Medieval Instruments

Home , Adufe, Alta cappella, Andrea Gabrieli, Archlute, Autoharp, Avedis Zildjian Company

A Wikipedia Compilation by Michael A. Linton Contents

1 Adufe 1 1.1 History ...... 1 1.2 Features ...... 2 1.3 See also ...... 2 1.4 References ...... 2

2 Piﬀero 3 2.1 Other uses of the term piﬀero ...... 4 2.2 Notes ...... 4 2.3 External links ...... 4

3 Citole 6 3.1 British Museum citole ...... 6 3.2 External links ...... 6 3.3 References ...... 6

4 Crumhorn 8 4.1 Terminology ...... 8 4.2 Description ...... 9 4.3 Diﬀerent sizes ...... 9 4.4 Literature for crumhorn ...... 9 4.5 References ...... 9 4.6 Sources ...... 9 4.7 Further reading ...... 10 4.8 External links ...... 10 4.8.1 Media ...... 10 4.8.2 Encyclopedias ...... 10

5 Cymbal 11 5.1 Etymology ...... 11 5.2 Anatomy ...... 11 5.3 Types ...... 12 5.3.1 Orchestral cymbals ...... 12 5.3.2 Crash cymbals ...... 12

i ii CONTENTS

5.3.3 Hi hats ...... 13 5.3.4 Suspended cymbal ...... 14 5.3.5 Ancient cymbals ...... 14 5.3.6 List of cymbal types ...... 14 5.4 See also ...... 15 5.5 Manufacturers ...... 15 5.6 See Also ...... 16 5.7 References ...... 16 5.8 External links ...... 16

6 Gittern 20 6.1 Structure ...... 20 6.2 Relationship between Gittern, the Citole, Lute and Guitar family ...... 20 6.3 Etymology and Identity ...... 22 6.4 Role in literature ...... 25 6.4.1 Cantigas of Santa Maria ...... 25 6.4.2 Guillaume de Machaut ...... 26 6.4.3 Geoﬀrey Chaucer ...... 27 6.4.4 Other written records ...... 27 6.5 References ...... 28 6.6 External links ...... 28

7 Lute 29 7.1 Etymology ...... 29 7.2 Construction ...... 29 7.2.1 Soundboard ...... 29 7.2.2 Back ...... 29 7.2.3 Neck ...... 30 7.2.4 Belly ...... 30 7.2.5 Bridge ...... 31 7.2.6 Frets ...... 31 7.2.7 Strings ...... 31 7.3 History and evolution of the lute ...... 31 7.3.1 Early precursors ...... 32 7.3.2 From Middle Ages to Baroque ...... 35 7.4 Lute in the modern world ...... 35 7.5 Lute repertoire ...... 36 7.6 Lute revival and composers ...... 37 7.7 Tuning conventions ...... 37 7.8 See also ...... 38 7.8.1 Instruments ...... 38 7.8.2 Composers of lute music ...... 39 CONTENTS iii

7.8.3 Lute players ...... 40 7.8.4 Lute makers ...... 40 7.9 Notes ...... 40 7.10 References ...... 41 7.11 External links ...... 42

8 Oud 51 8.1 Etymology ...... 51 8.2 History ...... 51 8.3 Types ...... 52 8.4 See also ...... 53 8.5 References ...... 53 8.6 External links ...... 54

9 Psaltery 55 9.1 Ancient harp psaltery ...... 55 9.2 Ancient European zither psaltery ...... 55 9.3 Medieval psaltery ...... 55 9.4 Modern psaltery ...... 55 9.5 See also ...... 56 9.6 Notes ...... 57 9.7 References ...... 57 9.8 External links ...... 57

10 Rebec 59 10.1 Origins ...... 59 10.2 Tuning ...... 59 10.3 In use ...... 59 10.4 Artists ...... 60 10.5 The rebec in popular culture ...... 60 10.6 See also ...... 60 10.7 References ...... 61 10.8 External links ...... 61

11 Sackbut 62 11.1 Terminological history ...... 62 11.2 History ...... 63 11.3 Instrument sizes ...... 64 11.4 Construction ...... 66 11.5 Pitch ...... 66 11.6 Timbre ...... 67 11.7 Performance practice ...... 67 11.8 Repertoire ...... 68 iv CONTENTS

11.8.1 Before 1600 ...... 68 11.8.2 1600-1700 ...... 68 11.8.3 1700-1750 ...... 71 11.8.4 1750-1800 ...... 72 11.9 Modern performance ...... 72 11.9.1 Medieval ...... 72 11.9.2 Renaissance / Baroque small chamber music ...... 72 11.10Recordings ...... 73 11.11Early surviving instruments ...... 73 11.12Modern manufacturers ...... 73 11.13See also ...... 74 11.14References ...... 74 11.15Further reading ...... 75 11.15.1 Historical references ...... 75 11.16External links ...... 75

12 Shawm 79 12.1 Etymology ...... 79 12.2 Use of shawms ...... 80 12.3 Progeny of the shawm ...... 82 12.3.1 Charumera ...... 82 12.4 Catalan shawms and other types of shawms ...... 82 12.5 Modern performance ...... 82 12.6 See also ...... 82 12.7 References ...... 83 12.8 Further reading ...... 83 12.9 External links ...... 83

13 Timbrel 84 13.1 History ...... 84 13.2 See also ...... 85 13.3 Notes ...... 85 13.4 References ...... 85 13.5 Further reading ...... 85

14 Viol 86 14.1 History ...... 86 14.2 Construction ...... 88 14.2.1 Viol bows ...... 90 14.3 Versions ...... 90 14.4 Tuning ...... 91 14.5 Treatises ...... 92 CONTENTS v

14.6 Popularity ...... 92 14.7 Modern era ...... 93 14.7.1 New compositions for viol ...... 94 14.7.2 Electric viols ...... 94 14.8 Similar names and common confusions ...... 94 14.9 See also ...... 95 14.10Notes ...... 95 14.11References ...... 96 14.12External links ...... 96

15 Zampogna 100 15.1 Construction ...... 100 15.2 Musical traditions ...... 100 15.3 History ...... 103 15.4 See also ...... 103 15.5 References ...... 103 15.6 External links ...... 103 15.7 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses ...... 104 15.7.1 Text ...... 104 15.7.2 Images ...... 106 15.7.3 Content license ...... 110 Chapter 1

Adufe

The adufe is a traditional square tambourine of Moorish origin, which is used in Portugal.*[1]

1.1 History

A Portuguese percussion instrument, it was traditionally used in the Beira and Trás-os-Montes regions. It was also used in many other regions across the Iberian Peninsula, and similar instruments are also found in Northern Africa. Normally used for Christian religious processions it was also used as a musical company for the local festivals or even for the works in the ﬁelds. Traditionally, it was only played by women.*[2] Howeveritwasalsoplayedbymenin several occasions, though not in religious festivities.

1 2 CHAPTER 1. ADUFE

1.2 Features

The adufe is a square or rectangular frame drum usually made of pine, over which is mounted a goat's skin. The size of the frame usually ranges from 12 to 22 inches on each side, and 1 to 2 inches thick. The skin is stitched on the sides, with the stitches covered by a coloured ribbon. In the interior small seeds or small stones are placed to make pleasing sounds. An adufe is completely handmade.

1.3 See also

• Daf

• Pandeiro

1.4 References

[1] “Roots of Rhythm - Chapter 1:The Adufe from Portugal” (PDF). Roots of Rhythm. Retrieved 2008-02-13.

[2] Christo, Nuno. “Adufe”. Retrieved 2008-02-13. Chapter 2

Piﬀero

The piffero or piffaro is a double reed musical instrument with a conical bore, of the oboe family. It is used to play music in the tradition of the quattro province, an area of mountains and valleys in the north-west Italian Apennines which includes parts of the four provinces of Alessandria, Genoa, Piacenza and Pavia. It is also played throughout Southern Italy with different fingering styles dictated by local tradition. The instrument is a descendant of the Medieval shawm and belongs to the family of the bombarde. The reed used by the piffero is inserted in a conical brass tube, which is itself inserted in a pirouette. This peculiarity, which is shared with oriental and ancient oboes, is unique in Italy. The piffero has eight tone holes, one of which, on the back of the instrument, is usually covered by the left hand thumb, and ends with a bell, where a cock tail feather (used to clean the reed) typically rests during execution. Traditionally in Northern Italy it was accompanied by an Appennine bagpipe known as the müsa. In the early 20th century the müsa was largely displaced by the accordion, which musicians found in some ways more versatile. How- ever towards the end of the twentieth century the bagpipes made a comeback and today the piffero is commonly accompanied by either of these instruments, or by both. Other regional names for the piffero in Southern Italy are “ciaramella”or “pipita.”It is still commonly played in accompaniment with the Southern Italian Zampogna, an instrument which itself is essentially a series of pifferos stuck into a common stock and supplied with air through the use of a goat skin bag. In some regions of Southern Italy, particularly in the Valle Lucania, two pifferos are played simultaneously by a single player similar to how one would play the aulos in ancient Greece. Related to the piffero is a larger Sicilian instrument known as the bifora, or pifara.

3 4 CHAPTER 2. PIFFERO

Ettore Losini playing the piﬀero in Bobbio, near Piacenza, Emilia-Romagna, Italy

2.1 Other uses of the term piﬀero

Piffero is sometimes used as the name of an organ stop which emulates the sound of members of the shawm family;*[1]*[2] while Piffaro (or: Fiffaro)*[3] is the name of an organ stop, also known as Voce Umana, whose sound resembles a vibrato transverse flute.*[4] The Italian word piffero can also refer to the fife, as in Michael Haydn's Symphony in C major, Perger 10, which calls for pifferi in addition to regular flutes. Piffaro is also the name of a performance ensemble specializing in Renaissance music.*[5]

2.2 Notes

[1] Encyclopedia of Organ Stops

[2] According to Carlo Locher, Manuale dell'organista, Milano, Cisalpino-Goliardica, 1987, p. 127, it is a two-rank (4' and 2') ﬂute stop.

[3] Corrado Moretti, L'organo italiano, 2nd ed., Milano, Casa Musicale Eco, 1973, p. 337

[4] Encyclopedia of Organ Stops

[5] Piﬀaro's web site

2.3 External links

• Construction of the instrument and famous builders (in Italian) 2.3. EXTERNAL LINKS 5

Mouthpiece (ital. musotto)

• Homepage of Ettore Losini • Playing a Piﬀero (video)

• Playing a Piﬀero (video) Chapter 3

Citole

Citole, also spelled Sytole, Cytiole, Gytolle, etc. (probably a French diminutive form of cithara, and not from Latin cista, a box), an archaic musical instrument, similar and a distant ancestor of the modern guitar of which the exact form is uncertain. It is generally shown as a four-string instrument, with a body generally referred to as “holly-leaf” shaped. The citole is frequently mentioned by poets of the 13th to the 15th centuries, and is found in Wycliﬀe's Bible (1360) in 2 Samuel vi. 5: "Harpis and sitols and tympane". The Authorized Version has psaltiries, and the Vulgate lyrae. It has been supposed to be*[1] another name for the psaltery, a box-shaped instrument often seen in the illuminated missals of the Middle Ages, and is also liable to confusion with the gittern; whether the terms overlapped in medieval usage has been the subject of modern controversy.

3.1 British Museum citole

There is a surviving instrument from Warwick Castle that was made around 1290-1300, that is now in the British Museum's collection.*[2] At some point, probably in the sixteenth century, it was converted into a violin-type instrument with a tall bridge, 'f'-holes and angled ﬁngerboard; thus, the instrument's top is not representative of its original appearance.

3.2 External links

• Exhaustive research on the citole and its development. Comparisons to gittern and cittern.

• Gittern

3.3 References

• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

[1] 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 6, CITOLE

[2] British Museum Highlights

6 3.3. REFERENCES 7

An angel (English, c. 1310) plays what would probably have been called a citole Chapter 4

Crumhorn

modern crumhorns with keys, alto crumhorn in f, bass crumhorn in f

double-reed of an alto crumhorn in f

The crumhorn is a musical instrument of the woodwind family, most commonly used during the Renaissance period. In modern times, there has been a revival of interest in Early Music, and crumhorns are being played again.

4.1 Terminology

The name derives from the German Krumhorn (or Krummhorn or Krumporn) meaning bent horn. This relates to the old English crump meaning curve, surviving in modern English in 'crumpled' and 'crumpet' (a curved cake). The similar sounding French term cromorne when used correctly refers to a woodwind instrument of diﬀerent design, though the term cromorne is often used in error synonymously with that of crumhorn.

8 4.2. DESCRIPTION 9

It is uncertain that the Spanish wind instrument orlo (attested in an inventory of 1559) designates the crumhorn, but it is known that crumhorns were used in Spain in the sixteenth century and the identiﬁcation seems likely.*[1]

4.2 Description

The crumhorn is a capped reed instrument. Its construction is similar to that of the chanter of a bagpipe.A double reed is mounted inside a long windcap. Blowing through a slot in the windcap produces a musical note. The pitch of the note can be varied by opening or closing finger holes along the length of the pipe. One unusual feature of the crumhorn is its shape; the end is bent upwards in a curve resembling the letter 'J'. Some people think this is so that the sound produced from the crumhorn is directed toward the player to improve the intonation in consort playing. Crumhorns make a strong buzzing sound, but quieter than their conical-bore relatives the rauschpfeife and shawm. They have a limited range, usually a ninth. While it is theoretically possible to get the reed to overblow a twelfth above the fundamental note, this is extremely difficult because the reed is not held in the mouth (and even if done would result in a gap of two notes in the scale on historical instruments), and in practice all playing is confined to the fundamental series. Some larger instruments have their range extended downwards by means of additional holes, keys and sliders, and the pitch of the instrument can be lowered a perfect fifth by dropping the breath pressure (called“underblowing”). Some modern instruments have their range extended upwards to an eleventh by two keys. Crumhorns can be chromatically played by using cross-fingerings, except for the minor second above the lowest note.

4.3 Diﬀerent sizes

Because of the limited range, music for crumhorns is usually played by a group of instruments of different sizes and hence at different pitches. Such a group is known as a consort of crumhorns. Crumhorns are built in imitation of the vocal quartet with soprano, alto, tenor and bass as a family, as was true of most instruments of the Renaissance. There are examples of higher and lower sounding instruments, of which the great bass is the only commonly used one. Modern instruments are pitched in C and F (Renaissance altos were usually pitched in g, continuing the distance of a fifth between sizes):

4.4 Literature for crumhorn

There are some pieces specifying crumhorns in two manuscript sets of partbooks prepared for the Prussian court band, including an anonymous setting of "DʼAndernach auﬀ dem Reine". Johann Hermann Schein included a Padouana für 4 Krummhörner for crumhorns in his collection Banchetto Musicale (1617), and Thomas Stoltzer wrote in a letter that he had composed his setting of Psalm 37, '"Erzürne dich nicht”(1526), such that the lower six of the seven parts could be played on crumhorns.*[1] Michael Praetorius suggested the use of crumhorns in some of his sacred vocal works as a possible alternative to trombones, dulcians and other instruments. In Ursula Dubosarsky's novel Bruno and the Crumhorn, two children, Bruno and Sybil, ﬁnd themselves learning to play the crumhorn almost by accident.*[2]

4.5 References

[1] Boydell 2001

[2] “Crumhorn Home Page”. Recorderhomepage.net. Retrieved 2012-07-03.

4.6 Sources

• Boydell, Barra R. 2001. “Crumhorn”. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers. 10 CHAPTER 4. CRUMHORN

4.7 Further reading

• Boydell, Barra. 1982. The Crumhorn and Other Renaissance Windcap Instruments: A Contribution to Renais- sance Organology. Buren, The Netherlands: Frits Knuf ISBN 9789060274248 (cloth); ISBN 9789060274231 (wrappers).

• Hantelmann, Georg-Wilhelm von. 1975. Spielanleitung für Krümmhorner, Cornamusen und Kortholte / How to Play the Crumhorn, Cornamusa and Curtall. Celle: Moeck.

• Hunt, Edgar. 1975. The Crumhorn: A Concise Method for the Crumhorn and Other Wind-cap Instruments. [Mainz]: Schott. ISBN 9780901938527. • Meyer, Kenton Terry. 1983. The Crumhorn: Its History, Design, Repertory, and Technique. Studies in Musi- cology 66. Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press. ISBN 9780835714068.

4.8 External links

• Crumhorn

• Musica Antiqua Crumhorn Page • Crumhorns by Moeck Renaissance Studio

4.8.1 Media

• Giorgio Mainerio,“L'arboscello Ballo Furlano”(MP3 Music ﬁle) hosted by external site MILLA Crumhorns by Stefan Beck. Direct link to this ﬁle is not provided as license grants private but not commercial use.

4.8.2 Encyclopedias

• Victor-Charles Mahillon; Kathleen Schlesinger (1911). "Cromorne". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). • "Krumhorn". New International Encyclopedia. 1905. Chapter 5

Cymbal

Characteristic rock hi-hat pattern. play

Cymbals are a common percussion instrument. Cymbals consist of thin, normally round plates of various alloys°. The majority of cymbals are of indeﬁnite pitch, although small disc-shaped cymbals based on ancient designs sound a deﬁnite note (see: crotales). Cymbals are used in many ensembles ranging from the orchestra, percussion ensembles, jazz bands, heavy metal bands, and marching groups. Drum kits usually incorporate at least a crash, ride or crash/ride, and a pair of hi-hat cymbals.

5.1 Etymology

The word cymbal is derived from the Latin cymbalum,*[1] which is the latinisation of the Greek word κύμβαλον kymbalon, “cymbal”,*[2] which in turn derives from κύμβη kymbē, “cup, bowl”.*[3]*[4]

5.2 Anatomy

The anatomy of the cymbal plays a large part in the sound it creates.*[5] A hole is drilled in the center of the cymbal and it is used to either mount the cymbal on a stand or straps (for hand playing). The bell, dome, or cup is the raised section immediately surrounding the hole. The bell produces a higher “pinging”pitch than the rest of the cymbal. The bow is the rest of the surface surrounding the bell. The bow is sometimes described in two areas: the ride and crash area. The ride area is the thicker section closer to the bell while the crash area is the thinner tapering section near the edge. The edge or rim is the immediate circumference of the cymbal. Cymbals are measured by their diameter often in inches or centimeters. The size of the cymbal affects its sound, larger cymbals usually being louder and having longer sustain. The weight describes how thick the cymbal is. Cymbal weights are important to the sound they produce and how they play. Heavier cymbals have a louder volume, more cut, and better stick articulation (when using drum sticks). Thin cymbals have a fuller sound, lower pitch, and faster response. The profile of the cymbal is the vertical distance of the bow from the bottom of the bell to the cymbal edge (higher profile cymbals are more bowl shaped). The profile affects the pitch of the cymbal: higher profile cymbals have higher pitch.

11 12 CHAPTER 5. CYMBAL

Ancient Greek bronze cymbal, 5th century BC, National Archaeological Museum, Athens

5.3 Types

5.3.1 Orchestral cymbals

Cymbals oﬀer a composer nearly endless amounts of color and eﬀect. Their unique timbre allows them to project even against a full orchestra and through the heaviest of orchestrations and enhance articulation and nearly any dynamic. Cymbals have been utilized historically to suggest frenzy, fury or bacchanalian revels, as seen in the Venus music in Wagner's Tannhäuser, Grieg's Peer Gynt suite, and Osmin's aria “O wie will ich triumphieren”from Mozart's Die Entführung aus dem Serail.

5.3.2 Crash cymbals

Main article: Crash cymbals Main article: Crash cymbals

Orchestral crash cymbals are traditionally used in pairs, each one having a strap set in the bell of the cymbal by which they are held. Such a pair is always known as crash cymbals or plates. The sound can be obtained by rubbing their edges together in a sliding movement for a “sizzle”, striking them against each other in what is called a“crash”, tapping the edge of one against the body of the other in what is called a “tap-crash”, scraping the edge of one from the inside of the bell to the edge for a “scrape”or “zischen,”or shutting the cymbals together and choking the sound in what is called a “hi-hat chick”or crush. A skilled player can obtain an enormous dynamic range from such a pair of cymbals. For example, in Beethoven's ninth symphony, 5.3. TYPES 13

A pair of bronze cymbals from the Chinese Jin Dynasty (1115–1234)

the percussionist is employed to first play cymbals at pianissimo, adding a touch of colour rather than loud crash. Crash cymbals are usually damped by pressing them against the player's body. A composer may write laissez vibrer, “Let vibrate”(usually abbreviated l.v.), secco (dry), or equivalent indications on the score; more usually, the player must judge exactly when to damp the cymbals based on the written duration of clash and the context in which it occurs. Crash cymbals have traditionally been accompanied by the bass drum playing an identical part. This combination, played loudly, is an effective way to accentuate a note since the two instruments together contribute to both very low and very high frequency ranges and provide a satisfying “crash-bang-wallop”. In older music the composer sometimes provided just one part for this pair of instruments, writing senza piatti or piatti soli (Italian: “without cymbals”or “cymbals only”) if only one of the instruments is needed. This came from the common practice of only having one percussionist play both instruments, using one cymbal mounted to the shell of the bass drum itself. The player would crash the cymbals with his left hand and use a mallet to strike the bass drum in his right. This method is often employed today in pit orchestras and is called for specifically by composers who desire a certain effect. Stravinsky calls for this in his ballet Petrushka and Mahler calls for this in his Titan Symphony. The modern convention is for the instruments to have independent parts. However in kit drumming, a cymbal crash is still most often accompanied by a simultaneous kick to the bass drum, which provides both a musical effect and a support to the crash stroke.

5.3.3 Hi hats

Main article: Hi-hat (instrument)

Crash cymbals evolved into the low-sock and from this to the modern hi-hat. Even in a modern drum kit, they remain paired with the bass drum as the two instruments which are played with the player's feet. However, hi-hat cymbals tend to be heavy with little taper, more similar to a ride cymbal than to a clash cymbal as found in a drum kit, and perform a ride rather than a clash function. 14 CHAPTER 5. CYMBAL

5.3.4 Suspended cymbal

Main article: Suspended cymbal

Another use of cymbals is the suspended cymbal. This instrument takes its name from the traditional method of suspending the cymbal by means of a leather strap or rope, thus allowing the cymbal to vibrate as freely as possible for maximum musical effect. Early jazz drumming pioneers borrowed this style of cymbal mounting during the early 1900s and later drummers further developed this instrument into the mounted horizontal or nearly horizontally mounted “crash”cymbals of a modern drum kit, However, most modern drum kits do not employ a leather strap suspension system. Many modern drum kits use a mount with felt or otherwise dampening fabric to act as a barrier to hold the cymbals between metal clamps: thus forming the modern day ride cymbal. Suspended cymbals can be played with yarn, sponge or cord wrapped mallets. The first known instance of using a sponge-headed mallet on a cymbal is the final chord of Hector Berlioz' Symphonie Fantastique. Composers sometimes specifically request other types of mallets like felt mallets or timpani beaters for different attack and sustain qualities. Suspended cymbals can produce bright and slicing tones when forcefully struck, and give an eerie transparent“windy” sound when played quietly. A tremolo, or roll (played with two mallets alternately striking on opposing sides of the cymbal) can build in volume from almost inaudible to an overwhelming climax in a satisfyingly smooth manner (as in Humperdink's Mother Goose Suite). The edge of a suspended cymbal may be hit with shoulder of a drum stick to obtain a sound somewhat akin to that of a pair of clash cymbals. Other methods of playing include scraping a coin or a triangle beater rapidly across the ridges on the top of the cymbal, giving a “zing”sound (as some players do in the fourth movement of Dvořák's Symphony No. 9). Other effects that can be used include drawing a cello or bass bow across the edge of the cymbal for a sound not unlike squealing car brakes.

