La Investigación Del Arte Paleolítico Historia De Un Concepto*

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La Investigación Del Arte Paleolítico Historia De Un Concepto* DOSSIER La investigación del arte paleolítico Historia de un concepto* Eduardo Palacio-Pérez as representaciones gráficas del Paleolítico han suscitado un gran in­ Lterés tanto entre los especialistas como entre el público en general. Tradicionalmente nos referimos a estas manifestaciones como “arte paleo­ lítico”, término muy difundido entre los prehistoriadores y que se ha asu­ mido como una categoría aséptica e inocente. Sin embargo, hay que dudar de esa aparente neutralidad. Algunos autores han planteado lo peligroso que es caracterizar estas representaciones como “arte”,1 dado que supone transferir un concepto propio de la tradición occidental, lleno de connota­ ciones y modelos, a un pasado lejano con unos referentes culturales dife­ rentes de los nuestros. Esta proyección cultural sobre las imágenes paleolíticas también se manifiesta en la aplicación constante de principios estéticos occidentales (belleza, proporción, perspectiva...) en su descrip­ ción, en su caracterización formal a partir de la idea de naturalismo, en la tendencia a unificarlas bajo la noción de estilo y en la ambigüedad genera­ *Una primera versión de este artículo apareció en la revista KREI, 12, 2013, pp. 83­117 con el título “Génesis, consolidación y crisis del concepto de ‘arte paleolítico’”. 1 M.W. Conkey, “New Approaches in the Search for Meaning? A Review in Palaeolithic Art”, Journal of Field Archaeology, 14, 1987, pp. 413­430, p. 413; R. Layton, “Figure, Motif, and Symbol in the Hunter­gatherer Rock Art of Europe and Australia”, en P.G. Bahn y A. Rosenfeld (eds.), Rock Art and Prehistory. Papers Presented to Symposium of the AURA Congress Darwin 1988, Oxford, Oxbow, 1991, pp. 23­38, p. 23; Ó. Moro y M.R. González Morales, “L’art Paléolithique est­il un ‘art’ ? Réflexions autour d’une question d’actualité”.L’Anthropologie , 111 (4), 2007, pp. 687­704 ; O. Soffer y M.W. Conkey, “Studying Ancient Visual Cultures”, en M.W. Conkey, O. Soffer, D. Stratmann, N.G. Jablonski (eds.), Beyond Art: Pleistocene Image and Symbol, San Francisco, Allen Press, 1997, pp. 1­16, pp. 2­3; S. Tomásková, “Places of Art: Art and Archaeology”, en M.W. Conkey, O. Soffer, D. Stratmann, N.G. Jablonski (eds.), Beyond Art: Pleistocene Image and Symbol, San Francisco, Allen Press, 1997, pp. 265­287, pp. 268­269; R. White, L’art préhistorique dans le monde, París, La Martinière. 2003, p. 20. 155 EdUARDO PALACIO-PÉREZ da entre su apreciación exclusivamente esteticista y su aparente dimensión simbólico­religiosa. Precisamente muchos de estos rasgos (naturalismo for­ mal, significado simbólico­religioso...) han persistido, más o menos reinter­ pretados, como elementos delimitadores de la gráfica paleolítica.2 En este artículo rastreamos el origen, consolidación y virtual crisis del concepto de “arte paleolítico”, evaluando la extrapolación de valores e ideas propias de nuestra tradición occidental a la explicación de las imágenes pa­ leolíticas. Para ello nos hemos concentrado en cuatro puntos esenciales. En primer lugar, profundizamos en el contexto científico en el que sur­ gió el concepto de “arte paleolítico”. La génesis de este concepto se produ­ ce en un ambiente intelectual que hereda las grandes controversias de los años centrales del siglo XIX, como el debate sobre la antigüedad de la hu­ manidad, la condición de los pueblos “salvajes”, la disputa entre evolución y degeneración, o el choque entre ciencia y religión. Se trata de un marco ideológico y científico complejo, porque en él se mezclaron explicaciones opuestas del origen y la condición del ser humano, múltiples especulacio­ nes sobre la evolución cultural, distintas concepciones de los “primitivos” y diversas hipótesis relacionadas con el nacimiento y naturaleza del arte. Es, por lo tanto, una realidad heterogénea en dos sentidos. Lo es diacróni­ camente porque a lo largo del tiempo cambian las ideas que se tenían sobre la vida de los humanos paleolíticos, pero lo es también sincrónicamente, 2 Véanse los textos de H. Breuil, “L’évolution de l’Art Pariétal des cavernes de l’âge du Renne”, Compte rendu de la treizième session du Congrès International d’Archéologie Préhistorique, 1, 1907, pp. 367­386, pp. 372­378; “L’évolution de l’Art pariétal dans les cavernes et abris ornées de France”, Compte rendu de la onzième session du Congrès Préhistorique de France (1934), 1, 1935, pp. 102­118, esp. pp. 115­118, y Quatre cents siècles d’art pariétal, Montignac, Max Fourny, 1952, pp. 21­41 ; véanse también É. Cartailhac y H. Breuil, La caverne d’Altamira à Santillane près Santander (Espagne), Mónaco, Imprimerie de Monaco, 1906, pp. 145­225; H. Delporte, L’image des animaux dans l’art préhistorique, París, Picard, 1990, pp. 61­74 y 225­247; P. Graziosi, L’arte dell’antica etá della pietra, Florencia, Sansoni, 1956, pp. 22­111; A. Laming­Emperaire, La signification de l’Art rupestre Paléolithique, París, A. & J. Picard, 1962, pp. 147­294; A. Leroi­Gourhan, Les religions de la préhistoire, París, Presses Universitaires de France, [1964] 1976, pp. 79­144, y de la misma autora Préhistoire de l’art occidental, París, Mazenod, [1965] 1971, pp. 75­128; M. Lorblanchet, La naissan- ce de l’art : genèse de l’art préhistorique dans le monde, París, Errance, 1999, pp. 251­272; M. Lorblan­ chet, Art pariétal: grottes ornées du Quercy, Rodez, Rouergue, 2010, pp. 431­429; S. Reinach, “L’art et la magie”, L’Anthropologie, 14, 1903, pp. 257­66; D. Vialou, “Séminaire ‘Représentations Préhistoriques’ 1983­1984: Au Musée de l’Homme”, L’Anthropologie, 88 (4), 1984, pp. 479­483; D. Vialou, La Préhistoire, París, Gallimard, 1991, pp. 344­379. 