The Role of Culture in International Relations Theories

International Journal of Political Science ISSN: 2228-6217 Vol.7, No 3, Autumn 2017, (pp.94-60)

Hassan Khodaverdi1 , Yosef Shahmohammadi *2 1Assistant professor, Islamic Azad University, Ashtian Branch, Ashtian, Iran 2 PhD Candidate of International Relations, Islamic Azad University, South Tehran Branch, Tehran, Iran

Received: 10 Dec 2016 ; Accepted: 12 July 2017

Abstract: The study of culture in international relations theories takes a wide range of complex issues, which without enough perception about these issues, certainly our understanding about the role of culture in international relations theories will be incomplete. Since in real world the study of international affairs is best understood as traditional competition between traditional mainstream theories like realism and liberalism, some special concepts like culture has been neglected, but after that when we reach to middle way and sub- theories of international relations we can see that the considering importance of culture has been growing and this concept has now become a permanent feature of these legged theories and international relations arena. This paper tries to introduce culture as an important concept in mainstream, middle way and sub-theories of international relations. After studying about the subject, the authors reached to this conclusion that, despite being ignored in traditional theories, culture has extensive role in all international relations theories and only with considering the political, security and economical issues, we won't be able to understand the realities of political events in field of international relations, So we need other concepts like 'culture' to be able to analyze the political international issues. This paper has been prepared with descriptive-analytical method, and for gathering information, li- brary- documents and World Wide Web have been used.

Keywords: Culture, International Relations Theories, Traditional theories.

Introduction we cannot bring a full explanation about the Culture is Important for human beings, but concept of culture. the use of it as an analytical tool could be Culture consists of patterns, explicit and difficult. The main challenge about the cul- implicit, of and for behavior acquired and ture is that, Culture is a complex concept. transmitted by symbols, constituting the dis- Sociologists for the term of 'Culture' have tinctive achievements of human groups, in- mentioned about five hundred meanings, but cluding their embodiment in artifacts. The

* Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected] 50

The Role of Culture in International Relations Theories

essential core of culture consists of tradition- 'Culture' is difficult to define but an easily al (i.e. historically derived and selected) ideas understood and important concept in interna- and especially their attached values. Culture tional affairs. At the basic level culture is 'the systems may, on the one hand, be considered human made part of the environment' which as products of action, on the other, as condi- can be communicated, and which provides tional elements of future action (Adler, 1997: the patterns, meanings and knowledge of 14). Culture is considered the full range of human activity socially and in relation to the learned human behavior patterns (Human world (Hudson, 1997: 3-4). Culture). Over time, cultures have clashed mainstream International theories like: and created better, stable cultures .Cultures Realism, Liberalism, Neo- liberalism, neo- are always adapting to the situations and is- liberalism are useful tools to understand the sues it is presented with. Through various concepts like power, security, state and etc, levels, culture can take on different meanings but if we want to study the inter- subjective and contexts in areas such as biology, arts, concepts like “Culture”, lagged theories of mathematics, etc (Matthes, 2010: 1). international relations like Constructivism, Culture is a notoriously difficult term to English School, Critical theory, Structural- define. In 1952, the American anthropolo- ism, Post- modernism and the other recent gists, Kroeber and Kluckhohn, critically re- theories are more suitable. viewed concepts and definitions of culture, In studying about the concept of culture and compiled a list of 164 different defini- in international relations we should note tions (Spencer-Oatey, 2012: 1). Apte (1994), that, whether culture matters in the construc- writing in the 10-volume Encyclopedia of tion of international relations theories. Language and Linguistics, summarized the Mainstream American international relations problem as follows: ‘Despite a century of theories often claim to be universal, but in efforts to define culture adequately, there was fact, they are rooted in American culture, in the early 1990s no agreement among an- practices, and problems. That is why Inter- thropologists regarding its nature (Apte, national Relations are called “an American 1994: 2000-2001). social science,” as Professor Stanley Hoff- When we want to study a Special concept mann has pointed out (Hoffman, 1995: 215). in international relations, wide range of theo- If we agree that social theory is heavily de- ries should be studied from Realism and Lib- pendent upon the history, experience, and eralism to Constructivism, English School, practice of people, we need to recognize that Critical Approaches and the others. It is ob- culture matters in theoretical innovation and vious that when we want to study some spe- evolution. Theory requires a certain degree cial concepts in international theories like of universality, as the rational choice theory 'government', without any problem we can has demonstrated, but any social theory notice their effects and study them, but some starts locally from the everyday practice of complicated concepts like 'Culture' -which is the people of a cultural community. In the an important concept in international theories study of international systems, therefore, and affairs- is difficult to define easily. culture matters (Yaqing, 2013: 69).

