Yellowstone Science A quarterly publication devoted to the natural and cultural resources

1960s Winter Atmospheric Research The Murie Legacy Is There Life in Well Y-7? Bear on Bear Predation

Volume 10 Number 4 COURTESY THE MURIE CENTER, MOOSE, WYOMING RJA Reflecting on the lives and work of work and Reflecting on the lives knowledge on which those in the future knowledge somehow,may build; Vin- I’m certain that to know be pleased cent Schaefer would that he shares these pages with John Spear et al., the tradition of carry on as they in a most unusual search for investigation life “beneath” Yellowstone. these people, the question arises, “What will we leave?”legacy As we mark Mardy birthday, 100th Murie’s thoughts are my back,drawn often are, as they to that after- under- noon at the Murie Ranch. I now stand why she tolerated, welcomed, even intrusions into her life and her so many fellow room. She made us feel like living travelers, colleagues who shared a worthy and protect the common vision to preserve no longer While her voice last best places. speaks out in the name of wilderness as it once did, she has nurtured generations after her to do the same, just as she carried no longer able. on for Olaus when he was As much as anything, this is the Murie legacy, and well––cookies, alive tea, and hope. I smile when I think of Mardy who in 1998,Washington, to journeyed D.C. to be honored with the Presidential Medal of Clinton leaned over As President Freedom. her wheelchair to place the medal around her neck, matriarch in this conservation her late-nineties, quitting, never never missing an opportunity, to the whispered president, to do.” work still have “We Yellowstone Sci- Yellowstone began to take shape, to take began a common In this issue, to three we pay tribute As the pages of this ence thread emerged, from its way weaving story to story:Yellowstone, that of legacy. itself, It is, is a legacy. if all goes well, a It is also forever. physical place preserved a testament of the importance of wildness to a people, their will to protect it and to Yellowstone,for future generations. the place and the idea, peo- has brought many Wyoming,ple to this corner of Idaho, and left; others come Montana. Some never Schaefer Vincent back year after year. a found a winter home here for over of a first decade thirty years ago. In the part series,two Thomas Brock chron- Dr. pioneering atmospheric icles Schaefer’s Yellowstone of his research and the legacy Research Expeditions. Winter recent- who we’ve Yellowstone friends of Anderson,ly lost––Jay Love, J. David and remember the dedica- We Evison. Boyd tion each of them brought to their work us:leave and what they Anderson’s Jay Yellowstone passion for the Greater for sharing that Ecosystem and equal love Love’s with his students; Dave knowledge landscape and Teton interpretation of the mentoring of this generation of geologists; Evison, Boyd and the NPS’s who recog- nized the importance of science through- out his NPS career, and long championed Their its use in managing national parks. passing calls us to remember that research, It lays a foundation of too creates a legacy.

their colours, lights, the shapes of things, the shapes

and shades; these I saw. and shades; these n the 25 years I’ve lived and lived n the 25 years I’ve Yellowstone, one of in worked my fondest memories is a trip I took Never before had I met a person more Never The wonder of the world, The wonder the beauty and the power, the beauty

I Legacy grounded to the earth, nor nobler in her She did not carry herself like generosity. the “mother of wilderness” or the “grand- conservation,”American mother of regal- with ing us with tales of her adventures Arctic or of their efforts,Olaus in the in cabin,this very Wilderness to create the Act. In fact, we were hard-pressed to get her to speak of these accomplishments. Instead, we found a gracious host––a simply and who held who lived woman forth not about herself, who seemed but more interested in us. I remember that she than she answered. more questions asked we were the only She made us feel like thought to come to her ones who had ever door. many years ago from Yellowstone Lake to Lake Yellowstone years ago from many Moose, after- The occasion was Wyoming. other A few noon tea with Mardy Murie. young seasonal naturalists and I had the opportunity to meet this extraordinary woman, who in partnership with her hus- band, Olaus, great things in her has done lifetime for the cause of wilderness preser- At the time, vation. I remember wondering scores, many how if not hundreds, of per- to her fect strangers had made their way south, a moment on the drive doorstep. For When she tolerated it all. how I wondered we arrived, found that the answer was I in china cups simple—with hot tea served service accompanied by from a silver cookies. freshly baked Look ye also while life lasts. Look ye also while Yellowstone Science A quarterly publication devoted to the natural and cultural resources Volume 10 Number 4 Fall 2002 Contents

