Anti-Doping As Solidarity a Philosophical Inquiry Into Anti-Doping in Elite Sport

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Anti-Doping As Solidarity a Philosophical Inquiry Into Anti-Doping in Elite Sport Morten Renslo Sandvik Anti-doping as solidarity A philosophical inquiry into anti-doping in elite sport DISSERTATION FROM THE NORWEGIAN SCHOOL OF SPORT SCIENCES • 2020 ISBN 978-82-502-0579-6 Acknowledgements This dissertation would not have been possible without the persistent encouragement and superior sport philosophical insight of my supervisor, Sigmund Loland. Sigmund, I’m deeply indebted for your support and advice through each stage of this PhD project. I would like to thank all colleagues in the Department of Sport and Social Sciences for academic discussions, feedback on manuscripts, excellent administrative support, for involving me in other research projects, and for good company. Members of the eminent sport philosophy ‘study circle’ at the Norwegian School of Sport Sciences: Many thanks for enlightening discussions, constructive comments on manuscripts, and for including me at conferences home and abroad. Heartfelt thanks to past and present PhD students and friends in the Department for making the third floor a socially enjoyable and academically inspiring workplace. Special thanks to excellent office partners Håvard and Gudmund, and to Maje for proofreading. Thank you, family and friends and, above all, Theresa. Morten Renslo Sandvik Sognsvann, January 2020 i Summary Doping in elite sport is commonly understood as a moral problem. In line with this view, anti- doping work is set out to protect ‘clean’ athletes and ‘the spirit of sport’ from individual athletes’ and accomplices’ lack of moral rectitude. Arguably, such ‘moralized’ and dogmatic descriptions of doping and anti-doping have warranted the development of a sophisticated control regime of biological testing and surveillance: a regime which raises numerous ethical concerns. Moreover, these descriptions have influenced a public anti-doping discourse of scandalization, mistrust and stigmatization. The main aim of this dissertation is to develop and examine the implications of a philosophical understanding of anti-doping that challenges the dogmatic descriptions and addresses the ethical issues of current anti-doping policy and discourse. Towards this aim, the philosophical methodology of redescription is employed. This approach draws on the neo- pragmatism of Richard Rorty. The main impetus of Rortyan redescription is the deepening and widening of solidarity. Thus, the dissertation endeavors to develop and examine the implications of a philosophy of anti-doping as solidarity. Four individual papers contribute towards the main aim. Paper 1 places anti-doping within a wider, historically qualified and fallibilistic endorsement of liberal values. The paper develops and examines the implications of ‘ironism’ as a philosophical basis for anti-doping commitment. It suggests that ironism contributes to more compassionate forms of commitment: more tolerant of intentionally doping athletes as persons and more aware of sport organizations’ responsibilities to all athletes. Paper 2 develops a philosophical basis for sport organizations’ anti-doping policy and rhetoric. Redescribing ‘fair play’ as athletes’ expression of loyalty to larger groups, the paper inserts a picture of sport organizations such as the International Olympic Committee, as coordinating bodies of larger groups that appeal, through policy and rhetoric, to athletes’ larger loyalty. Anti-doping policy and rhetoric, in this picture, are developed and critically scrutinized according to their potential for fostering a sense of common interest, interdependence, and reciprocal trust across larger sporting communities. Paper 3 examines whether, and if so how, the purposes of redescription can be served by doping-related stories, playing out in elite sport, narrated through the media and enacted by celebrity-athletes. The paper discusses two stories about athletes sanctioned for doping, interpreted as redescriptive narratives challenging dogmatic descriptions prevailing in respective sporting communities. The story of Justin Gatlin is seen to communicate to the ii international athletics community the idea that after serving a suspension, it makes sense for an athlete to be included as ‘one of “us”’. Similarly, the paper suggests that the story of Therese Johaug conveys to the Norwegian sporting community that some of these athletes remain ‘one of “us”’ throughout the judicial process. Paper 4 addresses the ‘confession dilemma’ faced by former elite athletes pondering upon the question of whether to publicly confess to doping. The paper sheds light on the dissertation’s main aim by rendering visible ethical problems with the dogmatic, moralized descriptions and introducing the idea of redescription as a means to