International Journal of Political Science, Vol.7, No 3, Autumn 2017

In recent theories of international rela- Culture and mainstream Theories of In- tions, we can realize that culture is making a ternational Relations comeback as a concept in international rela- In mainstream Theories of International Rela- tions. In addition, it is not merely through tions (Realism, Liberalism, Neo- Realism, manifestations of chauvinism in nationalist neoliberalism and …, in general as Ration- politics; not just states saying ‘my culture is alists in International Theories) due to ac- better than you’. The influence of culture in cepting positivistic point of views and sepa- future will be felt in a few layers deeper. It ration of Science from value, believe that will make an impact through values Culture is not an important element in inter- (Pethiyagoda, 2014). national relations theories to be paid atten- In this paper, briefly the authors try to ex- tion. They believe that sub- domain of inter- amine the concept of 'culture' in international national relations are more related to the con- relations theories. cept of culture and non- materialistic ele- Because each various theories of interna- ments. tional relations have its different approach to The mainstream of international relations the concept of 'culture', it makes it difficult to focuses on a principally state-level analysis analyze and understand easily. and knows the structure of International Sys- The main question of this paper is that, tem as the fundamental factor in analysis of what is the role of culture as a concept in in- International Relations, which is in a state of ternational relations theories? anarchy. Most researchers of International In this article, we discuss about the role of Relations believe that anarchy under the in- culture as a concept in international relations fluence of environment of bottlenecks and theories in three-separated part. In first part we ruling circumstances can be created. Hence in discuss about the Culture in mainstream Theo- studies that revolves around the International ries of International Relation, in the second part anarchy, recognition of the ruling political we discuss about it in sub- theories of interna- culture on international system as the basic tional relations and in third part we talk about pillar of the anarchy seems to be necessary culture in middle way theories of international (Hamshahri Diplomatic, 2004). relations and at the end we can reach to this Generally, International Relations theories answer that culture as an important concept in can be considered as an arena for cultural international relations, has extensive role in all operation, which in that, theorists within a international relations. It is true that this con- particular approach try to make myths about cept and its role has been neglected in main- the categories of international politics. For stream theories, but with detailed studying in example in Realism, while we explain inter- mainstream theories of international relations national behavioral pattern according to anar- we can see that only with considering the polit- chism, we create conflict and fear of security ical, security and economical issues, we can't dilemma, which can explain a player's behav- achieve into depth understanding of interna- ior within anarchy and at the end, lead to tional relations, So we need other theories in special cultural behavior. This cultural be- international theories like middle way theories havior is the basis of lack of security, distrust and sub- theories to understand about the role to others, self- interest and reduction of co- of culture and its importance in international operations in international relations. As well relations theories. as, from the perspective of Liberalism, for-

