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Sponsored by the Department of Science and Technology Volume Volume 27 Number 2 • May 2016 Sponsored by the Department of Science and Technology Scholarly Managing Editor Mokone Roberts Submissions It is the policy of the Journal of Energy in Southern Africa to Editorial board publish papers covering the technical, economic, policy, Kornelis Blok environmental and social aspects of energy research and development carried out in, or relevant to, Southern Africa. Ecofys Consultancy Group, Utrecht, The Netherlands Only previously unpublished work will be accepted; Anton Eberhard conference papers delivered but not published elsewhere UCT Graduate School of Business, Cape Town, are also welcomed. Short comments, not exceeding 500 words, on articles appearing in JESA are invited. Relevant South Africa items of general interest, news, statistics, technical notes, Roula Inglesi-Lotz reviews and research results will also be included, as will University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa announcements of recent publications, reviews, conferences, seminars and meetings. Gilberto M. Jannuzzi Those wishing to submit contributions should refer to the University of Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil guidelines given on the JESA website (although these are currently under review). Daniel Kammen University of California, Berkeley, USA The Editorial Committee does not accept responsibility for viewpoints or opinions expressed here, or the correctness Jiang Ke Jun of facts and figures. Energy Research Institute, China Barry MacColl Eskom, Pretoria, South Africa The Journal of Energy in South Africa is accredited by the South African Department of Higher Education and Training Yacob Malugetta for university subsidy purposes. It is abstracted and indexed University College, London, UK in Environment Abstract, Index to South African Periodicals, and the Nexus Database System. JESA has also been Nthabiseng Mohlakoana selected into the Science Citation Index Expanded by University of Twente, Enschede, Netherland s Thomson Reuters (as from Volume 19 No 1). It is also on the Scientific Electronic Library Online SA platform and is Angela Cadena Monroy managed by the Academy of Science of South Africa. Mining Planning Unit Energy, Colombia Velaphi Msimang The Editorial Committee does not accept responsibility for Mapungubwe Institute for Strategic Reflection, viewpoints or opinions expressed here, or the correctness Johannesburg, South Africa of facts and figures. Anand Patwardhan Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, India Website: www.erc.uct.ac.za/journals/jesa Ambuj Sagar Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India Wikus Van Niekerk © Energy Research Centre ISSN 1021 447X Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa Francis Yamba University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia Sponsored by the Department of Science & Technology Volume 27 Number 2 • May 2016 CONTENTS 1 A literature review on the potential of renewable electricity sources for mining operations in South Africa Roman Günter Votteler and Alan Colin Brent 22 Incorporating a three dimensional photovoltaic structure for optimum solar power generation – the effect of height Olufunmilayo Alice Mafimidiwo and Akshay Kumar Saha 30 Experimental investigation on heat extraction from a rock bed heat storage system for high temperature applications Denis Okello, Ole J. Nydal, Karidewa Nyeinga and Eldad J. K. Banda 38 Modelling household electricity consumption in Durban municipality Samantha Reade, Temesgen Zewotir and Delia North 50 Overview of predictive CSP spread prospects and its opportunities Kai Timon Busse and Frank Dinter 60 Synthesis of zirconia-based solid acid nanoparticles for fuel cell application Rudzani A. Sigwadi, Sipho E. Mavundla, Nosipho Moloto and Touhami Mokrani 68 A life cycle assessment of e-books and printed books in South Africa Vinesh Naicker and Brett Cohen Editorial Thank you to all the authors and all who helped make Issue 2 of Volume 27 of the Journal of Energy in Southern Africa a success! Much consideration will preferentially be given to research designed or set up in the southern African region and to studies associated with energy-related matters in the southern African region. A literature review on the potential of renewable electricity sources for mining operations in South Africa Roman Günter Votteler* a Alan Colin Brent b a. School of Public Leadership, and the Centre for Renewable and Sustainable Energy Studies, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa b. Department of Industrial Engineering, and the Centre for Renewable and Sustainable Energy Studies, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa Abstract 1. Introduction The economic situation of mining corporations The cost of electricity for mining corporations in operating in South Africa has in recent years creat - South Africa has substantially increased in recent ed considerable challenges in staying globally com - years. The average percentage of annual expendi - petitive. One reason for this is the increase in aver - ture on electricity costs for members of the Energy age electricity costs from 7% to 20% of total opera - Intensive User Group of Southern Africa, of which tional expenses since 2007. Forecasts for the next 47% are mining companies, has risen from 7% in decade predict that this development will continue 2007 to 20% in 2014, (Energy Intensive User at similar rates. The reliability of Eskom has also Group of Southern Africa, 2014). 