foster and cultivate alternative understandings of doping-related dilemmas. Overall, the dissertation aspires to show that, conditional upon further development and refinement, there is promise to the philosophical understanding of anti-doping as solidarity. As a main contribution, the dissertation proposes the idea that for anti-doping policy and discourse to progress towards solidarity, what is needed in the current situation are ‘sociological’ redescriptions that draw attention to doping as a social phenomenon, playing out in social networks, fostered and made possible by the social structures of elite sport. Such redescriptions can alter the course of sport communities’ conversations away from prevailing moralized descriptions of doping and anti-doping, towards a wider discourse of cultural and political change in the organization of elite sport. iii Sammendrag Doping i toppidrett anses gjerne som et moralsk problem. I tråd med dette synet er antidopingarbeid ment å beskytte «rene» utøvere og «idrettens ånd» mot andres mangel på moralsk rettskaffenhet. Slike «moraliserte», dogmatiske beskrivelser av doping og antidoping har ligget til grunn for utviklingen av et sofistikert kontrollregime basert på biologisk testing og overvåkning. Antidopingens kontrollregime er forbundet med en rekke etiske problemstillinger. Videre har beskrivelsene bidratt til en offentlig antidopingdiskurs preget av skandalisering, mistro og stigmatisering. Hovedmålet med avhandlingen er å utvikle, og undersøke følgene av, en filosofisk forståelse av antidoping som utfordrer de dogmatiske beskrivelsene og adresserer de etiske problemstillingene knytet til rådende antidopingpolitikk og -diskurs. Til dette formål er «ombeskrivelse» tatt i bruk som en nyttig filosofisk metodologi. Tilnærmingen bygger på Richard Rortys nypragmatisme. Den viktigste drivkraften i Rortyansk ombeskrivelse er ønsket om å utdype og utvide solidaritet. Avhandlingen tar derfor sikte på å utvikle en filosofisk forståelse av antidoping som solidaritet. Fire selvstendige artikler bidrar mot hovedmålet. Artikkel 1 plasserer antidoping som et etisk standpunkt innenfor en bredere, historisk kvalifisert og feilbarlig tilknytning til liberale verdier. Artikkelen utvikler og undersøker følgene av å forankre antidopingforpliktelser til en «ironisk» filosofi. Artikkelen viser at ironi er velegnet til å forme forpliktelser som er mer medfølende, mer tolerante overfor dopede utøvere som mennesker og mer bevisste på idrettsorganisasjoners ansvar overfor alle utøvere. Artikkel 2 utvikler et filosofisk grunnlag for idrettsorganisasjoners antidopingpolitikk og -retorikk. Ved å ombeskrive «fair play» som utøveres uttrykk for en større lojalitet tegner artikkelen et bilde av idrettsorganisasjoner, slik som den Internasjonale olympiske komité, som koordinerende enheter som appellerer til utøveres større lojalitet gjennom hensiktsmessig politikk og retorikk. I dette bildet utvikles og evalueres antidopingpolitikk og -retorikk utfra sitt bidrag til å tydeliggjøre følelsen av fellesinteresse, gjensidig avhengighet og gjensidig tillit på tvers av større idrettsfellesskap. Artikkel 3 undersøker hvorvidt og hvordan dopingrelaterte fortellinger, utspilt i toppidretten, fortalt gjennom media og rollebesatt av idrettsberømtheter, kan bidra til ombeskrivelsens formål. Artikkelen tolker to fortellinger om utøvere som har vært utestengt for doping, som «ombeskrivende narrativer» som utfordrer dogmatiske beskrivelser i respektive idrettsfellesskap. Fortellingen om Justin Gatlin formidler for det internasjonale iv friidrettsfellesskapet at det gir mening at utøvere inkluderes som «én av ‘oss’» etter endt utestengelse. Fortellingen om Therese Johaug formidler til et norsk idrettsfellesskap en idé om at dopingtatte utøvere forblir en del av fellesskapet gjennom den juridiske prosessen. Artikkel 4 diskuterer «tilståelsesdilemmaet» idrettsberømtheter som har brukt doping kan stå overfor. Artikkelen kaster lys på avhandlingens hovedmål ved å fremheve etiske utfordringer knyttet til moraliserte, dogmatiske beskrivelser, og ved å introdusere idéen om ombeskrivelse som et nyttig verktøy for å få frem nye og mer hensiktsmessige forståelser av doping og antidoping. Alt i alt viser avhandlingen at en filosofisk forståelse av antidoping som solidaritet kan være fruktbar. Som sitt kanskje viktigste bidrag formidler avhandlingen at antidopingpolitikken og -diskursens videre utvikling i en solidarisk retning avhenger av «sosiologiske» ombeskrivelser av doping som sosialt fenomen, utspilt i sosiale nettverk og muliggjort av toppidrettens sosiale strukturer. Slike ombeskrivelser kan bidra til å skifte ut moraliserte og dogmatiske beskrivelser av doping og antidoping, til fordel for en bredere samtale om kulturell og politisk endring i organiseringen av toppidrett. v List of papers Paper 1 Sandvik,
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