies, andschool personnel and families toexisting community to them tocarry outthese tasks. forties and fiftiescontinued to look with the needfor inter- The literature onetas activitydealt mainly for community resourcesand the reasons preting to parentsthe nature of feelings ofinadequacy orhostility referral, helping themwith their referra1.1 interagencychannels of about the referral,and establishing which in cases ofapparent vaglect Wille attempted tospecify conditions protective services wasneeded.2 would indicate that areferral for indicated thatcommunity agencies the same time,ether references source ofearly identification placed importance onschool services as a often hindered clear relationshipsto schools of problems andthat lack of 3 of childrenand families. effective eollaborationon behalf
001.011111MMY 4011.001.1f"VII11 AMIMMIMMEO, 41110110 Services", 1 Colteryahn, "RelteIngSchool and Community Clara 14. cit., pp. 385-390,reprinted in Lee,Lldpiar, op. Association ofSchool SocialWorkers, from The Bulletilof the National Vel. 26, No. 2(December 1950) pp. 22-27. Teacher and CommunityResources", Cordelia Cox, 'The Visiting 379-385, reprinted School Child,92.1..cit., pp. in Lee,Heloingthe Troubled Association ofSchool SocialWorkers, from The Bulletin ofthe National Vol. 22, No. 3(March 1947) pp.26-32. Service Workers "Cooperative PracticeBetween Family Jane Wille, Bulletin of the Workers in LocalCommunities': The and School Social (September Social Workers,Vol. 30, No. 1 National Associationof School 1954) pp. 11-17. Protective Services 2 "The Relation ofthe School to Jane Wille, Schonl Child, 912.. for Children", inLee,Ligplargled of Bulletin of theNational Associatioe. pp. 397-404,reprinted from The 4, (June 1949) pp.1926.- School Social Workers,Vol. 24, No. in theCommunity", Social 3Elsa Castendyck,"Children's Services (September 1946) pp.320-332. Service Review, Vol.20, No. 3 Police andChildren - A Studyof Newatiljliala Alfred Kahn, Children of NewYork City, Inc., Juvenile Aid Bureau,Citizen's Committee on 1407 Broadway, NewYork.
-51- An Amalysis of the Tasks inSchool Social Work
School social workersparticipated in communityactivities in practice varying degree. Sikkema found in her studyof school social work that when they did so, it wasusually with PTA groups,talks with parent study groups or civic groups, or to serve as amember of a community
which agency board. Three significant areas incommunity planning with the school was concerned did not appearto have wide participationof
school social workers. These were: housing, broad health andwelfare programs, and playground orrecreationalfacilities.'
Attention to Deleterious SchoolConditions
One article in the school socialwork literature of the fifties
stands out as a reflection of concerns overcertain school condition:,
which impinged upon children, a cuncernwhich had been characteristic
o the early founders of school socialwork and is an issue again in the
1960's. In a plea for assumption ofresponsibility for interpreting
the problem of attendance to schoolpolicy makers, Taber listed certain
school conditions which needed to be broughtinto balance if schools
were to help children becomeresponsible. These conditions or practices
were as follows: (1) we tend to rob children of theirindividuality,
their most precious possession; (2) wetend to provide education on a
mass production andassembly-line basis, with a code of behavior towhich
children are expected to conform; (3) we sap thevigor of our chilldren
by substituting artificiality and inflexibility forvital experienr-s;
(4) our cotfusion and vacillation over discipline arecontagious to
A.1.111 amml ,111elanlua "Sikkema, Boort of a Study.of School Social Work Practice in Twelve Communities, op. cit., p. 32.
-52- An Analysis ofthe Tasks in School SocialWork
children; (5) in spiteof strides in developingparent-teacher associations, have only there are still too manyschools in which parents and teachers
a restrained or 'Mingacquaintance.1
Summary of Perim.1930-1960
School social worksuffered a retrenchment in coverageduring the began to depression of the thirties,but by the early forties, services general acceptance of school be extended rapidlyagain to the present-day
social work as an integral partof school systems.
During the thirties there was acontinued shift in goals and
activities in school socialworh as social workerscontinued efforts to
define their own method of work inthe schools. Attendance work, as well
less emphasis as the earlier focus ondelinquency prevention, was given
and school social workersincreased their interest inwork with the
individual child to help him make useof the existing schoolenvironment.
By 1940 a transition wasfully complete from an earlierfocus on school clinical orientation and neighborhood conditionsand social change to a Social casework to the persomlityneeds of the indivi.dualschool child. maladjusted was the primarymethod, directed primarily tothe emotionally
child and his parents. The development and useof effective relationships Except for a few was the essentialtool of the schoolsocial worker.
noteworthy references to thepotential in collaborationwith other school existence of school personnel in the area ofpolicy makiLg, and to the adverse way, there was conditions which affectedchildren generally in an
near unanimity in theschool social work literaturein relation to
..111M....~1.1111MIIMamm.=111/ ."...
1Taber, op. cit., pp. 203-205.
-53- An Analysis of the Tasks inSchool Social Work function and to the resultingpioper approach in work with the individual child, his parents, and inconsultation to his teacher.
The Period 1960-1968
School Social Work in the Sixties:
Changing, Goals and Methods
The rapidly ex?anding youth population,viewed in relation to some of the critical social problems of thesixties, facilitated a shift in direction for school social work. Increasingly, the school was faced with a demand from the communityfor educational innovations which would re- flect the complex characteristics of the communityand meet the educa- tional needs of different economic and socio-cultural groupsin the school area. School social workers, as part (,$! the schoolstaff, were required to re-assess their particular functionwithin the schools and its appli- cability to the needs of the present-day school population.
In a major publication by the NationalAssociation of Social
Workers, Arlien Johnson analyzed the practice of school social workin
terms of its contribution to the curriculumof professiodal schools of
social work. She identified certain conceptsspecific to the practice
of social work in the schools and then relatedthese to the education of
social workers. In doing so, she focused attention on aconsideration of
the schocl as a social institution and on the roleof a school social
1 worker as a specialist in the school social system.
Arlien Johnson, School Social WorkIts Contribution to Pro- fessional Education, New York: National Association of Social Workers, 1962.
-54- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
Lundberg, in a publication for the Office of Education, concen- trated on "school social work in transition", and he noted such evidences of transition as these: (a) an attempt by school aociat workers to evaluate the appropriate balance between professional time devoted to direct services versus a consultative role with other school staff; (b) increasing attention to group work as a school social work method; (c) concern to find an effective organizational relationship to other pupil personnel services; (d) the effect on school social work programs of education's involvement in seeking solutions to the problem of nou- attendance; and (e) awareness of the need for al/ youth to develop social and economic competencies.1
As futther evidence of the quest for more effective approaches to the education of all the school's children and the appropriate role for social woeh in the schools, a conference was held in 1964 under the sponsorship of the National Association of Social Workers and the Council on Social Work Education to study problems in common betveen the fields of education and social work. Participants included educators from both fields. The planning committee had recognized that "it was essential to find more effective ways of collaborating between the professions of education and social work if the needs of the many school children who are unable to utilize educational opportunities fully because of social, emotional, and cultural problems are to bemet."2 Attention centeredon
AWN, .1111101r .fflIMNSINOFNINisislaftwomm 'HoraceW. Lundberg, ed., School Social Work, A Service of Schools, Washington, D. C : U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Wtlfare, Office of Education, 0E-31007, Bulletin 1964, No. 15.
2Robert H. Beck, ed., iyt.SpaL...... utSocetandtheScliication ghaikage to Education and Social Work, New York: National Association of Social Workers, 1965, p. 3.
-55- An Analysis of the Tasksn School Social Work
such matters P.s the residual and institutional models in socialwork role
and function, the implementation of social work objectives ofsocial habilitation and social restoration, the readiness of thetwo professions
to cooperate in improving educational opportunities for childrenand youth in disadvantagedareas, the educational preparation of social work-
ers and teachers, and possible constructive solutions toareas of con-
flict or misunderstanding between thetwo profesaions,
The sixties also brought attentionto the use of additional social work methods in the schools. The emphasis upon school social workas a casework service which had prevailed forat least thirty years began to give way in some school systems toexperimentation with new methods of practice to prevent, treat,or control problems of social functioning shown by school children and youth. The NASW Council on Social Work in the Schools establisheda committee on work with groups in the school setting, and the social work literaturebegan to reflect this new interest in school social work practice. For example, Crowthers spoke fora broader participation by social workersin the schools, one that would utilize an understanding of the behaviorof the individual ina group and employ skills in facilitating thehelping process through thegroup setting. She saw important opportunities for school socialworkers to function as diagnostic observers of pwilbehavior in groups, to work with groups of parents or pupils by utilizingbasic concepts in relation to the group process, to act asa consultant to teachers to help them An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
understand and use aspects of group behavior, or to act as a group
educator witL parents.1
In a significant progress report of research, Vinter and Sarri
described an effective group work approach to such school problems es the
tendency of some youth to drop out of school before graduation from high
school, underachievement and academic failure among intellectually capable
pupils, and conduct of pupils who are disruptive to the classroom or other
facets of the school program. The group work which was reported had been
aimed toward modifying these kinds of pupil problems and lt had involved
innovations in group work practice based on a different conception of
pupil malperformance. Specifically, malperformance patterns were viewed
as "resultants of the interaction of both pupil characteristics and school
conditions."2The major types of activities undertaken by the school
social workers included (a) direct work with pupils; (b) mediation with
teachers and other school personnel focused on specific pupils in dif-
ficulty; (c) consultation to teachers with attention directed at improve-
ment of classroom patterns, modification of teacher perception, or change
in school policy and procedures; and (d) negotiation with families and
agencies in the community to resolve a przticular problem situation.
The researchers' belief that school practices and conditions are a sig-
nificant factor in malperformance led to certain conclusions about school
social work tasks: ri--- LVirginia L. Crowthers, "The School as a Group Setting", Social Work Practice, 1963,Selected Papers, 90th Annual Forum, National Conference on Social Welfare, New Yoek: Columbia University Press, 1963, pp. 70-83 or in: Work With Grows in the School Setting, Lawrence F. Merl, ed., New Yoek: NatIonal Association of Social Workerr, 1963, pp. 22-34. 2Robert D. Vinter and Rosemary C. Sarri, "Malpeeformance in the Public School: A Group Work Approach", Social Work, Vol. 10, No. 1 January 1965, p. 4.
-57- An Analysis of the Tasks in SchoolSocial Work
It appears essential that social work practiw
tioners nust address themselves more fully to
the conditions of the school, and not limit
their efforts to contacts with pupi's. . .
Attempts to help malperforming pupils by
treating them in isolation or as though
abstracted from the context of school cir-
cumstances must be viewed with extreme
skepticism
Because of their close acquaintance with
malperforming pupils, and their knowledge
3f the conditions that impinge on these
pupils, social workers in schools occupy
a strategic location. They have the op-
portunity to assist teachers and adminis-.
trators in identifying those school
practices and arrangements that inadver-
tently contribute to malperformance, and
that curtail learning and adjustment. . . .
If the social worker concentrates his
energies mainly on helping some pupils ac-
commodate to the school, he can do little to
ameliorate the patterns that will continue
to generate difficultiw for many other
students. . . . It seems important, therefore,
-58- An Analysis of the Tasks inSchool Social Work
that the social worker retaindual perspectives,
and attempt to resolve problemsituations or
processes: both pupils and school conditions
should be targets of his interventiveactivity.
He must find ways of servingspecific individuals
while simultaneously dealing withthe sources
of pupil difficulties withintheschool.'
In addition to a growing amountof social work with groups in
the school setting, some schoolsbegan to incorporate into theirsocial
work practice new ways of working with thecommunity. While school social
workers had long acknowledged a responsibilityfor certain aspects of
community organization, this had beendefined for many years in limited
terms, primarily as a means ofenhancing the school socialworiters' case-
work activities. For example, Nebo had seenschool social workers using
community organization skills with primary groups(other school personnel,
Board of Education, or P.T.A.'s) in wayssuch as these: interpretation
of the school social work function,work with administrators onpolicies
and procedures concerned with the socialworker's job, staff conferences
on individual chillrenwhich enhanced knowledge andunderstanding beyond
that of particular children discussed, orservice on school committees.
Community organization with secondary groups,Nebo said, included such
activities as collaboration with other socialagencies in relation to
mutual clients, service on boards andcommittees of other community
lIbid.,pp. 12-13.
-59- An Analysis of the Tat.7as in School Social Work agencies, or work in community groups to which Cie social worker belonged as a citizen.1
But with renewed concern about the need for a more effective liaison between school and community in the face of neighborhood and school prob16ms, and with attention by social workers to theory and knowledge from the social sciences which could be utilized in their work, a broader kind of community work based in the school setting and aimed towards increasing the competencies of scilnol children was demonstrated.