5.3.5 Ancient cymbals

Ancient cymbals or tuned cymbals are much more rarely called for. Their timbre is entirely diﬀerent, more like that of small hand-bells or of the notes of the keyed harmonica. They are not struck full against each other, but by one of their edges, and the note given in by them is higher in proportion as they are thicker and smaller. Berlioz's Romeo and Juliet calls for two pairs of cymbals, modelled on some old Pompeian instruments no larger than the hand (some are no larger than a crown piece), and tuned to F and B ﬂat. The modern instruments descended from this line are the crotales.

5.3.6 List of cymbal types

Cymbal types include:

• Bell cymbal

• China cymbal

• Clash cymbal

• Crash cymbal

• Crash/ride cymbal

• Finger cymbal

• Flat ride cymbal

• Hi-hat

• Ride cymbal

• Sizzle cymbal

• Splash cymbal 5.4. SEE ALSO 15

• Swish cymbal

• Taal or Manjira - Indian cymbals (clash cymbal)

5.4 See also

• Category:Cymbals

• Cymbal alloys

• Cymbal making

• Drum

• Drum kit

• Percussion instrument

• Taal (instrument)

• Zill

5.5 Manufacturers

Main article: Cymbal manufacturers

• Aegean Cymbals

• Alchemy/Istanbul

• Amedia

• Anatolian

• Avedis Zildjian Company

• Bettis Custom Cymbals http://www.BettisCymbals.com/

• Bosphorus Cymbals

• Crescent Cymbals http://www.crescentcymbals.com

• Diril Cymbals http://www.dirilcymbals.com, http://www.dirilcymbals.com.mx

• Heartbeat Cymbals http://www.heartbeatpercussion.com, https://www.facebook.com/heartbeatpercussion

• Imperial Cymbals http://www.imperialcymbals.com, http://facebook.com/imperialcymbals

• Istanbul cymbals

• Istanbul Mehmet http://www.istanbulmehmet.com

• Istanbul Agop http://www.istanbulcymbals.com/

• Italian Bellotti Cymbals

• Masterworks

• Matt Nolan Custom http://www.mattnolancustom.com/

• Meinl

• Murat Diril Cymbals 16 CHAPTER 5. CYMBAL

• Orion Cymbals

• Ozimar • Paiste

• Sabian • Saluda Cymbals http://www.saludacymbals.com

• Soultone Cymbals http://www.soultonecymbals.com • Stagg

• TRX • Turkish Cymbals http://www.turkishcymbals.com

• Turk Masters Cymbals

• UFIP • Wuhan

• Yamaha • LP

• Genuine Krash Cymbalz • Zildjian

See also Category:Cymbal manufacturing companies.

5.6 See Also

• Cymbal making

5.7 References

• Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Cymbals". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

[1] cymbalum. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. A Latin Dictionary on Perseus Project.

[2] κύμβαλον. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.

[3] κύμβη in Liddell and Scott.

[4] Harper, Douglas. “cymbal”. Online Etymology Dictionary.

[5] Sabian.com education, Anatomy page http://sabian.com/EN/education/cymbal_anatomy.cfm

5.8 External links

• Cymbal Forum Discussion forum about cymbals.

• Orchestral cymbal playing, with an excellent short history of cymbals • Cymbal Colour Exploration, A 3D binaural audio recording of diﬀerent cymbal sound colours 5.8. EXTERNAL LINKS 17

A pair of crash cymbals in cross section. The bell is in green and the straps are in red. 18 CHAPTER 5. CYMBAL

A type of crash cymbals used in Assam, India. It is similar to Khartal. This instrument is used in Assamese dances called Bihu.

Chinese-style crash cymbals in use 5.8. EXTERNAL LINKS 19

Hi-hats. The clutch suspends the top cymbal on a rod operated by a foot pedal. Chapter 6

Gittern

The gittern was a relatively small gut strung round-backed instrument that first appears in literature and pictorial representation during the 13th century in Western Europe (Iberian Peninsula, Italy, France, England). It is usually depicted played with a quill plectrum.*[1] It was also called the guitarra in Spain, guiterne or guiterre in France, the chitarra in Italy and quintern in Germany.*[2] A popular instrument with court musicians, minstrels, and amateurs, the gittern is considered ancestral to the modern guitar; possibly other instruments like the mandore and gallichon.*[3] From the early 16th century, a vihuela shaped (flat-backed) guitarra began to appear in Spain - then France, existing alongside the gittern. Although the round-backed instrument appears to have lost ground to the new form which gradually developed into the guitar familiar today, the influence of the earlier style continued. Examples of lutes converted into guitars exist in several museums, while purpose built instruments like the gallichon utilised the tuning and single string configuration of the modern guitar. A tradition of building round-backed guitars in Germany continued to the 20th century with names like gittar-laute and Wandervogellaute. Up until 2002, there were only two known surviving medieval gitterns,*[4]*[5] one in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (see external links), the other in the Wartburg Castle Museum. A third was discovered in a medieval outhouse in Elbląg, Poland.*[5]*[6]

6.1 Structure

The back, neck and pegbox were probably usually carved from one piece of timber. Occurring less rarely later in the 15th century, the back was built up from a number of thin tapered ribs joined at the edges, as was characteristic of the lute. Unlike the sharp corner joining the body to the neck seen in the lute, the gittern's body and neck either joined in a smooth curve or straight line. The sickle, or occasional gentle arc pegbox, made an angle with the neck of between 30-90 degrees. Unlike the lute, most pegboxes on gitterns ended in a carving of a human or animal head. Most gitterns were depicted as having three or (more commonly) four courses of double strings. There are also references to some ﬁve course gitterns in the 16th century. Although there is not much direct information concerning gittern tuning, the later versions were quite possibly tuned in fourths and ﬁfths like the mandore a few decades later. Frets were represented in a few depictions (mainly Italian and German), although apparently absent in most French, Spanish and English depictions. The gittern's sound hole was covered with a rosette (a delicate wood carving or parchment cutting), similar to the lute. The construction resembles other bowed and plucked instruments, including the rebec, Calabrian and Byzantine lyra, gǎdulka, lijerica, klasic kemençe, gudok and cobza. These have similar shapes, a short neck, and like the gittern are carved out of a single block of wood.

6.2 Relationship between Gittern, the Citole, Lute and Guitar family

Some have pointed out that there have been errors in scholarship (starting in the 19th century) which led to the gittern being called mandore and vice versa.*[7] and similar confusion with the citole.*[7] As a result of this uncertainty, many modern sources refer to gitterns as mandoras, and to citoles as gitterns.

20 6.2. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GITTERN, THE CITOLE, LUTE AND GUITAR FAMILY 21

Gittern (right) depicted in a c. 1322 fresco scene from the life of St. Martin of Tours. The instrument on the left is a set of aulos.

A number of modern sources have also claimed the instrument was introduced to Europe from the Arabic regions in a manner similar to the lute, but actual historical data supporting this theory is rare, ambiguous, and may suggest the opposite. The various regional names used (including the Arabic) appear derived over time from a Greco-Roman (Vulgar Latin) origin, although when and how this occurred is presently unknown. It is possible the instrument existed in Europe during a period earlier than the Arabic conquests in the Iberian peninsula with the names diverging alongside the regional evolution of European languages from Latin following the collapse of the Roman Empire. While the name of the lute (Portuguese alaúde, Spanish laud, from Arabic al ud, al oud, etc.), and the instrument itself has been interpreted as being of Arabic/Persian origin, the gittern does not appear in historical Arabic source material to support what can only be speculation. 22 CHAPTER 6. GITTERN

Section from Sebastian Virdung's 1511 book, Musica getuscht und angezogen.

6.3 Etymology and Identity

See also: Lyre 32 CHAPTER 7. LUTE

7.3.1 Early precursors

Musical bows have survived in some parts of Africa.

Bow harp, Africa

Dating to around c. 13000 BC, a cave painting in the Trois Frères cave in France depicts what some believe to be a musical bow, a hunting bow used as a single-stringed musical instrument.*[5]*[6] From the musical bow, families of stringed instruments developed; since each string played a single note, adding strings added new notes, creating bow harps, harps and lyres.*[7] In turn, this led to being able to play dyads and chord. Another innovation occurred when the bow harp was straightened out and a bridge used to lift the strings oﬀ the stick-neck, creating the lute.*[8]

First lutes

The origins of the lute are obscure, and organologists disagree about the very deﬁnition of a lute. The highly inﬂuential organologist Curt Sachs distinguished between the“long-necked lute”(Langhalslaute) and the short-necked variety: both referred to chordophones with a neck as distinguished from harps and psalteries. Smith and others argue the long-necked variety should not be called lute at all because it existed for at least a millennium before the appearance of the short-necked instrument that eventually evolved into what is now known as the lute. The long-necked variety also was never called a lute before the twentieth century. However, musicologist Richard Dumbrill today uses the word to discuss instruments that existed millennia before the term “lute”was coined. According to Dumbrill, the lute family included instruments in Mesopotamia prior to 3000 BC .*[9] A cylinder seal from c. 3100 BC or earlier (now in the possession of the British Museum) shows what is thought to be a woman playing a stick “lute”.*[9]*[10] Dumbrill documented more than 3000 years of iconographic evidence for the lutes in Mesopotamia. The Mesopotamian lutes developed into a long variety and a short.*[11] His book does not cover the latter instruments that became the European lute. From the Mesopotamian lutes, various types of necked chordophones developed throughout ancient world: Greek, Egyptian (in the Middle Kingdom), Iranian (Elamite and others), Hittite, Roman, Bulgar, Turkic, Indian, Chinese, Armenian/Cilician cultures. They were mainly long lutes, such as the pandura or tambur. The line of short lutes was further developed to the east of Mesopotamia, in Bactria and Gandhara, into a short, almond-shaped lute.*[12]*[13]*[14]

Persian barbat, Arab oud

Bactria and Gandhara became part of the Sasanian Empire (224–651AD). Under the Sasanians, a short almond shaped lute from Bactria came to be called the barbat or barbud, which was developed into the later Islamic world's oud or ud.*[15] When the Moors conquered Andalusia in 711AD, they brought their ud along, into a country that had already known a lute tradition under the Romans, the pandura. 7.3. HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF THE LUTE 33

Ancient Egyptian tomb painting depicting lute players, 18th Dynasty (c. 1350 BC).

Hellenistic banquet scene from 1st Century AD, Hadda, Gandhara. Lute player far right. 34 CHAPTER 7. LUTE

Circa 2nd Century A.D memorial stele from Augusta Emerita in modern Spain for a Roman boy, Lutaia Lupata, showing him with his pandurium, the Roman variant of the Greek Pandura. Kept at the Museo Arqueologico, Merida, Spain.*[16]

During the 8th and 9th centuries, many musicians and artists from across the Islamic world flocked to Iberia.*[17] Among them was Abu l-Hasan ʻAli Ibn Nafiʻ (789-857),*[18]*[19] a prominent musician who had trained under Ishaq al-Mawsili (d. 850) in Baghdad and was exiled to Andalusia before 833 AD. He taught and has been credited with adding a fifth string to his oud*[15] and with establishing one of the first schools of music in Córdoba.*[20] By the 11th century, Muslim Iberia had become a center for the manufacture of instruments. These goods spread 7.4. LUTE IN THE MODERN WORLD 35

gradually to Provence, inﬂuencing French troubadours and trouvères and eventually reaching the rest of Europe. Although the major entry of the short lute was in western Europe, leading to a variety of lute styles, the short lute entered Europe in the East as well; as early as the sixth century, the Bulgars brought the short-necked variety of the instrument called Komuz to the Balkans.

7.3.2 From Middle Ages to Baroque

Beside the introduction of the lute to Spain (Andalusia) by the Moors, another important point of transfer of the lute from Arabian to European culture was Sicily, where it was brought either by Byzantine or later by Muslim musicians.*[21] There were singer-lutenists at the court in Palermo following the Norman conquest of the island from the Muslims, and the lute is depicted extensively in the ceiling paintings in the Palermoʼs royal Cappella Palatina, dedicated by the Norman King Roger II of Sicily in 1140.*[21] His Hohenstaufen grandson Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor (1194 - 1250) continued integrating Muslims into his court, including Moorish musicians.*[22] By the fourteenth century, lutes had disseminated throughout Italy and, probably because of the cultural influence of the Hohenstaufen kings and emperor, based in Palermo, the lute had also made significant inroads into the German- speaking lands. Medieval lutes were 4- or 5-course instruments, plucked using a quill as a plectrum. There were several sizes, and by the end of the Renaissance, seven different sizes (up to the great octave bass) are documented. Song accompaniment was probably the lute's primary function in the Middle Ages, but very little music securely attributable to the lute survives from the era before 1500. Medieval and early-Renaissance song accompaniments were probably mostly improvised, hence the lack of written records. In the last few decades of the fifteenth century, to play Renaissance polyphony on a single instrument, lutenists gradually abandoned the quill in favor of plucking the instrument with the fingertips. The number of courses grew to six and beyond. The lute was the premier solo instrument of the sixteenth century, but continued to accompany singers as well. In about the year 1500 many Spanish, Catalan and Portuguese lutenists adopted vihuela de mano, a viol-shaped instrument tuned like the lute, but both instruments continued in coexistence. This instrument also found its way to parts of Italy that were under Spanish domination (especially Sicily and the papal states under the Borgia pope Alexander VI who brought many Catalan musicians to Italy), where it was known as the viola da mano. By the end of the Renaissance the number of courses had grown to ten, and during the Baroque era the number continued to grow until it reached 14 (and occasionally as many as 19). These instruments, with up to 26-35 strings, required innovations in the structure of the lute. At the end of the lute's evolution the archlute, theorbo and torban had long extensions attached to the main tuning head to provide a greater resonating length for the bass strings, and since human fingers are not long enough to stop strings across a neck wide enough to hold 14 courses, the bass strings were placed outside the fretboard, and were played open, i.e., without pressing them against the fingerboard with the left hand. Over the course of the Baroque era the lute was increasingly relegated to the continuo accompaniment, and was eventually superseded in that role by keyboard instruments. The lute almost fell out of use after 1800. Some sorts of lute were still used for some time in Germany, Sweden, Ukraine.

• Ancient Greek (Tanagra) terracotta statuette depicting a player of the pandura, second century BC • Christian and Muslim playing lute, miniature from Cantigas de Santa Maria by king Alfonso X. 13th century. • Angel Playing Lute by Vittore Carpaccio (from Presentation of Jesus in the Temple 1510) • Frans Hals: Buﬀoon playing a lute, 1623

7.4 Lute in the modern world

The lute enjoyed a revival with the awakening of interest in historical music around 1900 and throughout the century. That revival was further boosted by the early music movement in the twentieth century. Important pioneers in lute revival were Julian Bream, Hans Neemann, Walter Gerwig, Suzanne Bloch and Diana Poulton. Lute performances are now not uncommon; there are many professional lutenists, especially in Europe where the most employment is found, and new compositions for the instrument are being produced by composers. 36 CHAPTER 7. LUTE

During the early days of the early music movement, many lutes were constructed by available luthiers, whose specialty was often classical guitars. Such lutes were heavily built with construction similar to classical guitars, with fan bracing, heavy tops, fixed frets, and lined sides, all of which are anachronistic to historical lutes. As lutherie scholarship increased, makers began constructing instruments based on historical models, which have proven lighter and more responsive instruments. Lutes built at present are invariably replicas or near copies of those surviving historical instruments that are in museums or private collections. They are exclusively custom-built or must be bought second hand in a very limited market. As a result, lutes are generally more expensive than mass-produced modern instruments such as the guitar, though not nearly as expensive as the violin. Unlike in the past there are many types of lutes encountered today: 5-course medieval lutes, renaissance lutes of 6 to 10 courses in many pitches for solo and ensemble performance of Renais- sance works, the archlute of Baroque works, 11-course lutes in d-minor tuning for 17th-century French, German and Czech music, 13/14-course d-minor tuned German Baroque Lutes for later High Baroque and Classical music, theorbo for basso continuo parts in Baroque ensembles, gallichons/mandoras, bandoras, orpharions and others. Lutenistic practice has reached considerable heights in recent years, thanks to a growing number of world-class lutenists: Rolf Lislevand, Hopkinson Smith, Paul O'Dette, Miguel Yisrael, Andreas Martin, Robert Barto, Eduardo Egüez, Edin Karamazov, Nigel North, Christopher Wilson, Luca Pianca, Ben Salfield, Yasunori Imamura, Jozef van Wissem, Anthony Bailes, Peter Croton, Xavier Diaz-Latorre. Singer-songwriter Sting has also played lute and archlute, in and out of his collaborations with Edin Karamazov, and Jan Akkerman released two albums of lute music in the 1970s while he was a guitarist in the Dutch rock band Focus. Lutenist/ Composer Jozef van Wissem composed the soundtrack to the Jim Jarmusch's film Only Lovers Left Alive. Lutes of several regional types are also common in Greece: laouto, and outi.

7.5 Lute repertoire

Main article: List of composers for lute Lutes were in widespread use in Europe at least since the 13th century, and documents mention numerous early performers and composers. However, the earliest surviving lute music dates from the late 15th century. Lute music flourished during the 16th and 17th centuries: numerous composers published collections of their music, and modern scholars have uncovered a vast number of manuscripts from the era̶however, much of the music is still lost. In the second half of the 17th century lutes, vihuelas and similar instruments started losing popularity, and almost no music had been written for the instrument after 1750. The interest in lute music was revived only in the second half of the 20th century. Improvisation was, apparently, an important aspect of lute performance, so much of the repertoire was probably never written down. Furthermore, it was only around 1500 that lute players began to transition from plectrum to plucking. That change facilitated complex polyphony, which required that they develop notation. In the next hundred years, three schools of tablature notation gradually developed: Italian (also used in Spain), German, and French. Only the last survived into the late 17th century. The earliest known tablatures are for a six-stringed instrument, though evidence of earlier four- and five-stringed lutes exists.*[23] Tablature notation depends on the actual instrument the music is written for. To read it, a musician must know the instrument's tuning, number of strings, etc. Renaissance and Baroque forms of lute music are similar to keyboard music of the periods. Intabulations of vocal works were very common, as well as various dances, some of which disappeared during the 17th century, such as the piva and the saltarello. The advent of polyphony brought about fantasias: complex, intricate pieces with much use of imitative counterpoint. The improvisatory element, present to some degree in most lute pieces, is particularly evident in the early ricercares (not imitative as their later namesakes, but completely free), as well as in numerous preludial forms: preludes, tastar de corde (“testing the strings”), etc. During the 17th century keyboard and lute music went hand in hand, and by 1700 lutenists were writing suites of dances quite akin to those of keyboard composers. The lute was also used throughout its history as an ensemble instrument̶most frequently in songs for voice and lute, which were particularly popular in Italy (see frottola) and England. The earliest surviving lute music is Italian, from a late 15th-century manuscript. The early 16th century saw Petrucci's publications of lute music by Francesco Spinacino (fl. 1507) and Joan Ambrosio Dalza (fl. 1508); together with the so-called Capirola Lutebook, these represent the earliest stage of written lute music in Italy. The leader of the next generation of Italian lutenists, Francesco Canova da Milano (1497–1543), is now acknowledged as one of the most famous lute composers in history. The bigger part of his output consists of pieces called fantasias or ricercares, in which he makes extensive use of imitation and sequence, expanding the scope of lute polyphony. In the early 17th 7.6. LUTE REVIVAL AND COMPOSERS 37

century Johannes Hieronymus Kapsberger (c.1580–1651) and Alessandro Piccinini (1566–1638) revolutionized the instrument's technique and Kapsberger, possibly, influenced the keyboard music of Frescobaldi. French written lute music began, as far as we know, with Pierre Attaingnant's (c.1494–c.1551) prints, which comprised preludes, dances and intabulations. Particularly important was the Italian composer Albert de Rippe (1500– 1551), who worked in France and composed polyphonic fantasias of considerable complexity. His work was published posthumously by his pupil, Guillaume de Morlaye (born c.1510), who, however, did not pick up the complex polyphony of de Rippe. French lute music declined during the second part of the 16th century; however, various changes to the instrument (the increase of diapason strings, new tunings, etc.) prompted an important change in style that led, during the early Baroque, to the celebrated style brisé: broken, arpeggiated textures that influenced Johann Jakob Froberger's suites. The French Baroque school is exemplified by composers such as Ennemond Gaultier (1575– 1651), Denis Gaultier (1597/1603–1672), François Dufaut (before 1604–before 1672) and many others. The last stage of French lute music is exemplified by Robert de Visée (c.1655–1732/3), whose suites exploit the instrument's possibilities to the fullest. The history of German written lute music started with Arnolt Schlick (c.1460–after 1521), who, in 1513, published a collection of pieces that included 14 voice and lute songs, and three solo lute pieces, alongside organ works. He was not the first important German lutenist, because contemporaries credited Conrad Paumann (c. 1410–1473) with the invention of German lute tablature, though this claim remains unproven, and no lute works by Paumann survive. After Schlick, a string of composers developed German lute music: Hans Judenkünig (c.1445–50–1526), the Neusi- dler family (particularly Hans Neusidler (c.1508/9–1563)) and others. During the second half of the 16th century, German tablature and German repertoire were gradually replaced by Italian and French tablature and international repertoire, respectively, and the Thirty Years War (1618–48) effectively stopped publications for half a century. Ger- man lute music was revived much later by composers such as Esaias Reusner (fl. 1670), however, a distinctly German style came only after 1700 in the works of Silvius Leopold Weiss (1686–1750), one of the greatest lute composers, some of whose works were transcribed for keyboard by none other than Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750), who composed a few pieces for the lute himself (though it is unclear whether they were really intended for the lute, rather than another plucked string instrument or the lautenwerk). Of other European countries, particularly important are England and Spain. English written lute music only began around 1540, however, the country produced numerous lutenists, of which John Dowland (1563–1626) is perhaps the most famous. His influence spread very far: variations on his themes were written by keyboard composers in Germany decades after his death. Dowland's predecessors and colleagues, such as Anthony Holborne (c. 1545– 1602) and Daniel Bacheler (1572–1619), were less known. Spanish composers wrote mostly for the vihuela; their main genres were polyphonic fantasias and differencias (variations). Luys Milan (c.1500–after 1560) and Luys de Narváez (fl. 1526–49) were particularly important for their contributions to the development of lute polyphony in Spain. Finally, perhaps the most influential European lute composer was the Hungarian Bálint Bakfark (c.1526– 30–1576), whose contrapuntal fantasias were much more difficult and tighter than those of his Western European contemporaries.