The Yellowstone Field Research Expeditions 2 In the 1960s, an interdisciplinary group of scientists braved Yellowstone’s winters to conduct pioneering studies in atmospheric science and biology. Thomas Brock participated. by Thomas D. Brock The Murie Legacy 13 On the occasion of Mardy Murie’s 100th birthday, Paul Schullery looks back at the environmental legacy of Mardy, Olaus, Adolph, and Louise Murie. by Paul Schullery A Search for Life in Well Y-7 15 In the 1960s, the USGS dug thirteen exploratory wells in Yellowstone’s thermal areas. Four microbiologists wondered if there might be something alive down there today. by John R. Spear, Jeffrey J. Walker, Susan M. Barns, and Norman R. Pace Editor Bear on Bear Predation in Hayden Valley 22 Roger J. Anderson Two biologists chronicle the results of an unusual meeting. [email protected] by Kerry A. Gunther and Mark J. Biel Assistant Editor and Design Alice K. Wondrak Passages 25 Assistant Editors Greater Yellowstone has recently lost three great conservationists. Tami Blackford Tributes to JayAnderson, Dave Love, and Boyd Evison. Mary Ann Franke News & Notes 28 Printing Artcraft, Inc. Experimental animal detection system • Alaska quake seems to trigger Yellow- Bozeman, Montana stone jolts • 2003 GWS conference • Wondrak wins MHS award • Yellowstone film earns high honors for locals • FSEIS released to Cooperators

Cover photo: Ice crystal cloud produced by Yellowstone Science is published quarterly. Submissions are welcome from all investigators throwing hot water into air with a tempera- conducting formal research in the Yellowstone area. To submit proposals for articles, to subscribe ture of -45°F. to Yellowstone Science, or to send a letter to the editor, please write to the following address: Above: Photomicrograph taken from a Editor, Yellowstone Science, P.O. Box 168,Yellowstone National Park, WY 82190. replica snow crystal prepared by the 1962 You may also email: [email protected]. Yellowstone Field Research Expedition. Support for Yellowstone Science is provided by the Yellowstone Association, a non-profit educational organization dedicated to serving the park and its visitors. Both photos are from the Yellowstone For more information about the association, including membership, National Park archives, courtesy Vincent or to donate to the production of Yellowstone Science, write to: Schaefer. Yellowstone Association, P.O. Box 117, Yellowstone National Park, WY 82190. Left: Christmas at the Murie Ranch in The opinions expressed in Yellowstone Science are the authors’ and may not Moose, Wyoming. reflect either National Park Service policy or the views of the Yellowstone Center for Resources. Copyright © 2002, the Yellowstone Association for Natural Science, History & Education. Accompanying quote: Denys James Yellowstone Science is printed on recycled paper with a linseed oil-based ink. Watkins-Pitchford, as carved by Olaus The Yellowstone Field Research Expeditions Winter Research in the Interior, Part I

by Thomas D. Brock YNP ARCHIVES, VINCENT COURTESY SCHAEFER

Using a fist-sized chunk of dry ice fragments fastened to the end of a wire and swung in a circle overhead, a member of the 1962 Yel- lowstone Field Research Expedition (YFRE) seeds a supercooled cloud upwind of Old Faithful Geyser and along the road in front of the Old Faithful Inn.

During the 1960s, an extensive and research in a cold, clean, wilderness envi- The operation was moved to Norris Geyser pioneering series of field research expedi- ronment under nearly ideal conditions. Basin, where the last expedition was held tions was carried out in the Old Faithful Financial support for the whole operation in January and February of 1971. area of Yellowstone National Park. These was supported by National Science Foun- I was privileged to participate in the expeditions, under the leadership of dation grants. Yellowstone Field Research Expeditions atmospheric scientist Vincent J. Schaefer, The Yellowstone Field Research Expe- for two winters. It was my first opportuni- brought into the park a wide variety of sci- ditions operated for 11 years, from 1961 ty to study microbial mats during the win- entists interested in doing winter research. through 1971, and brought hundreds of ter, and it also enabled me to study hot Although initially focused on ice crystal scientists to the park during winter. In the springs in the Old Faithful area that were formation, cloud seeding, and related phe- later years, the Old Faithful area became not available in the regular season because nomena of atmospheric science, the expe- no longer suitable for this sort of research. they were so public. During my two win- ditions soon broadened out into other Air pollution from snowmobiles became a ters, I was also able to observe the atmos- areas, including biology, atmospheric serious factor, and the buildings used for pheric scientists at work, and to appreciate chemistry, and geothermal phenomena. the project had to be torn down to make the reasons why they were attracted to Yel- The expeditions provided an unparalleled way for the major road realignment and lowstone National Park and the Old Faith- opportunity for scientists to carry out expansion that occurred in the early 1970s. ful area in particular.