A statement about the "school-community agent" in the Detroit Public
Schools was significantly reminiscent of the early school social work literature when it reflected the interests and influences of the settle- ment house workers: "The major premise on which the role is based is the principle of educating the 'whole' child. If we are to truly educate the whole child, we must be aware of all the forces that playon the child, all the hours of the day; not just when he is withus inschool."2
In a renewed interpretation of the meaning of "the whole child", school social workers in some schools began to want to know the kind of problems school children were facing at home, the particular cultural and social pressures their parents were attempting to cope with, the relationship of their personal problems to community problems and the functioning of of social institutions in.ne community. Hourihan described the new c^mmunity work, as it was taking place in the Detroit Schools, in these terms:
.101.11111111ni ARNIM 1JohnC. Nebo, "The School Social Worker as Community Organizer", Social Work, Vol. 8, No. 1 (January 1963),pp. 99-105. 2 Betty Deshler, "The School-Community Agent in the Detroit Public Schools." Great Cities Project, Detroit Public Schools, February 1965, (mimeo).
-60- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social WOV/A
''he community social worker not only reports
back to the members of the sci...00l staff the
dynamics of the community and the societal
factors operating there, but through Use
of his knowledge and ekill as a sccial wor%er
enables the members of the community to ask
questions, to ,,,aise issues, to resrticture
those elements of the crmunity that not
effectively meet the neewi of children and
youth, and to engage in propam, provided by
and in the school to draw in th8 community to
learn the school mlources and te Luukwistand
better its educational program. V,o plan for
the community worker in the schoG1 bi the
employment of professional soc)..al wcrIters is
the latest step in implementing the comuanity-
school concept which has been theorieu by
educators and sociologists for manyyears.'
Further, Hourihan forecast that there would be more wi4espread practice in school social work of this kind of community work as socftl workers and educators became aware that a totally effective school social work program could not be carried out without such a sevvice. He noted, as well, its applicability to neighborhoods of all income levels, not just the "underprivileged" areas where it had been demonstrated.
'Joseph P. Hourihan, "Social Work in the Schools:New Develop- ments in Theory, Knowledge, and Practice." Prepared for presentation at the NASW 10th Anniversary Symposium on Social Work Practice and Knowledge, Atlantic City, Jew Jersey, May 21-23, 1965. (mimeo)
-61- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
Other articles in social work literature pointedup the concern
of some school social workers that the "basicconventional assumptions"
of school social wofk needed re-appraisal in orderthat more effective methods and tecimiques could be developedto fit the rapidly changing
social scene.1Concern was expressed that "increased professionalize-
tion has tended to produce rigidity" and thatzchoo: social work might
lose inventiveness in the face of social changenew problems, and the
need-for innovations.2
One such innovation in service ata Junior high level was de-
scribed which had utilized effectively withinone framework the casework-
groupworkcommunity social work skills ofa school social work unit.
It was based on an application of the problem-sblvingmethod and related
directly to the stress whicha school was exhibitiug at a given time.
The first task had been to work with the administrationto define the
school problems. A decision was made to start where greatestconcern was expressed: in this instance, how to help boys and girls whowere close to suspension from school. Students were worked with individually and/or tn groups, andas concerns which existed around the whole problem area emerged, the shool social worker worked with the school adminicl:za- tor to determine more fully the nwt...we of the problem and itscauses.
The total school climate was assessed in relationto the problem, Leo well
1 Wallace M. Lornell, "Differential Approachto School Social Work", Social Work, Vol. 8, No. 4 (October 1963),pp. 76-80.
2 Betty L. Welsh, "The Changing Role of the SchoolSocial Worker", prepared fcr working material in use of consultationon the social worker's role in the school, Wayne StateUniversity, 1966 (mimeo),p. 3. Art Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Wofk as the home situations of thestudents, and the role played by the com- munity in the problem situation.Possible interventions were explored and the most feasible ones implemented.An evaluation of the year's work indicated that while the total problem had not been solved, stress
for many of the children, and the school personnel as well, had been relieved and suspensions had dropped ap--f.iciably during theyear.'
Smial work and related disciplines in the sixties gave attention
to the mental health issues involved in public school education, well
illustrated by the theme of the 1967 annual meeting of the American
Orthopsychiatric Association--"The Impa;t of Schools on Human Develop- ment: Critical Appraisal of a Social Institution."Escalona, in em- phasizing the theme, said that "if specialists in the mental health pro-
fessions cuuld agree that providing opportunity for successful learning is in and of itself a mental health service, their role in this endeavor might alter from the current pattern."2 She suggPsted the following obligations of school social workers and other specialiots:
(1) to work with educators, school adminis-
trators and school boards to identify and
correct glaring obstaexes to learning that
exist in ill-equipped, understaffed and other-
wise handicapped schools; (2) to join educators
in their search for teaching methods most appxo-
priate to different ag Proupz, different subject
Ibid., pp. 5-8.
2SibylleK, Escalona, "Mental Health, the Educational Process and the Schools", American Journal of Orthopsycniatry, Vol. XXXVII, No. 1 (January 1967),p. 4.
-63- Am Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
matter, and children from different cultural
backgrounds; (3) to apply our specialized
skills to the study of the learning process
ttr and its impediments, and on this basis to
suggest lie,es of action that promise to
enhance and sustain the educative impact
of the school; (4) on the assumption that
the caliber of teachers is the single most
important factor in making the school a
place that positively supports mental health,
to participate actively in efforts to improve
the effectiveness of teaLher trainingas well
as improve teachers' salaries and working
conditions.1 ConfusionAroolSecialists
The school social worker has usually said that heoperates as a
"team member", working in collaboration withthe teacher, principal, and the various other orofessionalpersons in the school--e.g., psycholo- gists, guidance workers, nurses, attendance officers. Thts teao, however, has not been as formally structured in compositionand role as, for example, the psychiatric team of clinics and hospitalson which the social worker has long served. Findings from research studies during the sixties indicated that dherewas considerable lonfusion or disagree- ment about what activities are appropriateones for all the various specialists to prirform in collaboration with eachother.
4111111111...li1401111.11111.11011=M111111111.,
'Ibid.
-64- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
For example, ROwen conducted a study in flew Jersey to determine the differences in job concept of the function of the school social worker as perceived by school superintendents and the function as per- formed by school social workers. He found that significant differences existed, and that disagreement or confusion existed in one cut of every four tasks performed by the school social worker. The superintendent saw more tasks appropriate to the school social worker's role than most of the social workers performed. Among these were: Investigate the child's home and neighborhood environment; assist in the collection of background material on the child and family for the psychologist when mental retardation is suspected; prepare summaries on cases being trans- ferred to other social agencies; serve on community committees;serve as a resource person for teacher's meetings; secure social and personal data for principals and teachers which will be utilized for making educational procedures more effective.'
In a study of role perception of various school specialists-- attendance co-ordinators, psychologists, and social workers--Fisherre- ported that when each specialist was presented a description ofa certain school incident and asked to select the person who would usually handle the situation in his school, members of each pupil servicegroup believed that they were more highly involved in the situations presented than anyone else thought theywere.2
'Robert D. Rowen, "The Function of the VisitingTeacher in the School", Journal of International Association of Pupil PersonnelWorkers, Vol. IX. No. 3 (June 1965), pp. 3-9. 2 John K. Fisher, "Role Perceptions and Characteristics of Attend- ance Co-ordinators, Psychologists, and Social Workers", Journal of Inter- national Association of Pupil Personnel Workers, (March 1966),reprinted by Interprofessional Research Commissionon Pupil Personnel Services.
-65- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
In a further study of role delineation among the guidance pro-
fessions, Shaw found a substantial core of functions among the profes-
sionals which were essentially till same, with a significant overlapping
in the functions which school counselors, school social workers, and
school psychologists wanted to carry out. Each profession seemed to
find it necessary to apply different labels to similarprocesses and to pre-empt these processes as though unique to that profession. ShaTiisug-
gested that the sizable overlapping in functionseen in the claims of each of the three professions studied "is partly dueto their needs for recognition both within and without the schoolsystem, and that it is with respect to 'status' activities thatmost overlapping will be seen."1
That this confusion alliong roles is not confined withinthe school itself, but that it is reflected in ineffective workingrelationships with community agencies is strongly suggestedby a study of processes and problems in the referral of maladjustedschool children to mental health clinics in Illinois.Anderson found frequent impairment in the usefulness of mental health clinics and school pupils'services. "From the conditions reported in the study, the researcherconcludes that troubled children must suffer because of theinability of the profes.. sional personnel working in mental health clinicsand the schools to cooperate with each other. This study suggests that only the highly motivated child and parent would be willingto blunder through the lack of communication, coordination, understandingand the petty jealousies
INervilleC. Shaw, "Role Delifteation: Among. the Guidance Profes- sions", Psi_vEi_t_gIoloilteSchools, Vol. /V,No. 1, January 1967, p. 11.
-66- An Analysis of the Tasks inSchool Social Work that existed during the time of the research.Children had to literally cry out or act outbefore skilled services would be marshalled to focus
1 on theirneeds."
This evidence appears consistent with findings by Jenkins and
Sauber in their study of the pre-placement year of children whoentered foster care: the schools originated only three percent of the referrals
(in contrast to 16 percent which originated with the police), and even when a child's personality or severe neglect was the cause of referral for placement, the schools referred not more than eightpercent.2Such unresponsiveness to evidences of maladjustment and neglect among school children is another indication of confusion of roles and responsibilities among pupil personnel services, and particularlyapplies to school social workers who have been expected to act as liaison between community
agencies and the schools.
Summary of Period 1960-1968
Beginning in the sixties, school social work began to reflect a
transition to changed goals and new methods of work as a response to the
urgent social problems affecting large numbers of school childrenand
youth. This transition was characterized by a new awareness of the
school as a social system, a greater readiness of the professions of
education and social work to collaborate in behalf of school children
1Richard John Anderson, "Procedures and Problems in Referring School Children to Mental Health Clinics", Ed.D Dissertation, Illinois State University, 1968, p. 177.
2Shirley Jenkins and Mignon Sauber, Paths to Child Placements: Famils Situations Prior to Foster Care, New York:Community Council of 'Greater New Ybrk, 1966,p. 73.
-67- An Analysis of the Tasks in S,lhool Social Work who were unable to utilize educationalopportunities because of social, emotional, and cultural problems; exttAsion ofthe social group work method into scho6l social work practice;demonstrations of nxtw approaches to work with the community; anda renewed focus on school social work's responsibility to help modify school conditionsand policies which stood as obstacles to successful school experiences for children. There was also evidence, however, of considerableconfusion among roles of the various school specialists--a confusionwhich underscored the responsi- bility of school social workto clarify its function and to measure it against the critical needs of today'sschool children.
-68- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
III. METHOD
The method described below was used to answer these two basic questions: (1) What is the content of the function of school social work and the relative importance of its parts, as defined by profes-
sional social workers closlly related to this field of practice? (2)
Does such a definition of function provide a promising basis for experi- mentation in assigning responsibilities to social work staff with differ- ent levels of education and training?
Identification of Tasks
By means of a survey of the professional literature and consul- tation with educators and practitioners in the field of school social work, a comprehensive list was assembled of tasksknown to be contained in the activity of school social workers,or implied by the professional goals and principles of the fields of education and social work. Each task was then written in behavioral terms to describea specific activ- ity of school social workers in relation to the child, hisparents, teachers, administrators, or other school personnel,as well as commun- ity agencies and interests. The list of tasks was studied and revised to eliminate duplication and to insure inclusion of the widerange of activities which are carried out by social workers indifferent school systems.
Construction of a Rating Scale
The tasks were translated into a rating scale of 107items, each item a task of the school social worker. The rating scale underwenta
-69- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work series of revisions as a result of recommendations from consuitants, mid data from questionnaires which were completed by a small sample of school social work practitioners and students of the Jane Addams Graduate School of Social Work. A copy of the rating scale, as used in the study, is cor:ained in Appendix A.
The scale asked tespo dents to answer two basic questions in re- lation to each task. The first question was "How important Jo you con- sider the task for the attainment of social work goals within a school system?" Respondents wer asked to indicate their opinion using the following classification:
0 -- not important 1 -- slightly important 2 -- moderately important 3 -- very important
The second question asked was "Can the task appropriately be assigned to a person with less than your level of education and profes- sional preparation?" (It was known from the nature of the sample to be used that respondents would have graduate social work education or its equivalent.) Respondents were asked to indicate their opinion, using the following classification:
0 -- not appropriate (should never be assigned to a person with less education than mine) 1 -- occasionally appropriate (occasionally can be assigned to a person with less education than mine) 2 -- frequently appropriate (frequently can be assigned to a person with less education than mine) 3 -- always appropriate (always can be assigned to a person with less education than mine)
This second question was not expected to provide a definitive answer as to which tasks could be performed successfully by persons at
-70* An Analysis of the Teaks in.School Social Work
lesser levels of training. Such a determination would haveto take into
account the knowledge and skills appropriate to the tasks and the kind
of training the person performing the tasks had received. The question
was included in the study in order to determine which tasks professional
school social workers are inclined to surrender willinglyto "nonpro-
fessional" staff at some lower level of education andtraining. Such
information would provide one obvious and acceptablegroup of tasks with
which to experiment in differential assignment.
Sample
The compilation of a roster of professional socialworkers
throughout the country who are identified with school socialwork proved
to be a time-consuming procedure sinceno central registry existei of
social workers employed in school systems.Therefore, lists of school
social workers were assembled for each of thevarious states by corre-
sponding with state departments of public instructton,faculty members
of graduate schools of social work, and known school socialworkers in
supervisory positions. While this wofk was time-consuming, thecorre-
spondence did appear to generate interest in the study, and it yielded
useful suggestions for ways in which tocarry out the study most effec-
tively.