7.6 Lute revival and composers

The revival of lute-playing in the 20th century has its roots in the pioneering work of Arnold Dolmetsch (1858– 1940); whose research into early music and instruments started the movement for authenticity.*[24] The revival of the lute gave composers an opportunity to create new works for it. One of the first such composers was Johann Nepomuk David in Germany. Composer Vladimir Vavilov was a pioneer of the lute revival in the USSR, also the author of numerous musical hoaxes. Sandor Kallos, Toyohiko Satoh applied modernist idiom to the lute, Elena Kats-Chernin, Jozef van Wissem and Alexandre Danilevsky minimalist and post-minimalist idiom, Roman Turovsky- Savchuk, Paulo Galvão, Robert MacKillop historicist idiom, and Ronn McFarlane New Age. This active movement by early music specialists has inspired composers in different fields; for example, in 1980, Akira Ifukube, a classical and film composer best known for the Godzilla's theme, wrote the Fantasia for Baroque Lute with the historical tablature notation, rather than the modern staff one.*[25]

7.7 Tuning conventions

Lutes were made in a large variety of sizes, with varying numbers of strings/courses, and with no permanent standard for tuning. However, the following seems to have been generally true of the Renaissance lute: A 6-course Renaissance 38 CHAPTER 7. LUTE tenor lute would be tuned to the same intervals as a tenor viol, with intervals of a perfect fourth between all the courses except the 3rd and 4th, which differed only by a major third. The tenor lute was usually tuned nominally“in g”(there was no pitch standard before the 20th century), named after the pitch of the highest course, yielding the pattern [(G'G) (Cc) (FF) (AA) (dd) (g)] from the lowest course to the highest. (Much renaissance lute music can be played on a guitar by tuning the guitar's third string down by a half tone.) For lutes with more than six courses the extra courses would be added on the low end. Because of the large number of strings, lutes have very wide necks, and it is difficult to stop strings beyond the sixth course, so additional courses were usually tuned to pitches useful as bass notes rather than continuing the regular pattern of fourths, and these lower courses are most often played without stopping. Thus an 8-course tenor Renaissance lute would be tuned to [(D'D) (F'F) (G'G) (Cc) (FF) (AA) (dd) (g)], and a 10-course to [(C'C) (D'D) (E♭'E♭) (F'F) (G'G) (Cc) (FF) (AA) (dd) (g)]. However, none of these patterns were de rigueur, and a modern lutenist occasionally retunes one or more courses between pieces. Manuscripts bear instructions for the player, e.g., 7*e choeur en fa = “seventh course in fa" (= F in the standard C scale). The first part of the seventeenth century was a period of considerable diversity in the tuning of the lute, particularly in France. However, by around 1670 the scheme known today as the“Baroque”or“d-minor”tuning became the norm, at least in France and in northern and central Europe. In this case the first six courses outline a d-minor triad, and an additional five to seven courses are tuned generally scalewise below them. Thus the 13-course lute played by Weiss would have been tuned [(A"A') (B"B') (C'C) (D'D) (E'E) (F'F) (G'G) (A'A') (DD) (FF) (AA) (d) (f)], or with sharps or flats on the lower 7 courses appropriate to the key of the piece. Modern lutenists tune to a variety of pitch standards, ranging from A = 392 to 470 Hz, depending on the type of instrument they are playing, the repertory, the pitch of other instruments in an ensemble and other performing expediencies. No attempt at a universal pitch standard existed during the period of the lute's historical popularity. The standards varied over time and from place to place.

7.8 See also

7.8.1 Instruments

European Lutes:

• String instruments

• Angélique (instrument) • Archlute • Cobza • Gallichon • Kobza • Mandore • Mandora • Swedish lute • Tablature • Torban • Theorbo • Vihuela

• Early music

• Medieval music • Renaissance music • Baroque music • Classical music 7.8. SEE ALSO 39

• Turkish music

• Greek music

• Cretan music

African Lutes:

• Gonje

• Xalam

Asian Lutes:

• Barbat

• Biwa

• Dombra

• Dotar

• Dramnyen

• Kutiyapi

• Oud

• Pipa

• Qinqin

• Sapeh

• Setar

• Sitar

• Tanbur

• Tar

• Veena

• Yueqin

• Stringed instrument tunings

7.8.2 Composers of lute music

• Category:Composers for lute

• List of composers for lute 40 CHAPTER 7. LUTE

7.8.3 Lute players

• Hopkinson Smith • Miguel Yisrael • Rolf Lislevand • Timothy Burris • Nigel North • Paul O'Dette • Lutz Kirchhof • Ben Salﬁeld • Category:Lutenists

7.8.4 Lute makers

• Cezar Mateus • Stephen Murphy • Andrew Rutherford • Antonio Stradivari • Joachim Tielke

7.9 Notes

[1] A History Of Western Music by Donald Jay Grout (First Published 1962 (UK) by J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd, London) - Chapter 7: New Currents In The Sixteenth Century - p202 “By far the most popular household solo instrument of the Renaissance was the lute”

[2] “Etymology Online”. Retrieved July 12, 2010.

[3] Douglas Alton Smith. A History of the Lute from Antiquity to the Renaissance. p. 9. Lute Society of America (LSA), 2002. ISBN 0-9714071-0-X.

[4] During, Jean. "'Barbat'". Encyclopedia Iranica. Retrieved 17 April 2011.

[5] Campen, Ank van. “The music-bow from prehistory till today”. HarpHistory.info. Retrieved March 26, 2015.

[6] “Trois Freres Cave”. Retrieved March 27, 2015.

[7] Dumbrill & 1998 page 179, 231, 235-236, 308-310

[8] Dumbrill & 1998 page 308-310

[9] Dumbrill & 1998 page 321

[10] http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=1447477&partId=1& people=24615&peoA=24615-3-17&page=1 British Museum, Cylinder Seal, Culture/period Uruk, Date 3100BC (circa1), Museum number 41632.

[11] Dumbrill & 1998 page 310

[12] “Encyclopaedia Iranica - Barbat”. Iranicaonline.org. 1988-12-15. Retrieved 2015-03-13.

[13] Kasidah.“Pakistan, Swat Valley, Gandhara region Lute Player; From a group of Five Celestial Musicians, 4th-5th century Sculpture; Stone, Gray schist, 10 1/8 x 4 3/4 x 2 1/2 in. (25.7 x 12.1 x 6.4 cm)". Pinterest.com. Retrieved March 25, 2015. Musician playing a 4th-to-5th-Century lute, excavated in Gandhara, and part of a Los Angeles County Art Museum collection of Five Celestial Musicians 7.10. REFERENCES 41

[14] “Bracket with two musicians 100s, Pakistan, Gandhara, probably Butkara in Swat, Kushan Period (1st century-320)". The Cleveland Museum of Art. Retrieved March 25, 2015.

[15] “Encyclopaedia Iranica - Barbat”. Iranicaonline.org. 1988-12-15. Retrieved 2012-02-04.

[16] https://m.flickr.com/#/photos/julio-claudians/8098646683/ Flicker based photo of the museum information sign for the stele.

[17] Menocal, María Rosa, Raymond P. Scheindlin, Michael Anthony Sells (eds.) (2000), The Literature of Al-Andalus, Cam- bridge University Press

[18] Gill, John (2008). Andalucia: A Cultural History. Oxford University Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-01-95-37610-4.

[19] Lapidus, Ira M. (2002). A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge University Press. p. 311. ISBN 9780521779333.

[20] Davila, Carl (2009), Fixing a Misbegotten Biography: Ziryab in the Mediterranean World, Al-Masaq: Islam in the Medieval Mediterranean Vol. 21 No. 2

[21] Colin Lawson and Robin Stowell, The Cambridge History of Musical Performance, Cambridge University Press, Feb 16, 2012

[22] Roger Boase, The Origin and Meaning of Courtly Love: A Critical Study of European Scholarship, Manchester University Press, 1977, p. 70-71.

[23] Apel 1949, 54.

[24] Henry Purcell (Glory Of His Age) by Margaret Campbell (Published by Open University Press 1995 paperback) - (ISBN 0-19-282368-X) - p. 264 (about Alfred Dolmetsch) “His discoveries were so fruitful that he decided to concentrate on performing early music on original instruments, something that had not been attempted hitherto̶at least not outside a private drawing-room.”

[25] Yokomizo, Ryoichi (1996). (Akira Ifukube - Works for Guitar and Lute) (CD Booklet). Yoh Nishimura and Deborah Minkin. Japan: FONTEC. p. 4.

7.10 References

• The Lute in Europe by Andreas Schlegel, published by The Lute Corner (2006). ISBN 978-3-9523232-0-5

• A History of the Lute from Antiquity to the Renaissance by Douglas Alton Smith, published by the Lute Society of America (2002). ISBN 0-9714071-0-X ISBN 978-0-9714071-0-7

• Dumbrill, Richard J. (1998). The Archaeomusicology of the Ancient Near East. London: Tadema Press.

• The Lute in Britain: A History of the Instrument and its Music by Matthew Spring, published by Oxford Uni- versity Press (2001).

• Historical Lute Construction by Robert Lundberg, published by the Guild of American Luthiers (2002).

• La musique de luth en France au XVIe siècle by Jean-Michel Vaccaro (1981).

• Articles in Journal of the Lute Society of America (1968–), The Lute (1958–), and other journals published by the various national lute societies.

• Eckhard Neubauer,“Der Bau der Laute und ihre Besaitung nach arabischen, persischen und türkischen Quellen des 9. bis 15. Jahrhunderts”, Zeitschrift für Geschichte der arabisch-islamischen Wissenschaften, vol. 8 (1993): 279–378.

• Viol and Lute Makers of Venice 1490 - 1640”by Stefano Pio, published by Venice Research (2012) ISBN 978-88-907252-0-3

• Violin and Lute Makers of Venice 1630 - 1760 " by Stefano Pio, published by Venice Research (2004) ISBN 978-88-907252-2-7

•“Il Liuto”by Davide Rebuﬀa, published by L'Epos, Palermo (2012). ISBN 978-88-830237-7-4 42 CHAPTER 7. LUTE

7.11 External links

Lute societies

• The Lute Society (UK) • The Lute Society of America • The German Lute Society • The French Lute Society • The Lute Society of Japan • The Belgian Lute Society • The Lute and Early Guitar Society (Founded by Toyohiko Satoh)

Lute music online and other useful resources

• reneszanszlant.lap.hu collection of many useful links: luthiers/lute makers, lute players, tablatures, etc. (in English and Hungarian) • ABC Classic FM presents: Lute Project videos Watch Tommie Andersson play the theorbo, 7-course & 10- course lutes. • Wayne Cripps' lute pages • Joachim Tielke The website for the great Hamburg lutemaker Joachim Tielke • Musick's Handmade Facsimiles/Scans (Dowland, etc.) and pdfs - by Alain Veylit • Sarge Gerbode's Lute Page 3000+ lute solo pieces by 140 composers in midi, PDF, TAB, and Fronimo formats • Contemporary and Modern Lute Music Modern (post 1815) and Contemporary Lute Music. A list of modern lute music written after 1815 • Music Collection in Cambridge Digital Library. One of the most important collections of manuscript music in Cambridge University Library is the group of nine lute manuscripts copied by Mathew Holmes in the early years of the seventeenth century.

Photos of historic lutes

• Photos of historic lutes at the Museum Cité de la Musique in Paris

Instruments et oeuvres d'art – search-phrase: Mot-clé(s) : luth Facteurs d'instruments – search-phrase: Instrument fabriqué : luth Photothèque – search-phrase: Instrument de musique, ville ou pays : luth

• Lutes at the Metropolitan Museum of Art

Articles and resources

• Pioneers of the Lute Revival by Jo Van Herck (Belgian Lute Academy)

Original: Over de pioniers van de luitrevival; Luthinerie / Geluit no. 15 (september 2001) and no. 16 (december 2001)

• Photos and Paintings • French Lutenists and French Lute Music in Sweden • La Rhétorique des Dieux • Lautenweltadressbuch: A List of Extant Historical Lutes from Lute Society of America 7.11. EXTERNAL LINKS 43

Painting from the Cappella Palatina in 1140 AD, depicting musicians, commonly attributed as being Roger II of Sicily's court musicians, playing a rebec or lyra and a lute or gittern. 44 CHAPTER 7. LUTE

Painter David Hoyer playing a lute, painted by Jan Kupetzky, ca. 1711. 7.11. EXTERNAL LINKS 45

Renaissance lute (holding position). 46 CHAPTER 7. LUTE

Orazio Gentileschi's young lutenist, painted ca 1626, plays a 10-course lute, typical of the time from around 1600 AD through the 1630s.

6-course Early Renaissance lute tuning chart. 7.11. EXTERNAL LINKS 47

10-course Late Renaissance/Early Baroque lute tuning chart.

14-course Archlute tuning chart.

15-course Theorbo tuning chart. 48 CHAPTER 7. LUTE

Lutes by Matthäus Büchenberg, 1613 (left) and by Matteo Sellas, 1641 in Museu de la Música de Barcelona 7.11. EXTERNAL LINKS 49

Lute. 50 CHAPTER 7. LUTE

Lute by Princess Ruto. Chapter 8

Oud

For other uses, see Oud (disambiguation).

:aʿwād; Armenian: դ, Syriac أعواد :ʿūd Arabic pronunciation: [ʕu(ː)d, ʢuːd], plural عود :The oud (/uːd/; Arabic :barbat; Kurdish: ûd ; Turkish: ud or ut;*[1] Azeri ﺑﺮﺑﻂ :ud; Persian עוּד :ūd, Greek: ούτι oúti; Hebrew ud; Somali: cuud or kaban) is a pear-shaped stringed instrument commonly used in Arabic, Greek, Turkish, Persian, Jewish, Byzantine, Azerbaijanian, Armenian, North African (Chaabi, Classical, and Spanish Andalusian), Somali and Middle Eastern music. Construction of the oud is similar to that of the lute.*[2] The modern oud and the European lute both descend from a common ancestor via diverging paths. One instrument that has been suggested as ancestral is the Barbat.*[3] The oud is readily distinguished from the lute by its lack of frets and smaller neck. Alongside the lute, it is considered an ancestor of the guitar.*[4]

8.1 Etymology

The origin of the name oud (and its etymological cousin, lute) for the musical instrument is uncertain. The Arabic: al-ʿūd) literally denotes a thin piece of wood similar to the shape of a straw. It may refer to the wooden plectrum) العود traditionally used for playing the oud, to the thin strips of wood used for the back, or to the wooden soundboard that distinguished it from similar instruments with skin-faced bodies.*[5] Research by Eckhard Neubauer suggests that oud may simply be an Arabic borrowing from the Persian word rōd or rūd, which meant string, stringed instrument, or lute.*[6]*[7] Objections may be raised over a European com- menting on linguistic comparisons between Arabic and Persian. However, Eckhart had been cited in articles in the Encyclopædia Iranica.*[8] Another researcher, archaeomusicologist Richard J. Dumbrill, suggests that rud came from the Sanskrit rudrī (stringed instrument) and transferred to Arabic through a semitic language.*[9]

8.2 History

The oud was created during the early pharaonic era, and according to Farabi, the oud was invented by Lamech, the sixth grandson of Adam. However, there is no historical basis for such legends. The oldest pictorial record of a lute dates back over 5000 years ago, on a cylinder seal from the Uruk period in northern Syria, Mesopotamia. Acquired by Dr. Dominique Collon, the artifact is currently housed at the British Museum.*[10] The Turkic peoples had a similar instrument called the kopuz. This instrument was thought to have magical powers and was brought to wars and used in military bands. This is noted in the Göktürk monument inscriptions. The military band was later used by other Turkic state's armies and later by Europeans.*[11] The oud has a particularly long tradition in Iraq,*[12] where a saying goes that in its music lies the countryʼs soul.*[12] A ninth-century Baghdad jurist praised the healing powers of the instrument, and the 19th-century writer Muhammad Shihab al-Din related that it“places the temperament in equilibrium”and“calms and revives hearts.”

51 52 CHAPTER 8. OUD

Syrian musicians in Aleppo with an oud, circa 1915.

*[12] Following the invasion of Iraq and the overthrow of the secular Ba'athist regime in 2003, however, the increasing fervor of Islamic militants who consider secular music to be haraam (sinful) forced many oud players and teachers into hiding or exile.*[12]

8.3 Types

Modern-day ouds fall into two categories: Arabic and Turkish. This distinction is not based solely on geography since Turkish ouds can also be found in Greece and occasionally other parts of the Mediterranean, whereas Arabic ouds can be found in various locations all over the Arab world. The Arabic ouds, such as the Iraqi oud, Egyptian oud and Syrian oud, are normally grouped under the term 'Arabic oud' because of their similarities.*[13] Arabic ouds are normally larger than their Turkish counterpart, producing a fuller, deeper sound, whereas the sound 8.4. SEE ALSO 53

Somali oud player Nuruddin Ali Amaan.

of the Turkish oud is more taut and shrill, not least because the Turkish oud is tuned one whole step higher than the Arabic. Turkish ouds tend to be more lightly constructed than Arabic with an unﬁnished sound board, lower string action and with string courses placed closer together. Arabic ouds have a scale length of between 61 cm and 62 cm in comparison to the 58.5 cm scale length for Turkish.*[14] The Cümbüş is a Turkish instrument that started as a hybrid of the oud and the banjo. Salar Ayoubi- Iranian Oud Player who currently live in Australia have many CDs and Recordings available in many universities and have trained many students around the world.

8.4 See also

Arabic music • Byzantine music • Hebrew music • Somali music • Armenian music • Middle Eastern and North African music traditions • List of oud makers • List of oud players •

8.5 References

[1] Güncel Türkçe Sözlük'te Söz Arama (Turkish) 54 CHAPTER 8. OUD

[2] Mottola, R.M. (Summer–Fall 2008). “Constructing the Middle Eastern Oud with Peter Kyvelos”. American Lutherie (94, 95).

[3] “Encyclopaedia Iranica - Barbat”. Iranicaonline.org. 1988-12-15. Retrieved 2012-02-04.

[4] Summerﬁeld, Maurice J. (2003). The Classical Guitar, Its Evolution, Players and Personalities Since 1800 (5th ed.) Blaydon on Tyne: Ashley Mark Publishing. ISBN 1-872639-46-1

[5] During, Jean. "'Barbat'". Encyclopedia Iranica. Retrieved 17 April 2011.

[6] Douglas Alton Smith. A History of the Lute from Antiquity to the Renaissance. p. 9. Lute Society of America (LSA), 2002. ISBN 0-9714071-0-X.

[7] “Asian Music Tribal Music of India, 32, 1, Fall, 2000/ Winter, 2001”. Utexas.edu. Retrieved 2010-12-23.

[8] Encyclopedia Iranica, MUSIC HISTORY ii. CA. 650 TO 1370 CE

[9] Dumbrill, Richard J. (1998). The Archaeomusicology of the Ancient Near East. London: Tadema Press. p. 319.

[10] Mitra Jahandideh, Shahab Khaeﬁ, Ahanali Jahandideh, Masoud Khaeﬁ, Using the Root Proportion to Design an Oud (PDF), Department of Music, Faculty of Fine Art, Tehran University, Tehran, IRAN

[11] Fuad Köprülü, Türk Edebiyatında İlk Mutasavvıﬂar (First Suﬁs in Turkish Literature), Ankara University Press, Ankara 1966, pp. 207, 209.; Gazimihal; Mahmud Ragıb, Ülkelerde Kopuz ve Tezeneli Sazlarımız, Ankara University Press, Ankara 1975, p. 64.; Musiki Sözlüğü (Dictionary of Music), M.E.B. İstanbul 1961, pp. 138, 259, 260.; Curt Sachs, The History of Musical Instruments, New York 1940, p. 252.

[12] Erica Goode (May 1, 2008). “A Fabled Instrument, Suppressed in Iraq, Thrives in Exile”. New York Times.

[13] What are is the diﬀerence between Arabic and Turkish ouds?

[14] Types of oud

8.6 External links

• Farabi School

Media related to Ouds at Wikimedia Commons Chapter 9

Psaltery

A psaltery is a stringed instrument of the zither family.

9.1 Ancient harp psaltery

The psaltery of Ancient Greece (epigonion) is a harp-like instrument. The word psaltery derives from the Ancient Greek ψαλτήριον (psaltḗrion), “stringed instrument, psaltery, harp”*[1] and that from the verb ψάλλω (psállō), “to touch sharply, to pluck, pull, twitch”and in the case of the strings of musical instruments, “to play a stringed instrument with the ﬁngers, and not with the plectrum.”*[2] The psaltery was originally made from wood, and relied on natural acoustics for sound production. In the King James Version of the Bible,“psaltery”, and its plural,“psalteries”, are used to translate several words in I Samuel (נבל) in Psalm 71:22 and I Chronicles 16:5; nevel (כלי) whose meaning is now unknown: the Hebrew keli 10:5; 2 Samuel 6:5; I Kings 10:12; I Chronicles 13:8; 15:16, 20, 28; 25:1, 6; II Chronicles 5:12; 9:11; 20:28; 29:25; in (פסנתרין) Nehemiah 12:27; Psalms 33:2; 57:6; 81:2; 92:3; 108:2; 144:9; and 150:3; and the Aramaic pesanterin Daniel 3:5, 7, 10, and 15.

9.2 Ancient European zither psaltery

In the Christian era, a psaltery consisting of a soundboard with several pre-tuned strings that are usually plucked came into use. It was also known by the name canon from the Greek word κανών (kanṓn), which means “rule” , “principle”, and also “mode”. The modern Greek folk instrument is called by its diminutive, kanonaki. The instrument is usually small enough to be portable; its shape and range vary.

9.3 Medieval psaltery

From the 12th through the 15th centuries, psalteries are widely seen in manuscripts, paintings and sculpture throughout Europe. They vary widely in shape and the number of strings (which are often, like lutes, in courses of two or more strings).

9.4 Modern psaltery

In the 19th century, several related zithers came into use, notably the guitar zither and the autoharp. In the 20th century, the bowed psaltery came into wide use. It is set up in a triangular format so that the end portion of each string can be bowed. Similar instruments include the large cimbalom and the smaller dulcimer, both usually played using small hammers to hit the strings.

55 56 CHAPTER 9. PSALTERY

A woman playing a psalterion. Ancient Greek red-ﬁgured pelike from Anzi, Apulia, circa 320–310 BCE.

9.5 See also

• Gusli • Kantele • Nevel (instrument) • Psalterium (instrument) 9.6. NOTES 57

• Santur

• Zither

9.6 Notes

[1] ψαλτήριον, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus

[2] ψάλλω, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus

9.7 References

• Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Psaltery". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

9.8 External links

• Psaltery

• Discussion of psalteries, with image from the exhibition Making Musical Instruments: The making of musical instruments in Canada by the Canadian Museum of Civilisation 58 CHAPTER 9. PSALTERY

Picture of an unusual type of psaltery, found in eastern Europe Chapter 10

Rebec

The rebec (sometimes rebecha, rebeckha, and other spellings, pronounced /ˈriːbɛk/ or /ˈrɛbɛk/) is a bowed stringed instrument of the Renaissance era. In its most common form, it has a narrow boat-shaped body and 1-5 strings. Played on the arm or under the chin, the technique and tuning may have inﬂuenced the development of the violin.

10.1 Origins

Popular from the 13th to 16th centuries, the introduction of the rebec into Western Europe coincided with the Arabic conquest of the Iberian Peninsula. There is however evidence of the existence of bowed instruments in the 9th century in Eastern Europe. The Persian geographer of the 9th century Ibn Khurradadhbih cited the bowed Byzantine lira (or lūrā) as typical bowed instrument of the Byzantines and equivalent to the Arab rebab.*[1]*[2]*[3]*[4] The rebab was adopted as a key instrument in Arab classical music and in Morocco a tradition of Arabo-Andalusian music has been kept alive by descendants of Muslims who left Spain as refugees following the Reconquista. The rebab became a favourite instrument in the tea houses of the Ottoman Empire, and was, until the advent of the violin, the only bowed instrument in the Ottoman Empire. The rebec was ﬁrst referred to by that name around the beginning of the 14th century, though a similar instrument, usually called a lyra, had been played since around the 9th century.*[5] A distinguishing feature of the rebec is that the bowl (or body) of the instrument is carved from a solid piece of wood. This distinguishes it from the later period vielles and gambas known in the Renaissance.