2 Yellowstone Science Most people today are not aware of the together for many years. Despite his lack In 1940 Vincent Schaefer developed a pioneering work that Vincent J. Schaefer of academic training, Schaefer proved to method for making replicas of individual and his associates carried out in Yellow- be an accomplished research scientist. snowflakes using a thin plastic coating on stone’s winter. The research was extensive, Together, Schaefer and Langmuir pub- a microscope slide. This discovery brought innovative, and of broad scale. Much of it lished many research papers on such top- him national publicity in popular maga- was published by the various scientists in ics as surface chemistry, electron zines and through this he became known in their own scientific journals. The results microscopy, the affinity of ice for surfaces, his own right. It was this technique that of this winter research are summarized in protein films, and submicroscopic particu- made Schaefer’s research at Old Faithful Schaefer’s 12 annual reports, which can lates. Schaefer was promoted by General possible many years later. In the summer be found in the vertical files of Yellow- Electric to research associate in 1938. With of 1946 Vincent Schaefer discovered a stone’s library, under the heading “Climate the advent of World War II, Schaefer and procedure for inducing snow formation by and Weather.” Langmuir did extensive research for the seeding supercooled water with dry ice. military on gas mask filtration, submarine Although first developed as a laboratory Vincent J. Schaefer detection of sound, production of artificial procedure, in November 1946 Schaefer The Yellowstone Field Research Expe- fogs using smoke generators, aircraft and Langmuir carried out a successful ditions were conceived and directed by icing, ice nuclei formation, and cloud field test by seeding a natural cloud from Vincent J. Schaefer an airplane. According to (1906–1993), of the THOMAS J. HENDERSON, ATMOSPHERICS, INC. Schaefer’s notes: “It Atmospheric Sciences seemed as though the Research Center of the cloud almost exploded.” State University of New From the ground, Lang- York at Albany. Schaefer’s muir watched the snow career as a scientist was fall through binoculars. unusual. Although he Later, with associate eventually received hon- Bernard Vonnegut, Schae- orary doctorate degrees fer and Langmuir discov- from two universities, he ered that silver iodide was had no real university edu- a superior cloud seeding cation and, in fact, never agent. completed high school. Within a few years, Vincent J. Schaefer cloud seeding became an was born and raised in the important area of research Schenectady area of New and practice. Many clouds York. Because his family are inefficient sources of was in financial difficul- moisture, retaining more ties, he was forced to than 90% of their water. begin work at an early age. Cloud seeding greatly He joined an apprentice increases the precipitation machinist program at the efficiency. Soon, many General Electric Compa- commercial cloud seeding Vincent Schaefer in the field near Old Faithful Geyser. ny, the major employer in operations began. Winter- Schenectady. Schaefer time cloud seeding is eventually became established in the physics. Some of this work was carried out done to increase snow pack in ski areas machine shop of the research laboratory at the Mount Washington Observatory in and in arid mountain areas in the west at General Electric, where he built equip- New Hampshire. where snow melt is a principal source of ment for scientists and engineers. Among Throughout his life, Vincent Schaefer water. In the summer, cloud seeding is the scientists for whom Schaefer built had an interest in the Adirondacks, arche- used by water agencies and hydroelectric equipment was physicist Irving Langmuir ology, natural history, and the outdoors. power companies. (1881–1957), who won the Nobel Prize in He was an enthusiast hiker and skier. In The work of Schaefer, Langmuir, and 1932 for his research on surface chemistry. 1933 he began work on creating The Long Vonnegut lead to a very extensive devel- (The Langmuir absorption isotherm Path, a hiking trail that begins near New opment of cloud seeding research, both remains a widely used expression in phys- York City and ends at Whiteface Mountain basic and applied. Despite the controversy ical chemistry.) in the Adirondacks. During this period that ensued about the appropriateness of In 1932 Vincent J. Schaefer became the Schaefer also created adult education pro- tampering with the weather, cloud seed- personal assistant of Irving Langmuir and grams on natural history topics, and he ing has become extensively utilized, espe- from then on the two worked closely spoke widely on these in the community. cially in the western part of the United