Names were secured from 40 states and the District of Columbia.
As well as can be ascertained, the listswere complete for 29 states
(i.e., contained thenames of all social workers employed in public
schools). It was partially complete for another six states. Five more
states were found to employ a very small number of schoolsocial workers--
-71- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
three persons or less; most of these names were secured.The remaining
10 states not represented in the roster mere determinedto have no pro-
fessional school social workers employed.
The roster of school social workers was then eleckedagainst the
1966 NASW Directory for each person's membership,as a means of confirming graduate social work education or its equivalent. This procedure resulted in a list of 1456 persons with NASW membership, employed in schno/ social work positions, in 40 states and the District of Columbia.
From this roster of 1456 names, a sample of 368names (approxi- mately 25 percent) was selectedas follows: From the separate state rosters which listed foUr or more school social workers, every fOurth name from the list was drawn; for rosters of states listing three or two school social workers, the secondname was drawn; if a state's roster showed only one name, that singlename was drawn.
Data collection began December 1, 1966. A follow-up letter was sent on January 13, 1967, to try to increase the percentage of persons in the sample who completed and returned the rating scales. From the origi- nal sample of 368names, questionnaires to 14 persons were returned for lack of a forwarding address. Of the remaining 354 potential respondents,
257 of them (72.5 percent) returned their questionnaires. Nineteen of these were incomplete and these questionnaireswere excluded from the analyses. There remained a total of 238 questionnaires for analysis.
Analysis of the Data
The first data analysed were answers to the question on the rating scale: "How important doyou consider the taek for the attainment of
-72- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
social work goals within a school system?" Responses to this question
were made by 238 persons to each of 107 tasks.
A factor analysis was carried out on the IBM 7094with program
and services furnished by the Research Section of the Statistical Services
Unit of the University of Illinois. The method of principalaxes analyses
was used, the factors and loadings being produced by rotation, using the
varimax technique.1 Chapter IV reports the results of this factor anal-
ysis, and the respondents' opinions of the importance of tasks within each
factor.
Data from the second part of the questionnaire consisted of re-
sponses to the question, "Can the task appropriately be assigned to a
person with less than your level of education and professional prepara-
tion?"Two hundred thirty eight persons answered the question in relation
to each of the 107 tasks on the rating scale.Mean ratings for each item were %omputed, and comparisons of relative "appropriateness" of task assignments, were made within each factor. 1Factoranalysis is a statistical method which derives from a large number of specific variables a set of more general "wholes". It as- sumes that some structure exists among the variables; the aim of the anal- ysis is to group the variables into the fewest possible "wholes" (i.e., factors). The first step is to obtain all possible correlations among the variables. The factors which emerge are the dimensions (i.e., the "wholes") represented within these intercorrelations. A factor, then, is composed of items which are highly correlated; they are more highly correlated with each other than they are with items in any other factor. The loading of a particular variable represents the extent of that variable's correlation with other variables within that factor. The higher the factor loading for a particular item, the more that item has contrib- hted to the factor and,therefore, the more it directly measures what that factor represents. After the loadings of all items have been determined and grouped to form factors, the items within a factor are inspected for theirpsy- chological meaning or functional unity. The factor can then be identified and a name can be assigned to it. For a full and more technical description of the method used,see Harry H. Harmon, Modern Factor Analysis, 2nd:revised edition, Ch.kcago: The University of Chicago Press, 1967. -73-
smitimmute- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
/V. RESULTS
Description of Factors
The factor analysis revealeda meaningful structure among the school social work tasks. Nine factors emerged. (No task was retained as part of a factor unless it loaded at least .40on that factor. No factor contained less than five such items.) The nine factors were:
Leadership and Policy Making; CaseworkService to the Child and His
Parents; Clinical Treatment of Children with EmotionalProblems; Educa- tional Counseling with the Child andHis Parents; Liaison Between the
Family and Community Agencies; Interpreting theChild to the Teacher;
Personal Service to the Teacher; InterpretingSchool Social Work Service; and Case Load Management. Before describing their importance,as viewed by school social workers, each factor willbe described briefly.
Leadership and Policy Making
This factor appears to measure school social workresponsibility for professional leadership in relaticnto the school and community, and service to the school administration in thearea of pupil-welfare policy.
High loadings were foundon certain tasks having to do with the status of the social work and education professions. For example:
Item No. Loading
94 Assists in in-service training of .71 teachers or administrators.
91 Publishes new findings and perspec- .66 tives on social work services in the school setting.
89 Works actively to obtain increased .57 salaries and improved working condi- tions for teachers and other school personnel.
-74- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
High 1,'Ings were also found on tasks which delineated these kinds of services to administrators:
Item No. Loadiql
78 Works with school administrators .53 to examine the symptoms and deter- mine causes of problems in the school system.
79 Consults with school administrators .54 in the formation of policies which directly affect the welfare of pupils.
Community services appeared in-this factor with such itemsas:
Item No. Loading
102 Accepts responsibilities within a .64 community council or other planning and coordinating group.
103 Attends and contributes to meetings .43 of social action groups, aside from professional social work or educa- tion organizations.
Work with parents was represented by these tasks:
Item No. Loading
67 Plans or conducts educational .50 meetings with groups of parents 1rease their knowledge about their children's development, their role as pczents, etc.
68 Works with groups of parents to .45 organize and channel their concern:, about the problems of their school system.
Casework Service to the Child and His Parents
This factor defines a way of offering help to the individualchild and his parents in relation to the child's personalproblems. The ap- proach is a generally supportiveone and the emphasis is upon diagnosis
-75- An Analysis of the Tasksin School Social Work and clarification of the problems withother school personnel and with parents, and work withthe child concerning his feelings, attitudes and relationships to adults and other significant persons in hislife. Ex- amplee...nfjpsks contained in this factorfollow:
Item No. Loading.
27 Obtains from various school personntIll .56 a description of thechild's problems and his behavior at school, both in and out of the classroom.
28 Obtains from parents information on .66 the child's behavior at home, and his previous development and experiences.
34 Obtains psychiatric, psychological, .70 or social casework consultations where problems in diagnosis occur.
57 Clarifies with the parents the nature .69 of the child's problems.
42 4Lelps the child develop new attitudes .59 or modify old ones.
47 Helps the child to control or express .63 his feelings appropriately.
61 to see how they con- .51 tribu- o their child's problems (e.g., through their own marital problems, poor home conditions, or by their particular methods of child care).
62 Helps parents to see how they con- .62 tribute to their child's growth (i.e., recognize their own particu- lar strengths as parents).
46 Helps the child to understand his rela- .42
tionships to important adults in his . . life.
Clinical Treatment of Children With Emotional Problems
This factor contains tasks which represent a treatment relation-
ship to the child who has emotional problems. By use of a cascwork
-76- An Analysis of the Tasks inSchool Social Work
relationship or the group process, thechild is helped to gain insight
into his emotional problems, to develophis personal goals and values,
and to change his behavior in life situations. Work with the child's
parents is not represented in this factor. Examples of items with high
loadings are as follows:
Item No. Leadia&
26 Interviews child to determine his .47 feelings and reactions concerning his problems.
48 Works with an individual child in a .77 casework relationship.
49 Works with groups of children using .47 the group process.
40 Helps the child gain insight into his .55 emotional problems.
41 Helps the child change his overt be- .47 havior in life situations.
Educational Counseling With the Child and His Parents
School social work tasks with high loadings on this factor de-
scribe a kind of work with the individual child and his parents which is
oriented towards the school's educational function. It utilizes explana-
tion and clarification of the school's social and academic expectations
and its authority; it attempts to help parents improve their relationship
to the school; and the help to the individual child is in the area of his
educational goals and values, and his abilities and interests.Among the
tasks with high loadings are these:
-77- An Analysis of the Tasks in School SocialWork
Item No.
39 Clarifies the school's social and .64 academic expectations and regulations with the child.
43 Helps the child develop his educa- .56 tional goals or values.
45 Helps the child understand his abil- .41 ities and interests.
64 Interprets to parents who are ignor- .70 ing school regulations the nature of the school's authority and its ex- pectations.
63 Makes suggestions as to how the .51 parent can improve their relations with the child's teacher and with his school.
Liaison Between the Family and Community Agencies
This factor contains tasks which appear to measure the role of the school social worker acting as a lialson hetween a child and his parents and the existing community agencies.Emphasis is upon obtaining information about an individual family's functioning or experiences of community agencies in relation to that family, with active supportof-
fered to the child and his family in the use of community agencies.The
focus is upon the individual child and family and their use of existing
community resources. This differs from the "community service" items
in the first factor, Leadership and Policy Making, whichreflect re-
sponsibility for community planning and social change.Examples of tasks
which had high loading on this factor are these:
Item No. Loading
29 Obtains from parents information .66 about the family's functioning.
-78- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
Item No. 1.oading,
97 Acts as a liaison betweena family .50 and a social agency to insure that, following referral, service gets underway.
98 Actively encourages childor family .53 to make maximum use of community resources to which they have been referred, and gives continuing positive support to them in their attempts.
33 Obtains information from other .45 agencies who have had experience with child and/or his family.
The school social work tasks which loadedhigh on this factor
are ones which find the social worker acting mainlyto help the teacher
understand a specific child in relationto the use of school social work
service. This factor has not been called consultationwith the teacher
since the tasks seem designedto facilitate use of school social work
service in relation toa particular child, rather than consultation for
1 a broader school purpose. Examples of tasks with high loadingson this
factor are these:
1 Broader school purposes in consultation to-theteacher could include such activitiesas helping a beginning teacher anticipate the kinds of problems and situations whichshe may encounter withparents in her school; giving the teacherenumragement, sympathy, and under- standing with respect to difficult classroom situations; assessinga child's functioningin relation to the general characteristicsof the school; or suggestingways to utilize peer relationships within the classroom oron the school grounds (all items which loaded lessthan .40 on any factor).
-79- An Analye.s of the Tasks in School Social Wbrk
/tem No. Loading
4 Discusses whether the problem is .47 suitable for service.
5 Distinguishes between normal and .40 problem behavior ina child.
6 Assesses the improvement whichcan .56 be expected in the child and/or family.
11 Helps the teacher recognize possible .40 differences in the values of the child and teacher.
16 Offers suggestions concerning howto .47 deal with parents.
Personal Service to the Teacher
Tasks which loaded highon this factor seem closely related to those described above for thefactor, Interpreting the Childto the
Teacher. These appear tomeasure activity of the school social worker in relation toa teacher's personal problemsas they affect her inter- actions with a child in her classroomor possibly interfere in otherways with her work. El.amples are:
Item No. Loading
10 Discusses with the teacher the nature .45 of her interactions with the child.
20 Helps the teacher understand herown .65 personal problems.
21 Refers the teacher toa community agency .71 for help with personal problems where the teacher's own difficultiesprevent her irom being effective in herwork.
22 Refers the teacher toa community agency .65 for help with her own personal problems, even though they are not interfering with her work.
-80- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
The principal aim of tasks which showed highloadings on this
factor appears to be to interpret, clarify, andco-ordinate school social
work services with other special serviceswithin a schoolsystem. For
example:
Item No. Loading
1 Describes the nature, objectives, and .50 procedures of school social work service.
69 Describes to other special service ;58 personnel the range of services the social worker is able to provide.
82 Clears referrals with teacher and .42 principal when the referral has orig- inated elsewhere.
71 Participates on school committeesto .45 improve effectiveness of all the special services.
Case Load Management
Tasks which show high loadingson this factor appear to typify fairly routine tasksnecessary to an effective and well organized dayby day management ofa case load. For example:
Item No. Loading
84 Sets up appointments with child,parents, .64 or other appropriate persons.
83 Channels information suchas referrals, .57 suggestions, and releases to appropri- ate personnel.
23 Reviews the child's cumulative record .56 and takes notes on pertinent information.
95 Supplies information to parents about .47 welfare agencies or public health facilities (e.g., location; application procedures; etc.). An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
Relative Importance of School Social Work Tasks princialFindiitce2Asijli.as_axdinImortat of Tasks
In answer to the question, "How important doyou consider the
task for the attainment of social work goals withina school system?",
;lie mean rating was computed for each of the 107 itemson the scale, as
well as the overall mean for eachgroup of items within a factor.1
Table 1 shows the factor means, ranked from highto low, and the signifi-
cant differences among these means.
As can be seen from Table 1, school socialworkers assigned
significantly greater importance to thetasks which make up Factor 2,
Casework Service to the Child and HisParents, than to the tasks inany
other factor. By contrast, the tasks of Factor 1,Leadership and Policy
Making, were assigned significantly lessimportance than any other
factor except for Factor 42
'Appendix Bcontains a table for each factorshowing the var!,ance accounted for by the items in thatfactor, all the items whichloaded .40 or above, and the mean and SD ofresponses to each item.
2Factor 4,Personal Service to the Teacher,was rated of less importance than any other factor. It is being omitted from further discussion of findings becauseit appears to representa "rejected" set of tasks--a mixture of itemsrated lowest in importance andnr-t associ- ated with either of two possibly appropriate factors,Interpreting School Social Work Service or Interpreting the Child to the Teacher. Comments in the margin of questionnaires suggested further that theseitems in Factor 4 were often believedto be inappropriate fora school social worker's activity.