10.2 Tuning

The number of strings on the rebec varies from 1 to 5, although three is the most common number. The strings are often tuned in ﬁfths, although this tuning is not universal. The instrument was originally in the treble range, like the violin, but later larger versions were developed, so that by the 16th century composers were able to write pieces for consorts of rebecs, just as they did for consorts of viols.

10.3 In use

In time, the viol came to replace the rebec, and the instrument was little used beyond the renaissance period. The instrument was used by dance masters until the 18th century, however, often being used for the same purpose as the kit, a small pocket-sized violin. The rebec also remained in use in folk music, especially in eastern Europe and Spain. Andalusi nubah, a genre of music from North Africa, often includes the rebec.

59 60 CHAPTER 10. REBEC

10.4 Artists

• The original Michael Nyman Band included a rebec before the band switched to a fully ampliﬁed lineup. • Les Cousins Branchaud, a folk music group from Quebec, Canada, includes a rebec player. • Ensemble Micrologus, an Italian medieval music group, has a member who performs on rebec. • Tina Chancey is a multi-instrumentalist specializing in early bowed strings like the rebec. She also plays in Hesperus, an early music and folk music group. • Dominique Regef is a French musician, composer and improvisor who performs on, among other instruments, the rebec. • Giles Lewin, while being more famous for his work on violin and bagpipes, also plays the rebec in the Dufay Collective. • Rossen Genkov is a rebec virtuoso. He appeared onstage with the Bulgarian band Epizod. • Sisters Shirley and Dolly Collins have released a number of albums that include the rebec. • Oni Wytars, a European music group, often includes the rebec in their performances. • Helen Johnson plays the rebec, and its close relative the violetta, in the British early music group Cancionero. • Siba de Oliveira Veloso, from Mestre Ambrósio and Siba e a Fuloresta, and Antônio Nóbrega plays the rebec in a very Brazilian folcloric way, which has a large number of players in its north-east part. • Swedish progressive rock band Älgarnas Trädgård list rebec as an instrument used on their 1972 album 'FRAMTIDEN ÄR ETT SVÄVANDE SKEPP, FÖRANKRAT I FORNTIDEN'

10.5 The rebec in popular culture

Hugh Rebeck is a minor character in William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, one of the musicians called by Peter in an oft-cut scene. Presumably, he is named for the instrument that he plays. In a scene in Don Quixote, a goatherd entertains Don Quixote and Sancho Panza by playing a rebeck and singing a love song. A rebec featured prominently in one of Ellis Peters' (12th century) Brother Cadfael stories: Liliwin, the title character of The Sanctuary Sparrow, earned his living by playing that instrument. His rebec was damaged by a mob that accused him of murder, but one of the monks repaired it and returned to him at the end of the story.

10.6 See also

• Rabeca • Byzantine lyra: the pear-shaped bowed stringed instrument of the Byzantine Empire. • Calabrian lira • Cretan lyra: The pear-shaped bowed instrument of Crete, Greece. • Dramyin: a Himalayan folk music instrument. • Gadulka: a Bulgarian stringed instrument. • Gusle: a Serbian folk instrument • Kamencheh: a four-stringed instrument similar to the kemenche. • Kemenche: a three-stringed instrument from the Black Sea region of Asia Minor. • Lijerica Croatian or Dalmatian instrument • Rabel: a Spanish folk instrument 10.7. REFERENCES 61

10.7 References

[1] Margaret J. Kartomi, 1990

[2] Farmer, Henry George (1988), Historical facts for the Arabian Musical Inﬂuence, Ayer Publishing, p. 137, ISBN 0-405- 08496-X

[3] For a possible etymological link between Arabic rebab and French rebec see American Heritage Dictionary

[4] Panum, Hortense (1939), The stringed instruments of the Middle Ages, their evolution and development, London : William Reeves, p. 434

[5] Bachmann, Werner (1969), The origins of bowing and the development of bowed instruments up to the thirteenth century, Oxford U.P., p. 35

10.8 External links

• The Rebec – Short history of the rebec, and sound sample. • The Rebirth of the Rabeca Fiddle of Brazil

• The Rebec Page – Origins, morphology, construction, and sound sample. • Tenor rebec photo

• Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Rebec". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Chapter 11

Sackbut

Four sackbuts: two tenors [left & mid], alto [top], bass [right].

A sackbut is a type of trombone from the Renaissance and Baroque eras. It is characterised by a telescopic slide used to vary the length of the tube to change pitch, allowing chromaticism easy and accurate doubling of voices. Sackbuts adjust tuning at the joint between the bell and slide. The sackbut differs from modern trombones by its smaller bore, its less-flared bell, and in the lack of a water key, slide lock, and tuning slide on the bell curve. More delicately constructed than their modern counterparts and featuring a softer, more flexible sound, they attracted a more sizeable repertoire of original chamber and vocal music than many instruments contemporary with them.

11.1 Terminological history

The first reference to a slide instrument was probably trompette des ménestrels, first found in Burgundy in the 1420s and later in other regions of Europe. The name distinguished the instrument from the trompettes de guerre (war trumpets), which were of fixed length.*[1]

62 11.2. HISTORY 63

“Busaun”(trombone) and various trumpets by diﬀerent names, from the 1511 treatise by Sebastian Virdung.

The next word to appear in the 15th century that implied a slide was the sackbut group of words. There are two theories for the sources: it is either derived from the Middle French sacquer (to pull) and bouter (to push) or from the Spanish sacar (to draw or pull) and bucha (a tube or pipe).*[1] The term survives in numerous English spelling variations including sacbut, sackbutte, sagbut, shagbolt, sacabushe and shakbusshe. Closely related to sackbut was the name used in France: sacqueboute and in Spain, where it was sacabuche. These terms were used in England and France until the 18th century. In Scotland in 1538 the slide instrument is referred to as draucht trumpet (drawn trumpet) as opposed to a weir trumpet (war trumpet), which had a ﬁxed length.*[2] In Germany, the original word was Posaune, appearing about 1450 and is still used today. This (as well as bason) derives from busine, which is Latinate and meant straight trumpet.*[3] In Italy it was (and remains) trombone, which derived from trumpet in the Latin tromba or drompten, used in the Low Countries. The ﬁrst records of it being used are around 1440, but it is not clear whether this was just a nickname for a trumpet player. In 1487 a writer links the words trompone and sacqueboute and mentions the instrument as playing the contratenor part in a danceband.*[4]

11.2 History

The trombone developed from the trumpet. Up until 1375 trumpets were simply a long straight tube with a bell ﬂare.*[5] 64 CHAPTER 11. SACKBUT

Sackbuts in Museu de la Música de Barcelona

There are various uses of sackbut-like words in the Bible, which has led to a faulty translation from the Latin bible that suggested the trombones date back as far as 600 BC, but there is no evidence of slides at this time.*[6] From 1375 the iconography sees trumpets being made with bends, and some in 'S' shapes. Around 1400 we see the 'loop' shaped trumpet appear in paintings and at some point in the 15th century, a single slide was added. This slide trumpet was known as a 'trompette des ménestrels' in the alta capella bands.*[7] The earliest clear evidence of a double slide instrument is in a fresco painting by Filippino Lippi in Rome - The Assumption of the Virgin, dating from 1488-1493.*[8] From the 15th to the 19th centuries, the instrument designs changed very little overall, apart from a slight widening of the bell in classical era. Since the 19th century, trombone bore sizes and bells have increased signiﬁcantly. It was one of the most important instruments in Baroque polychoral works, along with the cornetto and organ.

11.3 Instrument sizes

Sackbuts come in several sizes. According to Michael Praetorius, these were: The pitch of the trombones has (notionally) moved up a semi-tone since the 17th century, and this is explained in the section on Pitch. Because the tenor instrument is described as “Gemeine”(common or ordinary), this is probably the most widely used trombone. The basses, due to their longer slides, have a hinged handle on the slide stay, which is used to reach the long positions. The giant Octav-Posaun / double bass trombone / contra-bass trombone in the style of the those made in 16th/17th 11.3. INSTRUMENT SIZES 65

Trombones in Syntagma Musicum (1614-20), by Michael Praetorius.

centuries is represented by only a few existing instruments. There is an original instrument made by Georg Nicolaus Oller built in Stockholm in 1639 and housed in the Musikmuseet.*[9] In addition, Ewald Meinl has made a modern copy of this instrument, and it is currently owned and played by Wim Becu. 66 CHAPTER 11. SACKBUT

11.4 Construction

The bore size of renaissance/baroque trombones is approximately 10 mm (0.39 in) and the bell rarely more than 10.5 cm (4.1 in) in diameter.*[10] This compares with modern tenor trombones, which commonly have bores 12.7 mm (0.50 in) to 13.9 mm (0.55 in) and bells 17.8 cm (7.0 in) to 21.6 cm (8.5 in). Modern reproductions of sackbuts sacrifice some authenticity to harness manufacturing techniques and inventions that make them more comfortable for modern players, while retaining much of the original character of the old instruments. Some original instruments could be disassembled into the constituent straight tubes, bowed tubes, bell flare, and stays, with ferrules at the joints. Mersenne has a diagram. (Little imagination is needed to see how it could be reassembled - with an extra tube - into something approaching a natural trumpet.) There is a debate as to whether they used tight fittings, wax or another joining substance. Modern sackbut reproductions are usually soldered together. Some modern sackbut reproductions use glue as a compromise to give a loose fitting for high resonance without risk of falling apart. Tuning slides came in during the very late 18th century. Early trombonists adjusted pitch with the slide, and by adding variously shaped and sized crooks. Modern reproductions often have a bell bow tuning slide or telescopic slide between the slide and bell sections. Crooks are still used, as are variously sized bell bow sections for larger changes.*[11] The stays on period sackbuts are flat. While the bell stay remained flat, from about 1660 the slide stays became tubular. On many modern reproductions round slide stays are much more comfortable to play and easier to make. A loose connection between the bell stay and the bell is thought key to a resonant bell, and thus a better sackbut sound. Original instruments have a hinge joint. Modern copies with a tuning slide in the bell can need more support for operation of the slide, so either an extra stay by the tuning slide is provided or a joint without play in only one axis is employed. The original way to make the slide tubes was to roll a flat piece of metal around a solid cylinder mandrel, and the joining edges soldered together. Modern manufacturers now draw the tubes. They also tend to have stockings, which were only invented around 1850. In addition, modern made slides are usually made of nickel silver with chrome plating, giving a smoother finish and quieter action than simply the brass that would have originally been used. The water key was added in the 19th century, but modern reproductions often have them.*[12]

11.5 Pitch

Until some time in the 18th century, the trombone was in A and the pitch of that A was about a half-step higher than it is today̶460–480 Hz. There was a transition around the 18th century when trombones started to be thought of in Bb at around 440 Hz. This change did not require a change in the instrument, merely a new set of slide positions for each note. But it does mean that the baroque and renaissance repertoire was intended to be played at the higher pitch. There are many examples of evidence for this:

• Fellow church instruments that are ﬁxed pitch̶cornetts and organs̶were pitched at approximately A=460– 480 Hz“ ( Chorton”) across Europe in the Renaissance and baroque eras. High pitch is also seen in Renaissance wind bands.

• Aurelio Virgiliano's Il dolcimelo (c. 1600) teaches trombonists that ﬁrst position gives A, E, A, C, E and G.*[13]

• In 1687, Daniel Speer's Grund-richtiger concurs with these notes for the slide all the way in (while describing pushing the slide out a bit to get the C).

• Praetorius describes an alto in D, tenor in A, and bass in D.

The tenor trombones that survive are pitched closest to Bb at A=440 Hz, which is the same as A at A=466 Hz. So what we now think of as a tenor trombone with Bb in ﬁrst position, pitched at A=440 was actually thought of as a trombone in A (in ﬁrst position), pitched at A=466. Surviving basses in D at A=466 (Eb at 440) - for example: 11.6. TIMBRE 67

Ehe, 1612 (Leipzig) and Hainlein, c.1630 (Nuremberg) conﬁrm Praetorius' description. It is also worth noting that Rognoni's“Suzanne ung jour”setting descends repeatedly to BBb, which is a tone lower than the lowest note playable on a bass in F; on a bass in D, it falls in (modern) ﬁfth position. Many groups now perform at A=466 Hz for the sake of greater historical accuracy.

11.6 Timbre

The sackbut was described as suitable for playing with the 'loud' ensembles in the outdoors, as well as the 'soft' ensembles inside. The alta capella bands are seen in drawings as entertaining outside with ensembles including shawms, trumpets and trombones. When pushed, sackbuts can easily make a loud and brassy sound. The sackbut also responds very well to rather soft playing - more so than a modern trombone. The sound is charac- terized by a more delicate, vocal timbre. The ﬂat rims and shallow cups of the older mouthpieces are instrumental in providing the player with a much wider palette of articulations and tonal colours. This ﬂexibility lends itself to a vocal style of playing and facilitates very characterful phrasing. Mersenne wrote in 1636, “It should be blown by a skillful musician so that it may not imitate the sounds of the trumpet, but rather assimilate itself to the sweetness of the human voice, lest it should emit a warlike rather than a peaceful sound.” The Lorenzo da Lucca was said to have had “in his playing a certain grace and lightness with a manner so pleasing” .*[14]

11.7 Performance practice

Musicians of the 16th and 17th centuries benefited from a broader base of skills than the average performer today. They would have to improvise new music. In the Middle Ages to the Renaissance, various music treatises include in their tuition improvising at sight fast moving melody over a cantus firmus, or extra contrapuntal lines to a plainchant. In a non-liturgical setting, an alta capella group (in which a slide trumpet or trombone often featured) would involve the tenor playing the main tune in long tones while two others improvised florid counterpart tunes. These traditions continued into the baroque with musicians expected to give expression to the written music by ornamenting with a mixture of one-note“graces”and whole passage“divisions”(also known as“diminutions”). The suggestions for producing effective ornaments without disrupting the line and harmony are discussed alongside countless examples in the 16th and early 17th century Italian division tutors. Graces such as the accento, portar della voce, tremolo, groppo, trillo, esclamationo and intonatio are all to be considered by performers of any music in this period. “Cornetts and trombones...play divisions that are neither scrappy, nor so wild and involved that they spoil the under- lying melody and the composer's design: but are introduced at such moments and with such vivacity and charm that they give the music the greatest beauty and spirit”Bottrigari, Venice 1594*[15] Along with the improvisation, many of these tutors discuss articulation. Francesco Rognoni in 1620 describes the tonguing as the most important part of producing “a good and beautiful effect in playing wind instruments, and principally the cornetto”(which of course had a very similar role to the trombone). The treatises discuss the various strengths of consonants from “le”through “de”to “te”. But the focus of the text is for playing rapid notes “similar to the gorgia of the human voice”with “soft and smooth”double tonguing (“lingua riversa”) using “le re le re”. This is opposed to using “te che te che,”which is described as “harsh, barbarous and displeasing”. The natural ʻpairingʼof notes these articulations provide is similar to the instructions for string players who are instructed to slur (“lireggiar”) pairs of eighth notes with one bow stroke per quarter beat. Another integral part of the early music sound-world is the musical temperament. Music in the middle-ages favours intervals of the 4th and 5th, which is why Pythagorean tuning was used. The interval of a third was used as a clash until the Renaissance, when it became consonant in compositions, which went hand-in-hand with the widespread use of Meantone temperament. During the 17th century, Well temperament began to become more and more popular as the range of keys increased. Temperament affects the colour of a composition, and therefore modern performances, typically employing equal temperament, may not be true representations of the composers' intentions. 68 CHAPTER 11. SACKBUT

These old tunings can come naturally on a sackbut. As the bell is smaller than a modern trombone, the harmonic series is closer to a perfect harmonic series, which is the basis for just tuning. Without adjusting the slide, the 1st to 2nd harmonic is a perfect octave, 2nd to 3rd harmonic is a 5th slightly wider than equal temperament and 4th to 5th harmonic is a major 3rd slightly narrower than in equal temperament. These adjusted intervals make chords ring and are the basis of meantone. In fact, Speer says, “Once you have found a good C (3rd position), this is also the place you will find your F♯.”Playing C and F♯ in exactly the same position on a modern orchestra sounds out of tune, but it tunes perfectly well on a sackbut if everyone plays meantone. Plenty of musical understanding can be gathered from reading the original music print. Publishers such as SPES*[16] and Arnaldo Forni Edition provide facsimile copies of plenty of music for trombone from this era. To read these it one needs to become familiar with the old clefs, time signatures, ligatures and notational conventions of the era. There are myriad performance indicators embedded in the quirks of the old notation that are simply lost in modern editions. When reading sackbut music, it is important to consider Musica ficta, to help solve some of the controversial pitches. The scores are unclear and composers were embarrassed to point out accidentals they felt wereʻobviousʼto performers. For example there are occasions where a leading note should be sharpened to a major 7th as you go into a cadence. There also are often questions about which notes accidental markings apply to. There are differences of opinion between editors and performers now, just as there were between performers then.

11.8 Repertoire

11.8.1 Before 1600

The sackbut replaced the slide trumpet in the 15th century alta capella wind bands that were common in towns throughout Europe playing courtly dance music. See Waits. Another key use of the trombone was in ceremonies, in conjunction with the trumpet. In many towns in Germany and Northern Italy, 'piffari' bands were employed by local governments throughout the 16th century to give regular concerts in public squares and would lead processions for festivals. Piffari usually contained a mix of wind, brass and percussion instruments and sometimes viols.*[17] Venice's doge had his own piffari company and they gave an hour-long concert in the Piazza each day, as well as sometimes performing for services in St. Mark's. Each of the six confraternities in Venice also had their own independent piffari groups too, which would all play at a lavish procession on the feast of Corpus Domini. These groups are in addition to the musicians employed by St. Mark's to play in the balconies with the choir (the piffari would play on the main level).*[17] It also was used in church music both for instrumental service music and as a doubling instrument for choral music. The treble and high alto parts were most often played by cornetts or shawms, with the violin sometimes replacing the cornett in 17th century Italian music.*[17] The first record of trombones being used in churches was in Innsbruck 1503. Seville Cathedral's records show employment of trombonists in 1526, followed by several other Spanish cathedrals during the 16th century, used not only for ceremonial music and processionals, but also for accompaniment of the liturgical texts as well, doubling voices.*[18] The sacred use of trombones was brought to a fine art by the Andrea Gabrieli, Giovanni Gabrieli and their contemporaries c.1570-1620 Venice and there is also evidence of trombonists being employed in churches and cathedrals in Italy at times during the second half of the 16th century in Bologna, Rome, Padua, Mantua and Modena.*[18] Since ensembles had flexible instrumentation at this time, there is relatively little music before Giovanni Gabrieli's publication Symphoniae sacrae (1597) that specifically mentions trombones. The only example currently known is the music by Francesco Corteccia for the Medici wedding 1539.*[19]

11.8.2 1600-1700

Solo

The 17th century brings two pieces of real solo trombone repertoire. 11.8. REPERTOIRE 69

Giovanni Martino Cesare wrote La Hieronyma, (Musikverlag Max Hieber, MH6012) the earliest known piece for accompanied solo trombone. It comes from Cesare's collection Musicali Melodie per voci et instrumenti a una, due, tre, quattro, cinque, e sei published in Munich 1621 of 28 pieces for a mixture of violins, cornetts, trombone, vocal soloists and organ continuo. The collection also contains La Bavara for four trombones. The other solo trombone piece of the 17th century, Sonata trombone & basso (modern edition by H Weiner, Ensemble Publications), was written around 1665. This anonymous piece is also known as the 'St. Thomas Sonata' because it was kept in the library of the Saint Thomas Augustinian Monastery in Brno, Czech Republic. Francesco Rognoni was another composer who specified the trombone in a set of divisions (variations) on the well- known song Suzanne ung jour (London Pro Musica, REP15). Rognoni was a master violin and gamba player whose treatise Selva di Varie passaggi secondo l'uso moderno (Milan 1620 and facsimile reprint by Arnaldo Forni Editore 2001) details improvisation of diminutions and Suzanne is given as one example. Although most diminutions are written for organ, string instruments or cornett, Suzanne is “per violone over Trombone alla bastarda”. With virtuosic semiquaver passages across the range of the instrument, it reflects Praetorius' comments about the large range of the tenor and bass trombones, and good players of the Quartposaune (bass trombone in F) could play fast runs and leaps like a viola bastarda or cornetto. The term “bastarda”describes a technique that made variations on all the different voices of a part song, rather than just the melody or the bass: “considered illegitimate because it was not polyphonic”.*[20]

Chamber music

In the 17th century, a considerable repertoire of chamber music using sackbut with various combinations of violins, cornetts and dulcians, often with continuo, appeared. Composers included Dario Castello, Giovanni Battista Fontana, Giovanni Paolo Cima, Andrea Cima, Johann Heinrich Schmelzer and Matthias Weckmann. Giovanni Paolo Cima, organist of S. Celso wrote the oldest known trio sonata and solo violin sonata. Contained in his Concerti ecclesiastici (Milan 1610) is his brother Andrea's Capriccio 'for cornett and trombone or violin and violone'. Antonio Bertali wrote several trio sonatas for 2 violins, trombone and bass continuo in the mid-17th century. One such Sonata a 3 is freely available in facsimile form from the Düben Collection website hosted by Uppsala universitet.*[21] A “Sonata a3 in C”is published by Musica Rara and attributed to Biber, although the authorship is unclear and it is more likely to have been written by Bertali.*[22] Dario Castello, a wind player at St. Mark's Venice in the early 17th century had two books of Sonate Concertate published in 1621 and 1629. The sonatas of 1-4 parts with bass continuo often specify trombones, as well as cornett, violin and bassoon. The numerous reprints during the 17th century affirm his popularity then, as perhaps now. Giuseppe Scarani joined St. Mark's Venice in 1629 as a singer and in the following year published Sonate concertate, a volume of works for 2 or 3 (unspecified) instruments (and b.c.). The title has been suggested was chosen to try and capture some of Castello's success.*[17] Tiburtio Massaino wrote a Canzona for eight trombones, published in Raverio's 1608 collection. Johann Heinrich Schmelzer wrote several sonatas that included trombones̶such as his Sonata à 7 for two cornetts, two trumpets, three trombones, and basso continuo. Daniel Speer published a four-part sonata in Neu-gebachene Taffel-Schnitz (1685). In 1687, Speer published the first written instruction in sackbut (and several other instruments) playing: Grund-richtiger/kurtz/leicht und noethiger Unterricht der Musicalischen Kunst. The second edition in 1697 provides two three part sonatas for trombones. An English work of note from this period is Matthew Locke's Music for His Majestys Sagbutts and Cornetts, a suite for Charles II's coronation 1661.*[23]

Light music

Non-serious music, often based on dances for festive occasions, rarely had specified instrumentation. Often you find something like “per diversi musici”. Indeed the groups that would perform them would often be full of multi- instrumentalists.*[24] Johann Pezel wrote for Stadtpfeifer with his Hora decima musicorum (1670), containing sonatas, as well as Fünff- stimmigte blasende Music (1685) with five-part intradas and dance pieces. Well known pieces from Germany includes Samuel Scheidt's Ludi Musici (1621) and Johann Hermann Schein's 70 CHAPTER 11. SACKBUT

Banchetto musicale (1617).*[24] The ﬁrst English piece scored for trombone is John Adson's Courtly Masquing Ayres (1611). Another light collection suitable for including trombones is Anthony Holborne's Pavans, Galliards, Allmains, and other short Aeirs both Grave and Light in Five Parts for Viols, Violins or Other Musicall Winde Instruments (1599).