Fall 2002 3 States. Because of the military implica- award. According to his obituary in the Schaefer was briefly able to study the win- tions, Schaefer became laboratory coordi- New York Times (July 28, 1993), Schaefer ter conditions at Old Faithful, and did nator of Project Cirrus, a research project published nearly 300 scientific papers and some preliminary seeding experiments of the Air Force and Navy. Later, Schaefer many books. Among other books, he was using dry ice and silver iodide. Barrows worked in the Rocky Mountains with the the author, with John Day, of the Peterson and Schaefer then spent a week at Old U.S. Forest Service on the possible use of Field Guide to the Atmosphere. Faithful in February 1960. The park super- cloud seeding to prevent lightning-induced intendent’s report for March 18, 1960, forest fires (Project Skyfire). Origins of the Yellowstone Field includes the following paragraph under the Vincent Schaefer did extensive con- Research Expeditions heading “Inspections: Forester Maynard sulting in atmospheric research for private Schaefer had conceived the idea of Barrows...and Research Scientist Vincent industry, the U.S. government, and uni- doing cloud seeding research in Yellow- Schaefer...were at Old Faithful from Feb- versities. For some years during the 1950s stone National Park in the 1950s, probably ruary 11 to 18th conducting experiments in he was director of research for the Muni- during the years when he was involved the Upper Geyser Basin including seeding talp Foundation, a research organization with Project Skyfire. He anticipated that in of steam clouds from geysers and hot with extensive work in meteorology. In combination with rich moisture sources pools with silver-iodide and studying gey- 1960 Schaefer helped found the Atmos- from the geysers and hot springs, the cold sers to see if they generate electricity when pheric Sciences Research Center (ASRC) weather would lead to the development of they erupt.” of the State University of New York at a wide variety of unique atmospheric phe- For this first trip, transportation was Albany. He served as Director of Research nomena. According to a report he wrote provided by the National Park Service. for ASRC until 1966, when he became later, Schaefer had been attempting to visit Schaefer and Barrows drove to West Yel- director of the center. He spent the rest of Yellowstone Park in the winter for 10 lowstone, where they were met by a park his career at ASRC. He retired from ASRC years but had been unable to obtain per- ranger who transported them by Weasel in 1976 and died July 25, 1993, at the age mission. However, in the winter of snow tractor to Madison Junction. Ranger of 87. Schaefer was the recipient of many 1959–1960, a park ranger was assigned to Riley McClelland met them there and honors, including honorary doctorates spend the winter at Old Faithful to monitor transported them the rest of the way to Old from the University of Notre Dame, Siena any changes in the hot springs and geysers Faithful. “We arrived in time to deposit our College, and York University. The Weath- that might have been caused by the Heb- gear in a very cold cabin which was to er Modification Association has estab- gen Lake earthquake of the previous sum- become our headquarters for the next eight lished a Vincent J. Schaefer Award for sci- mer. days.” entific and technical discoveries in the In the winter of 1959, through his con- During this visit, Schaefer found that field of weather modification, and Schae- tacts with Maynard Barrows (who was at the air was of exceptional purity and that fer himself was the first recipient of this that time the Chief Forester of the park), the extensive fogs that developed during the night and early morning were gener- ally supercooled. Conditions were ideal for cloud seeding studies. In addition, a wide variety of other phenomena were observed, all related to the extremes of heat and cold. Cloud seeding at Old Faithful per- mitted detailed observations on snow crystallization. One could test various seeding agents, and had the ability to “catch” the process at various stages. The air was so free of cloud condensation COURTESY THOMAS J. HENDERSON, COURTESY ATMOSPHERICS, INC. nuclei that it was possible to cause a cloud to form above a hot spring pool simply by lighting a match. Schaefer described the experience as like “walking in a cirrus cloud.” To study such clouds in the atmosphere is difficult and expen- sive, requiring very sophisticated equip- ment, pressured cabins, and high-per- formance jet aircraft. Yet in Yellowstone they can easily be studied from the On a very cold day, just a lighted match was able to cause a cloud to form above a hot ground and, at modest expense, in the spring pool, 1962. geyser basins.