The Role of Culture in International Relations Theories

mation of international community through Marxist theory. Marxist views on power and overcoming to the aspects of anarchy and social formations have influenced radically as international policy change from the state of a direction to public discourses on cultural conflict to cooperation, create another type of and social theories. Though the disintegration cultural behavior in international relations of USSR1 and Eastern European communist which is on base of cooperation. In other nations, the liberalization of Chinese and Vi- words, the structure of international system etnamese economies, the influence of radical has tried to make a special culture and pre- Islam are often noted as the demise of Marx- scribes a special norm to the players. In this ist ideals, Marxian propositions continue to process sociability of fear, conflict and impact the theoretical understanding of cul- excessive unrest remains as the main features tural privilege, oppression, social setting and of international policy. (Ghavam, 2005: 298) social formations in contemporary culture. Neo- realist theorists in their studies in this The emergence of cultural studies in the latter field believe that international relations cul- part of the 20th century influenced the variety tural normative environment has negative and of approaches to the study of society and cul- positive effects on system components. For- ture. Marxian theorists like Georg Lukas, eign perceptions and behaviors of the states Antonio Gramsci, Ernst Bloch, Walter Ben- are heavily influenced by normative space jamin Adorno, Althusser, Frederic Jameson dominate the international system (Hamshah- and Terry Eagleton employed Marxian theory ri Diplomatic 2004). Understanding that to investigate varied cultural forms and its normative conditions are important to ana- interconnection to economy and history. (Raj, lyze the player's relations in international sys- 2014: 89) tem environment. The Marxian approach that highlights the It is important to know that Constructiv- study of the interconnection between culture, ism, however, is increasingly becoming economics and politics within determined mainstream. (Burchill et al, 2005: 209-210) historical context eventually originated from However, we will study the concept of cul- capitalism. Capitalism is systemic and con- ture in Constructivism separately in another note to the production through human labor part of this paper in theories of middle way where labor power is commoditized and ex- and as we studied the role of culture in main- changed for value (other commodities). Capi- stream theories in this paper, we thought talism, to stay alive, has to depend on “the about theories like Realism, Liberalism, Neo- value of the commodities which the laborer liberalism, neoliberalism. receives for labor force has to be less than the value of labor power itself, even though these Culture and sub- Theories of International commodities are produced by labor force”. Relations (Valentine, 2006: 55) Culture and Marxism theory The distinction between labor value and One of the central concerns of contemporary commodity value is a surplus that associates cultural studies is power. Cultural studies profit and extra capital advanced in the pro- take its cue to the critique of power from duction of commodities. Built on disparity,

1.Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

International Journal of Political Science, Vol.7, No 3, Autumn 2017 capitalism is ethically arranged where oppo- analyze cultural forms in relation to their site classes are obtained from their intercon- production, their imbrications with society nection to production: a) bourgeoisie who and history, and their impact and influences experience the advantages b) the proletariat on audiences and social life. Traditions of who experience deprivation. To place the two cultural Marxism are thus important to the classes in opposition creates noteworthy po- trajectory of cultural studies and to under- litical and economical dimensions that con- standing its various types and forms in the tribute to the understanding of culture in a present age. (Kellner, 2013: 1) society. Post-Marxists, though, do not direct- Marx and Engels rarely wrote in much de- ly emphasize on and delineate culture as a tail on the cultural phenomena that they tend- form of social life, they agree on the mani- ed to mention in passing. The economic base fold ways of power relations that comprise of society for Marx and Engels consisted of culture that is politically and economically the forces and relations of production in determined through oppositions, contesta- which culture and ideology are constructed to tions and connections of authority. However, help secure the dominance of ruling social culture assumes a non-figurative theoretical groups. In general, for a Marxian approach, value through these writers that is methodical cultural forms always emerge in specific his- and categorized social production of meaning torical situations, serving particular socio- and value. The self-configurative role of cul- economic interests and carrying out im- ture from politics and economy as part of portant social functions. For Marx and En- capitalism carries the notion regarding the gels, the cultural ideas of an epoch serve the culture that is formed by politics and econo- interests of the ruling class, providing ideolo- my through culture. One may not be able to gies that legitimate class domination. eliminate culture out of the economic and the (Kellner, 2013: 1-2) political because culture is consequential and Many later cultural Marxists although intersected not withstanding in diverse ways. tended to ascribe more autonomy and import (Raj, 2014: 90) to culture than in classical Marxism. While Many different versions of cultural stud- Marx’s writings abound with literary refer- ies have emerged in the past decades. While ence and figures, he never developed sus- during its dramatic period of global expan- tained models of cultural analysis. Instead, sion in the 1980s and 1990s, cultural studies Marx focused his intellectual and political were often identified with the approach to energies on analyzing the capitalist mode of culture and society developed by the Centre production, current economic developments for Contemporary Cultural Studies in Bir- and political struggles, and vicissitudes of the mingham, England, their sociological, mate- world market and modern societies now theo- rialist, and political approaches to culture had rized as “globalization” and “modernity”. predecessors in a number of currents of cul- (Kellner, 2013: 1-2) tural Marxism. Many 20th century Marxian theorists ranging from Georg Lukas, Antonio Culture and Critical Theory1 Gramsci, Ernst Bloch, Walter Benjamin, and ‘Critical Theory’ names the so-called Frank- T.W. Adorno to Fredric Jameson and Terry furt School – the tradition associated with the Eagleton employed the Marxian theory to Institute of Social Research was founded in