156 La investigación del arte paleolítico. Historia de un concepto porque en un mismo momento coexisten concepciones teóricas y explica­ ciones científicas diferentes. En segundo lugar, valoramos la estrecha relación que se estableció des­ de el origen entre el concepto de “arte paleolítico” y el de “arte primitivo”, otro término que ha tenido un papel central en la historia de la antropo­ logía.3 El concepto de “arte primitivo” se consolidó en el paso del siglo XIX al XX (1890­1906) como el resultado de un diálogo fructífero entre arqueó­ logos, antropólogos, historiadores y teóricos del arte en el que la idea de “sociedad primitiva”4 y la noción decimonónica de “arte”5 se vieron en­ frentadas y sintetizadas en una mezcla forzada. Así, su empeño se dirigió a someter la variedad y complejidad de lo “no civilizado” a un sistema global y lógicamente ordenado. De este modelo unificador nació el concepto de “arte primitivo”, un término que pretendía encerrar dentro de sí toda la diversidad formal y simbólica de las representaciones elaboradas por los llamados “salvajes”, así como la esencia y el origen del arte. El estudio de las manifestaciones gráficas paleolíticas terminó devorado por esta catego­ ría general de “arte primitivo”. De esta forma, el concepto de “arte paleolí­ tico” nace como un brote de la idea­raíz de “arte primitivo”, y permanecerá caracterizado de esta forma durante la primera mitad del siglo XX. En tercer lugar, tratamos de evaluar hasta qué punto existe una conti­ nuidad entre esta idea del “arte paleolítico” y la “nueva perspectiva” que se difundió a partir de finales de los años cincuenta del siglo XX, con los llamados autores estructuralistas,6 cuyas ideas dominaron los estudios del arte rupestre hasta la década de 1980. Tratamos de responder así a diferen­ tes preguntas: ¿Qué relación se puede establecer entre el concepto tradi­ 3 A. Claerhout, “The Concept of Primitive Applied to Art”, Current Anthropology, 6 (4), 1965, pp. 432­438; H. Haselberg, “Method of Studying Ethnological Art”, Current Anthropology, 2 (4), 1961, pp. 341­384; S. Price, Primitive Art in Civilized Places, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 2001. 4 F. Hsu, “Rethinking the Concept ‘Primitive’”, Current Anthropology, 5 (3), 1964, pp. 169­ 178; A. Kuper, The Invention of Primitive Society, Nueva York, Routledge, 1988. 5 P.O. Kristeller, “The Modern System of Arts: A Study in the History of Aesthetics (II)”, Journal of the History of Ideas, 13 (1), 1952, pp. 17­46; L. Shiner, La invención del arte, una historia cultural, Barcelona, Paidós, 2004, pp. 119­302; W. Tatarkiewicz, “What’s Art? The Problem of Definition Today”,The British Journal of Aesthetics, 11 (2), 1971, pp. 134­153. 6 A. Laming­Emperaire, La signification…, op. cit., y A. Leroi­Gourhan, Les religions…, op. cit. y del mismo autor Préhistoire de l’art…, op. cit. 157 EdUARDO PALACIO-PÉREZ cional de “arte paleolítico” y el propuesto por los autores estructuralistas? ¿Estos investigadores fueron capaces de superar los principios fundamen­ tales de la etapa anterior? ¿Rompieron verdaderamente con el modelo pro­ puesto por H. Breuil y sus discípulos? Para responder a estas preguntas tratamos de examinar sus ideas sobre el “arte paleolítico” en el contexto de su pensamiento general sobre la estética, la evolución, el arte y la religión, concentrándonos de forma especial en la figura de André Leroi­Gourhan. En cuarto y último lugar, apuntaremos algunas ideas que nos pueden llevar a pensar que el concepto de “arte paleolítico” se encuentra en crisis. Así, éste está siendo sometido a un proceso de profunda transformación de su significado, cuando no sustituido directamente por otras denominacio­ nes que se juzgan más apropiadas, como “expresión gráfica prehistórica”, “simbolismo paleolítico” o “cultura visual paleolítica”. LAS PRIMERAS interpretaciones DE LA EXPRESIÓN GRÁFICA paleolÍTICA. EL paradigma DE LA INGENUIDAD Las raíces teóricas del concepto de “arte paleolítico” La arqueología del Paleolítico nació y se desarrolló en Europa durante la segunda mitad del siglo XIX. Entre 1840 y 1850 se encontraron restos fósi­ les humanos asociados a fauna extinguida, de esta forma se probó la anti­ güedad de la humanidad.7 Una vez admitida ésta, dos cuestiones resultaron fundamentales: el debate sobre el origen de los humanos y la explicación de su transformación biológica y cultural.8 7 D.K.
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