-82- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
TABLE 1
Rank Order of Factor Means
Ratings were as follows: 0 -- not important; 1-- slightly important; 2 -- moderately important; 3-- very important.
No. Factor of Factor No. Tasks Mean* S.D.
2 Casework Service to the Child and 13 2.90 .356 His Parents
5 Case Load Management 7 2.73 .549
6 Interpreting School Social Work 8 2.72 .549 Service
9 Clinical Treatment of Children With 6 2.71 .537 Emotional Problems
7 Liaison Between the Family and 7 2.68 .541 Community Agencies
8 Interpreting the Child to the 5 2.63 .591 Teacher
3 Educational Counseling With the 12 2.31 .834 Child and His Parent
1 Leadership and Policy Making 18 2.20 .846
4 Personal Service to the Teacher 6 1.80 .981
*The means of all factorsdiffer significantly from each other (plzr.01) with these exceptions:
Factor 2 is higher than Factor 1 (ptc.05) Factor 5 is higher than Factor 7 (p4..05)
The following do not differ significantly from each other:
Factors 5, 6, and 9 Factors 6, 9, and 7 Factors 7 and 8
-83- An Analysis of the Tasks in School SocialWork
Further examination of Table 1 shows thatFactors 5, 6, 9, 7, and
8 were all rated as significantly higherin importance thanFactors 3 and
1. It is of interest to note that these fivemore highly rated factors
all serve to extend or reinforcea definition of school socialwork which
is focused on an individual child,or on his parents in relationto the
child and his personal or emotional problems. For example, Factor 5,
Case Load Management, and Factor 6, InterpretingSchool Social Wofk
Service, consist of tasks whichsupport or facilitiate theperformance of the kinds of tasks shown in Factor 2; Factor 9, ClinicalTreatment of
Children with Emotional Problems,represents another way of working with
the individual child, ina one-to-one or group treatment relationship;
Factor 7, Liaison Betweenthe Family Community Agencies, contains
items relevant to helping'amilies use existing communityresources,
i.e., an activity whichfacilitates referrals growingout of work with
the individual childand his personalor emotional problems; Factor 8,
Interpreting the Child to the Teacher, includes thosetasks which, again,
reinforce work with theindividual child at schoolin relation to his
personal and emotionalproblems.
Factor 3, Educational Counselingof the Child and HisParents, was significantly lower in importancefrom all six factors withhigher means just described. The counseling tasks whichmake up this factor are oriented towards the school'seducational function, and thework with the child is in relatlon to his educationalgoals, values, abilities and interests,rather than his personalor emotional problems.
-84- An Analysis of theTasks in SchoolSocial Work
11.121sion Im ortance ofTasks Accordingto.222Egarl computed for seven geo- The mean ratingsfor each factor were determined according tothe groups graphical regions. (These regions were NASW institutes.) No sig- of states included inattendance at regional that the definitionof school nificant differencesoccurred, indicating analysis wasrcpresentative social work which hademerged from the data regardless of theirgeographical location. of school social workers,
/moortance of TasksAccordinto Size ofSchool Systems for four Mean ratings foreach of the ninefactors were computed finding contained different size school systems. The most outstauding from the largest system in these comparisons wasthat social workers wit./ the Child andHis Parents, rated Factor 3,Educational Counseling in each of theother significantly lower thandid the social workers
three size systems. See Table 2 below.
rABLE 2
S.D. Difference Size of System Mean
.498 1 = 300 to 3,000pupils 2.44 .519 2 = 3,000 to 25,000pupils 2.37 .539 3 = 25,000 to 100,000pupils 2.28 .565 4 = 100,000 or morepupils 2.00 .44* 1 -4 .37* 2 -4 .28** 3 -4
*P **P c05
-85- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
aummatof Findlafalle3arlim/125211:1,102211scialWork Tasks
School social workers in this study, when askedto rate the im-
portance of 107 representative tasks of school social workfor the attain-
ment of social work goals within a school system, formulateda definition
of school social work which was focused primarilyupon work with the
individual child in relation to his emotional problemsand his personal
adjustment. Service to the child includeduse of either casework or
group work, although case work was rated higher tn importance. The goals
in work with the individual childwere centered on attempts to help him
control or express his feelings appropriately,understand his relation-
ships to others, or give him insight into hisemotional problems so that
he could develop his personal goalsor values or develop new attitudes.
A principal technique in work with the childwas the interview, and its
intent was to determine his feelings andreaction concerning his home,
his school and his problems.
Work with the child's parentswas included when this was necessary
to cla7:ify Cite child's problemor t. secure support for the social worker's
activity in relation to the individualchild.
Consultation with the teacherwas defined principally in relation
to an individual child and the referral for socialwork service to him.
Omitted from consultation with theteacher were areas of her work related
to broader concerns,e.g., use of peer relationships, use of group inter-
action in the classroom andon the playground, or assessment of children's
functioning in relationto the general characteristics of the school in which theyare pupils.
-86- An Analysis of the Tasks in School SocialWork
Activity with community agencieswas defined in ways that support
the school social worker's effortswith an individual child--bygiving
or securing information in order to facilitatereferrals, or supporting
and encouraging parents touse existing community servicesto which they had been referred.
School social workers ratedas significantly less important those
social work tasks which describedwork with children and theirpar in relation to the child's educational problems and thesocial and academic
expectations and regulations ofthe school.
Among all the tasks of schoolsocial work, social workers rated
the tasks of Leadershipand Policy Makingas least important for the
attainment of social work goalswithin the school system. Included were ta'sks which focus upon professional activity in research,in-service
training, publication ofnew findings and perspectives, andrecruitment of social work per onnel; also included were work withparents to help
them understand and channeltheir concerns about the problemsof their
school system, social workactivity to bring aboutimprovement of working
conditions of school staff,consulting with administratorson the formu-
lation of pupil-welfarepolicy, and working in thecommunity to bring
about new social welfareservices or social change.
School social workers ln variousgeographical regions showeda
pattern of consistent agreementon the definition of school socialwork described above; this was also true for social workers fromschool systems of varying size, except for Factor 3, EducationalCounseling with the
Child and HisParents, which was rated lower bythose in the largest system. An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
Assigning School Social Work Tasks to Other Personnel
Principal Findings.
In answer to the question, "Can the task appropriately be assigned
to a person with less than your level of education and professionalprep-
araticn?", the mean rating was compiled for each ofthe 107 items on the
scale, as well as the overall means for each group of items withina
factor. Table 3 shows these overall mean ratings.
TABLE 3
Assigning School Social Work Tasks: Mean Ratings by Factors
Ratings were as follows 0 -- cannot be assigned;1 -- occasion- ally canbe assigned; 2 -- frequentlycan be assigned;3 -- always can be assigned.
Factor No. Mtan S.D.
5 Case Load Management 1.54 1.03
3 Educational Counseling With the Child and 1.45 .958 His Parents
1 Leadership and Policy Making 1.18 1.02
7 Liaison Between the Family and Community 1.13 1 03 Agencies
6 Interpreting School Social Work Service 1.05 1.06
8 Interpreting the Child to the Teacher .92 .931
2 Casework Service to the Child and His .92 1.01 Parents
9 Clinical Treatment of Children With .82 .947 Emotional Problems
4 Personal Service to vile Teacher .78 .921
-88- An Analysis of the Tasksin School Social Work
The overall factor means reflect ageneral prevalence of low
ratings. (The range of responses for all 107items was from a high of
2.18 to a low of .39. Only three tasks were ratedhigher than 2.00 This
is in contrast to the ratings onimportance of the tasks,which were
generally high. This fact appears to suggestthat school social workers
are inclined to see mostof their activity as quiteimportant and are
reluctant to consider the delegation of verymuch of it. Even the factor,
Case Load Management, which containstasks which received the highest
ratings in appropriateness for assignment to someoneelse, were rated at
a level which said theycould be delegated less often than"frequently":
routine tasks which It will be recalled thatthis factor contains fairly
probably could be rather easily delimitedand directed.
Further inspection of Table 3 showsthat threefactors1 hadmean
ratings so low as to indicate thatsocial workers believe the tasks can-
not ,..ver be assigned to personswith less professional preparation.
These factors (Interpreting the Child tothe Teacher, Casework Service
to the Child and His Parents,and Clinical Treatment ofChildren With
Emotional Problems), contain the coretasks of the definition of school
social work described earlier, whichfocuses upon work with theindividual
child in relation to his personaland emotional problems and interpreting
the child and his problems to theteacher.
For Factor 1, Leadership andPolicy Making, a rank order correla-
tion between the meanratings on task importance and the meanratings on
1 It will be recalledthat Factor 4, Personal Service to the Teacher, was dropped from furtherdiscussion of findings (see p.82).
-89- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work task assignability was -.56 (p4c.05); Therefore, themore a task within this factor was considered to be important, the lesswilling social workers were to assign it topersons with less than their professional preparation. An inspection of the ratings of importance for ehis factor
shows that relatively high ratings (and thus,those tasks for which social workers probably believe professionaleducation is needed) are those which involve work with schooladministrators around problems in the school systemor the formulation of school policy, interpreting the nature of school social work to communityvoups, publication of new findings about school social work,assisting with in-service training of teachers or administrators,or giving field work instruction to grad- uate social work students. Relatively low ratings of importancewere given for tasks suchas participation in social action groups in the community, working for newprograms, participating in community planning councils, and working withgroups of parents.
For Factor 7, Liaison Between the Family andCommunity Agencies, a rank order correlation of -.78 (l0:2>v..05)was found between ratings of importance and ratings of assignability. Relatively high importance ratings had been given to tasks involvedin the process of referral to community agencies (e.g., dbtaining informationfrom parents about family functioning touse in referral, or negotiating betweenagency and family until service gets under way),suggesting that the professional social worker sees these tasksas more appropriate for his own level of professional education, rather than for"non-professionals". Aelatively low importance ratings were given to the obtaining of more routinekinds
-90- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
of information for use in referral,or encouraging the family, after
referral is effected, touse the agency service.
None of the other factors showedany correlation between mean
importance ratings and assignabilityratings.
Regarding
School social workers showedreluctance to identify tasks which
they were willing to assignto persons with less than their level of
professional education and training,giving very low ratings to practi-
cally all of the 107 tasks. They reserved for themselves responsibilities
for performance of casework andgroup work services to the child and his
family in relation to emotionalproblems and personal adjustment. In addition, they regardedmost of the tasks in interpreting school social work service to other schoolpersonnel and interpretingan individual child to the teacheras properly their responsibility. For two factors,
Leadership and policy Making, and LiaisonBetween the Family and Com- munity Agencies, they indicated lesswillingness to delegate those tasks which they had held to be relativelymore important. Case Load Manage- ment and Educational Counseling to the Child andHis Parents consisted of tasks which they sometimeswere willing to delegate. An Analysis of the Tasks in School SocialWork
V. CONCLUSIONS --IMPLICATIONS
The Basic Questions and the Conclusions
The study which has been reported sought to answer twobasic questions. The first of these was "What is the content of the function of school social work and the relative importance of its parts asdefined by professional social workers closely related to this field ofpractice?"
This question was answered in Chapter IV. (See Summary of Findings Re- garding Importance of School Social Work Tasks, p. 86.) The description
of school social work revealed by this study appears to reflect the
school social work literature of the 1940's and 1950's, and shows little
or no general response to the concerns expressed inboth education and
social work literature of the 1960's. Much of this more recent litera-
ture has been concerned with the educational problems of many unsuccess-
ful school children and youth, the underlying conditions in the school,
neighborhood, and community which contribute to their school problems,
and new approaches to use in the delivery of services to them.
The second question the study sought to answer was: "Does this
definition of function provide a promising basis for experimentation in
assigning responsibilities to social work staff with different levels
of education or training?" Regrettably, the conclusion must be that it
does not. This is true for at least two reasons: (1) The definition
reflects a static model within a residual conception of social welfare,
one which largely ignores the relationship of theschool and its opera-
tions to those of other social institutions in the community; this
-92- An Analysis of the Tasks in School SocialWork definition commits its professional personnel to use up its resourcesin providing a limited range of social work services without sufficient attention to the most pressing problems of school children and youth
today, problems which would lend themselves to experimentation in design
of services and staffing patterns. (2) School social workers are not
ready to delegate many of the tasks which they regarded as important in
school social work, a finding which is a logical outgrowth of the defi-
nition of school social work which they evolved. The general conclusion
cited above is supported by the following observations.
School gocial Work as a .Residual Service
Leadershie and policy making: The definition of school social
work which this study reported disregarded fhe fact that the school, as
one of the community's social institutions, is interdependent with other
social institutions and functions of the community; one cannot be ex-
pected to attain its goals independently of the concerns and goals of
another. Increasingly today, in tha face of extreme social unrest, the
charge is heard that our major social institutions, e.g., law, social
welfare, and education, have iailed to create and maintain a viable
community climate for large parts of the population. The extent to
which this is true greatly increases the weight of responsibility upon
social workers to meet their full share of responsibility for professional
leadership and sound social policy formulation in the community's insti-
tutions and programs.
