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Introduction to Generative Syntax

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Introduction to generative syntax Xavier Villalba, Dept. de Filologia Catalana Foundations and Structure of Language. 2019-20 2 Contents 1 Constituent structure 7 1.1 The grounds for constituent structure . .7 1.1.1 Ambiguity . .7 1.2 Making a hypothesis . .8 1.3 Testing the hypothesis . .8 1.3.1 Case 1 . .8 1.3.2 Case 2 . 10 1.3.3 Case 3 . 11 1.4 Taking stock . 12 1.5 Beyond syntactic ambiguity . 13 1.5.1 Lexical ambiguity . 13 1.5.2 Vagueness . 14 1.6 Exercises . 14 2 X-bar Theory 17 2.1 Background . 17 2.2 The bare bones of X-bar theory . 18 2.2.1 Complements vs. adjuncts: transparency to extraction phenomena . 20 2.2.2 Complements vs. adjuncts: extraction from weak islands . 20 2.2.3 Complements vs. adjuncts: word order . 21 2.2.4 Complements vs. adjuncts: ellipsis phenomena . 22 2.3 Some refinements . 26 2.3.1 Binary branching . 26 2.3.2 Functional categories . 28 2.3.3 Sentences . 30 2.4 Conclusions . 32 2.5 Exercises . 32 3 C-command 37 3.1 Beyond precedence . 37 3.2 Binding theory . 40 3.2.1 Anaphors . 41 3.2.2 Pronouns . 43 3 4 CONTENTS 3.2.3 Referential expressions . 43 3.3 Adding binary branching to the picture . 44 3.4 Exercises . 47 4 Transformational rules 59 4.1 Classical transformational grammar . 60 4.1.1 Phrase structure grammar . 61 4.1.2 Deep Structure . 64 4.1.3 Transformational component . 64 4.1.4 Surface Structure . 65 4.2 Revising the framework . 66 4.2.1 Phrase structure grammar . 66 4.2.2 Deep structure . 66 4.2.3 Transformations . 67 4.2.4 S-structure . 74 4.3 The minimalist program . 75 4.3.1 Basic components . 76 4.3.2 Lexicon . 77 4.3.3 Operations . 78 4.3.4 Copy theory of movement . 80 4.3.5 Economy . 82 4.4 Conclusions . 86 4.5 Exercises . 86 5 Empty categories 89 5.1 Traces . 89 5.1.1 The internal subject hypothesis . 91 5.2 Null pronouns . 94 5.2.1 Subjects of nonfinite verbs . 94 5.2.2 Null subject languages . 94 5.3 Ellipsis . 96 5.3.1 Identity problems . 97 5.4 Exercises . 97 6 Sentence syntax 99 6.1 Intransitive verbs . 99 6.1.1 Unergatives and unaccusatives . 99 6.1.2 Formal proposal . 104 6.2 Transitives . 105 6.3 Class changes . 106 6.3.1 Passive . 107 6.3.2 Impersonals . 108 6.3.3 Causative alternation . 109 CONTENTS 5 6.3.4 Causative construction . 110 6.4 Summary . 111 6.5 Exercises . 113 7 The periphery of sentence 115 7.1 Wh-movement . 115 7.2 Evidence for further structure . 117 7.2.1 PP fronting and negative inversion . 117 7.2.2 Multiple complementizers . 117 7.3 Exercises . 119 6 CONTENTS Chapter 1 Constituent structure 1.1 The grounds for constituent structure 1.1.1 Ambiguity The key to understanding the role of constituent structure is recognizing the many cases of syntactic ambiguity.1 Consider a very simple example: (1) Old men and women will receive a money reimbursement. We can easily appreciate that this utterance has two different interpretations: (2) a. Old men and old women will receive a money reimbursement. b. Women and old men will receive a money reimbursement. This is a typical case of syntactic ambiguity, which we can describe in informal terms saying that the adjective old is related to the conjunct of men and women in the former case, and saying that it is only related to men in the latter. Yet, even these informal terms presuppose a hierarchical relation, for we need to relate old to another unit resulting from the combination of men and women: (3) a.[ α Old men ] and women will receive a money reimbursement. b.[ α Old [β men and women] ] will receive a money reimbursement. One can think of a simple rule for saying that an adjective modifies the first noun to its right, which works fine for (3)-a , but then we need the rule to identify β as ‘the first noun to its right’, which cannot be done on purely linear terms. Moreover, if we allow such a rule to affect any noun to its right, we would get into trouble with examples like the following: (4) I am a 22 year old man and women my age do not like me. 1On the differences between syntactic ambiguity, lexical ambiguity, and vagueness, see 1.5. 