1.So- Called Frankfurt School

The Role of Culture in International Relations Theories

Frankfurt in 1924. According to Critical The- "critical" constructivist, critical theory (in the ory, the point of philosophy is that it can con- strict sense used by the Frankfurt tribute to a critical and emancipator social school), neo-Gramscian, most Feminist, and theory. The specification of that idea depends some English school approaches, as well as upon which Critical Theory is at issue; Criti- non- Weberian historical sociology. (Hobden cal Theory is an extended and somewhat di- and Hobson, 2002: 142) verse tradition. Its first generation included The endeavor of critical theory is to en- Adorno, Max Horkheimer and Herbert Mar- dorse self-reflexive examinations of the expe- cuse. Most of the members of this generation riences we have and the ways in which we had Jewish backgrounds and for that reason make sense of our cultures, the world, and and because the Institute was Marxist, the ourselves. (Patrasco, Wani, 2015: 389) first generation fled the Nazis. The Institute Critical theory wants to answer to this re-opened in Frankfurt in 1950. Within the question that, How Capitalism wants to re- second generation, the most prominent fig- produce itself through cultural issue. This ures are Jürgen Habermas and Albrecht theory believes that modern capitalism has Wellmer. Within the third, Axel Honneth is been able to overcome many contradictions the best known. There is a fourth generation and crises when it was facing with them. One too. Moreover, there were stages or phases of the issues that facilitated this process is the within the first generation. Following Dubiel culture industry that meets the false require- (1985), we may distinguish, within that gen- ment and represses actual requirements. The eration: (i) an initial stage (1924 to around orientation of critical theory is toward the 1930) in which the school was more tradi- cultural level and what is called the realities tionally Marxist than it was subsequently; (ii) of modern capitalist society. With this mean- a “materialist” stage (1930–1937); (iii) a ing that, the central dominance of the modern stage (1937–1940) that began with the adop- world transferred from economy to cultural tion of the label “Critical Theory”; and (iv) territory. Critical school believes on cultural the “critique of instrumental reason” (1940– repression in modern society. They believe 1945). The treatment of first generation Criti- that this dominance is done with cultural el- cal Theory that follows confines itself to iii ements than economic elements. and IV. (Joll, 2014: 180) Return to normative ethics in international Critical theory in international relations is a relations is considered the main characteris- diverse set of schools of thought tics of critical theory. (Brown, 1992: 196) in international relations that have criticized the Reducing the global inequalities, establishing theoretical, meta-theoretical and/or politi- justice in the world, respecting to diversities cal status quo, both in international relations and differences are from the considering theory and in international politics more broad- points of critical theorists in international ly- from positivist as well as post positiv- development facilities and at the same time ist positions. Positivist critiques include Marxist paying attention to cultural positions of peo- and neo-Marxist approaches and certain strands ple -and to this note that their interests and of social constructivism. Post positivist cri- objectives are defined in a social form- is tiques include poststructuralist, postcolonial, very important. (Linklater, 1982: 8)