Sacred music

Venice Trombonists were in the regular ensemble at St. Mark's Venice from its formation in 1568 until they left the payroll in 1732.*[25] The first two ensemble directors - maestro di concerti - Girolamo Dalla Casa (1568–1601) and Giovanni Bassano (1601–1617) - were cornett players and the nucleus of the group was 2 cornetts and 2 trombones, although for the larger ceremonies many extra players were hired. During a mass attended by the Doge, evidence suggests they would have played a canzona in the Gradual after the Epistle and the Agnus Dei, a sonata in the Offertory as well as reinforcing vocal parts or substituting for absent singers.*[26] This ensemble was used extensively by Giovanni Gabrieli in pieces substantially for brass, voices and organ in Venice up until his death in 1612. He was greatly influential in Venetian composers in other churches and confraternities, and his early baroque and cori spezzati style is seen in contemporaries like Giovanni Picchi and Giovanni Battista Grillo. It is suggested that Monteverdi wrote his Vespro della Beata Vergine (1610) as a pitch for employment at St. Mark's as successor to Giovanni Gabrieli. In addition to the Magnificat, two movements specify trombones: the opening Deus in adiutorium is for 6 voices, 2 violins, 2 cornetts, 3 trombones, 5 viola da braccio and basso continuo; Sonata sopraʻSancta Maria, ora pro nobisʼis for soprano, 2 violins, 2 cornetts, 3 trombones (one of which can be a viola da braccio), viola da braccio and basso continuo. Monteverdi also leaves the option to use trombones as part of the“sex instrumentis”of the Dixit Dominus and in the instrumental Ritornello a 5 between verses of Ave maris stella.*[27] From around 1617, when the maestro de' concerti at St. Marks changed to violinist Francesco Bonfante and corre- spondingly the ensemble changed from basically a brass ensemble to being more evenly mixed with brass, wind and string instruments.*[17] Monteverdi arrived at St. Mark's in 1613 and it is unsurprising that he includes trombones and strings for several more sacred works during his time here, published in his Selva Morale e Spirituale 1641. Of the c.40 items in this collection, six specify three or four trombones (or viola da braccio, ad lib): SV268 Beatus vir I, SV263 Dixit Dominus I, SV263 Dixit Dominus II, SV261 Et iterum venturus est, SV258 Gloria in excelsis Deo, SV281 Magnificat I. Each is for 3-8 voices with 3 violins (apart from SV261), the trombones/violas and basso continuo. Monteverdi also specified trombones in two more sacred works: SV198 Laetatus sum (i) (1650) for 6 voices, 2 violins, 2 trombones and bassoon and SV272 Laudate Dominum omnes gentes I (1641) for 5 voices ʻconcertatoʼ, 4 voice chorus ad lib, 4 viola da braccio or trombones and basso continuo.*[27]

Germany/Austria A prolific composer for trombones in Germany in the 17th century was Heinrich Schütz. His Fili me, Absalon (SWV 269) and Attendite, popule meus (SWV 270), are both scored for bass voice, four trombones (of which two are optionally violins) and basso continuo, are well known. They are part of his first Symphoniae Sacrae collection dating from 1629 and commentators have noted that the style reflects his studies in Venice with Giovanni Gabrieli 1609-1612. Other pieces that specify trombones (according to Grove) are (grouped by the collection they were published in): Concert mit 11 Stimmen (1618): SWV 21, in Psalmen Davids (Psalms of David) Op. 2 (1619): SWV 38, 40-46, Symphoniae Sacrae I Op.6 (1629): SWV 259, 269-271, 274, Symphoniae Sacrae II Op.10 (1647): SWV 344, Symphoniae Sacrae III Op. 12 (1650): SWV 398a, Historia (1664): SWV 435, 448, 449, 453, 461, 452, 466-470, 473, 474-476, Schwanengesang Psalm 119 (1671): SWV 500, although many others are suitable for trombones too.*[28] Johann Hermann Schein specified trombones in some of his sacred vocal works in the Opella nova, ander Theil, geistlicher Concerten collection (Leipzig, 1626). For example, Uns ist ein Kind geboren is scored for violino, traversa, alto trombone, tenor voice, fagotto and basso continuo. Mach dich auf, werde licht, Zion uses Canto 1: violino, cornetto, flauto picciolo e voce, Canto 2: voce e traversa, Alto: Trombone e Voce, Tenore: Voce e Trombone, Basso: Fagotto Trombone e Voce and Basso Continuo, during which solos for each of the trombonists are specified. Of particular interest is Maria, gegrüsset seist du, Holdselige, which uses soprano and tenor voices, alto trombone, 2 tenor trombones and on the bass line “trombone grosso,”which goes down to pedal A, and a couple of diatonic scale passages from bottom C.*[29] German composer Johann Rudolf Ahle wrote some notable sacred pieces for voices and trombones. Höre, Gott uses 11.8. REPERTOIRE 71

five favoriti singers, two ripieno choirs (which double other parts at intense moments) and seven trombones, with basso continuo. And his most famous Neu-gepflanzte Thüringische Lust-Garten.. (1657–65) contains several sacred works with 3 or 4 trombones, including Magnificat a 8 for SATB soloists, cornett, 3 trombones and continuo and Herr nun lässestu deinen Diener a 5 for bass, 4 trombones and continuo.*[30] Dieterich Buxtehude specifies trombones in a few sacred concertos using style derived from polychoral Venetian works and one secular piece. For example, Gott fähret auf mit Jauchzen (BuxWV33 from CW v, 44) is scored for SSB voices, 2 vn, 2 va, trbn, 2 cornetts, 2 tpt, bn and bc.*[31] There are a few vocal works involving trombones in works by Andreas Hammerschmidt. These include Lob- und Danck Lied aus dem 84. Psalm for 9 voices, 5 tpt, 3 trbn, 5 va and bc (Freiberg, 1652). There is also Hochzeitsgesang für Daniel Sartorius: Es ist nicht gut, dass der Mensch allein sei for 5 voices, 2 vn, 2 trbn, bn and bc.*[32] Johann Schelle has numerous sacred vocal works that use trombones. For instance Vom Himmel kam der Engel Schar is scored for soprano, tenor, SSATB choir, 2 violins, 2 violas, 2 cornetts, 3 trombones, 2 trumpets, timpani, basso continuo, and Lobe den Herrn, meine Seele is for two choirs of SSATB and similar instruments to the previous work.*[33] The lesser known Austrian composer Christoph Strauss, Kapellmeister to the Habsburg Emperor Mathias 1616-1620, wrote two important collections for trombones, cornetts and voices. His motets published in Nova ac diversimoda sacrarum cantionum composition, seu motettae (Vienna, 1613) are in a similar tradition to Gabrieli's music. Of the sixteen motets in the collection, all are titled “concerto”apart from the “sonata”Expectans Expectavi Dominum for 6 trombones, cantus voice and tenor voice. In 1631 he published a number of masses, which were much more baroque, with basso continuo, rhetorical word painting and obligato usage of instruments.*[34] Later in the 17th century, Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber composed sacred works for voices and orchestra featuring trombones. His Requiem mass (1692) uses an orchestra of strings, 3 trombones and basso continuo. A similar ensemble accompanies 8 vocal lines in his Lux perpetua (c1673), and three more similar works in the 1690s.*[35]

Theatre

Monteverdi ushers sackbuts into the first great opera - 'L'Orfeo' 1607. The orchestra at the first performance, as shown in the first publication, the list of “stromenti”at the front of the score specifies four trombones, but at one point in Act 3, however, the score calls for five trombones.

11.8.3 1700-1750

There is relatively little repertoire for the trombone in the late baroque. But Johann Sebastian Bach uses trombones in fourteen of his church cantatas - BWV 2, 3, 4, 21, 23, 25, 28, 38, 64, 68, 96, 101, 121, 135 as well as motet BWV 118. He uses the trombone sound to reﬂect the (by now) archaic sounds of the Renaissance trombones doubling voices (with cornett playing the soprano line), yet he also uses them independently, which John Eliot Gardiner says prepares the way for their use in Beethoven's Symphony No. 5.*[36] The cantatas were either composed in Leipzig during 1723-1725, or (for BWV 4, 21 & 23) the trombone parts were added to the existing cantata during the same period. The cornett and trombone parts would have been played by the Stadtpfeifer.*[37] In England, George Frideric Handel includes trombones in three of his oratorios: Saul (1738), Israel in Egypt (1738) and Samson (1741). There are no other documented groups or performances with trombone players in England at this time, and it has been suggested that the premiers took place with a visiting group from Germany, as was the custom in Paris at this time. Vienna's Imperial court used trombones in church music: Johann Joseph Fux was Hofkapellmeister in Vienna from 1715 until 1741. Many of his masses use the choir strength- ened by strings, cornetts and trombones, often with independent moments for the instrumentalists and sometimes. Missa SS Trinitatis uses two choirs, which again points to the traditions going back to Gabrieli. His highly successful Requiem is for ﬁve vocal parts, two cornetts, two trombones, strings and continuo. He also uses the trombone in smaller motets and antiphons, such as his setting of Alma Redemptoris mater for soprano, alto trombone, strings and continuo. Some of his chamber music involves trombones, as do many of his operas, used as an obbligato instrument.*[38] Also in the Vienna court was Antonio Caldara, vice-kapellmeister 1717-1736. Among his output are two Holy Week 72 CHAPTER 11. SACKBUT settings as Da Capo arias: Deh sciogliete, o mesti lumi for soprano, unison violins, bassoon, two trombones and organ and Dio, qual sia for soprano, trombone, bassoon and basso continuo.*[39]

11.8.4 1750-1800

Again this period suffers from a lack of trombone players. Most of these works derive from Vienna and Salzburg. Joseph Haydn uses trombones in Il rotorno di Tobia, Die Sieben Letzten Worte, The Creation, Die Jahreszeiten, Der Sturm, Orfeo de Euridice and secular cantata choruses. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart uses trombones in connection with death or the supernatural. This includes the Requiem (K626, 1791), Great Mass in C minor (K423, 1783), Coronation Mass (C major) (K317, 1779), several other masses, Vesperae Solennes de Confessore (K339, 1780), Vesperae de Dominica, his arrangement of Handel's Messiah plus two of his three great operas: Don Giovanni (K527, 1787) and Die Zauberflöte (K620, 1791). Mozart's first use of the trombone was an obligato line in the oratorio Die Schuldigkeit des ersten Gebots (K35, 1767) Christoph Willibald Gluck includes trombones in five of his operas: Iphigénie en Aulide (1774), Orfeo ed Eu- ridice (1774), Alceste (1776), Iphigénie en Tauride (1779) and Echo et Narcisse (1779), as well as ballet Don Juan (1761).*[40] Some chamber music in this period includes trombone in an obligato role with voice, and also as a concerto instrument with string orchestra. Composers include the likes of Leopold Mozart, Georg Christoph Wagenseil, Johann Albrechtsberger, Michael Haydn and Johann Ernst Eberlin. For works for trombone post-1800, please see trombone.

11.9 Modern performance

Many groups specializing in period music make frequent and prominent use of the sackbut. External links:

11.9.1 Medieval

• Les haulz et les bas

• City of Lincoln Waites

• The York Waits

• BandAntica la Pifaresca

• Piﬀaro

11.9.2 Renaissance / Baroque small chamber music

• Concerto Palatino

• Les Sacqueboutiers de Toulouse

• La Ricercata

• Caecilia Concert

• His Majestys Sagbutts and Cornetts

• La Fenice

• The Whole Noyse

• Capella de la Torre 11.10. RECORDINGS 73

• Dresdner Stadtpfeifer • Spiritus Collective • the Gabrieli Consort • Adam Woolf • English Cornett and Sackbut Ensemble

11.10 Recordings

Plenty of recordings of the authentic sackbut are now available from the groups such as Concerto Palatino, HMSC, Gabrieli Consort and the Toulouse Sacqueboutiers. For a closer examination of the instrument, here are some rec- ommended recordings where the sackbut is heavily featured in a 'solo' capacity.

• Songs Without Words - Adam Woolf, SFZMusic 2010 • Treasury of a Saint - Caecilia Concert, Challenge Records 2006 • La Sacqueboute - Michel Becquet, Les Sacqueboutiers de Toulouse • Sackbutt - Jorgen Van Rijen, Channel Classics 2008 • Schmelzer & Co - Caecilia-Concert, Challenge Records 2009 • Buxtehude & Co - Caecilia-Concert, Challenge Records 2007

11.11 Early surviving instruments

The earliest instruments: Other notable sackbuts: For more information, see Herbert (2006).*[1]

11.12 Modern manufacturers

• Egger, Basel, Switzerland • Ewald Meinl, Geretsried, Germany (formerly Meinl und Lauber) • Geert Jan van der Heide, Netherlands • Helmut Voigt, Germany • Jürgen Voigt Brass, Germany • Thein, Bremen, Germany • John Webb, London • Frank Tomes, London +44 (0)208 542 4942 • Böhm und Meinl • BAC/Mike Corrigan, USA • Johannes Finke, Germany • Markus Leuchter, Germany • Aron Vajna, Basel +41 78 717 98 22 • Nathaniel Wood, Basel, Switzerland • C.Bosc, Chambave, Italy 74 CHAPTER 11. SACKBUT

11.13 See also

• Electronic Sackbut, an early synthesizer.

• Glissando

11.14 References

[1] Herbert, Trevor (2006). The Trombone, p. 57. London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10095-7.

[2] Herbert (2006), p. 58.

[3] Herbert (2006), p. 56.

[4] Herbert (2006), p. 59.

[5] Herbert (2006), p. 47.

[6] Herbert (2006), p. 56-7.

[7] Herbert (2006), p. 52-3.

[8] Herbert (2006), p. 60.

[9] Pictures and description of Oller contrabass trombone by Nicholas Eastop

[10] Fischer, Henry G. (1984). The Renaissance Sackbut and Its Use Today, . New York, MAM. ISBN 0-87099-412-3.

[11] Herbert (2006), p. 22.

[12] Herbert (2006), p. 21.

[13] Herbert (2006), p. 35.

[14] Haar, J (1988/2006), “Cosimo Bartoli on Music”, p. 64, Early Music History, viii (1988), 37–79.

[15] Bottrigari, Il desiderio, overo de' concerti di varii strumenti musicali, Venice 1594

[16] SPES Edition (Studio per Edizioni Scelte)

[17] Selfridge-Field, Eleanor (1975, rev. 1994), Venetian Instrumental Music, . USA: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-28151- 5.

[18] Herbert (2006), p. 101.

[19] Herbert (2006), p. 91

[20] Selfridge-Field (1994), p. 309.

[21] Bertali - Sonata a 3 - Düben Collection

[22] Debretzeni, Kati: CD liner notes to “Virtuoso in the Making - Biber”CKD195, Linn records (Retrieved 28 December 2007)

[23] Herbert (2006), p. 98.

[24] Herbert (2006), p. 98-99.

[25] Selfridge-Field (1994), pp. 15–21.

[26] Selfridge-Field (1994), pp. 22–23.

[27] Carter, T, Monteverdi Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Retrieved 2 January 2008).

[28] L. Hübsch-Pﬂeger: 'Schütz', Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Retrieved 10 December 2007)

[29] Bärenreiter scores, 1986

[30] Uwe Wolf - Programme notes to BIS-CD-821, 1996 11.15. FURTHER READING 75

[31] Grove - Buxtehude (Retrieved 16 February 2008)

[32] Grove - Hammerschmidt (Retrieved 16 February 2008)

[33] Grove - Schelle (Retrieved 16 February 2008)

[34] Dickey, Bruce: CD liner notes, Christoph Strauss - Missa Maria concertata & Motetten, Harmonia Mundi 905243

[35] Grove - Biber (Retrieved 16 February 2008)

[36] John Eliot Gardiner - Liner notes to Bach cantatas CD SDG127 (Retrieved 10 December 2007)

[37] C. Wolﬀ etc: 'Bach', Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Retrieved 10 December 2007)

[38] C. Wolﬀ etc: 'Fux', Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Retrieved 17 March 2008)

[39] C. Wolﬀ etc: 'Caldara', Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Retrieved 17 March 2008)

[40] Brown, 'B A: Gluck, Christoph Willibald, Ritter von', Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Retrieved 10 December 2007)

[41] Raquet, Markus and Martius, Klaus: The Schnitzer Family of Nuremberg and a Newly Rediscovered Trombone, Historic Brass Journal 2007

11.15 Further reading

• Palm, Paul W. (2010) "Baroque Solo and Homogeneous Ensemble Trombone Repertoire: A Lecture Recital Supporting and Demonstrating Performance at a Pitch Standard Derived from Primary Sources and Extant Instruments.”DMA thesis, University of North Carolina-Greensboro. • Woolf, Adam (2010). Sackbut Solutions: A Practical Guide to Playing the Sackbut. ISBN 978-90-814833-0-8. • Carter, Herbert. (2006) The Trombone in the Renaissance: a History in Pictures and Documents Hillsdale, NY: Pendragon Press, ISBN 978-1-57647-206-4

11.15.1 Historical references

• Virgiliano, Aureleo: Il dolcimelo (c. 1600) • Rognoni, Francesco: Selva de varii passaggi... (1620) • Mersenne, Marin: Harmonie Universelle (1636) • Praetorius, Michael: Syntagma Musicum (1619) • Speer, Daniel: Grund-richtiger/kurtz/leicht und noethiger Unterricht der Musicalischen Kunst (1687); 2nd edition: Grund-richtiger... Unterricht... oder Vierfaches musicalisches Kleeblatt (1697)

11.16 External links

• Musica Antiqua's Sacbut page History, photos, and sounds • Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Sackbut". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. • English Cornett and Sackbut Ensemble A virtuoso period instrument ensemble at the forefront of the early music scene. • Sackbut player Adam Woolf's personal website sound-clips, news of new recordings and home of Sackbut Solutions - sackbut tutor book • His Majestys Sagbutts & Cornetts sound-clips, news of new recordings, photos and news • The Caecilia-Concert a new sound in early music 76 CHAPTER 11. SACKBUT

Octav-Posaun from Syntagma Musicum (1614-20) Michael Praetorius. 11.16. EXTERNAL LINKS 77

Mersenne Harmonie universelle (1636). 78 CHAPTER 11. SACKBUT

Virgiliano's treatise Il Dolcimeo (c. 1600).

Excerpt from a trombone part from a Picchi canzon (1625). Baritone clef seen here is very common for trombone parts of this era. Chapter 12

Shawm

The shawm was a medieval and Renaissance musical instrument of the woodwind family made in Europe from the 12th century (at the latest) until the 17th century. It was likely of ancient origin and was imported to Europe from the Islamic East at some point between the 9th and 12th centuries. Its name is linguistically related to the Arabic zamr, the Turkish zūrnā, the Persian surnāy, the Chinese suona, the Javanese saruni, and the Hindu sahanai or sanayi.*[1] It is the predecessor of the modern oboe. The body of the shawm was usually turned from a single piece of wood, and terminated in a flared bell somewhat like that of a trumpet. Beginning in the 16th century, shawms were made in several sizes, from sopranino to great bass, and four and five-part music could be played by a consort consisting entirely of shawms. All later shawms (excepting the smallest) had at least one key allowing a downward extension of the compass; the keywork was typically covered by a perforated wooden cover called the fontanelle. The bassoon-like double reed, made from the same Arundo donax cane used for oboes and bassoons, was inserted directly into a socket at the top of the instrument, or in the larger types, on the end of a metal tube called the bocal. The pirouette, a small cylindrical piece of wood with a hole in the middle resembling a thimble, was placed over the reed̶this acted as a support for the lips and embouchure. Since only a short portion of the reed protruded past the pirouette, the player had only limited contact with the reed, and therefore limited control of dynamics. The shawmʼs conical bore and flaring bell, combined with the style of playing dictated by the use of a pirouette, gave the instrument a piercing, trumpet-like sound, well-suited for out-of-doors performance.

12.1 Etymology

In English the name only first appears in the 14th century. There were originally three main variant forms, (1) schallemele (shamulle or shamble), (2) s(c)halmys (shalemeyes or chalemyes, all plural forms in Middle English), and (3) sc(h)almuse (or schalmesse), each derived from a corresponding variant in Old French: chalemel, chalemie, and chalemeaux (the plural of chalemel), each in turn derived from the Latin calamus (“reed”), or its Vulgar Latin diminutive form, calamellus. (The name of a somewhat different reed instrument, the chalumeau, also shares this etymology.) The early plural forms were often mistaken for a singular, and new plurals were formed from them. The later reduction in the 15th and 16th centuries to a single syllable in forms such as schalme, shaume, shawme, and finally (in the 16th century) “shawm”, was probably due to this confusion of plural and singular forms.*[2] In German the shawm is called Schalmei (or for the larger members of the family Bombard̶also in English in the 14th century̶later corrupted to Bombhardt and finally in the 17th century to Pommer*[3]); the first word is substantially identical to the Old French name for the same instrument, chalemie, and is believed to derive from the Latin calamus (itself from Greek κάλαμος), meaning“reed or stalk”.*[4] However, it is also possible that the name a traditional oboe from Egypt, as the European shawm seems to have ,(سلامية) comes from the Arabic salamiya been developed from similar instruments brought to Europe from the Near East during the time of the Crusades. This is borne out by the very similar names of many folk shawms used as traditional instruments in various European nations: in Spain, many traditional shawms with different names can be found, such as the Castilian, Aragonese, and Leonese dulzaina (sometimes called chirimía, a term that derives from the same Old French word as shawm); the Valencian and Catalan shawms (xirimia, dolçaina, or gralla) or the Navarrese gaita. In Portugal there is an instrument

79 80 CHAPTER 12. SHAWM

Pipita and Zampogna in Calabria (Italy) called charamela; and the name of the Italian shawm is ciaramella (or: cialamello, cennamella).*[5]

12.2 Use of shawms

Instruments resembling the medieval shawm can still be heard in many countries today, played by street musicians or military bands. The latter use would have been familiar to crusaders, who often had to face massed bands of Saracen shawms and nakers, used as a psychological weapon. It must have had a profound effect, as the shawm was quickly adopted by Europeans, for dancing as well as for military purposes.*[6] The standard outdoor dance band in the fifteenth century consisted of a slide trumpet playing popular melodies, while two shawms improvised countermelodies over it. In many Asian countries, shawm technique includes circular breathing allowing continuous playing without pauses for air. By the early 16th century, the shawm had undergone considerable development. The harsh tonality of the medieval shawm had been modulated somewhat by a narrowing of the bore and a reduction in the size of the fingerholes. This also extended the range, enabling the performer to play the notes in the second octave. Larger sizes of shawm were built, down to the great bass, two octaves below the soprano. However, the larger sizes were unwieldy and impractical, making them somewhat rare; the great bass, for example, could only be played with the performer standing on a small platform. The smaller sizes of shawm, chiefly the soprano, alto and sometimes the tenor, were more often coupled with the Renaissance trombone, or sackbut, and the majestic sound of this ensemble was much in demand by civic authorities. The shawm became standard equipment for town bands, or waits, who were required to herald the start of municipal functions and signal the major times of day. The shawm became so closely associated with the town waits (die Stadtpfeifer in German and I piffari in Italian) that it was also known as the wait-pipe. The shawm was reserved almost exclusively for outdoor performance̶for softer, indoor music, other instruments such as the crumhorn and sordun were preferred. These were double reed instruments fitted with a capsule that completely enclosed the reed, which softened the sound but still did not allow for any variation in dynamics. 12.2. USE OF SHAWMS 81

Woman playing a bass shawm, (Tobias Stimmer ca. 1500)

The 16th century proclivity for building instruments in a full range of sizes was naturally extended to the shawm, but the shawm consort proved to be a short-lived experiment. The extreme length of pipe of the bass instruments meant that few were built and played; instead, an ingenious solution was devised whereby the bore was in eﬀect “folded back”upon itself, creating a much more manageable instrument. The new instrument is often referred to as the dulcian, and was called curtal in England,*[7] fagott or fagotto in Germany and Italy, and bajón in Spain, and it became very popular as a general-purpose bass instrument, even in reﬁned settings where shawms were considered inappropriate. The dulcian is the forerunner of the modern bassoon. Known by the Spanish term chirimia, the shawm remains an important ritual instrument among Maya peoples of Highland Guatemala. Accompanied by a drum, the chirimia is frequently used in processions and in certain ritual dances, such as the Dance of the Conquest (Baile de la Conquista) and this is still played today. 82 CHAPTER 12. SHAWM

12.3 Progeny of the shawm

A particular alto shawm in F, with a range of nine notes, was called a bassett nicolo,*[8] not to be confused with the single-reed basset horn. This instrument, described by Praetorius as having one key but depicted by him in the Theatrum Instrumentarum as a four-keyed instrument, was a reed-cap swawm, related to the hautbois de Poitou and the Rauschpfeife.*[9] The shawm inspired the later 17th century hautbois, an invention of the French musician Martin Hotteterre (d.1712). He is credited with devising essentially a brand-new instrument, one which borrowed several features from the shawm, chieﬂy its double reed and conical bore, but departed from it signiﬁcantly in other respects, the most important departure being the fact the player places his lips directly on the reed with no intervening pirouette. Around 1670, the new French hautbois began replacing the shawm in military bands, concert music and opera; by 1700, the shawm had all but disappeared from concert life, although as late as 1830 shawms could still be heard in German town bands performing their municipal functions (Baines, 1991). Curiously, the Germans and Dutch continued to manufacture an ornate version of the shawm, called deutsche Schalmey, well after the introduction of the French hautbois. Several examples of this instrument survive in European collections, although its exact musical use is unclear.