Social workers in the schools serve in one of the most signifi-
cant of the community's institutions, and they occupy a strategic position
-93- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
for exercising professional leadership withinthe school ani its neighbor-
hoods and community. However, the definition of schoolsocial work de-
veloped in this study does not support thereadiness of school social
workers to assume such responsibility andopportunity, evidenced by the
relatively low level of importance accordedtasks within the factor,
Leadership and Policy Making. Assigning such a minor roleto professional
leadership activities denies howcrucially important it is,to social
work in every setting andprogram, that there be sound curriculum and
pupil-welfare policy in the publicschools, and that children and youth
be enabled to make fulluse of improved educationalresources.
Nor can concern about the lowlevel of importance assignedto
tasks of professionalleadership be set aside by thestatement that most of the school social workersin the study samplewere at the worker level, rather than ata supervisory, administrativeor consultant level, and consequently have lessopportunity for leadership andpolicy making activity. The study did not ask foropinions as to what activity school social workers are presently engaged in, but how importantvarious activities were consideredto be for the attainment of socialwork goals within the school setting (regardless of who performedthese activities.)
In addition,all levelsof social work staff shareresponsibility for contributing to social policyformulation and implementation,e.g., by reporting back front lineobservatioas andconcerus in relation to exist- ing or potential social welfare policy. The minor role assignedby school social workers to professional leadership andpolicy making activityis hardly consonant with the responsibility whicbmembers ofa profession An Analysis of the Tasks in School SocialWork
are expected to assume. The fact that theyare functioning in a secondary
setting does not abrogate thatresponsibility. Social work in the schools
is based on an interrelationship of problems and goals betweenthe public school and the institution of social welfare; social workprofessional
resources should not be used in anotherinstitution without a share in the formulation of policy whih affects the daily welfare andfutur#1
opportunities and attainments oflarge numbers of children andyouth.
School problems and relatedconditions: The definition of school
social work which this studyreported is insufficientlyrelated to the
most pressing problems of theschool population and theunderlying con-
ditions which producethese problems, thus contributingfurther to a
static model of servicewithin a residual conception ofsocial welfare.
Examples to support thisstatement follow: (1) There is increasing
recognition in social work andin education of how important itis for children to learn, toexperience accomplishment in the socialsystem of thc school, andto make a successful transition intoemployment or higher education. Yet the definition of school socialwork gave low priorityto helping the child and hisparents in relation to the child's educational problems (in contrastto his personal or emotional problems)or in relation to the academic andsocial expectations of the school,or to helping him develop hiseducational values and goals.
(2) The problems of the childin school were viewedas arising mostly from the child'spersonal characteristics,or the personal characteristics of hisparents and their family functioning. In turn, little recognition was given to the impact of school conditionsupon a
-95- An Analysis of the Tasks in School SocialWork
pupil or the total set ofcircumstances within the school which mightbe
related to his poor adjustment. The chief emphasiswas on helping the
individual child accommodate himselfto the existlag school situation
rather than in attemptingto modify patterns withina school's operations
which might be generatingdifficulties for him and forlarge numbers of
other children as well.
(3) School social workfavored activities within thecommunity
which would assist individualfamilies to use existingresources,
especially as this wouldsupport the school social workservice to the
individual child who had personalor emotional problems. In turn, little
emphasis was placed upon school social wofk responsibility forassisting
with planned change ina community's organizational pattern ofsocial
welfare programsor its distribution of resources.
(4) Work with parents of schoolchildren was regardedas im-
portant when it enhanced the school socialworker's casework activity
with the individual child. This might occur by activitywhich contrib-
uted to the social worker's understandingof the child, or the parent's
understanding of the social worker'sinterest and activity in relation
to the child, or which helped theparent to improve relationshipswithin the family or use community resources to which referralhad been made.
However, relatively little importancewas accorded school social work activity which was aimed towards channeling back to schooladministrators knowledge about family, neighborhood,or other cultural influences in the lives of the school'spupils, or towards maintaininga liaison between home and school bymaking regular visits to parentsto reinforce their interest and concern for their children's school life. Furthermore,
-96- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work work with groups of parents to organize and channel their concerns about the problems of their school system was rated in importance next to the very lowest of all the tasks of school social work.
Differential Use of School Social Work Staff
School social workers indicated a reluctance to delegate to staff persons at lower levels of education and training the tasks which they considered important. This fact appears to reinforce the conclusion that school social work, as presently defined by its members, does not lend itself to experimentation in differential recruitment and use of staff resources. This finding might be interpreted as indicating that school social workers are generally not ready to look for solutions to the profession's crucial problem of manpower. However, it may be tIlat school social workers are not simply unresonsive to the problem, they are undodbtedly also troubled by the shortage of qualified school social work staff, the heavy work loads, and their inability to give full coverage in the services they provide. The observed reluctance to share school social work activity should more probably be seen as a logical concomitant of the particular definition of school social work to which school social workers are committed.
School social workers duriL3 the forties and fifties put great professional energy into developing a casework service in the public schools. That in doing so, they gave up the earlier tasks of school- home-community liaison and of bringing atout social change in the community is not different from what can be documented in social work practice in other programs during these same years.As school social workers sought
-97- AmAnalysis of the Tasks inSchool Social Work
to refine their casework service, they developedconviction that their work required "a special competence and skill" andthey accepted the traditional view that their forms of social workactivity were properly reserved for the graduate social worker. In the face of growingshort- ages of professional workers and the resultingconcern to protect the quality of their service, the tendency probablywas to maintain a narrowed range of services--those which the profession hadlong maintainedwere
the province of thegraduate social worker.
Because professional social workers inschools apparently have not responded sufficiently to the community'smost pressing problems and to the experimentation and demonstrations ofnew kinds of service which
have goneon in some schools in recent years, they are still inposses- sion of a traditional model of school socialwork service whichhas not required them to critically re-examinetheir staffingpattern.
Implications for Social WorkPractice and Education
It is generally acknowledgedthat theanswer to the social work manpower shortage cannot be only "more graduate social workers". Neither can it be found in an unquestioning acceptance ofthe need formore train- ing for variouslevels of staff--acceptance which is givenwithout critical examination of the function for which staffis being provided. Any plan for differential recruitment and use of socialwork staff must bebuilt around an identification of thecore problems of the clientgroup and a re-assessment of the goals of the socialwork service.
What, then, are some of the implications ofthis study for the profession of sociai work ahd for thepractice of social workin the schools?
-98- An Analysis of theTasks in SchoolSocial Work
Learning About the Problems
School social workersmust begin by accepting responsibilityfor new learning in relationto the critical times and theurgent social problems which encroachupon the lives of very large numbersof school children and theirparents, and upon the lives of schoolpersonnel who attempt to serve theseschool children better. This learningmust take place throughwell-planned in-service training programsas well as by
assumption of responsibilityon the part of the irdividual schoolsocial worker for hisown continued learning and professionaldevelopment. Some of this learningcan be drawn from the increasing literatureabout the schools and theprocess of education, and from thesocial workliterature which reflectsattempts to re-define needs and findnew responses. Other learning will needto occur through active investigationof community conditions and localconcerns.
The range of areas for study is wide: Studies or observations which illustratethe irrelevance for children ofmuch ofour educational process; the inequalitiesin educational opportunities; thefaulty school practices inrelation to behavior control; the benefitswhich canoccur through racialbalance in school population; thefailure in "integrated" schools wherechildren mingle by assignment butnever are together;the lack of real engagement with schoolon the part of many differentgroups of children and youth---somcin ghetto schools and some inmiddle and upper income schools;the loss in learning wherestudent voice isnot heard andthere isno response to the real problems andconcerns of pupils; andnot to be overlooked, the administrativerealities of school organization andmanagement.
-99.- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
It is not only school conditions and practices which need to be
studied, but conditions in neighborhoods and in the communityas well:
The black-white crisis with all its ramifications for the organization
and delivery of social welfare services; the effects of rapid technolog-
ical change upon children, families, neighborhoods, and communities;
illustrations of the interlockingsuccess or failure among the various
social institutions of a community; the frustration experienced by people
who have no appropriate outlet for the expression of their feelings, de-
sires, opinions, opposition or even approval in relationto our existing
institutions and services. In other words, all aspects of the rapid
course of sccial change which is all about us provide appropriate and
urgent material for new or continued learning on the part of school social
workers.
Reformulation of Goals
As problems and conditions are studied anew, the goals of school
social work must be andcan be .-1.eassessed, with emphasis upon those aims
which will aid the school toserve the individual school child better
and fulfill the purpose and role of the schoolas an institution of the
community. With goals which meet these terms, social workcan move anew
toward the school in a spirit of partnership to establisha contract for
service. That is, the social worker can approach the school administrator
and other school personnel in ways which do not inviteor exaceebate
defensiveness about "crisis in the school" but inways which lead to the
development and achievement ofa sense of common purpose which sets forth
"this is what we thinkwe can do in relation to these problems and this
-100- An Analysis of the Tasksin School Social Work is what you can expect ofus."Use of the concept of contract at varying times helps to clarify changingproblems and goals and is essential if progress is to beevaluated, and movement towards goals marked.
When services are related to goals which have beendefined in response to the most pressingproblems of school children and their families, the purpose of the school in the community canbe seen, not to serve as a 'therapeutic center,but as a life setting for children and youth where learning is possible and competence canbe acquired. School social services then become preventive services as theyhelp to make school a place where more children and youth can learn, an environment necessary for acquiring the skills fortoday's job market, for progression into higher education, and for developing an image of one's self as a person who is capable, who can learn and succeed.Effects such as these
are truly preventive of future problems.
Changes in Services
To meet new goals, changes in services must be considered in
order to make them effective in relation to the pressing problems and
conditions in school, family, neighborhood, and community. For example:
(1) Early and continued consultation with school administrators
is indicated to examine the symptoms and determine the causes of problems
in a school system, to channel back knowledge about neighborhood and
other cultural influences in the lives of the school's pupils, to encour-
age administrators to develop cooperative workingrelationships with com-
munity agencies, and to consult in the formulation of administrative
policy which directly affects the welfare of pupils.
-101- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
(2) Consultation with teachers should continueas an important part of school social work but with a broader focus--one which will in- clude interpretation of cultural forces inan effort to modify teachers' perceptions of children with limited backgrounds. One of the important changes needed in slum schools is an elevationof the teachers' expecta- tions of pupils, as a means of combating pupils'low academic achievement which is largely attributable to the fact thattheir teachers consider them uneducable. It must be remembered that the teacher's role has changed, as has the social worker's, and theteacher who once taught content only, and then was enabled to becomeaware of the child as an individual, is now increasingly held responsiblefor helping to improve the milieu of the school's life sotting.Many teachers need new kinds of help, e.g., in theuse of peers to help a troubled child, or in other aspects of the art of managing relationships withina classroom. School social workers, then, must acquirecompetence to consult with teachers in these areas and to help them in their techniquesfor molding a climate in which children are freed and motivatedto learn.
(3) Differing points for social workintervention in a pupil's difficulty must be considered andnew strategies for change must be tried out. This in no sense means that casework service isnot needed or that its continued utility inmany kinds of cases should be minimized. Some children will continue to be helped best byuse of the individual, one- to-one relationship with dependablereassurance and support provided.
It is important that school social workcontinue to provide the best of the casework service which has been welldeveloped and demonstrated in
-102- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
the school setting. In addition, somesevere problems will continue to
need diagnosis and treatment, or referralfor treatment. Such instances
of referral to community agenciesconstitute a fertile field for improved
school social work services. The school occupiesa strategic position
for carrying out careful diagnostic referralseffectively and for achiev-
ing a co-ordinated social service ina community.
(4) There must bea broader application of thegroup work method in the school setting. The group approach to schoolchildren with prob-
lems, or potential problems, is reported increasingly in thesocial work
literature and in conferencediscussions. Its usefulness has long been
acknowledged and itsfuller application is overdue.
(5) With the increasingattention to the rights ofparents in
relation to the schoolwhich their children attend,and the recognition
of the importance of parents'involvement in school affairs,it appears that school social workers should begin toconsider ways of workingwith parents to help them constructivelychannel theirconcerns about the school system to the proper school authorities. In addition, school social workers should try to effect a stronger liaisonwith community agencies for service to school children and theirfamilies. However, simply increasing the efficiency in theuse of existing communityagencies will be insufficient to the problems inmany instances. When it is, school social workers will have to find ways to assistwith planned changein the organizational pattern of social welfareprograms and resources,or to act as catalysts to those agents in the community whosefunction primarily is to change the pattern of the socialstructure of our society.
-103- An Analysis of the Tasks in SchoolSocial Work
MaiglaaJMtttEaE
To make available a fuller rangeof social services to school
children and their families, new staffing patternswill be required. One
model which appears particularly feasiblefor experimentation within a
school system is the use of a social workteam which would be assigned
to one or more schools. The team should be made up of at least one
professional social worker, one or more socialworkers with baccalaureate
degrees, and one or more school social worker aides(persons with less
than college education, selected for theirtalents of leadership, knowl-
edge of the community, and ability to act asliaison between the school's
neighborhoods and the school personnel).