International Journal of Political Science, Vol.7, No 3, Autumn 2017

This issue that we have cultural diversi- Culture as an important concept in con- ties, how we should have hope to change the structivism is the newest fad sweeping the status quo and after that in order to replace a literature on international relations, security new order, how we can achieve to public studies and international economies. A moral principles which are accepted by all throng of recent essays and books point to people, is important for critical theorists. culture as the basic force impelling nation- (Moshirzadeh, 2014: 239) states, other institutions and individuals to act From the perspective of critical theory, di- organize themselves as they do. Many of alogue as a tool in different levels especially these writing argue that culture's important is at the inter cultural level, can lead to a new growing. (Mazarr, 1996: 177) understanding of global politics. Gramsci in Explaining the role and place of culture in this field believes that in discussing about the international relations is very important. Es- changes in international relations, this issue pecially, proposing the recent theories in in- finds cultural dimension too. Gramsci sees ternational relations has led to strengthening the comprehensive transformation of social the role of culture as a basis for analyzing reality through a "mutual culture". (Rupert, international issues. While, classical thinkers 1993: 79) and scholars of international relations have emphasized on the political, security and Culture and Middle way theories of Inter- economic areas to explain the factors affect- national Relations ing the international issues, some of them Culture and Constructivism have found that achieving the depth of inter- constructivism is a “social theory of international relations is possible only with con- national politics” that emphasizes the so- sidering these areas. This group of thinkers cial construction of world affairs” as op- seeks the answers of their questions within posed to the claim of (neo) realists that inter- their culture and cultural issues and decided national politics is shaped by the rational- to pay a special attention to the cultural is- choice behavior/decisions of egoist actors sues in addition to adoption of major politi- who pursue their interests by making utilitar- cal, security and economic factors, and study ian calculations to maximize their benefits this important dimension of social life in in- and minimize their losses, hence the material- ternational relations. These thinkers see the ity of international structures. (Went, 1994: culture as an important phenomenon that is 385) hidden in the perspective of classical think- In the Constructivism, the variables of in- ers. Their main criticism is to the previous terest like military power, trade relations, theories that have not paid attention to the international institutions, or domestic prefer- role of culture at the international relations. ences are not important because they are ob- Theses scholars for explaining the interna- jective facts about the world, but rather be- tional issues with considering the culture because they have certain social meanings. This side the political, security and economical meaning is constructed from a complex and issues led to emergence of two ideas. Some specific mix of history, ideas, norms, and people construed culture as the area of con- beliefs which scholars must understand if flict and the foundation of tensions in the in- they are to explain State behavior. (Wendt, ternational relations area and somebody in 1995: 71-81) contrast to the first group believe that culture