12.3.1 Charumera

The charumera (チャルメラ), or charumeru (チャルメル), is a double-reed instrument in traditional Japanese music descended either from shawms brought to Japan by Portuguese Christian missionaries,*[10] or possibly Iberian traders in the 16th century.*[11] It is sometimes used in kabuki theatre performances.

12.4 Catalan shawms and other types of shawms

There are many shawms throughout the world (many of them in the Middle East and Asia) but Catalonia is one of the few places in Europe where they are still frequently used, and the only place where they have been given a modern mechanism (keywork) like orchestral woodwind instruments. Shawms used to be widespread in Europe up into the Renaissance. They were chieﬂy of two types: shawms that evolved from bagpipe chanters, and shawms that evolved from Middle Eastern instruments. The Italian ciaramella is an example of the former, and the tible and tenora of the latter. The oboe features aspects of both designs.

12.5 Modern performance

• Instruments of the Middle Ages and Renaissance - David Munrow and The Early Music Consort of London

• City of Lincoln Waites (The Mayor of Lincoln's own Band of Musick)

• Many recordings by Piﬀaro, The Renaissance Band feature shawms

12.6 See also

• Piﬀero, a similar instrument from Italy which is still used in Italian folk music.

• Hirtenschalmei or “shepherd's shawm”

• Hornpipe, a similar instrument with bagpipe ﬁngering

• Taepyeongso, a shawm type instrument used in folk music in Korea.

• Gyaling, a Tibetan shawm type instrument. 12.7. REFERENCES 83

12.7 References

[1] Anthony C. Baines and Martin Kirnbauer, “Shawm [scalmuse, shalm, shalmie, schalmuse]", The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell (London: Macmillan Publishers, 2001).

[2] “Shawm”. Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005..

[3] Sibyl Marcuse, Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary, corrected edition (The Norton Library N758) (New York: W. W. Norton, 1975): 58

[4] The name of the single-reed chalumeau is from this source.

[5] Dizionario enciclopedico universale della musica e dei musicisti, edited by Alberto Basso, (12+2 volumes), Il lessico - vol. I, Torino, UTET, 1983, p. 550.

[6] The Shawm and Curtal - from the Diabolus in Musica Guide to Early Instruments

[7] Myers, Herbert (2012).“Woodwinds”. In Stewart Carter, rev. and expanded by Jeﬀery Kite-Powell. A Performer's Guide to Seventeenth-Century Music (2nd ed.). Bloomington: Indiana University Press. pp. 71–99. ISBN 9780253357069.

[8] Kennedy, Michael and Kennedy, Joyce (eds.) (2007) “bassett nicolo”The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music Oxford University Press, online version accessed 23 November 2008

[9] Sibyl Marcuse, Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary, corrected edition (The Norton Library N758) (New York: W. W. Norton, 1975): 364–65, 441.

[10] Geoﬀrey Burgess and Bruce Haynes (2004). The Oboe. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09317-9.

[11] Sibyl Marcuse, Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary, corrected edition (The Norton Library N758) (New York: W. W. Norton, 1975): 90

12.8 Further reading

• Baines, Anthony. 1967. Woodwind Instruments and Their History, third edition, reprinted with corrections 1977, with a foreword by Sir Adrian Boult. London: Faber & Faber Limited. ISBN 0-571-08603-9. Unaltered reprinted, New York: Dover Publications, 1991.

12.9 External links

• The Renaissance Shawm

• Dolçaina valenciana • Rauschpfeiﬀ

• The Dulcian

• Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Shawm". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. • Media related to Shawms at Wikimedia Commons Chapter 13

Timbrel

For the album, see Timbrel (album). Timbrel or tabret (the tof of the ancient Hebrews, the deﬀ of Islam, the adufe of the Moors of Spain), the principal

Deﬀ - Tambourine, Palestine, picture p. 579 in W. M. Thomson: The Land and the Book; or Biblical Illustrations Drawn from the Manners and Customs, the Scenes and Scenery of the Holy Land. Vol. II. New York, 1859.

musical instrument of percussion of the Israelites, similar to the modern tambourine.*[1]

13.1 History

The word timbrel is used in the Old Testament in both singular and plural form, so as to suggest the former referred to a hoop of wood or metal over which was stretched a parchment head; while the latter was perhaps used to designate the tambourine with bells or jangles ﬁxed at intervals in hoops. In Nahum 2:7, where the word “tabering”occurs, it means beating on the breast, as drummers beat on the tabret. The Israelites learned to use the timbrel during their sojourn in Egypt, and in the eleventh edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica Kathleen Schlesinger stated “it has been suggested that as the Egyptians used it to scare away their evil spirit Typhon",*[1] the word tof is derived from the latter. The tabret or timbrel was a favorite instrument of the women, and was used with dances, as by Miriam, to accompany songs of victory, or with the harp at banquets and processions; it was one of the instruments used by King David and his musicians when he danced before the Ark of the Covenant. It was also used in the valley of Hinnom at the sacriﬁcial rites.*[1]

84 13.2. SEE ALSO 85

Europe was introduced to the timbrel during the crusades. The English adopted the name tambourine for the instrument. A painting from Persia circa 1256, depicts a round, hand-held frame drum with jangles attached around the frame. A 1431-1438 Italian bas-relief sculpture by Luca della Robbia shows the same instrument, the jangles distinctly being metal discs within holes around the frame.

13.2 See also

• Tabor (instrument)

13.3 Notes

[1] Schlesinger 1911.

13.4 References

Attribution

• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Schlesinger, Kathleen (1911). "Timbrel". In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

13.5 Further reading

• Jas_at_maya_dot_com. Hobbs, Elizabeth, ed. “Middle Eastern Drum History”. Khaﬁf (Music and Dance). Retrieved April 2011. • Lewis, Bernard, ed. (1976). The World of Islam, Faith, People and Culture.

• Marcuse, Sibyl (1975). Musical Instruments, A Comprehensive Dictionary. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-00758-8.

• Sadie, Stanley; Tyrrell, John; Macy, Laura, eds. (2001). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (Second ed.). Chapter 14

Viol

Not to be confused with Viola.

The viol or viola da gamba*[1] is any one of a family of bowed, fretted and stringed instruments that first appeared in Spain in the mid to late 15th century and was most popular in the Renaissance and Baroque periods.*[2] Early ancestors include the Arabic rebab and the medieval European vielle,*[3]*[4] but later, more direct possible ancestors include the Venetian viole*[5] and the 15th- and 16th-century Spanish vihuela, a 6-course plucked instrument tuned like a lute (and also like a present-day viol)*[3]*[4] that looked like but was quite distinct from the (at that time) 4-course guitar*[6] (an earlier chordophone).*[7] Although bass viols superficially resemble cellos, viols are different in numerous respects from instruments of the violin family: the viol family has flat rather than curved backs, sloped rather than squarely rounded shoulders, c holes rather than f holes, and five to seven rather than four strings; some of the many additional differences are tuning strategy (in fourths with a third in the middle̶exactly like a lute̶rather than in fifths), the presence of frets, and underhand rather than overhand bow grip.*[8] All members of the viol family are played upright between the legs like a modern cello, hence the Italian name viola da gamba (lit. viol of the leg). This distinguishes the viol from the modern violin family, the viola da braccio (lit. viol of the arm). A player of the viol is commonly known as a gambist.

14.1 History

Vihuelists began playing their flat-edged instruments with a bow in the second half of the 15th century. Within two or three decades, this led to the evolution of an entirely new and dedicated bowed string instrument that retained many of the features of the original plucked vihuela: a flat back, sharp waist-cuts, frets, thin ribs (initially), and an identical tuning̶hence its original name, vihuela de arco; arco is Spanish for “bow”. An influence in the playing posture has been credited to the example of Moorish rabab players.*[4] The viol is unrelated to the much older Hebrew stringed instrument called a viol (literally, “skin”). This ancient harp-like instrument was similar to the kinnor or nabla.*[9]*[10] Stefano Pio argues that a re-examination of documents in the light of newly collected data indicates an origin different from the vihuela de arco from Aragon:according to Pio the viol (viola da gamba) had its origins and evolved independently in Venice.*[5] According to Pio, it is implausible that the vihuela de arco, which possibly arrived in Rome and Naples after 1483-1487, since Johannes Tinctoris does not mention it prior to this time, underwent such a rapid evolution by Italian instrument makers – not Venetian (circumstances specifically excluded by Lorenzo da Pavia), nor Mantuan or Ferrarese (as evidenced by Isabella and Alfonso I d' Este's orders from luthiers from other cities) – so that a ten-year span witnessed the birth and diffusion in Italy of a new family of instruments (viole da gamba or viols) which comprised instruments of different size, some as large as the famous violoni asʻbig as a manʼ mentioned by Prospero Bernardino in 1493. Pio also notes that both in the manuscript of the early 15th-century music theorist Antonius de Leno and in the treatises of the Venetian Silvestro Ganassi dal Fontego and Giovanni Maria Lanfranco (de), the fifth string of the viola da gamba is uniquely called a bordone (drone), although it is not actually a drone and is played the same as the other strings. Pio argues that this inconsistency is justifiable only assuming the invention, during the last part of

86 14.1. HISTORY 87

Four viols (1618).

the fifteenth century, of a larger instrument derived from the medieval violetta, to which were gradually added other strings to allow a greater extension to the low register that resulted from its increased size. The fifth string, already present in some specimens of these violette as a drone (bordone), was incorporated into the neck when they were expanded in size. This was then surpassed by a sixth string, named basso, which fixed the lower sound produced by the instrument. In Pio's view, the origin of the viola da gamba is tied to the evolution of the smaller the medieval violetta or vielle, that was originally fitted with a fifth string drone, where the name remained unchanged even though it ceased to perform this function.*[11] Ian Woodfield, in his The Early History of the Viol, points to evidence that the viol does in fact start with the vihuela but that Italian makers of the instrument immediately began to apply their own highly developed instrument-making traditions to the early version of the instrument when it was introduced into Italy.*[4] Initially the family of viole (“viols”) shared common characteristics but differed in the way they were played. The increase in the dimensions of the “viola”determined the birth of the viol and the definitive change in the manner the instrument was held, as musicians found it easier to play it vertically. The first consort of viols formed by four players was documented at the end of the fifteenth century in the courts of Mantua and Ferrara, but was also present in popular Venetian music ambience, noted at the Scuola Grande di San Marco, 1499; Venetian culture remained independent of Spanish influence and consequently unfamiliar with the instruments of those lands, such as the bowed vihuela de arco. Groups of viol players, generally called violoni, were established in the Venetian Scuole Grandi around 1530/40, but the highly traditional environment of these institutions suggests that these groups would have already been active in the general urban context during the previous two decades (1510-1520). Some of these players were known to have traveled to distant lands, including Vienna, the Duchy of Bavaria or the Kingdom of England where they were welcomed at the court of the Tudors and subsequently influenced Englandʼs local instrumental production. 88 CHAPTER 14. VIOL

Detail from a painting by Jan Verkolje, Dutch, c. 1674, Elegant Couple (A Musical Interlude). The theme is similar to the classic Music Lesson genre, and features a bass viol, virginal, and cittern (in the woman's hand, out of frame in this detail; see full image). This image highlights the domestic amateur class of viol players.

14.2 Construction

Viols most commonly had six strings, although many 16th-century instruments had five or even four strings. Viols were (and are) strung with gut strings of lower tension than on the members of the violin family, let alone the steel strings mostly used in those instruments today. Gut strings produce a sonority far different from steel, generally described as softer and sweeter. Around 1660, gut or silk core strings overspun with copper wire first became available; these were then used for the lowest-pitched bass strings on viols, and on many other string instruments as well. Viols are fretted in a manner similar to early guitars or lutes, by means of movable wrapped-around and tied-on gut frets. A low seventh string was supposedly added in France to the bass viol by Monsieur de Sainte-Colombe (c. 1640–1690), whose students included the French gamba virtuoso and composer Marin Marais. Also, the painting Saint Cecilia with an Angel (1618) by Domenichino (1581–1641) shows what may be a seven-string viol. 14.2. CONSTRUCTION 89

Unlike members of the violin family, which are tuned in ﬁfths, viols are usually tuned in fourths with a major third in the middle, mirroring the tuning employed on the vihuela de mano and lute during the 16th century and similar to that of the modern six-string guitar.

Early Italian tenor viola da gamba, detail from the painting St. Cecilia, by Raphael, c. 1510.

Viols were first constructed much like the vihuela de mano, with all surfaces, top, back, and sides made from flat slabs or pieces of joined wood, bent or curved as required. However, some viols, both early and later, had carved tops, similar to those more commonly associated with instruments of the violin family. The ribs or sides of early viols were usually quite shallow, reflecting more the construction of their plucked vihuela counterparts. Rib depth increased during the course of the 16th century, finally coming to resemble the greater depth of the classic 17th-century pattern. The flat backs of most viols have a sharply angled break or canted bend in their surface close to where the neck meets the body. This serves to taper the back (and overall body depth) at its upper end to meet the back of the neck joint flush with its heel. Traditional construction uses animal glue, and internal joints are often reinforced with strips of either linen or vellum soaked in hot animal glue̶a practice also employed in early plucked vihuela construction. The peg boxes of viols (which hold the tuning pegs) were typically decorated either with elaborate carved heads of animals or people or with the now familiar spiral scroll finial. The earliest vihuelas and viols, both plucked and bowed, all had sharp cuts to their waists, similar to the profile of a modern violin. This is a key and new feature̶first appearing in the mid-15th century̶and from then on, it was employed on many different types of string instruments. This feature is also key in seeing and understanding the connection between the plucked and bowed versions of early vihuelas. If one were to go searching for very early viols with smooth-curved figure-eight bodies, like those found on the only slightly later plucked vihuelas and the modern guitar, they would be out of luck. By the mid-16th century, however, “guitar-shaped”viols were fairly common, and a few of them survive. The earliest viols had flat, glued-down bridges just like their plucked counterpart vihuelas. Soon after, however, viols adopted the wider and high-arched bridge that facilitated the bowing of single strings. The earliest of viols would also have had the ends of their fretboards flat on the deck, level with or resting upon the top or sound board. Once the end of their fretboards were elevated above the top of the instrument's face, the entire top could vibrate freely. Early viols did not have sound posts, either (again reflecting their plucked vihuela siblings). This reduced damping again meant that their tops could vibrate more freely, contributing to the characteristic “humming”sound of viols; 90 CHAPTER 14. VIOL

yet the absence of a sound post also resulted in a quieter and softer voice overall. It is commonly believed*[12] that C-holes (a type and shape of pierced sound port visible on the top face or belly of string instruments) are a definitive feature of viols, a feature used to distinguish viols from instruments in the violin family, which typically had F-shaped holes. This generality, however, renders an incomplete picture. The earliest viols had either large, open, round, sound holes (or even round pierced rosettes like those found on lutes and vihuelas), or they had some kind of C-holes. Viols sometimes had as many as four small C-holes̶one placed in each corner of the bouts̶but more commonly, they had two. The two C-holes might be placed in the upper bouts, centrally, or in the lower bouts. In the formative years, C-holes were most often placed facing each other or turned inwards. In addition to round or C-holes, however, and as early as the first quarter of the 16th century, some viols adopted S-shaped holes, again facing inward. By the mid-16th century, S-holes morphed into the classic F-shaped holes, which were then used by viols and members of the violin family alike. By the mid- to late 16th century, the viol's C-holes facing direction was reversed, becoming outward facing. That configuration then became a standard feature of what we today call the “classic”17th-century pattern. Yet another style of sound holes found on some viols was a pair of flame-shaped Arabesques placed left and right. The lute and vihuelalike round or oval ports or rosettes became a standard feature of German and Austrian viols and was retained to the very end. That feature or “genetic marker”was exclusively unique to viols and reminded one always of the viol's more ancient plucked vihuela roots, the “luteness”of viols. Historians, makers, and players generally distinguish between Renaissance and Baroque viols. The latter are more heavily constructed and are fitted with a bass bar and sound post, like modern stringed instruments.

14.2.1 Viol bows

The bow is held underhand (palm up), similar to a German double bass bow grip, but away from the frog towards the balance point. The stick's curvature is generally convex as were violin bows of the period, rather than concave like a modern violin bow. The “frog”(which holds the bowhair and adjusts its tension) is also different from that of modern bows: whereas a violin bow frog has a “slide”(often made of mother of pearl), which pinches the hair and holds it flat and stationary across the frog, viol bows have an open frog that allows more movement of the hair. This facilitates a traditional playing technique where the performer uses one or two fingers of the bow hand to press the hair away from the bow stick. This dynamically increases bow hair tension to control articulation and inflection.

14.3 Versions

Gambas (as the name is often abbreviated) come in seven sizes: "pardessus de viole" (which is relatively rare, exclusively French and did not exist before the 18th century), treble (in French dessus), alto, tenor (in French taille), bass, and two sizes of contrabass (also known as a violone), the smaller one tuned an octave below the tenor (violone in G, sometimes called great bass or in French grande basse) and the larger one tuned an octave below the bass (violone in D). Their tuning (see next section) alternates G and D instruments: pardessus in G, treble in D, tenor in G, bass in D (the seven string bass was in A), small violone in G, large violone in D. The alto, between the treble and the tenor, does not fit in this scheme. The treble has a size similar to a viola but with a deeper body; the typical bass is about the size of a cello. The pardessus and the treble were held vertically in the lap. The English made smaller basses known as division viols, and the still-smaller Lyra viol. The viola bastarda was a similar type of viol used in Italy for a virtuosic style of viol repertoire and performance. German consort basses were larger than the French instruments designed for continuo. Those instruments were not all equally common. The typical Elizabethan consort of viols was composed of six instruments: two basses, two tenors and two trebles, or one bass, three tenors and two trebles (see Chest of viols). Thus the bass, tenor and treble were the central members of the family as far as music written specifically for viols is concerned. Besides consort playing the bass could also be used as a solo instrument (there were also smaller basses designed especially for a virtuosic solo role, see above division viol, lyra viol, viola bastarda). And the bass viol could also serve as a continuo bass. The pardessus was a French 18th century instrument that was introduced to allow ladies to play mostly violin or flute music*[13] but eventually acquired its own repertoire. The alto was a relatively rare smaller version of the tenor. The violones were never part of the consort of viols but functioned as the contrabass of all kinds of instrumental combinations. 14.4. TUNING 91

Violone or great bass viol. Painting by Sir Peter Lely, c. 1640, Dutch-born English Baroque era painter. Note the Italianate shape, square shoulders, and F-holes, apart from its massive size.

14.4 Tuning

The standard tuning of the viol is in fourths, with a major third in the middle (like the standard Renaissance lute tuning). For bass viols, the notes would be (from the lowest) D-G-c-e-a-d', with an additional low AA for seven- string bass viols. For the tenor viol, the tuning is G-c-f-a-d'-g' (a smaller tenor, or “alto”viol, is usually tuned A-d-g-b-e'-a'). The treble viol is one octave higher than the bass. Alternate tunings (called scordatura) were often employed, particularly in the solo lyra viol style of playing, which also made use of many techniques such as chords and pizzicato, not generally used in consort playing. An unusual style of pizzicato was known as a thump. Lyra viol music was also commonly written in tablature. There is a vast repertoire of this music, some by well-known composers and much by anonymous ones. Much viol music predates the adoption of equal temperament tuning by musicians. The movable nature of the tied-on frets permits the viol player to make adjustments to the tempering of the instrument, and some players and consorts adopt meantone temperaments, which are arguably more suited to Renaissance music. Several fretting schemes involve frets that are spaced unevenly to produce“better-sounding”chords in a limited number of keys. In some of these schemes, the two strands of gut that form the fret are separated so that the player can finger a slightly sharper or flatter version of a note (for example G sharp vs. A flat) to suit different circumstances. 92 CHAPTER 14. VIOL

14.5 Treatises

Descriptions and illustrations of viols are found in numerous early 16th-century musical treatises, including those authored by:

• Sebastian Virdung: Musica getutsch, 1511

• Hans Judenkunig: Ain schone kunstliche Vunderwaisung, 1523

• Martin Agricola: Musica instrumentalis deutsch, 1528

• Hans Gerle: Musica Teusch (or Teutsch), 1532

Both Agricola's and Gerle's works were published in various editions. There were then several important treatises concerning or devoted to the viol. The ﬁrst was by Silvestro Ganassi dal Fontego: Regola Rubertina & Lettione Seconda (1542/3). Diego Ortiz published Trattado de Glosas (Rome, 1553), an important book of music for the viol with both examples of ornamentation and pieces called Recercadas. In England, Christopher Simpson wrote the most important treatise, with the second edition being published in 1667 in parallel text (English and Latin). This has divisions at the back that are very worthwhile repertoire. A little later, in England, Thomas Mace wrote Musick's Monument, which deals more with the lute but has an important section on the viol. After this, the French treatises by Machy (1685), Rousseau (1687), Danoville (1687), and Etienne Loulie (1700) show further developments in playing technique.