1 Power rarely decreased, with self-generation being increasingly constitutes less than 10% of mining operating costs considered. In addition, the South African govern - and often exceeds 25% (Banerjee et al., 2015). The ment plans to launch a carbon tax in 2016, which current commonly used electricity sources are on- will further add to the costs of current electricity site diesel generators and the electrification grid of sources. This paper investigates the potential of the national utility supplier, Eskom (Boyse, renewable electricity sources for mining operations Causevic, Duwe & Orthofer, 2014). Electricity price in South Africa. It is based on an extensive literature escalations, past and future, will damage the global analysis, which was conducted in the form of a con - competitiveness of these companies (Creamer, ceptual review. The investigation of electricity usage 2012). Moreover, uncertainty around reliable elec - patterns reveals that mining operations commonly tricity supply and carbon emissions management have a relatively constant day and night consump - hinders the possible future development of these tion. One of the prerequisites for a suitable source is companies (Kohler, 2014). its ability to supply electricity constantly. Most The current situation of these companies renewable sources can therefore only be used in demands an investigation of alternative sources of hybrid versions, owing to relatively high intermitten - electricity, in order to lower costs, to create greater cies, especially with electricity supply from solar independence and to decrease the carbon footprint photovoltaic and wind generation. Nevertheless, the of their operations. 2 The enormous technological levelised costs are substantially lower than diesel and economic development of renewable sources generators and are already similar to Eskom tariffs, of electricity in recent years has increased their whilst also lowering carbon emissions. The business attractiveness as a possible option for mining oper - case of self-generation is shown to be positive. An ations in South Africa to diversify electricity sources on-site project can be realised through a power pur - (Mulaudzi, Muchie & Makhado, 2012; Cornish, chase agreement or through own investments. 2013). As Figure 1 shows, the investigation, sum - Keywords: mining; South Africa; renewable energy marised in the paper, looks at how renewable sources could fit into the electricity usage patterns of Corresponding author. Tel: 021 8089530; Email: mining operations, the technological attractiveness [email protected] of different renewable and current sources, the most 1 Journal of Energy in Southern Africa • Vol 27 No 2 • May 2016 Figure 1: Research objectives beneficial business model is investigated, and possi - rations have to be better educated about the con - ble impacts of the CO 2 tax. No previous study com - cept of renewable sources in the context of their bining all the macroeconomic elements that influ - unique operational demands (Judd, 2014b). 3 ence the project realisation of renewable electricity Electricity consumption patterns greatly influ - projects with mining corporations in South Africa ence the selection of electricity sources (Klein and could be found through a literature review. Three Whalley, 2015). The majority of mining locations papers – by Boyse et al. (2014), Gets and Mhlanga operate day and night, which often creates a rela - (2013), and Brodsky et al. (2013) – do, however, tively constant baseload demand (Levesque et al., cover some of the elements. 2014). The required amount of electricity depends on the type of mineral and even more on the extent 2. Methodology of processing or beneficiation. (Banerjee et al., Petticrew and Roberts (2006) identify six different 2015). Every type of mineral mined has its specific types of literature reviews, namely: systematic processes, and it is not necessary for all to undergo review, narrative review, conceptual review, tradi - all processes to be ready for use in manufacturing. tional review, critical review and state of the art The main processing stages are as follows (Banerjee review. For
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