The Role of Culture in International Relations Theories

is the area of dialogue, interaction and inte- decisive role in determining the interests of a gration in the field of international relations. country, Pouliot knows, Constructivism pos- Thus, it appears that the place of Constructiv- sessing a certain way of reasoning that is ism theory is unique. (Jansiz & Fasihi based on the meta-theoretical commitments Moghaddam Lakani, 2015: 22-23) and assumptions like the possibility of recog- Constructivism is a met theoretical model nition despite its construction, the coincided in social science and an in-depth analysis of importance of material and immaterial reali- issues of ontology and epistemology that its ties and the emphasis on the construction of followers can be located in the middle of the social reality and the existence of interactive two main parts, i.e., realism and liberalism in formative relationship between knowledge terms of met theoretical model concepts in and social reality. (Pouliot, 2007: 361) In the mid-range of naturalists/ positivists on the fact, ignoring the impact of culture and iden- one hand and poststructuralists on the other tity as a social phenomenon and an important hand and in the substantive issues of Interna- factor in determining the interests and foreign tional Relations. (Moshirzadeh, 2011: 323) policy of countries is one of the most im- This approach uses the constructed and portant constructivists' critics to the main- changing nature of identity, opportunity and stream theories. (Lapid, 2001: 15) possibility of change in the international sys- It should be noted that Constructivism tem (Mansbach, 2002: 1-2) and by challeng- theorists are divided into several types based ing the assumptions of rational ontology, of- on the level of analysis, methods and strate- fers an approach based on principles and dif- gies. Ted Hopf divides the non-essential cur- ferent assumptions of the original currents rent or critical views of International Rela- and tries to delineate how factors such as cul- tions at the two categories of extreme Con- ture, religion, ethnicity, gender, race and na- structivists and conventional Constructivists. tionalism affect the foreign policy through an (Hopf, 1998: 171) While, conventional Con- "Approach to Identity Politics". (Dehqani structivists are divided to three categories of Firoozabadi, 2009: 43) "systemic", "unit level" and "holistic" in Constructivists for analyzing foreign poli- terms of analysis level. Alexander Wendt as cy of the countries and investigating the ma- the most important systemic Constructivist, terialization of their interests in the interna- knows this level of analysis enjoying a social tional system, instead of focusing on the nature and believes that mental vision struc- goals the governments are pursuing in the ture of the international system is based on a international system, try to investigate the common understanding that have a funda- definition that each state offers about its iden- mental role in shaping the identity and subse- tity to specify the goals and interests they are quently delineating the interests of states. following in the international system. (Ku- (Wendt, 1999: 385) Peter Katzeneshtein em- balkova, 2001: 115) Because in Constructiv- phasizes on the internal factors of developing ists’ idea "identity" is a set of beliefs about the identity of the government. (Smith, 2001: “self”, “others” and the interactions between 235) He believes that culture, shaping and them (Fearon& Wendt, 2005: 64) and is arranging are crucial in the definition of strongly influenced by culture and plays a "self", "other", interests, and orientations and

International Journal of Political Science, Vol.7, No 3, Autumn 2017 behavior of foreign policy of a state in the In English school many scholars like F. S. international area. (Katzeneshtein, 1998: 28) C. Northrop, Adda Bozeman, Hedley Bull, In fact, it is an originally “cultural” theory Michael Don élan and the others has studied of international politics explained by differ- the concept of culture as an important issue ent “cultures of anarchy” constructed by in international relations. They have paid at- states themselves, which challenges the “on- tention to cultural differences and have stud- tological atomism” and “epistemological pos- ied international system as a special kind of itivism” both Neorealism and Neoliberalism "political society" with the name of "interna- as traditional theories of international rela- tional community". (Walker, 1990: 7) Alt- tions share in principle. (Griffiths, 1999: 200) hough the international system is considered As a social theory, constructivism contests beyond national system which is based on materialism by hypothesizing the structures common identity in defined territory borders, of human association as “primarily cultural but includes norms, rules, unwritten rules, rather than material phenomena,” and ration- legal procedures and in fact diplomatic and alism by arguing for their function as not on- trade cultures which in practical is acceptable ly behavior-regulating but also identity- and to all who are operating in international envi- interest-constructing, though “material forc- ronment. Studding about the analysis's about es,” it admits, “still matter,” and “people,” it the nature of international relationships, con- acknowledges, “are still intentional actors.” nections and human right and its impacts on What it strives to illuminate, however, is that the formation of foreign policy shows that the meanings of these forces and intentionali- culture -with its different concepts- has per- ty’s of these actors “depend largely on the manent presence in this analysis. (Salimi, shared ideas in which they are embedded, 1378: 59) and as such culture is a condition of possibil- It can be said that English school by re- ity for power and interest explanations. plying on immaterial and dialogic aspects of (Went, 1999: 193)” international relations, emphasize on the role of culture, rules and norms and paying atten- Culture and English school tion to normative dimension of international The English School theory in international political life and consequently with paying relations came out of the post World War II attention to existing facilities to transform era, where many writers working in Britain relations -in order to built a fairer interna- began looking for alternatives to the realist tional political life- tries to make a middle and liberalist viewpoint of international rela- way in met theoretical issues that along with tions. Thus, the early thinkers aimed to pro- other middle way theories can provide a mote a new way of thinking “that viewed proper context for theoretical and research international society as a middle way be- studies in international relations field. tween realist accounts of systemic logics and For a long time The English school mem- revolutionist accounts that plotted the down- bers in international relations were paying fall of the state system as a whole”. (Dunne, attention to cultural diversities in internation- 2011: 4) The English School maintains that al policy arena and we can say that post there is a 'society of states' at the international ahead of postmodernism, they have noticed level, despite the condition of anarchy. about that. (Burchill et al, 2005: 158) (Buzan, 2004: 112)