14.6 Popularity

Viols were second in popularity only to the lute (although this is disputed), and like lutes, were very often played by amateurs. Affluent homes might have a so-called chest of viols, which would contain one or more instruments of each size. Gamba ensembles, called consorts, were common in the 16th and 17th centuries, when they performed vocal music (consort songs or verse anthems) as well as that written specifically for instruments. Only the treble, tenor, and bass sizes were regular members of the viol consort, which consisted of three, four, five, or six instruments. Music for consorts was very popular in England in Elizabethan times, with composers such as William Byrd and John Dowland, and, during the reign of King Charles I, John Jenkins and William Lawes. The last music for viol consorts before their modern revival was probably written in the early 1680s by Henry Purcell. Perhaps even more common than the pure consort of viols was the mixed or broken consort (also called Morley consort). Broken consorts combined a mixture of different instruments̶a small band, essentially̶usually comprising a gathering of social amateurs and typically including such instruments as a bass viol, a lute or orpharion (a wire-strung lute, metal-fretted, flat-backed, and festoon-shaped), a cittern, a treble viol (or violin, as time progressed), sometimes an early keyboard instrument (virginal, spinet, or harpsichord), and whatever other instruments or players (or singers) might be available at the moment. The single most common and ubiquitous pairing of all was always and everywhere the lute and bass viol: for centuries, the inseparable duo. The bass viola da gamba continued to be used into the 18th century as a solo instrument (and to complement the harpsichord in basso continuo). It was a favorite instrument of Louis XIV and acquired associations of both courtliness and “Frenchness”(in contrast to the Italianate violin). Composers such as Marin Marais, Johann Sebastian Bach, Johannes Schenck, Antoine Forqueray, and Carl Friedrich Abel wrote virtuoso music for it. However, viols fell out of use as concert halls grew larger and the louder and more penetrating tone of the violin family became more popular. In the 20th century, the viola da gamba and its repertoire were revived by early music enthusiasts, an early proponent being Arnold Dolmetsch. The treble viol in d and the even smaller pardessus de viole in g (often with only five strings) were also popular instruments in the 18th century, specially in France. Composers like Jean-Baptise Barrière, Georg Phillipp Telemann and Marin Marais wrote solo- and ensemble pieces for treble or pardessus. It was also common to play music for violins or flutes or unspecified top parts on small viols. Historic viols survive in relatively great number, though very few remain in original condition. They can often be found in collections of historic musical instruments at museums and universities. Here are some of the extant historic viols at The Metropolitan Museum of Art: 14.7. MODERN ERA 93

• Division Viol by Barak Norman, London, 1692*[14]

• Bass Viol, labeled Richard Meares, London, ca. 1680*[15]

• Bass Viol by John Rose, ca. 1600, London*[16]

• English viol, unsigned, 17th century in spectacularly original condition*[17]

• Division Viol, School of Tielke, Hamburg, ca. 1720*[18]

• Bass Viol by Matthias Humel, 18th century, Nuremberg*[19]

• Bass Viol, Germany, 18th century*[20]

• Bass Viol by Nicolas Bertrand, Paris, 1720*[21]

• Painting by Abraham Bosse, Musical Society, French, c. 1635. Subject matter depicts amateur social music making, featuring lute, bass viol, and singers, with part books spread around the table. This is also representative of one kind of broken consort, albeit with minimal instrumentation.

• Portrait of French composer and viola da gamba master Marin Marais, by André Bouys, 1704.

• Portrait of Carl Friedrich Abel, composer and viol master̶German-born but residing in England most of his life̶posed with his viola da gamba. By Thomas Gainsborough, c. 1765.

• The Viola da gamba Player (»Gambenspielerin«), by Bernardo Strozzi, c. 1630–1640 (Gemäldegalerie, Dresden).

14.7 Modern era

Today, the viol is attracting ever more interest, particularly among amateur players. This may be due to the increased availability of reasonably priced instruments from companies using more automated production techniques, coupled with the greater accessibility of music editions. The viol is also regarded as a suitable instrument for adult learn- ers; Percy Scholes wrote that the viol repertoire "...belongs to an age that demanded musicianship more often than virtuosity.” There are now many societies for people with an interest in the viol. The first was Viola da Gamba Society of Great Britain, which was established in the United Kingdom in 1948 and has a worldwide membership. Since then, similar societies have been organized in several other nations. In the 1970s, the now defunct Guitar and Lute Workshop in Honolulu, Hawaii generated resurgent interest in the viol and traditional luthierie methods within the western United States. A notable youth viol group is the Gateshead Viol Ensemble. It consists of young players between the ages of 7 and 18 and is quite well known in the north east of England. It gives young people the opportunity to learn the viol and gives concerts in the North East and abroad. Ensembles like these show that the viol is making a comeback. A living museum of historical musical instruments was created at the University of Vienna as a center for the revival of the instrument. More than 100 instruments, including approximately 50 historical viola da gambas in playable condition, are the property of this new concept of museum: the Orpheon Foundation Museum of Historical Instru- ments. All the instruments of this museum are played by the Orpheon Baroque Orchestra, the Orpheon consort, or by musicians who receive an instrument for a permanent loan. The instruments can be seen during temporary exhibitions . They are studied and copied by violin makers, contributing to the extension of the general knowledge we have on the viola da gamba, its forms, and the different techniques used for its manufacture. The 1991 feature film Tous les matins du monde (All the Mornings of the World) by Alain Corneau, based on the lives of Monsieur de Sainte-Colombe and Marin Marais, prominently featured these composers' music for the viola da gamba and brought viol music to new audiences. The film's bestselling soundtrack features performances by Jordi Savall, one of the best-known modern viola da gamba players. Among the foremost modern players of the viol are Alison Crum, Vittorio Ghielmi, Wieland Kuijken, Paolo Pandolfo, Hille Perl and Jordi Savall. Many fine modern viol consorts (ensembles) are also recording and performing, among them the groups Fretwork, the Rose Consort of Viols, Les Voix Humaines, and Phantasm. The Baltimore Consort specializes in Renaissance song (mostly English) with broken consort (including viols).*[22] 94 CHAPTER 14. VIOL

14.7.1 New compositions for viol

A number of contemporary composers have written for viol, and a number of soloists and ensembles have commissioned new music for viol. Fretwork has been most active in this regard, commissioning George Benjamin, Michael Nyman, Elvis Costello, Sir John Tavener, Orlando Gough, John Woolrich, Tan Dun, Alexander Goehr, Fabrice Fitch, Andrew Keeling, Thea Musgrave, Sally Beamish, Peter Sculthorpe, Gavin Bryars, Barrington Pheloung, Simon Bain- bridge, Duncan Druce, Poul Ruders, Ivan Moody, and Barry Guy; many of these compositions may be heard on their 1997 CD Sit Fast. The Yukimi Kambe Viol Consort has commissioned and recorded many works by David Loeb, and the New York Consort of Viols has commissioned Bülent Arel, David Loeb, Daniel Pinkham, Tison Street, Frank Russo, Seymour Barab, William Presser, and Will Ayton, many of these compositions appearing on their 1993 CD Illicita Cosa. The Palazzo Strozzi in Florence commissioned composer Bruce Adolphe to create a work based on Bronzino poems, and the piece,“Of Art and Onions: Homage to Bronzino”, features a prominent viola da gamba part. Jay Elfenbein has also written works for the Yukimi Kambe Viol Consort, Les Voix Humaines, and Elliot Z. Levine, among others. Other composers for viols include Moondog, Kevin Volans, Roy Whelden, Toyohiko Satoh, Roman Turovsky, Giorgio Pacchioni, Michael Starke, Emily Doolittle, and Jan Goorissen. Composer Henry Vega has written pieces for the Viol: “Ssolo,”developed at the Institute for Sonology and performed by Karin Preslmayr, as well as for Netherlands based ensemble The Roentgen Connection in 2011 with “Slow slower”for recorder, viola da gamba, harpsichord and computer.

14.7.2 Electric viols

Since the late 1980s, numerous instrument makers, including Eric Jensen, Francois Danger, Jan Goorissen, and Jonathan Wilson, have experimented with the design and construction of electric viols. Their range of approaches, from Danger's minimally electriﬁed acoustic/electric Altra line to Eric Jensen's solid-body brace-mounted design, have met with varying degrees of ergonomic and musical success. In the early 21st century, the Ruby Gamba, a seven-string electric viola da gamba,*[23] was developed by Ruby Instruments of Arnhem, the Netherlands. It has 21 tied nylon (adjustable) frets in keeping with the adjustable (tied gut) frets on traditional viols and has an eﬀective playing range of more than six octaves. Electric viols have been adopted by such contemporary gambists as Gilles Zimmermann, Loren Ludwig, Jay Elfen- bein, Paolo Pandolfo, Tina Chancey, Victor Penniman, Fahmi Alqhai and Tony Overwater.

14.8 Similar names and common confusions

The viola da gamba is occasionally confused with the viola, the alto member of the modern violin family and a standard member of both the symphony orchestra and string quartet. In the 15th century, the Italian word “viola” was a generic term used to refer to any bowed instrument, or fiddle. It is important to note that the word “viola” existed in Italy before the vihuela, or first viol, was brought from Spain. In Italy, “viola” was first applied to a braccio precursor to the modern violin, as described by Tinctoris (De inventione et usu musice, c. 1481–3), and then was later used to describe the first Italian viols as well. Depending on the context, the unmodified “viola da braccio” most regularly denoted either an instrument from the violin family, or specifically the viola (whose specific name was “alto de viola da braccio”). When Monteverdi called simply for “viole da braccio” in “Orfeo”, the composer was requesting violas as well as treble and bass instruments. The full name of the viola namely “alto de viola da braccio” was finally shortened to “viola” in some languages (e.g. English, Italian, Spanish) once viols became less common, while other languages picked some other part of the phrase to designate the instrument, e.g. “alto”in French and“Bratsche”(which comes from the Italian“braccio” ) in German. Other instruments which include the word viola in their name but have nothing to do specifically with and are not a member of the viola da gamba family are the viola d'amore and the viola pomposa. Although the baryton doesn't have viola in its name it is sometimes included, wrongly, in the viol family. The names viola (Italy) and vihuela (Spain) were essentially synonymous and interchangeable. According to viol historian Ian Woodfield, there is little evidence that the vihuela de arco was introduced to Italy before the 1490s. The 14.9. SEE ALSO 95

use of the term “viola” was never used exclusively for viols in the 15th or 16th centuries. In 16th century Italy, both “violas”,̶the early viols and violins̶developed somewhat simultaneously. While the violins such as those of Amati achieved their classic form before the first half of the century, the viol's form would be standardized later in the century by instrument makers in England. Viola da gamba, viola cum arculo, and vihuela de arco are some (true) alternative names for viols. Both “vihuela” and “viola”were originally used in a fairly generic way, having included even early violins (viola da braccio) under their umbrella. It is common enough (and justifiable) today for modern players of the viola da gamba to call their instruments violas and likewise to call themselves violists. That the “alto violin”eventually became known simply as the “viola”is not without historical context, yet the ambiguity of the name tends to cause some confusion. The violin, or violino, was originally the soprano viola da braccio, or violino da braccio. Due to the popularity of the soprano violin, the entire consort eventually took on the name “violin family”. Some other names for viols include viole or violle (French). In Elizabethan English, the word“gambo”(for gamba) appears in many permutations; e.g., “viola de gambo”, “gambo violl”, “viol de gambo”, or“viole de gambo” , used by such notables as Tobias Hume, John Dowland, and William Shakespeare in Twelfth Night. “Viola da Gamba”also appears as a name appended to a spoof letter-to-the-editor in the first issue of National Lampoon magazine (April 1970). Viol da Gamba and Gamba also appear as string family stops on the pipe organ.

14.9 See also

• Chest of viols • Division viol • Lyra viol • Viola bastarda • Pardessus de viole • Violone • Category:Viol players

14.10 Notes

[1]“Viola da gamba”denotes a family of instruments distinct from the violin family, or “violas da braccio.”Currently, the term “viola da gamba”without qualiﬁcation generally refers to the bass viol.

[2] Woodﬁeld, Ian; Robinson, Lucy. Viol [viola da gamba, gamba]. In: Sadie, Stanley, ed. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.Vol. 19. London, UK: Macmillan Publishers Ltd; 1980;791-808.

[3] Otterstedt, Annette. The Viol: History of an Instrument. Kassel: Barenreiter;-Verlag Karl Votterle GmbH & Co; 2002.

[4] Woodﬁeld, Ian; Brown, Howard Mayer; le Huray, Peter; Stevens, John; eds. The Early History of the Viol. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press;1984., p 19.

[5] Pio, Stefano (2012). Viol and Lute Makers of Venice 1490 −1630. Venezia, Italy: Venice research. p. 441. ISBN 978-88-907252-0-3.

[6] Rodriguez Alvira, José. La vihuela y la guitarra en el siglo XVI. Available at: http://www.aulaactual.com/especiales/ vihuela/. Accessed July 18, 2013.

[7] Rault, Christian. The emergence of new approaches to plucked instruments, 13th - 15th centuries. Michalestein, 2001. Available at: http://prolyra.free.fr/Christian_Rault_luthier/pages/30publpag/art13pluckinst.htm#_ftn1. Accessed July 18, 2013. Rault notes that the ﬁrst mention of the guitarra was in the late 13th- or early 14th-century Latin manuscript Ars Musica by the Spaniard Juan Gil de Zamora.

[8] Vasquez, Jose. The violin (or viola da braccio) and the viola da gamba families: diﬀerences and similarities. Available at: http://www.orpheon.org/OldSite/Seiten/education/Violin_Vdg_Families.htm. Accessed July 18, 2013. 96 CHAPTER 14. VIOL

[9] Comp. Josephus, “Ant.”vii. 12, § 3

[10] “VIOL ( lit. “skin”)". The unedited full-text of the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia. JewishEncyclopedia.com. Retrieved 1 July 2012.

[11] Pio Stefano. pp.22 −51.

[12] van der Straeten, Edmund (1933). The History of the Violin: Its Ancestors and Collateral Instruments from Earliest Times. Cassell and company, ltd.

[13] The violin and the flute were not considered appropriate for ladies; no longer, in the case of the violin, as in the 17th century, because of its popular origins and association with people who made a living playing music, but because the physical effort required to hold the violin a braccio or to play the flute were not considered lady-like

[14] “Division Viol by Barak Norman, London, 1692”. Metmuseum.org. 2012-09-21. Retrieved 2012-10-12.

[15] “Bass Viol, labeled Richard Meares, London, ca. 1680”. Metmuseum.org. 2012-09-21. Retrieved 2012-10-12.

[16] “Bass Viol by John Rose, ca. 1600, London”. Metmuseum.org. Retrieved 2012-10-12.

[17] “English viol, unsigned, 17th century in spectacularly original condition”. Metmuseum.org. Retrieved 2012-10-12.

[18] “Division Viol, School of Tielke, Hamburg, ca. 1720”. Metmuseum.org. Retrieved 2012-10-12.

[19] “Bass Viol by Matthias Humel, 18th century, Nuremberg”. Metmuseum.org. Retrieved 2012-10-12.

[20] “Bass Viol, Germany, 18th century”. Metmuseum.org. 2012-09-21. Retrieved 2012-10-12.

[21] “Bass Viol by Nicolas Bertrand, Paris, 1720”. Metmuseum.org. 2012-09-21. Retrieved 2012-10-12.

[22] “Elfenbein, Jay”. PRB Music.

[23] “solid-body seven-string electric viola da gamba”. Ruby-gamba.com. 1999-02-22. Retrieved 2012-10-12.

14.11 References

• Pio, Stefano (2012). “Viol and Lute Makers of Venice 1490 −1630”Ed. Venice research, Venice Italy, ISBN 978-88-907252-0-3. www.veniceresearch.com • Bryan, John (2005). “In Search of the Earliest Viols: Interpreting the Evidence from a Painting by Lorenzo Costa”. The Viola da Gamba Society of Great Britain, Newsletter, no. 131. • Crum, Alison, with Sonia Jackson (1992). Play the Viol: The Complete Guide to Playing the Treble, Tenor and Bass Viol. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-816311-8. • Otterstedt, Annette. The Viol: History of an Instrument. Kassel: Barenreiter;-Verlag Karl Votterle GmbH & Co; 2002. ISBN 3-7618-1152-7. • Woodﬁeld, Ian(1984). Brown, Howard Mayer; le Huray, Peter; Stevens, John; eds. The Early History of the Viol. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24292-4. • Woodﬁeld, Ian; Robinson, Lucy. Viol [viola da gamba, gamba]. In: Sadie, Stanley, ed. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.Vol. 19. London, UK: Macmillan Publishers Ltd; 1980;791-808.

14.12 External links

• Viola da Gamba Society of America site • Viola da Gamba Society of Great Britain site • Transcriptions and facsimiles of viol treatises • Viola da gamba collection of the Orpheon Foundation • the English division viol 14.12. EXTERNAL LINKS 97

• The site on Joachim Tielke, the great Hamburg viol maker

• Lots of viol pictures; ﬁngering patterns; argues for relationship to modern guitar • Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Viol". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 98 CHAPTER 14. VIOL

Plate from Christopher Simpson's book, The Division Violist, England, 1659–1667 edition. 14.12. EXTERNAL LINKS 99

Illustration from Sebastian Virdung's (German) 1511 treatise Musica Getutsch, showing the lute family̶plucked and bowed. This is the ﬁrst printed illustration of a viol in history.

The Smithsonian Consort of Viols, a contemporary viol consort Chapter 15

Zampogna

Zampogna (pronounced [zamˈpɔɲia]) is a generic term for a number of Italian double chantered pipes that can be found as far north as the southern part of the Marche, throughout areas in Abruzzo, Latium, Molise, Basilicata, Campania, Calabria, and Sicily. The tradition is now mostly associated with Christmas, and the most famous Italian carol, "Tu scendi dalle stelle" (You Come Down From the Stars) is derived from traditional zampogna music. However, there is an ongoing resurgence of the instrument in secular use seen with the increasing number of folk music festivals and folk music ensembles.

15.1 Construction

All chanters and drones are fixed into a single round stock that the bag is attached to. Each chanter is tuned differently, according to the tradition it represents, and there are dozens. Typically, the double-reeded versions (Marche, Abruzzo, Latium, Campania, southern Basilicata and parts of Sicily and southern Calabria) will have a soprano chanter on the right and a bass chanter on the left (called, respectively, “ritta”and “manga”̶meaning 'right' and 'left' ̶in the Ciociaro tradition) with an alto drone (bordone being the generic name); but as many as three drones, the other tuned above and below the basic chord can be used, or, in the case of the Marches tradition, no drones at all. The single reed versions consist of the“surdullina”types of the Province of Cosenza and Catanzaro, and the ciaramella or ciaramedda of Messina and Catania in Sicily, as well as in Southern Calabria. The surdullina is a very short chantered version of the instrument that is used to play tarantellas primarily, while the ciaramedda can play all of the traditional regional melodies the other types can. The traditional reeds are made from stalks of the Giant Reed Arundo donax, called “canna marina”in Italian. The double reed versions may also be made from plastic. The single reeds are made from a single section of the cane. Traditionally the bags are made from goat hides that are removed from the slaughtered animal in one piece, cured, turned inside out, then tied off just in front of the rear legs, one of the front legs serving to house the blow pipe with its simple leather valve (soffietto), and the other tied off. The typical round stock into which both chanters and drones are fixed goes into the neck of the skin. The hair is left on, and is contained in the inside of the bag (otre). Today, however, some pipers are substituting the traditional goat and sheep hide bags with a rubber inner tube or wintex which is covered with an artificial fleece. This practice of using the synthetic bag is particularly popular among the pipers from Scapoli in the Molise region, and those of Atina in Latium.

15.2 Musical traditions

The double reeded version of the Zampogna is generally played with the piffero (called“biffera”in the Ciociaria, or “ciaramella”or“pipita”in other regions]; a shawm, or folk oboe), which plays the melody and the zampogna provides chord changes, “vamping”or rhythmic harmony figures or a bass line and a soprano harmony as accompaniment. This double reed tradition would include the Ciociaria (Latium, southern Abruzzo and Molise), that of southern Basilicata (Pollino) and nearby areas of Calabria, and some areas of Sicily (Siracusa, Palermo). Single reed versions are played solo in the Calabrian tradition of the surdullina (Cosenza), and a version with a plugged chanter called the “surdullina Albanese,”and the Sicilian ciaramedda or ciaramèddha (Catania, Messina, and Reggio Calabria).

100 15.2. MUSICAL TRADITIONS 101

Zampogna

The chanters and drones vary, according to the tradition, from a few inches long (surdullina) to nearly two meters in length, such as used in the cathedral of Monreale (Palermo) and nearly every size in between. The word“zampogna” is etymologically related to the Greek simponia, the plural of “simponi”meaning single beating reed; also to the Greek island bagpipe “tsampouna”(see above). Its Romanian counterpart is cimpoi, which means “symphony” or “many sounds played together”. The pipes are related to the Sardinian launeddas, a single reed“triple clarinet”comprising two chanters and a drone 102 CHAPTER 15. ZAMPOGNA 15.3. HISTORY 103

and played in the mouth by circular breathing.