It would be expected that each member ofthe social work team,
through well-planned in-service training, would develop orfurther extend
already developed, specialized skills, ones which weredifferent from
those of other team members, thus avoiding duplicationof resources, and
allowing maximum range of skills which could be brought tobear upon
school social work problems. Even though each team member became recog-
nized for particular abilities, it would beessential to avoid establish-
ing a hierarchy of roles.While the professional social worker would
be the team leader and would establish his owndistinguishing set of
skills, there would be no set channels forcommunication within the team,
and the team leader would not provide ore-to-one,on-going, case-by-case
supervision to the other members of the team. Rather, the emphasis
would be upon bringing about and maintaining adynamic climate for work
in which each member of the team could engagein consultation together,
freely exchange ideas, and request help in hiswork as the need to do so
-104- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
became apparent. On-going in-service training would feed in new knowl-
edge, identify areas for consultation together, and provide a stimulus
for continuing growth and development of skills by each worker.
The team would approach the giving of service in their school(s),
not on a case-by-case basis as referrals were received, but in response
to an identified cluster of related school problems, or an area of school
functioning which was producing concern for school personnel and stress
for its pupils. The first step would be to examine the problems and
define the goal which the school social work team wished to reach. With
the goal established, exploration could be made within the team as to
which of its members were best able to perform part of the service which
would be required to move toward the established goals. The team leader
would cazry responsibility for assigning parts of the service activities
to the team's different members, depending upon their particular abili-
ties, and for co-ordinating the activities.As the service became on-
going, it would be especially important for the team .13 evaluate together
what progress was being made toward the goals, how the problems might
have changed, and at what point a new focus or area for service should
be identified and established.
What might be some of the differences in roles of the members of
the team? At least until considerable experience has taken place, and
has been evaluated and reported, there would probably be very consider-
able variation among teams and among school systems. However, the pro-
fessional social worker would, as team leader, have final responsibility
for diagnosis of problems and problem areas, for co-ordinating the team
-105- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
activities, for bringing about an evaluationof each phase of social work
service, terminating a phase of service whenthis was appropriate, and
bringing attention to the need fornew definitions of problems and goals
as a means of involving the tealii in new problemsituations. The team
leader would also carry outa considerable amount of the consultation
with school administrators and teachers. In the further exercise of his
particular skills, he might give caseworkor group work service to
selected pupils or work actively withsome parents or with the community.
In using the baccalaureate degree workeras a member of the
social work team, it would beimportant that he not be assigned, "under
close supervision", only thosetraditional tasks of the professional
school social worker. The level of competence whichthe baccalaureate
degree worker brings to the job,and the skills which hecan develop,
require extensive experimentationand evaluation. In a dynamic team
climate, freed of preconceivednotions of his upper limits of ability,
such a workercan contribute in important ways toa needed definition
of his level of competence. Baccalaureate degree classroomteachers are expected to work and show competence in many difficult situations,e.g.,
with children of varying levelsof learning abilityor handicap, or with
children who havesevere behavior problems or impairments intheie inter-
personal relationships. They are even sometimes employedto serve as
teachers of classes of emotionallydisturbed children. Assignments such
as these suggest that the public schoolcan be a receptive environment
for experimentation in differentialuse of social work stg...ff at the baccalaureate level. These social workersmay well be enabled to give supportive casework serviceto young children, to work withgroups of
-106- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work school pupils around their educational concerns, to seek and give informa- tion to teachers, to visit parents to obtain diagnostic information or to clarify their expectations of their child or the school, and to perform numerous other social work tasks.
Social worker aides have already been used with great benefit in a number of programs (including some schools) and professional social workers appear to find it relatively easy to delegate taskiJ to them. For example, among the many important tasks which school social worker aides have or could perform are these: Informing parents of faculty-school programs and encouraging their attendance; discovering parent interests and getting attention to these in school programs; getting parents to come to the school for parent-teacher conferences; interpreting community service to parents and helping them to make the first contacts for service; reporting community and neighborhood conditions to other members of the social work staff; following up immediately on school absences; helping pupils to use neighborhood tutoring centers.
Need for Re ortin
As new experimental endeavors in the use of different levels of school social work staff are undertaken, it will be of great importance that these efforts be regarded by all school social workers with a crit- ically evaluative attitude, one which is grounded in a deep commitment to the process of education and a conviction that positive gains in school social work service can be made through redefinitions of problems and goals and imaginative experimentation in the use of staff.
Various experiences must be shared--in conferences, institutes and in professional writing. To decline to try what another school social
-107- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
work staff finds promising on the basis that "every schoolis different
and autonomous and so we cannot findcommon solutions" is to reinforce
a tendency to fit unquestionally into the existing schoolsystem and to
perpetuate the traditional pattern of schoolsocial work service.
Broadening the base of school social workers'ability to respond
to today's pressing problems in thecommunity and in the school cannot
come about solely through in-service tcaining anda readiness to experi-
ment by some school social workers. Social work education must respond
more fully and more quickly to the interests of students in workingwith
the community and its social institutions;it must educate for new func-
tions, and teach, not only all social work methods,but alternative
approaches within these methods. School social workers cannot employ
techniques they haven't learned;nor can they consult with teachers,
school administrators and community leaders aboutproblems for which they
have no understanding.
Neither can we expect a program of in-service trainingto compen-
sate fully for the fact that most baccalaureate degreesocial workers have not had a planned undergraduate educationin the field of social welfare. Greater progress in this part of social work educationmust become apparent.
The conclusions and implications forpractice and education which have been drawn from this study'sfindings are not intended to de-
tract from the richness in the course of development of schoolt al
-108- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work work, or the accomplishments ofnumerous school social workers who have worked with diligence and conviction to help children in their school life. Changing times and new problems always bring need for evaluation of well established patterns of work.School social workers want no less as they continue their efforts to find effective ways of helping troubled children and youth. APPENDIX A=RATING SCALE
AN ANALYSIS OF TASKS IN THE PRACTICE OF SCHOOL St3CIAL WORK
INSTRUCTIONS
The Rating Scale contains a list of tasks whicha social worker may perform when he works in a school setting.We are asking you to make two judgments abouteach task:
I. How important is it? II. How appropriate is it?
I. IMPORTANCE OF THE TASK: The question to be answered is: How important do you consider the task for theattainment of social work goals withina school system?
In making your judgment,do not consider the difficulty of the task,the kind of trainingnecessary, or what particular person wouldcarry out the task. Consider only how importantyou think it is that the task be done if social work in the schools is to achieveits goals.
In the column providedon the scale, circle the number which indicatesyour opinion.Use the following classification:
0not important 1--slightly important 2moderately important 3--very important
II. APPROPRIATENESS OF THE TASK: The question to be answered is: Can the task appropriately be assigned toa person with less than your level of education and professional preparation?
Assume that your department hasaccess to a range of social workers with different levels of education. Then consider whether the task, regardlessof its importance, can be assigned to a worker with less education thanyours. If it should never beso assigned, then consider it as relatively "notappro- priate."If the task, regardless of itsimportance, can be assigned toa person with less education thanyours, then consider it as relatively "appro- priate."
Keeping this defiuition ofappropriateness in mind, circle the numberin the column on the scale which indicatesyour opinion. Use the following classifi- cation:
0not appropriate (shouldnever be assigned to a person with less education than mine) 1--occasionally appropriate (occasionallycan be assigned to a person with less education than mine) 2--frequently 4.1upcepriate (frequentlycan be assigned to a person with less education than mine) 3always appropriate (alwayscan be assigned to a person with less education than mine)
PLEASE REMEMBER:Make your ratings on the "appropriateness"of a task without regard to how you have rated the "importance"of that task.
-110- TASK TASK IMPORTANCE APPROPRIATENESS (Can Be Assigned)
TASKS OF SCHOOL SOCIAL WORKER 0--not important 0--not appropriate 1--slightly 1--occasionally important appropriate I. RELATIONSHIP AND SERVICE TO 2--moderately 2--frequently KNEE important appropriate 3--very important 3--always A. Clarification of Service appropriate
1. Describes the nature, (Circle 0,1,2,or 3) (Circle 0,1,2,or 3) objectives, and pro- cedures of school social work service. 0 1 2 3 1 2 3
I. 2. Encourages suggestions and criticisms from the teacher. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
B. Communication of Dia nosis to the Teacher
3. Interprets the child's problem. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
Discusses whether the problem is suitable for service. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
5. Distinguishes between normal and problem behavior in a child. 0 1 2 3 o 1 2 3
6. Assesses the improve- ment which can be expected in the child and/or family. 1 2 3 0 1 2
C. jping Teacher-Ppil , Relations
7. Explains the ways in which a child's emo- tional or social problems may affect his academic perform- ance. 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
8. Provides relevant information (e.g., social history, impression from parents, agencies). 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 TASK TASK IMPORTANCE APPROPRIATENESS (Can Be Assigned)
TASKS OF SCHOOL SOCIAL WORKER 0not important 0not appropriate 1--slightly 1--occasionally important appropriate (1. RELATIONSH P ANDLJERVICE TO 2--moderately 2frequently lEACHER continued) important appropriate 3--very important 3--always 9. Helps teacher plan how appropriate she will interpret to the child the referral (Circle 0,1,2,or 3) (Circle 0,1,2,or 3) for service and the role of the social worker. 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
10. Discusses the nature of the teacher's inter- actions with the child (e.g., how she may be contributing to the child's problem, or which child behaviors she doesn't seem to be able to cope with). 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
11. Helps the teacher recognize possible differences in the values of the child and teacher. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
12. Evaluates periodically with the teacher the problem as orsginally referred, the progress, and the implications for the teacher's work with the child. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
13. Suggests ways to utilize peer relation- ships within the classroom or on the school grounds. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
14. Helps teacher discover the child's resources for achieving success. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
-112- .4114111a,46,
TASK TASK IMPORTANCE APPROPRIATENESS (Can Be Assigned) TASKS OP SCHOOL SOCIAL WORKER 0--not important 0--not appropriate 1--slightly 1--occasionally (I BEILAMOBLVISLANd_mium_ma important appropriate TEACHM continued) 2--moderately 2--frequently important appropriate D. Improving Parent-Teacher 3--very important 3--aIways Relationships appropriate
15. Helps beginning teacher (Circle 0,1,2,or 3) (Circle 0,1,2,or 3) to anticipate the kinds of problems which she may encounter with parents in her school. 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
16. Offers suggestions concerning how to deal with parents (e.g., what to discuss, how to encourage accept- ance of service or how to suggest changes in the parents' meth- ods of handling their child). 1 2 3 1 2 3
170 Acts as a liaison between teacher and parent (e.g., holds joint conferences, clears up misunder- standings, and inter- prets parental view- points to teacher). 1 2 3 1 2 3
18. Acquaints teacher with and encourages her to use community services, especially those avail- able for ter direct use with the child and his family. 0 1 2 3 1 2 3
E. Personal Service
19. Gives teacher encour- agement, sympathy, and understanding with respect to difficult classroom situations (e.g., problem behav- iors, a removal of child from her class, or the day-by-day stresses of teaching). 1 2 3
IN AINONIVINIMIL --113- TASK TASK IMPORTANCE APPROPRIATENESS (Can Be Assigned)
0--not important 0--not appropriate 1--slightly 1--occasionally important appropriate TASKS OF SCHOOL SOCIALWORKER 2--moderately 2--frequently important appropriate 3--very important 3--always appropriate I. AMIONSH P AND SERVICE TO TEACHER continued (Circle 0,1,2,or 3 ) (Circle 0,1,2,or 3) 20. Helps the teacher understand her own personal problems. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
21. Refers the teacher to a community agencyfor help with personal problems where the teacher's own diffi- culties prevent her from being effective in her work. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
22. Refers the teacher to a community agency for help with her own personal problems, even though they are not interfering with her work. O 1 2 3 10 1 2 3
U. AELATIONSHIP AND SERVICE TO CHILD
A. Definin. the Problem and Structuring the Service
23. Reviews the child's cumulative record and takes notes on perti- nent information. O 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
24. Observes the child in the classroom, noting interactions with peers and teacher, and how he goes about studying and learning. O 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
-114- 71111011101111MOINI
TASK TASK IMPORTANCE APPROPRIATENESS (Can Be Assigned) TASKS OF SCHOOL SOCIAL WORKER 0. 0--not important 0--not appropriate 1--slightly 1--occasionally (II. RELATIONSHIP AND SERVICE TO important appropriate CHILD continued) 2--moderately 2--frequently important appropriate 25. Observes the child at 3--very important 3--always home, noting his appropriate physical characteris- tics, interaction (Circle 0,1 2,or 3 (Circle 0,122,or 3) with parents and siblings, and his general living conditions. 1 2 3 1 2 3
26. Interviews child to determine his feelings and reactions concern- ing his home, his school, and his problews. 1 2 3 1 2 3
27. Obtains from various school personnela description of the child's problems and his behavior at school, both in and out of the classroom. 1 2 3 1 2 3
28. Obtains from parents information on the child's behavior at home, and his previous development and experiences. 0 1 2 3 1 2 3
29. Obtains from parents information about the family's functioning (e.g., financial and employment situation; satisfaction or dis- cord in family relationships). 1 2 3 1 2 3
30. Assesses the child's functioning in rela- tior, to his neighbor- hood patterns and other cultural influences. 1 2 3 1 2 3
-115- TASK TASK IMPORTANCE APPROPRIATENESS (Can Be Assigned)