7 8 CHAPTER 1. CONSTITUENT STRUCTURE Here, it is pretty obvious that old just combines with man, whereas women is a different sentence. A surface linear analysis not taking constituent structre into account would predict the combination of [ old [ man and women ] ] to be possible, against fact. 1.2 Making a hypothesis Once we have confirmed that a syntactic ambiguity exists, we make a hypothesis, namely a proposal for analyzing the ambiguous sentence with as many different constituent structures as meanings are found. meaning 1 $ syntactic structure 1 meaning 2 $ syntactic structure 2 ...... meaning n $ syntactic structure n Table 1.1: Syntactic ambiguity Let’s take again the case considered before, where we are making the hypothesis that a different constituent structure is associated to each interpretation. In the first case, the adjective forms a constituent α with the noun to its right, but not with the constituent β: (5)[ α Old men ] and [β women ] will receive a money reimbursement. In the second case, the adjective forms a constituent a constituent α with a constituent β containing both nouns: (6)[ α Old [β men and women] ] will receive a money reimbursement. These two proposal are reasonable for they explain why the adjective old only affects men in (5), but men and women in (6). Now, we must test the hypothesis. 1.3 Testing the hypothesis Hypotheses (i.e. the syntactic analyses proposed) are tested empirically by checking the accuracy of their predictions. In syntactic terms, if we propose a particular constituent structure, which are the consequences of such a move regarding syntactic operations? 1.3.1 Case 1 Take the first meaning and its associated structure of the sentence introduced above, namely the one where the adjective old only affects men: (7)[ α Old men ] and [β women ] will receive a money reimbursement. 1.3. TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS 9 We can predict that if α is a real constituent –say a noun phrase– it will be affected as a whole by syntactic operations like movement. For instance, since the order of the coordinates by and is indifferent (Mary and John came = John and Mary came), we can predict that the change of order between old men and women will have no impact on the meaning of the sentence: (8) Women and [α old men ] will receive a money reimbursement. This is indeed the case: (8) retains the meaning where old just affects men. We can also expect this structure to associate with certain continuations ((9)-a), but not with others ((9)-b): (9)[ α Old men ] and [β women ] will receive a money reimbursement, so. a. young men will be discriminated again. b. #young women will be discriminated again. Obviously, since old is not affecting women, the continuation in (9)-b is a blatant contradiction. Since the predictions are correct, we could confirm that the hypothesis is on the right track, namely that old men do form a constituent. Consider now, the other meaning and its associated structure, namely the one where both men and women are old: (10)[ α Old [β men and women] ] will receive a money reimbursement. Here, rearranging the order of men and women will have no impact, and the same meaning will be obtained: (11)[ α Old [β women and men] ] will receive a money reimbursement. Let’s see now the possible continuations of this sentence: (12)[ α Old [β men and women] ] will receive a money reimbursement. a. young men will be discriminated again. b. young women will be discriminated again. As predicted from the structure, since the adjective affects both nouns, we are excluding from the reimbursement both young men and young women. Moreover, note that the syntactic structure is a typical case of distributive relation: (13) A × (B + C) = A × B + A × C As a consequence, we can predict that the following two sentences will be synonymous: (14)[ α Old [β men and women] ] will receive a money reimbursement. (15)[ α Old men ] and [β old women] will receive a money reimbursement. The prediction is borne out. 10 CHAPTER 1. CONSTITUENT STRUCTURE Hence, since the predictions we made for this analysis are confirmed, we can confirm our hypothesis that the constituent structure associated for this meaning.
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