15.3 History

• There is a bagpipe museum, the Museo della Zampogna in Scapoli, Molise.*[1]

• In 2010 a feature-length documentary about the zampogna was published entitled, Zampogna: The Soul of Southern Italy

15.4 See also

• Bagpipes

• Music of Sicily • Music of Italy

• Types of bagpipes

15.5 References

[1] http://www.comunescapoli.is.it/ilmuseo.html

15.6 External links

• Documentary ﬁlm on the Italian bagpipe

• Zampogna italiana • Zampogna page

• Zampogna page • Zampogna audio

• http://www.suonidellaterra.com

• http://www.zampognari.org • Zampogna page 104 CHAPTER 15. ZAMPOGNA

15.7 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

15.7.1 Text

• Adufe Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adufe?oldid=664985068 Contributors: Woohookitty, Tintazul, CJLL Wright, Elintripido, LadyofShalott, CmdrObot, Page Up, CommonsDelinker, Anna Lincoln, Kakofonous, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Opus88888, Blah28948, Pretobras, Carolynorth, EmausBot and Anonymous: 7 • Piffero Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piffero?oldid=640445233 Contributors: Hyacinth, Dmetric, DocWatson42, Wikinaut, Bart133, Bruce1ee, Badagnani, Pegship, SmackBot, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Ian Spackman, Mikelima~enwiki, Cydebot, Appraiser, Dutchman Schultz, BigrTex, FlagSteward, AlleborgoBot, Auntof6, Lambtron, DumZiBoT, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Yobot, FrescoBot, Plastic- spork, EmausBot and Anonymous: 4 • Citole Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citole?oldid=640981871 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Wetman, Grm wnr, Reflex Reaction, Insouciance, Badagnani, Ndaisley, Crystallina, SmackBot, SaxTeacher, Bluebot, John, Thijs!bot, Jacqke, Johnbod, Acasson, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Eumolpo, FrescoBot, Primaler, Ripchip Bot, WikitanvirBot, Clusternote, ZéroBot and Anonymous: 5 • Crumhorn Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crumhorn?oldid=659704598 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Hephaestos, Gnomon~enwiki, Milkfish, Bemoeial, Hyacinth, Chris 73, Djinn112, Everyking, Peter Ellis, Sonjaaa, Antandrus, Magnum1, Chris Sunderland, Arthena, Sade, Japanese Searobin, Gmaxwell, Graham87, DoubleBlue, Ravenswing, YurikBot, RussBot, Wimt, Badagnani, NickBush24, Mscuth- bert, FordPrefect42, Rigadoun, Pthag, Ghelae, Baroquesmguy, Crazyjz, Ejph, Thijs!bot, Sluzzelin, Narssarssuaq, VoABot II, Jerome Kohl, JaGa, MartinBot, Mplsbf, Felixstrange, Janus Shadowsong, Jcwf, DorganBot, Brianga, AlleborgoBot, Logan, Aethandor, Caltas, Harry~enwiki, Maccy69, WikHead, Addbot, CarsracBot, Zorrobot, Bermicourt, Unara, Materialscientist, Bob Burkhardt, GB fan, Ri- botBOT, Baroqueperson, Thehelpfulbot, Σ, Mean as custard, EmausBot, John of Reading, PBS-AWB, Turjan, AndyTheGrump, ClueBot NG, Lovelovemonkeybutt, Yodawg123, JohnVScott, Sleepyted007, GuidonianFoot, Hithere423 and Anonymous: 63 • Cymbal Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cymbal?oldid=665815951 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Andre Engels, LA2, Zoe, Michael Hardy, Lexor, Stan Shebs, Angela, Andrewa, GaryW, Nikai, Pipian, Alexs, Bemoeial, Zoicon5, Hyacinth, Wetman, Robbot, Mori- ori, RedWolf, Altenmann, Romanm, Rsduhamel, Jpo, Mintleaf~enwiki, Lupin, Yekrats, TheMaestro, DavidBrooks, Evertype, Usrnme h8er, DMG413, HamYoyo, Acsenray, MattKingston, Discospinster, BitchX, Clawed, Ascánder, Bobo192, Shax, Brim, Anthony Ap- pleyard, Arthena, Keenan Pepper, Jm51, Leoadec, Bsadowski1, Gunter, Mel Etitis, Potatophone, LOL, Graham87, BD2412, Ajnew- bold, Gryffindor, CQJ, EvanSeeds, Psemmusa, Jcmurphy, Margosbot~enwiki, RexNL, Gareth E Kegg, YurikBot, Wavelength, Red Slash, NawlinWiki, Xdenizen, Amart~enwiki, Open2universe, GraemeL, TravisTX, SmackBot, Unschool, InverseHypercube, Rokfaith, Gaff, ParthianShot, Chris the speller, Master Jay, Bluebot, Nbarth, Springeragh, Scwlong, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Ajaxkroon, Whatthree16, Victor Lopes, Just plain Bill, Spiritia, KLLvr283, SilkTork, Ormands, Dpeters11, Darquis, CmdrObot, Hucz, Dub8lad1, Anon20, Musicalantonio, DumbBOT, PKT, Epbr123, TheYmode, Wyglif, Vmadeira, Philip.t.day, Mentifisto, Mhaitham.shammaa, Farosdaughter, Chill doubt, Mutt Lunker, Mivodrums, JAnDbot, Unused0029, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Hisdrumr, Nikolaj Christensen, Esanchez7587, Rustyfence, Habu974, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Nono64, J.delanoy, Nathan Wonnacott, Thaurisil, Mappase, Tondose, Michael Angelkovich, Steel1943, Deor, Macedonian, Jeff G., TXiKiBoT, Bdb484, Z.E.R.O., Clarince63, Martin451, Slysplace, Mz- madmike, Psw9410, RaseaC, Thanatos666, Turangalila, Sue Rangell, Ishboyfay, Cymbalmaker, SieBot, Umutermec, Kl0441, William V. Salas, Wolfcm, EnOreg, Addaick, Anchor Link Bot, Explicit, Loren.wilton, ClueBot, Snigbrook, The Thing That Should Not Be, Pakaraki, RafaAzevedo, Excirial, Wimjbakker~enwiki, Noelbmw, Wherewithal, MarmotteNZ, Wikiuser100, Sambridger, WikHead, Addbot, TutterMouse, BepBot, Glane23, Lightbot, Jan eissfeldt, Legobot, Yobot, Panek, Snidedrums, Floquenbeam, Jim1138, King- pin13, Bob Burkhardt, MauritsBot, Xqbot, Spiros71, Thecatsrockmysox, Mjk316, RibotBOT, Xweasel, Aidin12, Hersfold tool account, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Vicenarian, Gier0037, Number Googol, TobeBot, Diannaa, Drumzfan, Hammeringprocess, EmausBot, GoingBatty, Solarra, PBS-AWB, Bambike, Hoangkid, Tolly4bolly, L Kensington, Teethmeister, Emtrix, Sunshine4921, ClueBot NG, Kombi Do Rock Cristão, Millermk, Ysjzysn, Go Phightins!, Widr, Telpardec, MerlIwBot, Shadow Hawk, Saludacymbals, Regulov, Low- ercase sigmabot, Parikhit phukan, Theadventureislands, Graphium, Jakec, Blah654565, Fermarya, Pishcal, KASUdmad and Anonymous: 233 • Gittern Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gittern?oldid=652831896 Contributors: Merovingian, Reflex Reaction, Causa sui, Kappa, Rjwilmsi, Insouciance, Badagnani, Crystallina, SmackBot, Sadads, ILike2BeAnonymous, Rigadoun, A. Parrot, Fma12, Galassi, Rot- tweilerCS, Jacqke, JAnDbot, Grégory Leclair, Paunaro, CommonsDelinker, GrahamHardy, Coastside, ClueBot, Phso2, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Jpmonroe, AnomieBOT, Eumolpo, MauritsBot, FrescoBot, MastiBot, RjwilmsiBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, ZéroBot, H3llBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, FoCuSandLeArN, Pupsikon and Anonymous: 13 • Lute Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lute?oldid=664536561 Contributors: Derek Ross, Magnus~enwiki, Danny, Camembert, Nevil- ley, Bdesham, Rp, Kku, Bobby D. Bryant, Ixfd64, Looxix~enwiki, Kricxjo, Andrewa, Gabriel, Nikai, Pipian, Norwikian, Kat, Bemoeial, Wik, Maximus Rex, Hyacinth, Nv8200pa, Ed g2s, Nickshanks, Opus33, Wetman, Chuunen Baka, Robbot, Chris 73, Romanm, Modu- latum, Seano1, Alan Liefting, Elf, Tobiah, Orangemike, Bradeos Graphon, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Per Honor et Gloria, Mboverload, Lake- fall~enwiki, Tagishsimon, Utcursch, Sonjaaa, Noe, Antandrus, Oneiros, Ruzulo, Quota, Klemen Kocjancic, DMG413, Acsenray, D6, A- giau, Discospinster, Brianhe, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Pradiptaray, Mani1, Paul August, ESkog, Comshak, Kross, Jashiin, Johnkarp, Viames, Blotwell, TheProject, Tarleton~enwiki, Haham hanuka, Stephen Bain, Ranveig, Supine, Goldom, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, Blax- thos, Nuno Tavares, Etacar11, PoccilScript, Sburke, StradivariusTV, Dbolton, Tabletop, Julo, Graham87, BD2412, Kbdank71, Men- daliv, Tangotango, TBHecht, Nandesuka, Yuber, FayssalF, FlaBot, Ian Pitchford, Canaduh, Latka, RexNL, DannyDaWriter, Kenmayer, Chobot, Bgwhite, WriterHound, YurikBot, RussBot, Aaron Walden, Jeff.lopezstuit, Stephenb, Mipadi, Badagnani, Brandon, Gadget850, Asarelah, Katpatuka, Donbert, Paul Magnussen, Zzuuzz, Theda, Closedmouth, DiLuna25, Kevin, Katieh5584, Jade Knight, Ndaisley, SmackBot, Hydrogen Iodide, SaxTeacher, KocjoBot~enwiki, Jagged 85, Finavon, Stevegallery, Betacommand, Bluebot, Stevepeterson, Persian Poet Gal, Jprg1966, MalafayaBot, SchfiftyThree, Eusebeus, Foxjwill, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, OrphanBot, Lantrix, TheK- Man, Rrburke, Decltype, Nakon, Ehackney, Aotake, Just plain Bill, Lute88, Andrew Dalby, TenPoundHammer, JzG, Kuru, Rigadoun, Dboznos, A.b.s, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, IronGargoyle, Fernando S. Aldado~enwiki, Noah Salzman, Mets501, Ralphwaldo, Iridescent, Gardane, PhilipDM, Anger22, Tawkerbot2, InfernoXV, Fma12, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, Jorcoga, Dgw, TheTito, Neelix, Karenjc, Fory- ouon, Tagrich1961, Ntsimp, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Galassi, QRX, Roberta F., Adron~enwiki, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Evelyn Z, RLE64, Xaverius, Marek69, NorwegianBlue, Horologium, Gerald underhill, Mentifisto, Hmrox, AntiVandalBot, Milton Stanley, John1987, Fayenatic london, Jacqke, Valrith, MikeLynch, Sluzzelin, JAnDbot, Dogru144, MER-C, Quentar~enwiki, Qasamaan~enwiki, 100110100, Acroterion, Nyq, Kaiguy, Ryukei, Szpawq, Adamiow, Torban, Aziz1005, Zoukboy, Pax:Vobiscum, Pádraig Coogan, Sgerbode, Paunaro, 15.7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 105

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Bryant, Ahoerstemeier, Ronz, Pipian, Adam Bishop, Tpbradbury, Hyacinth, Paul-L~enwiki, Owen, Robbot, JackofOz, Gamaliel, Ferdinand Pienaar, Khalid hassani, Mobius, Gyrofrog, Antandrus, JoJan, LudwigVan, Eyrian, Mind- spillage, Shergo, Parishan, Leandros, Mani1, Kwamikagami, CeeGee, Pearle, Ogress, Babajobu, Sjschen, Dowcet, Mavros, Henrym, Woohookitty, RHaworth, The Brain, BillC, Winstonsmith, Anyblock, Paxsimius, Graham87, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Markkawika, Lockley, Armandeh, Hbbk, Zozza~enwiki, Nasehpour, FlaBot, Krun, Kenmayer, Malhonen, Dunemaire, Le Anh-Huy, Design, 334a, Bgwhite, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Spacepotato, RussBot, Epolk, Jeff.lopezstuit, Maor X, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Emiellaien- diay, Badagnani, Ezeu, Asarelah, AjaxSmack, Sandstein, Nizib, Ninly, JoanneB, Eatcacti, Jade Knight, DVD R W, That Guy, From That Show!, AdriftxAtxPeace, SmackBot, Jagged 85, LaurenMcMillan, Valley2city, MK8, Mortendreier, Alromaithi, Colonies Chris, David Parfitt, Teemeah, MToje, 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Window2013, Gthom123, IranMusic57 and Anonymous: 473 • Psaltery Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psaltery?oldid=663632832 Contributors: SimonP, Camembert, Frecklefoot, David Mart- land, Opus33, Dimadick, Chris 73, Lupin, Andycjp, Gazpacho, M7, Kusma, Anarchivist, China Crisis, HERMiT cRAB, Bedford, Chobot, Aaron Walden, Gaius Cornelius, Badagnani, 21655, Fang Aili, SmackBot, Benjaminb, Jeffro77, Rob~enwiki, Aotake, Rigadoun, Hu12, Nyperold, Cydebot, XPHCTOC, Alaibot, ThomasPusch, JAnDbot, Magioladitis, Tiuks, Ediderotimus, Naniwako, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Macedonian, Boberger, Yone Fernandes, ClueBot, Leviel, Mild Bill Hiccup, Gerbilo, CohesionBot, Tjako, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Opus88888, Luckas-bot, Jwm57, Bob Burkhardt, Omnipaedista, Amaury, Aron Robinson, Lotje, Dinamik-bot, GFreihalter, Jesse V., In ictu oculi, EmausBot, PBS-AWB, Fanda1a, Turjan, ClueBot NG, Rathersilly, Logofat de Chichirez, Kdcgbklgu, Tomsmith3, Gorthian, A.Samot, GoShow, GuidonianFoot, Pigman888, KH-1, Pupsikon, Slickprofessional and Anonymous: 44 • Rebec Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebec?oldid=655210563 Contributors: Kpjas, Camembert, Isis~enwiki, Bdesham, Ahoerste- meier, TheEternalVortex, Pipian, HangingCurve, Khalid hassani, Sonjaaa, Robin klein, Andrejj, Bobo192, Polylerus, Japanese Searobin, Jkl sem, BillC, Chochopk, Jeff3000, John Hill, BD2412, Koavf, FlaBot, Chet Gray, YurikBot, RussBot, Aaron Walden, Badagnani, Peter Delmonte, Light current, Nikkimaria, Luk, Jagged 85, Gilliam, Chris the speller, Stevepeterson, MalafayaBot, Robth, TheKMan, Just plain Bill, Capmo, Uhanu, Cydebot, Ntsimp, Thijs!bot, Scottandrewhutchins, Jacqke, Ghmyrtle, Sluzzelin, VoABot II, Piano Bench Boy, Inef- fable3000, MartinBot, VolkovBot, Philip Trueman, Florenus, Dober0, ClueBot, PipepBot, Niceguyedc, Alexbot, Jusdafax, JamesChester- field, MatthewVanitas, Opus88888, Redheylin, Favonian, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, HerculeBot, WikiHendrik, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnotherNitPicker, Unara, 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ZAMPOGNA

Schneelocke, Furrykef, Hyacinth, Opus33, Carlossuarez46, Pseudoyoink, 0x6D667061, Pne, Sonjaaa, Antandrus, OverlordQ, Ganymead, Ary29, Bobdoe, Lectonar, Notcarlos, Mel Etitis, Potatophone, Coro, Rbeas, YurikBot, Gaius Cornelius, Insouciance, Bachrach44, Irishguy, Esolomon, 2over0, Donald Albury, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Eskimbot, SmartGuy Old, Hmains, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Bob the ducq, FordPrefect42, Baa, David Cheater, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Makemi, Zeppelin42, Just plain Bill, Spellingace91, Iron- Gargoyle, Special-T, Hikitsurisan~enwiki, Iridescent, Ioannes Pragensis, JForget, Tromboneguy, JFreeman, EvaK, Metroidfan220, Ba- sun, W Hukriede, Multimann~enwiki, Chris Gutteridge, Matthew1992, Jacqke, Wooddm, Pole 2 pole, Res2216firestar, Sluzzelin, China1, Nikevich, KConWiki, Animum, Upholder, Hbent, MartinBot, Johnpacklambert, Lriley47, Schilke.60, SJP, Signalhead, Trombone-angel, Vlmastra, Mcpgv, Someguy1221, Tomaxer, Ceranthor, GirasoleDE, Barkeep, Crispyhull, Laanen, Yerpo, Benny the wayfarer, Clue- Bot, R000t, Loudtbone, -Midorihana-, Charriere, The Baroness of Morden, XLinkBot, Little Mountain 5, Gottaluvllamas, Cst17, Bep- Bot, Doublez829, Tassedethe, Numbo3-bot, Gail, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Fraggle81, Eric-Wester, AnomieBOT, 1exec1, Ipatrol, Unara, RandomAct, Materialscientist, Bob Burkhardt, Rothgo, GrouchoBot, Edelbert~enwiki, Brotherofdestruction, Griffinofwales, Fres- coBot, Feduol, EdoDodo, Gerda Arendt, FoxBot, Andrea105, Howard41, Wikipelli, PBS-AWB, Josve05a, 000killa, Lordeminemforeva, Wikikong2308, JScheivert, Turjan, ClueBot NG, Satellizer, Snotbot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Chasse patate, Earlymusic85, ChrisGualtieri, Fat- beaver22, Khazar2, Hmainsbot1, JRYon, DGG (NYPL), DavidLeighEllis, Ginsuloft, Zattari, Music668, Dynamicdispatch, Cleistocactus and Anonymous: 177 • Shawm Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shawm?oldid=661864536 Contributors: Dreamyshade, Bryan Derksen, Oliver Pereira, Col- labi, Ixfd64, Ellywa, Anakolouthon, Kaare, Hyacinth, Tanyajane, Chris 73, Hadal, David Gerard, Paul Richter, Varlaam, Guanaco, Son- jaaa, Mormegil, Pasquale, Bender235, Rsholmes, Alansohn, Walter Görlitz, Gmaxwell, Tabletop, Noetica, Graham87, BD2412, Mar- gosbot~enwiki, YurikBot, Hydrargyrum, Stephenb, Pseudomonas, Badagnani, Ms2ger, Joan sense nick, Nick Michael, Mattmm, Veinor, Victor M. Vicente Selvas, Nihonjoe, Ghosts&empties, Bardsandwarriors, HansMons, IrisKawling, Bejnar, Morrisjm, Deathregis, Poto- sino, AmiDaniel, Ian Spackman, Tawkerbot2, Rdunn, Goios, Bryan P. C. 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Bryant, Gnomon~enwiki, Paul A, DropDeadGorgias, Pipian, Norwikian, RodC, Charles Matthews, Dcoet- zee, Bemoeial, Hyacinth, Wetman, Owen, Bearcat, Robbot, Chris 73, IanG, David Gerard, Pabouk, DocWatson42, Michael Devore, Dav4is, Solipsist, Khalid hassani, Antandrus, Kmweber, Quota, Canterbury Tail, Guppyfinsoup, Discospinster, Reinyday, Viriditas, Hooperbloob, Ynhockey, GregLindahl, Jun-Dai, Nuno Tavares, Kelly Martin, Woohookitty, Graham87, Orpheon Foundation, FlaBot, Gareth E Kegg, Korg, Bgwhite, Flcelloguy, YurikBot, RobotE, Pip2andahalf, Aaron Walden, Casey56, Badagnani, Htonl, Asarelah, ColinFine, Alarob, Light current, Chrishmt0423, Fram, J Lorraine, DVD R W, Bluewave, KnightRider~enwiki, SmackBot, La folia, JohnSankey, Blue520, Blackfield, Hmains, AndrewKay, Chris the speller, Stevepeterson, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Lesnail, Makemi, Soobrickay, Just plain Bill, ILike2BeAnonymous, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Mets501, Violncello, OnBeyondZebrax, Forqueray, Saltlake- john, Sophruhig [email protected], Provocateur, Bottesini, Alankroeger, WolfgangFaber, Eggman64, Topspinslams, Keithh, Honzthe- BusDriver, Lookingforgroup, Galassi, Tawkerbot4, PKT, Viol Fanatic, Young Pioneer, Geldorf9, Big Bird, Habitathelder, Northumbrian, Dajagr, AntiVandalBot, Chubbles, Meizy, Jacqke, Cbrodersen, JAnDbot, MER-C, Igodard, Rothorpe, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Kaiguy, Soulbot, Kameejl, DerHexer, JaGa, Pax:Vobiscum, Wikianon, Clavecin, Sergioalvares, InnocuousPseudonym, Nono64, J.delanoy, Ycd- kwm, Mayaisastar, AntiSpamBot, Cyclocifra, Bigdumbdinosaur, VolkovBot, Barokeu, Bewareoftheevilcheeseman, Mkcmkc, Mardhil, Hell2007, CAPete, Tomaxer, Pjoef, AlleborgoBot, Organology, SieBot, Jmrozendaal, Flyer22, MinorContributor, Yerpo, Lapelleg- rina, Bsradams, Capa49, Pediainsight, Dillard421, Ronaldomundo, Ken123BOT, Martinuddin, Keinstein, The Thing That Should Not Be, Voixhumaines~enwiki, Marinmarais, Drmies, OccamzRazor, Excirial, Crywalt, Sun Creator, Drawn Some, BassHistory, Muro Bot, Thingg, FairFare, BarretB, Jduraes, Airplaneman, Kbdankbot, Mcsugarfree, Metodicar, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Mouäwen, Vi- oleta1234, Opus88888, CanadianLinuxUser, AnnaFrance, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, MinorProphet, AnomieBOT, Bob Burkhardt, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Plumpurple, Newgambagirl, Brobins, Ched, J04n, GrouchoBot, Armbrust, RibotBOT, Pabloolivier, FrescoBot, Strad- fan, Roza1996, Ionutzmovie, Gerda Arendt, Bassedeviole, Hajatvrc, EmausBot, RA0808, Peaceray, ZéroBot, PBS-AWB, Gambist, Hensel96, Hereforhomework2, Ira Mauri, Karthikndr, Turjan, Filmfluff, Raszoo, Jacktab, ClueBot NG, Manwithanumbrella, Antler- santlers, Radiomasten, Helpful Pixie Bot, CitationCleanerBot, Ormesby, Haymouse, Basemetal, Harpsichord246, Dexbot, Piano playing genius, Phillipwserna, WilliamLawes, Stephen.pegler, Johnson.s.erik, Angie5598, BaroqueFan, GoKuchisakeonnago!, Jomamasofat, KAYCOFF, KasparBot and Anonymous: 178 • Zampogna Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zampogna?oldid=663372157 Contributors: Angela, Calum, Pasquale, Gene Nygaard, Firsfron, Graham87, FlaBot, Badagnani, SaxTeacher, Summerbell, CharlesMartel, Cydebot, Marcuscalabresus, Hebrides, Gioto, Tu- vicBot, Edward321, Zampognaro, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Download, Luckas-bot, Jim1138, Xqbot, Grou- choBot, Alpinehermit, Finn Froding, ClueBot NG and Anonymous: 18

15.7.2 Images • File:(Jurchen)_Jin_Dynasty_bronze_cymbals.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/%28Jurchen%29_ Jin_Dynasty_bronze_cymbals.JPG License: ? Contributors: http://www.garyleetodd.com/chinese-museums-online/shaanxi-provincial-museum-xian/ Original artist: Gary Lee Todd, Ph.D., Professor of History, Sias International University, Xinzheng, Henan, China. • File:054_Museu_de_la_Música,_llaüt.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/054_Museu_de_la_M%C3% BAsica%2C_lla%C3%BCt.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Enfo • File:078_Museu_de_la_Música,_llaüts.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/078_Museu_de_la_M%C3% BAsica%2C_lla%C3%BCts.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Enfo 15.7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 107

• File:2006-07-06_Crash_Zildjian_14.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/2006-07-06_Crash_Zildjian_ 14.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Stephan Czuratis (Jazz-face) • File:AlaBohemicaPsaltery.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/AlaBohemicaPsaltery.jpg License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: ? 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Original artist: ? • File:Deutsches_Museum_(121282543).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Deutsches_Museum_%28121282543% 29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: IMG_1616 Original artist: Andrew Plumb from Ottawa, Ontario, Canada • File:Domenico_Corrado_alla_pipita.ogv Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Domenico_Corrado_alla_pipita. ogv License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://youtu.be/adCOU3yyO7I Original artist: adaria3 • File:Egyptian_lute_players_001.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Egyptian_lute_players_001.jpg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Unknown • File:GambeUilderks.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/GambeUilderks.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: HaCeMei • File:Georg_Philipp_Telemann_(1681-1767)_-_Concerto_for_Recorder_and_Viola_da_Gamba,_TWV_52a1.ogg Source: http:// upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Georg_Philipp_Telemann_%281681-1767%29_-_Concerto_for_Recorder_and_Viola_ da_Gamba%2C_TWV_52a1.ogg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Phillipwserna • File:Gittern,_Cathedral_Saint_Julien_du_Mans,_France,_c.1325.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/ 5e/Gittern%2C_Cathedral_Saint_Julien_du_Mans%2C_France%2C_c.1325.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.thecipher. com/viola_da_gamba_cipher-2.html Original artist: Unknown 108 CHAPTER 15. ZAMPOGNA

• File:Gittern_and_rebec.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/3/34/Gittern_and_rebec.jpg License: PD-US Contribu- tors: Original publication: late 13th century Immediate source: http://www.christianrault.com/fr/publications/the-emergence-of-new-approaches-to-plucked-instruments-13th-15th-centuries Original artist: unknown (Life time: unknown) • File:Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart. svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work. Based on File:Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart.svg, which is public domain. Orig- inal artist: User:Eubulides • File:Goblet_drum_01.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Goblet_drum_01.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here. 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Reproduction in Antinino Buttitta “Les Normands de Sicile”Original artist: Unknown • File:Mérida_pandurium.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/M%C3%A9rida_pandurium.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Joan • File:NAMA_Cymbale.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Cymbal_NAM_Athens_7959.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: user:Marsyas 15.7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 109

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