0--not important 0--not appropriate TASKS OF SCHOOL SOCIAL WORKER 1--slightly 1--occasionally important appropriate 2--moderately 2--frequently (II. RELATIONSHIP AND SERVICE TO important appropriate CHILD continued) 3--very important 3--always appropriate 31. Assesses the child's functioning in relation (Circle 021,22or 3 (Circle 0,1,2,or 3) to the general charac- teristics of the school
in which he is a pupil. 0 1. 2 3 1 2 3
32. Obtains information about the child's medical problems from the family physician. 1 2 3 1 2 3
33. Obtains information from other agencies who have had experi- ence with the child and/or his family. 1 2 3 1 2 3
34. Obtains psychiatric, psychological, or social casework con- sultations where problems in diagnosis occur. 1 2 3 1 2 3
35. Formulates a statement which describes the child's problem and its etiology. 1 2 3 1 2 3
36. Selects and periodi- cally revises the plan for service and its goals. 1 2 3 1 2 3
37. Explains to the child why he has been referred for st_lial work service. 1 2 3 1 2 3
38. Explains to the child how they will work to- gether (e.g., time and place of appointments; the worker's contact with his teacher and parents). 0 1 2 3 1 2 3 TASK TASK IMPORTANCE APPROPRIATENESS (Can Be Assigned)
0--not important 0--not appropriate TASKS OF SCHOOL SOCIAL WORKER 1--slightly 1--occasionally important appropriate 2--moderately 2--frequently (II. EgLATIONSHIF AND SERVICE IQ important appropriate CHILD continued) 3--very important 3--always appropriate 39. Clarifies the school's social and academic (Circle 0,1,2,or 3) (Circle 0,1,2,or 3) expectations and regu- lations with the child. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
B. Goals of Casework or Group Work with the Child
40. Helps the child gain insight into his emo- tional problems. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
41. Helps the child change his overt behavior in life situations. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
42. Uelps the child develop new attitudes or modify old ones. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
43_ Helps the child develop his educational goals or values. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
44. Helps the child develop his personal goals or
values. O 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 '
45. Helps the child under- stand his abilities and interests. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
46. Helps the child to understand his rela- tionship to important adults in his life. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
47. Helps the child to control or express his feelings appropriately. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
-117- TASK TASK IMPORTANCE APPROPRIATENESS (Can Be Assigned) lApAs_u_sunot. SOCIAL WORKFR 0--not important 0--not appropriate 1--slightly 1--occasionally 1 (II. ziAUONSIAND SERVICE TO important appropriate Eskacontinued) 2--moderately 2--frequently important appropriate C. Basic medloas_g_glying 3--very important 3--always Social Work Service appropriate Directly to Child (Circle 0,1,2,or 3) (Circle 0,1,2,or 3) 48. Works with an individ- ual child in a case- work relationship. 0 1 2 3 1 2 3
49. Works with groups of children using the group process. 0 1 2 3 1 2 3
D. Techniques During Inter- views or Group Sessions
50. Interprets to the child reasons for his behavior and his rela- tionship to others. 1 2 3 1 2 3
51. Offers emotional sup- port (e.g., through reassurance, trust, friendship). 0 1 2 3 1 2 3
52. Offers advice, sugges- tions, and direction. 0 1 2 3 1 2 3
53. Offers factual information. 1 2 3 1 2 3
54. Reflects back to the child his expressed attitudes and feelings. 1 2 3 1 2 3
55. Interprets to the child the nature of the school's authority over him. 1 2 3 1 2 3
56. Interprets to the child the nature of his parents' authority over him. 0 1 2 3 1 2 3
-118- TASK TASK IMPORTANCE APPROPRIATENESS (Can Be Assigned) TASKS OF SCHOOL SOCIALWORKER 0--not important 0--not appropriate 1--slightly 1--occasionally important (II. appropriate manguir. 2--moderately sagacontinued 2--frequently important appropriate 3--very important E. Work with the Child's 3--always Parents appropriate
(Circle 0,1,2,or 3) (Circle 0,1,2,or 3) 57. Clarifies with the parents the nature of the child'sproblems. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 58. Explains to thepar- ents what is involved in social workserv- ice (e.g., relation- ships betweenthe child and worker;the worker and teacher; home visits;casework opportunities for the parents). o 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 59. Clarifies with the parents the school's social and academic expectations and regulations. o 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
60. Helps pareatsto develop realistic perceptions of their chiLl's academic potential and perform- ance, his limitations, and his future. O 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
61. Helps parentsto see how they contributeto their child's problems (e.g., throughtheir own marital problems, poor home conditions, or by their particular methods of child care). 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 62. Helps parentsto see how they contributeto their child's growth (i.e., recognizetheir own particular strengths as parents). 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
-119- , TASK TASK IMPORTANCE APPROPRIATENESS (Can Be Assigned)
0--not important 0--not appropriate TASKS OF SCHOOL SOCIAL WORKER 1--slightly 1--occasionally important appropriate 2--moderately 2--frequent1y (11. important appvvriate ow continued) 3--very important 3--a1ways appropTiate 63. Makes suggestions as to how the parents can (Circle 0,1,2,or 3 ) (Circle 0,1,2,or 3) improve their relations with his teacher and with his school. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
64. Interprets to parents who are ignoring school regulations the nature of the school's authority and its expectations. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
65. Supplies pareats with information they may need to improve rela- tionships within the family (e.g., special needs of slaw, gifted, or handicapped chil- dren; sexual problems; child-rearing practices). 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
66. Makes regular visits to parents to maintain a liaison between home and school in order to reinforce parents' interest and concern for their child's school life. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
67. Plans or conducts educational meetings with groups of parents to increase their knowledge about their children's develop- ment, their role as parents, etc. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
-120- ,...... _,,,_
TASK TASKS OF SCHOOL SOCIAL WORKER TASK IMPORTANCE APPROPRIATENESS (Can Be Assigned)
(II. mujagnummagyzEm 0--not important 0--not appropriate pup continued) 1--slightly 1--occasional1y important appropriate 68. Works with groups of 2--moderately 2--frequently parents to organize important appropriate and channel their 3--very important 3--always concerns about the appropriate problems of their school system (e.g., (Circle 0,1,2,or 3) (Circle 0,1,2,or 3) over-crowded class- _- rooms, the curriculum, school population). o 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
III. IMMCAMSMILMOI ARAM&
A. Collaboration withlusil Service Personnel
69. Describes to other special service per- sonnel the range of services the social worker is able to provide. O 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
70. Consults with other special service per- sonnel to develop and coordinate an overall treatment approach for the child. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
71. Participates on school committees to improve effectiveness of all the special services. o 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
B. Direct Service to School Adminictration
72. Describes to principal the range of services the social worker is able to provide. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
73. Involves the principal in plans concerning a case and suggests ways he may help deal with the problem. o 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
-121- TASK TASK IMPORTANCE APPROPRIATENESS (Can Be Assigned)
0--not important 0--not appropriate 1--slightly 1--occasionally TASKS OF SCHOOL SOCIAL WORKER important appropriate 2--moderately 2--frequently important appropriate (ITT. SERVICTO OTHER SCHOOL 3--very important 3--always PERSONNEh appropriate
74. Checks on attendance (Circle 0,1,2,or 3) (Circle 0,1,2,or 3) by making home visits in cases of prolonged or unexplained absences. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
75. Helps with administra- tive tasks such as collection of unpaid book rentals, investi- gatiag need for lunchroom fee waivers or follawing-up on children who have not obtained required physical examinations. 1 2 3 1 2 3
76. Channels back to school administrators knowledge about neighborhoods and other cultural influ- ences in the lives of the school's pupils. 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
77. Encourages administra- tors to develop cooper- ative working relation- ships with community agencies. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
78. Works with school administrators, indi- vidually cr in groups, to examine the symp- toms and determine causes of pre'lems in the school system. 1 2 3 0 1. 2 3
79. Consults with school admir-3 in the od:ainis- L trative directly affects the welfare of pupils. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 ANNIFM111111MANNIIIslINIMI.....210 -122- TASK TASK IMPORTANCE APPROPRIATENESS TASKS s" SCHOOLSOCIAL WORKER (Can Be Assigned)
0--not important 0--not appropriate 1--occasionally IV. ADMINISTRia= AND PROFESS IONAJ 1--slightly yhM important appropriate 2--moderately 2--frequently appropriate A. Administr 4ve important 3--very important 3--always 80. Maintains required appropriate records of social work service, keeps sched- (Circle 0,1,2,or 3) (Circle 0,1,2,or 3) ule of activities up to date, and writes reports of services. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
81. Periodically screens the children in the building for refer- rals, through informal contacts with teachers, principal, or other special service per- sonnel. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
82. Clears referrals with teacher and principal when the referral has originated elsewhere. 0 1 2 3 O 1 2 3
83. Channels information such as referrals, suggestions, and releases to appropriate personnel. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
84. Sets up appointments with child, parents, or other appropriate 3 rersons. 0 1 2 3 0 1 2
85. Keeps principal informed of all referrals, number of cases being carried, and progress of selected cases. O 1 2 3 O 1 2 3
86. Participates in staf- fings, even when child is not known to the social worker, in order to remain familiar with as many children in the building as possible. O 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
-123-
4111111111111111kiffirif TASK TASK IMPORTANCE APPROPRIATENESS- -Om-Be-Assigned)
TASKS OF SCHOOL SOCIAL WORKER 0not important 0--not appropriate 1--slightly 1occasi^nally important appropriate (IV. ADMINISTRATIVE AND PROFESSIONAL 2--moderately 2frequently TASKS conttnued) important appropriatc 3very important 3always 87. Does informal, long- appropriate range follow-ups on completed cases by (Circle 0,1,2,or 3 ) (Circle 0,1,2,or 3) talking to teacher, friends, parents, or child. o 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
B. Professional
88. Belongs to and assumes responsibility in pro- fessional social work and educational organ- izations. o 1 2 3 1 2
89. Works actively to obtain increased salaries and improved working conditions for teachers and other school personnel. o 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
90. Participates in . research projects. 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
91. Publishes new findings and perspectives on social work services in the school setting. 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
92. Assists in the re- cruiting of social work personnel. 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
93. Assists in the educa- tion of social work personnel (e.g., field instruction of gradu- ate social work students). 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
-124- awilmvs
TASK TASK IMPORTANCE APPROPRIATENESS (Can Be Assigned) TASKS OP SCHOOL SOCIAL WORKER 0--not important 0--not appropriate 1--slightly 1--occasionally 4INIS!RATIVEJ!!L PRO Essumxt important appropriate aul continued 2--moderately 2--frequently important appropriate 94. Assists in the in- 3--very important 3--always service training of appropriate teachers or administra- tors (e.g., in areas (Circle 0,1,2,or 3 (Circle 0,1,2,or 3) such as techniques of behavior control, or interviewing). 0 1 2 3 1 2 3
V. VOMMUNITY SERVICES
A. Assists Families to Utilize Existing Resources
95. Supplies information to parents about wel- fare agencies or public health facili- ties (e.g., location; application procedures, etc.). 0 1 2 3 1 2 3
96. Refers parents by telephone or written report, to appropriate community agencies for serious problems (e.g., need for financial assistance, marital counseling, treatment for mental illness, illegitimacy). 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
97. Acts as a liaison between a family and a social agency to insure that, following referral, service gets underway (e.g., by interpreting the life style of a family to the agency worker and in turn, the agency requirements and expectations to the family). 0 1 2 3 1 2 3
-125- TASK TASK IMPORTANCE APPROPRIATENESS TASRS OF SCHOOL SOCIALWORKER (Can Be Assigned)
0--not important 0--not appropriate gssmszlu====twascontinued) 1--slightly 1--occasionally important appropriate 98. Actively encourages 2--moderately 2--frequently child or family to important appropriate make maximum use of 3--very important 3--always community resources appropriate to which they have been referred, and (Circle 0,1,2,or 3) (Circle 0,1,2,or 3)
gives continuing pos- ',mem itive support to them in their attempts. 0 1 2 3 1 2 3
99. Acts as a liaison between the school and other agencies (e.g., by accompany- ing or transporting a child or parent to an agency). 0 1 2 3 1 2 3
100. Encourages children and families to ask for and make maximum use of community II supplementary"or III enabling" services (e.g., day care, homemaker, summer camps, Y's, parent education groups, 3 various home helps). 1, 2 3 2
B. Assists in Planned Change, in the Organizational Pattern of Social Welfare programa and Resources
101. Helps to bring abollt new outside-of-school programs through work with other indtvid- uals and community groups (e.g., recre- ation, day care, health clinics, etc.). 1 2 3
102. Atcepts responsibili- ties within a commu- nity council or other planning and coordi- nating group. 1 2 3
-126- TAnS OF SCHCOL SOCIAL WORKER TASK TASK IMPORTANCE APPROPRIATENESS ammumm continued) (Can Be Assigned) 0not important 0not appropriate C. Assists in Planned Change 1slightly 1--occasionally in the Pattern of the Social important appropriate Structure of Our Socielx 2--moderately 2--frequently important appropriate 103. Attends and contri- 3--very important 3--always butes to meetings of appropriate social action groups, aside from profes- (Circle 0,122,or 3 (Circle 0,122,or sional social workor education organiza- tions (e.g., housing reform groups, civil rights organizations, or neighborhood improvement associa- tions). 0 1 2 3 1 2 3
D. Represents Community
104. Interprets the nature of school social work services to other community agencies or interested groups through speeches, panel discussions, etc. 0 1 2 3 1 2 3
105. Represents school in community actions involving school children such as juvenile court hearings. 0 1 2 3 1 2 3
106. Helps an expellee or school dropout to find an acceptable and constructive role in the commu- nity. 0 1 2 3 1 2 3
107. Helps interpret to the community the school administrative policies which have to do with pupil welfare. 0 1 2 3 1 2 3
-127- VII. AB I4P RT *ROP 121616Lga jam, j1g6,§1_22E j2sta:
-128- 108-110. Check the 3 kinds of krobles which are most typical of the children you work with:
1. aggression 2. withdrawn behavior 11111111111111111101111.01111116 3. hyperactivity 4. discipline S. attendance 6. underachievement 7. test-anxiety 8. mental retardation 9. physical handicaps 10. sex problems 11. peer relationships 12. school phobia 13. (Ouher--specify)
111-113. Check the 3 kinds of homes which are most typical of the childrenyou work with:
1. homes witt considerable marital discord 2. fatherless homes 3. homes lacking in adequate parental concern for the child 4. ..---- homes lacking in educational encourPgement 5. homes that pressure children to achieve 6. homes with poor child-rearing practices 7. homes with serious aconomic deprivation 8. institutions or group homes which provide substitute care for children
. homes of foreign parentage, language, or culture 10. loolirm=onmoommmnime.Em r 01.01.....1. (Other--specify)
114. Check the size of the school system in whichyou work:
1. 100,000 pupils and over 2. 25,000 to 100,000 pupils 3. 3,000 to 25,000 pupils 4. 300 to 3,000 pupils
115. Does your school system employ persons to carry out social work tasks whose training is other than graduate social work education?