4 Yellowstone Science participant not only to get a better per- spective of his current activities but by interplay of personalities with his col- leagues he obtains new ideas and stimula- tion.” Yellowstone Field Research Expeditions Operations Although in the early years the facili- ties were somewhat makeshift and primi- tive, by the time of the third expedition in 1963, substantial facilities were provided by the National Park Service. Two build- ings were made available: a bunk house ARCHIVES, STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK, ARCHIVES,ALBANY) UNIVERSITY OF NEW (SUNY ALBANY STATE and a mess hall. These buildings were south of the Camper’s Cabins, in an area called “Shackville.” (I refer here to a 1949 detailed map of the Old Faithful area which shows every building present.) One building (building 162 on the park building inventory) was used as a mess hall. This was a double apartment that in summer The mess hall, also used as a seminar room and makeshift office by YFRE scientists, 1968. provided temporary housing for visiting It would soon be demolished. NPS employees. This building had a large room that had kitchen facilities where the After the 1960 exploratory visit, opportunity for the interdisciplinary attack cook worked, and where meals were Schaefer determined to return the follow- on scientific problems in discussions and taken. The cook did the cleanup after ing year, bringing with him scientist in field research. In addition, the experi- breakfast and lunch, but volunteers did the friends who were also interested in cloud ence provides a brief retreat from the pres- evening washing and drying. Since the seeding and related phenomena. He sures and diversions of the laboratory, col- kitchen was the only warm area in the received strong support and encourage- lege, or university, and thus permits the complex, it served as the expedition’s ment from the National Park Service and from Yellowstone’s Superintendent SUNY ALBANY ARCHIVES, Lemuel A. Garrison and Chief Naturalist Robert N. McIntyre. The National Science Foundation provided financial support for a nine day visit to the park. In addition to Schaefer, seven other scientists participat- ed, as well as Maynard Barrows, who was by then Chief Forester of Grand Teton National Park. (In addition to his official oversight of the expedition, Barrows also assisted Schaefer with some of the field research.) This first formal visit was quite suc- cessful, and from the experiences of this group Schaefer devised procedures that were then used for subsequent expeditions, which extended over the next decade. Although he originally called the program a “Seminar,” after the second year he changed the title to “Expedition.” In most of the reports, the title was given as Yel- lowstone Field Research Expedition. According to Schaefer: “The great National Geographic photographer Paul Zahl set up a temporary microscopy laboratory value of a program such as [this]...is the next to his bed in the bunkhouse. 1967.

Fall 2002 5 social area. After dinner, the nightly sem- experiences so that senior scientists and basin as well as any materials or equip- inar was held in this same room. This recent graduates were brought together. ment that might have been lost in the building had an additional smaller room Due to the potential rigors of the expe- snow.) Very early the next morning, the that served as its entry, and which could be dition, each participant had to submit a group would leave Idaho Falls in two rent- used by participants for writing or reading. Medical History Form describing any ed cars for West Yellowstone, a distance of The nightly “Happy Hour” also took place potential health problems. Student partic- 110 miles. At West Yellowstone the group in this smaller room. In the early years, ipants were also required to submit a would transfer to snowmobiles for the 30- Harold Gooding, a restaurant owner in physician’s statement certifying that “I am mile oversnow trip to Old Faithful. West Yellowstone, did all the cooking. In capable of participating and that I am up- Depending on the weather and snow later years, his business kept him in West to-date on tetanus booster, flu shots, a neg- depth, the trip to Old Faithful would take Yellowstone but he hired the cook and ative skin test for tuberculosis, or a chest x- from 1½ to 3 hours. In the early years, the continued to provide the food and all cook- ray.” snowmobile service was operated by ing and eating supplies. En route to the park, the groups would Harold Young, a West Yellowstone resi- The bunkhouse (building 163 on the rendezvous at Idaho Falls on a Monday. dent who had pioneered commercial park inventory) was a log cabin used in Most would have flown into Idaho Falls on snowmobile service in the park, but about summer by single NPS employees. It was the previous day and stayed overnight at 1968 the NPS transferred the snowmobile near the mess hall and easily accommo- the Bonneville Hotel. All travel costs for franchise to the Yellowstone Park Compa- dated 12 people. The expedition purchased the round trip between Idaho Falls and Old ny. Both services operated regularly- high-quality sleeping bags filled with three Faithful, and all living expenses in the scheduled snowmobile service to Old pounds of goose down. A flannel sheet park, were paid by the expedition. Partici- Faithful and provided special runs for served as a liner. To freshen the bags for pants were expected to provide their own Schaefer’s group. In addition to the run the next user, they were covered with snow travel costs to and from Idaho Falls. bringing in participants, there was usually and left outdoors for several hours. “When George Wehmann, a scientist at the one extra run per week bringing in com- recovered it was like they had been dry Idaho Atomic Energy Commission facili- missary items. cleaned.” Although the bunk house was ty and friend of Schaefer’s, handled After the incoming group had heated by a kerosene stove, the washroom arrangements at Idaho Falls. (Wehmann unloaded its gear, the outgoing group part of the building, which contained himself participated in several of the expe- would load and leave immediately for indoor showers and toilet facilities, was ditions. He also returned to Old Faithful West Yellowstone, arriving by early after- not heated, and water had to be kept run- after the snow was gone in the spring to noon. The same rented cars that the incom- ning at a constant drip to prevent the pipes retrieve the electrical line to the geyser ing group had used were driven back to from freezing. These two buildings had not been built for winter use, but served more SUNY ALBANY ARCHIVES, or less adequately. One year, the bunkhouse was not available and partici- pants slept in an upstairs room of the mess hall. A telephone was available at the mess hall, but incoming collect calls were not permitted and outgoing collect calls could not be charged. Incoming calls had to be restricted to those of an emergency nature, preferably person-to-person, and only dur- ing the hours 6–7 a.m. and 6–7 p.m. After the first two years, Vincent Schaefer had refined the Yellowstone Field Research Expedition so that it operated smoothly on a four-week schedule. The group was limited to 12 individuals, which Schaefer considered the optimum number he could accommodate with the available bunk and mess facilities. A different group would be present each week, with occa- sional visitors who were there for one or two days. Schaefer made a concerted effort to bring together persons who had not Guy Goyer of the National Center for Atmospheric Research leads an evening seminar in known each other, except perhaps by rep- the mess hall, discussing the effects of high-pressure acoustical waves on supercooled utation. He also tried to balance ages and water drops and hail. Fourth YFRE, 1964.