The Role of Culture in International Relations Theories

Conclusion cultural norms and values in field of interna- In this paper, we clarified the importance of tional relations. culture as a concept in international relations theories and provided a systematic review References about the concept of culture, pursued by dif- Adler, N. (1997), International Dimensions of ferent scholars in international relations theo- Organizational Behavior. Third Ed. ries. During the discussions presented in this Ohio: South-Western College Publishing paper, we discussed about the role of culture Apte, M. (1994), Language in Socio- cultural as a concept in international relations theories Context. In: R. E. Asher (Ed.), the En- in three-separated part. In first part we stud- cyclopedia of Language and Linguis- ied about the Culture in mainstream Theories tics. Vol.4 (pp. 2000-2010). Oxford: of International Relation, in the second part, Pergamon Press we studied this concept in sub- theories of Brown, C. (1992), International Relations international relations and in third part; we Theory: New Normative Approaches, talked about culture in middle way theories New York: Colombia University press of international relations. As the main ques- Burchill et al. (2005), Theories of Interna- tion of this paper is about the role of culture tional Relations, Translation of as a concept in international relations theo- Moshirzadeh, Homeyra and Talebi ries, at the end we can reach to this answer Sayyad, Roohollah, Mizan Publication. that, despite being ignored in traditional theo- Tehran ries, culture as an important concept in inter- Buzan, Barry. (2004), from international to national relations, has important role in all world society? English School Theory international relations especially in lagged and the Social Structure of Globaliza- and recent theories and only with considering tion. Cambridge: Cambridge Universi- the political, security and economical issues, ty Press we won't be able to understand the realities of Dunne, T. (2011), The English School, political events in field of international rela- Handbooks Online, Oxford, July, tions, So we need other concepts like “cul- 2011.Available ture” to be able to analyze the political inter- Online: http://www.oxfordhandbooks.c national issues. om/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/978019960 We should note that, the concept of cul- 4456.001.0001/oxfordhb- ture is one of the most complex and contro- 9780199604456-e-034?print=pdf versial concepts not only in international re- Ghavam, Abdolali. (2005), "Culture, Forgot- lations, but also in the other branches of po- ten Sector or Natural Element of Inter- litical sciences and until now we haven't had national Relations", Foreign policy any comprehensive definition about the con- Journal, year 19th cept of culture to be acceptable to all schol- Griffiths, Martin. (1999), Fifty Key Thinkers ars, so if we want to have complete and accu- in International Relations (London and rate knowledge about this concept in interna- New York: Routledge Publisher tional relations theories, we should consider Hamshahri Diplomatic (2004), "International all the aspects of culture and respect to all Hierarchical Participation Culture

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The Role of Culture in International Relations Theories

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