1. no 2. yes (If yes, specify)
116. Highest degree held by you:
Now that you have finished, please glance back through the questionnaireto make sure that you have checked mice for each task and thatyou have finished this last page. A carefully completed questionnaire will makeyour opinions more meaningful.
Please return the questionnaire in the enclosedenvelope to: The Jane Addams Graduate School of Social Work, University ofIllinois, 1207 W. Oregon, Urbana, Tllinois, 61801.
THANK YOU FOR YOUR HELP AND INTEREST -129- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
APPENDIX B -- FACTORS FROM PRINCIPAL AXES ANALYSES ol Data shown below were derived from responses to this question on the rating scale, "Row important do you consider the task for the attainment of social woek goals within a school system?"Ratings were as follows: 0 -- not important; 1 -- slightly important; 2-- moderately important; 3 -- very important.
Factor 1 -- Leadership and Policy Making (Percent of Variance a 17.8)
Item Item No. Loading Mean S.D.
Professional
94. Assists in in-service training of .71 2.36 .806 teachers or administrators.
90. Participates in research projects. .67 2.21 .754
91. Publishes new findings and perspeci. .66 2.28 .810 tives on social work services in the school setttng.
92. Assists in the recruiting of social .64 2.32 .814 work personnel.
93. Assists in the education of social .58 2.51 .793 work personnel (e.g., field instruc- tion of graduate social work students).
89. Works actively'to obtain increased .57 1.73 .989 salaries and improved working condi- tions for teachers and other school personnel.
Service to Administ..,-ators
79. Consults with school administrators .54 2.44 .785 in the formation of administrative policy which directly affects the welfare of pupils.
78. Works with school administrators, .53 2.21 .945 individually or in groups, to examine the symptoms and determine causes of problems in the school system.
-130 t,porr,,,ApeoliMir >A40
An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
Item Item No. Loading Mean S.D.
77. Encourages administrators to develop .46 2.36 .848 cooperative working relationships with community agencies.
aemmaitx-IEEMM2.
101. Rqlps to bring about new outside-of- .67 2.27 .776 school progtams through work with other individuals and community groups.
102. Accepts responsibilities within acom- .64 2.35 .723 munity council or other planning and coordinating group.
103. Attends and contributes to meetings .43 2.09 .910 of social action groups, aside from professional social work or education organizations.
104. Interprets the nature of school social .46 2.64 .631 work services to other community agencies or interested groups through speeches, panel discussions, etc.
107. Helps interpret to Cie community the .45 2.24 .814 school administrative policies which have to do with pupil welfare.
Work With Parents
67. Plans or conducts educational meetings .50 2.18 .926 with groups of parents to increase their knowledge about their children's development, their role as parents, etc.
68. Works with groups of parents to organ- .45 1.49 1.144 ize and channel their concerns about the problems of their school system.
Administrative
86. Participates in staffing, even when .45 1.99 .946 child is not known to the social worker, in order to remain familiar with as many children in the building as possthle.
-131- AnAnalysis of the Tasksin School Social Work Item Item Loading Mean S.D. No.
.49 1.95 .908 87. Does informal, long rangefollow-ups on completed casesby talking to teacher, friends, parents, orchild.
Factor 2 -- CaseworkService to the Child and HisParents (Percent of Variance = 16.4)
Item Item Loading Mean S.D. No.
Diagnosis and Planning
.70 2.92 .352 34. Obtains P sychiatric,psychological, or social casework consultationswhere problems in diagnosis occur.
2.95 .245 28. Obtains from parents information on .66 the child's behavior at home,and his previous development and experiences.
2.92 .332 70. Consults with other special service .64 personnel to develop and coordinate an overall treatmentapproach for the child.
.373 36. Selects and periodically revisesthe .57 2.89 plan for service and its goals.
2.86 .380 27. Obtains from various school personnel .56 a description ofthe child's problems and his behavior at school,both in and out of the classroom.
.381 73. Involves the principal in ploab con- .46 2.88 cerning a case and suggests wayshe may help deal withthe problem.
Goals
.220 47. Helps the child to control or express .63 2.96 his feelings appropriately.
.327 42. Helps the child develop new attitudes .59 2.90 or modify old ones.
-132- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
Item Item No. Loading Mean S.D.
46. Helps the child to understand his re- .42 2.79 .519 lationship to important adults in his life.
Work With Parents
57. Clarifies with the parents the nature .69 2.95 .229 of tile child's problems.
62. Helps parents to see how they contrib- .62 2.92 .314 ute to their child's growth (i.e., recognize their own particular strengths as parents).
61. Helps parents to see how they contrib- .51 2.86 .425 ute to their child's problems (e.g., through their own marital problems, poor home conditions, or by their particular methods of child care).
60. nelps parents to develop realistic .42 2.78 .529 perceptious of their child's academic potential and performance, his limita- tions, and his future.
Factor 3 -- Educational Counseling With the Child ,n1 Hin T'arents (Percent of Variance = 14.5)
Item Item No. Ighdiaa Mean S.D.
Goals and Technic:Ile
55. Interprets to the child the nature of .76 2.28 .855 the school's authority over him.
56. Interprets to the child the nature of .70 2.28 .861 his parents' authority over him.
39. Clarifies the school's social and .64 2.34 .864 academic expectations and regulations with the child.
53. Offers Iactual information. .59 2.21 .855
-133- An Analysis of theTasks in SchoolSocial Work Item Item Loading Willa S.D. No.
.56 2.52 .708 43. Helps the childdevelop his educational goals or values.
.48 2.13 .839 52. Offers advice,suggestions, and direc- tion.
.41 2.66 .585 45. Helps the childunderstand his abil- ittes and interests.
for .40 2.28 .846 50. Interprets to the child reasons his behavior and hisrelationship to others.
Work With Parents
.70 2.34 .869 64. Interprets to parents who areIgnoring school regulations the natureof the school's authority and its expecta- tions.
.67 2.41 .803 59. Clarifies with tha parentsthe school's social and academic expecta- tions and regulations.
,51 2.36 .807 63. Hakes suggestions as tohow the parents can improve theirrelations with his teacher and with his school.
.44 1.92 1.116 74. Checks on attendance bymaking home visits in cases ofprolonged or unexplained absences.
Factor 4 -- PersonalService to Teacher (Percent of Variance =9.7)
Item /tem No. Loading Mean S.D
.71 1.74 1.158 21. Refers the teacher to acommunity agency for helpwith personal problems where the teacher's owndifficulties prevent her from beingeffective in her work.
*134- An Analrsis of the Tasks in School Social Work
Item Item No. Loading Mean S.D.
20. Helps the teacher understand her own .65 1.25 1.130 personal problems.
22. Refers the teacher to a community .65 .96 1.054 agency for help with her own personal problems, even though they are not interferring with her work.
18. Acquaints teacher with and encourages .49 1.80 1.024 her to use community services, espe- cially those available for her direct use with the child and his family.
10. Discusses with the teacher the nature .45 2.63 .715 of her interactions with the child.
9. Helps teacher plan how she will inter- .42 2.41 .808 pret to the child the referral for service and the role of the social worker.
Factor 5 -- Case Load Management (Percent of Variance = 9.3)
Item Item No. boading Mean S.D.
84. Sets up appointments with child, .64 2.67 .643 parents, or other appropriate persons.
83. Channels information such as referrals, .57 2.66 .647 suggestions, and releases to appropri- ate personnel.
23. Reviews the child's cumulative record .56 2.76 .534 and takes aotes on pertinent informa- tion.
95. Supplies information to parents about .47 2.69 .530 welfare agencies or public health facilities (e.g., location; applica- tion procedures; etc.).
14. Helps teacher discover the child's .42 2.77 .517 resources for achieving success.
-135- An Analysis of the Tasksin School Social Work Item Item Mean S.D. No. Loading
.41 2.70 .604 80. Maintains required recordsof social work service, keepsschedule of activities up to date,and writes reports of services.
.40 2.90 .368 7. Explains the ways inwhich a child's emotional or social problems may effect his academicperformance.
Factor 6 -- InterpretsSchool Social Work Service (Percent of Variance = 8.7)
Item Item Loadth Mean S.D. J
69. Describes to other special service .58 2.74 .572 personnel the range of services the social worker is able to provide.
72. Describes to principal the range of .58 2,88 .446 services the social worker is able to provide.
1. Describes to the teacher the nature, .50 2.82 .451 objectives, and procedures of school social work service.
37. Explains to the child why he hasbeen .50 2.84 .439 referred for social work service.
66. Makes regular visits to parents to .47 2.27 .909 maintain a liaison between home and school in order to reinforceparents' interest and concern for theirchild's school life.
71. Participates on sdhool committees to .45 2.50 .726 improve effectiveness of all the special services.
82. Clears referrals with teacher and .42 2.82 .499 principal when the referral has origi- nated elsewhere.
-136- An Analysis of the Tasks in SchoolSocial Work
Item Item No. LoadinR Mean S.D.
38. Explains to the child how they will .40 2.88 .351 work together (e.g., time and place of appointments, theworker's contact with his teacher and parents).
Factor 7 -- Liaison Between the Family andCommunity Agencies (Percent of Variance = 8.5)
Item Item No. Paitaa Mean S.D.
29d Obtains from parents information about .66 2.80 .431 the family's functioning.
98. Actively encourages child or family .53 2.82 .419 to make maximum use of community re- sources to which they have been re- ferred, !And gives continuing positive support to them in their attempts.
30. Assesses the child's functioning in .53 2.69 .506 relation to his neighborhood patterns and other cultural influences.
97. Acts as a liaison between a family .50 2.79 .491 and a social agency to insure that, following referral, service gets underway.
33. Obtains information from other agencies .45 2.69 .522 who have had experience with the child and/or his family.
32. Obtains information about the child's .43 2.36 .806 medical problems from the family physician.
100. Encourages children and families to .40 2.62 .610 ask for and make maximum use of com- munity "supplementary" or "enabling" services.
-137- An Analysis of the Tasksin School Social Work
Factor 8 -- Interpreting theChild to the Teacher (Percent of Variance = 7.8)
Item Itew S.D. No. Loading Mean
6. Assesses the improvement which canbe .56 2.71 .548 expected in the child and/orfamily.
4. Discusses whether the problem issuit- .47 234 .493 able for service.
16. Offers suggestions concerning how to .47 2.39 .763 deal with parents.
5. Distinguishes between normal and prob- .40 2.70 .566 lem behavior in a child.
11. Helps the teacher recognize possible .40 2.63 .585 differences in the values of the child and teacher.
Factor 9 -- Clinical Treatment of Children WithEmotional Problems (Percent of Variance = 7.3)
Item Item No. Loading Mean S.D.
Goals
40. Helps the child gain insight into his .55 2 64 .657 emotional problems.
44. Helps the child develop his personal .55 2.74 .510 goals or values.
41. Helps the child change his overt be- .47 2.85 .426 havior in life situations.
Methods and Technimill
48. Works with an individual child in a .77 2.82 .473 casework relationship.
-138- An Analysis of the Tasks in School Social Work
Item /tem No. Lte Ian& Mean
49. Works with groups of children using .47 2.34 .839 the group process.
26. Taiterviews child to determine his feel- .47 2.91 .317 ings and reactions concerning his home, his school, and his problems.
-139- An Analysis of the Tasksin School Social Work
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