Rebellious Religion: Christian Hardcore and Muslim ‘Taqwacore’ Punk Rock
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Rebellious Religion: Christian Hardcore and Muslim ‘Taqwacore’ Punk Rock by Amy Denise McDowell Bachelor of Arts, University of Colorado-Colorado Springs, 2006 Master of Arts, University of Pittsburgh, 2008 Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Kenneth P. Dietrich School of Arts and Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Pittsburgh 2014 UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH KENNETH P. DIETRICH SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SCIENCES This dissertation was presented by Amy D. McDowell It was defended on December 17th, 2013 and approved by Mohammed Bamyeh, Professor, Sociology Akiko Hashimoto, Associate Professor, Sociology Paula M. Kane, Associate Professor, Religious Studies Dissertation Advisor: Kathleen Blee, Distinguished Professor, Sociology ii Copyright © by Amy Denise McDowell 2014 iii Rebellious Religion: Christian Hardcore and Muslim ‘Taqwacore’ Punk Rock Amy Denise McDowell, PhD University of Pittsburgh, 2014 This study shows how U.S. Christian Hardcore and Muslim ‘Taqwacore’ (taqwa means ‘god consciousness’ in Arabic) youth fuse traditional religions and punk rock music outside of religious institutions. It is part of a new cultural turn in the sociological study of religion that regards religion and secular culture as potentially interactive and mutually reinforcing. I examine the process by which both groups adapt D.I.Y. (do-it-yourself) hardcore punk to make religion their own; how they present themselves as religious/punk in subcultural settings; and how they define themselves internally as well as externally. To understand how Christian Hardcore and Taqwacore youth bridge religion and punk, I collected ethnographic data from intensive interviews, participant observations, surveys of audience members, and artifacts such as albums, films, images, newspaper articles, and websites about these two music scenes. I find that Christian Hardcore and Taqwacore youth both draw on the oppositional aspects of hardcore punk to combine religion and punk. Yet their relationships to religious and social institutions shape how they use hardcore punk. Christian Hardcore youth are influenced by the white Protestant evangelical institutions that support their music as a ministry. They oppose the “mainstream church” that condemns their punk music and the “anti-Christian” punks who reject them for being Christian. Taqwacores face a much different set of challenges. They are rejected from traditional Islamic institutions, American society, and white dominated punk. Consequently, they oppose the very idea of Islam, America and punk. In conclusion, I argue that subcultural iv Christian and Muslim youth rebel against religious/secular boundaries to make religion their own and in effect challenge how scholars commonly study religion and religious identity. v To the memory of Dr. Mary F. Rogers. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE ................................................................................................................................. XIV 1.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 1 1.1 DESCRIPTION OF CASES ............................................................................... 2 1.1.1 Christian Hardcore.......................................................................................... 2 1.1.2 Taqwacore ........................................................................................................ 3 1.2 LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................... 5 1.2.1 U.S. Religion ..................................................................................................... 5 1.2.2 Punk Rock Music ............................................................................................. 7 1.3 DISSERTATION AIMS AND OUTLINE....................................................... 11 2.0 QUALITATIVE METHODS AND DATA .............................................................. 15 2.1.1 Entry into the field ......................................................................................... 16 2.1.2 Pretest ............................................................................................................. 17 2.1.3 Research Triangulation ................................................................................. 23 2.1.3.1 Participant Observation ..................................................................... 24 2.1.3.2 Mini-Survey ......................................................................................... 29 2.1.3.3 Interviews and Interviewees ............................................................... 30 2.1.3.4 Artifacts................................................................................................ 33 2.1.4 Data Analysis.................................................................................................. 36 vii 2.1.5 Research Ethics .............................................................................................. 38 2.1.6 Reflexivity and Rapport ................................................................................ 38 3.0 HARDCORE PIETY: “IT’S ABOUT MAKING RELIGION YOUR OWN” .... 41 3.1 BELIEFS ............................................................................................................ 42 3.1.1 Christian Hardcore Beliefs ........................................................................... 43 3.1.1.1 Authenticity ......................................................................................... 46 3.1.2 Taqwacore Beliefs .......................................................................................... 50 3.1.2.1 Authenticity ......................................................................................... 56 3.1.3 Discussion of Beliefs....................................................................................... 60 3.2 PRACTICES ...................................................................................................... 62 3.2.1 Christian Hardcore Practices ....................................................................... 62 3.2.1.1 Mainstream Religion........................................................................... 63 3.2.1.2 Punk Religion ...................................................................................... 70 3.2.2 Taqwacore Practices ...................................................................................... 76 3.2.2.1 Mainstream America .......................................................................... 77 3.2.2.2 Mainstream Religion........................................................................... 79 3.2.2.3 Punk Religion ...................................................................................... 82 3.2.3 Discussion of Practices .................................................................................. 90 4.0 WARRIORS AND TERRORISTS: ANTAGONISM AS STRATEGY ............... 91 4.1 ANTAGONISM ................................................................................................. 94 4.1.1 Christian ‘Warriors’ ..................................................................................... 95 4.1.2 Muslim ‘Terrorists’ ..................................................................................... 104 4.1.3 Discussion of Antagonism ........................................................................... 113 viii 5.0 DEFINING CHRISTIAN HARDCORE AND TAQWACORE PUNK .............. 115 5.1 INTERNAL DEFINITIONS ........................................................................... 116 5.1.1 Christian Hardcore...................................................................................... 116 5.1.2 Taqwacore .................................................................................................... 127 5.1.3 Discussion of Internal Definitions .............................................................. 135 5.2 EXTERNAL DEFINITIONS .......................................................................... 136 5.2.1 Christian Hardcore...................................................................................... 139 5.2.1.1 Christian Bands ................................................................................. 141 5.2.1.2 Christians in a Band ......................................................................... 147 5.2.2 Taqwacore .................................................................................................... 148 5.2.3 Discussion of External Definitions ............................................................. 155 5.2.4 Conclusion of Definitions ............................................................................ 155 6.0 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 157 6.1 WHO OWNS HARDCORE PIETY? ............................................................ 159 6.2 BEYOND RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS ..................................................... 162 6.3 FUTURE STUDIES ......................................................................................... 166 APPENDIX A ............................................................................................................................ 168 APPENDIX B ............................................................................................................................ 170 APPENDIX C ...........................................................................................................................