6 Yellowstone Science Idaho Falls. Some participants were able the next year. A few scientists with exten- tation of all research activities. Each par- to make late afternoon plane connections sive need for the winter facilities attended ticipant was required to submit a report of to Salt Lake City. more than twice. Schaefer made an effort activities carried out, with data and photo- Participants with projects that needed to assemble each group so that it was well graphs if needed. They were usually only supercooled clouds would arise before balanced, with as wide a variety of mutu- a few pages long, but occasionally were sunrise, catch an early breakfast, and walk al interests as possible. much longer. The annual report also con- the half mile to the Upper Geyser Basin. Researchers had to bring all their own tained a list of all participants, a schedule (In some later years, one or two small equipment. There was electrical power in of all seminars, and a fairly detailed weath- snowmobiles were kept at the bunkhouse the bunkhouse and mess hall. There was er record. Any research papers that had for occasional use, been published although most peo- COURTESY ROGER CHENG based on research ple walked, skied, done during the or snowshoed to expedition were their study sites.) listed at the end of For safety rea- the report. In the sons, participants later years of the were required to expedition, this travel in pairs publication list was whenever the tem- often several pages perature was colder long. than -40°F. Other Because Schae- times, participants fer was an atmos- were encouraged to pheric scientist, it travel in pairs or was natural that small groups “for weather observa- mutual protection tions were kept. A from animals and formal procedure other possible dan- was established for gers in the thermal making weather areas.” Over the Schaefer surveys the results of cloud seeding at Castle Geyser. observations, and decade of the these data were research expedi- published in the tions, no serious accidents occurred. also a temporary electric powerline annual reports. Temperature was recorded Lunch was at noon, but field lunches extending past Old Faithful to Castle at 7 a.m., noon, 5 p.m., and 10 p.m., obser- were available for those wishing them. Geyser by way of the Firehole River, and vations on snowfall, etc. made, and any Dinner was at 6:00 p.m., about an hour outlets were available at a number of loca- unusual optical effects were noted. These after sunset. After dinner and cleanup of tions along this line. For field work in observations probably provide some of the the mess hall, a seminar was held each other locations, electrical equipment had best winter data for the Old Faithful area. night. Vincent Schaefer placed great to be battery-operated. Although the importance on the nightly seminar, microprocessor had not yet been invented, AN OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH CONDUCTED because it encouraged interaction among there was a wide array of compact, bat- First Expedition the participants. He especially hoped for tery-operated equipment that could be (February 12–26, 1961) interdisciplinary attack on problems of used in the field. The principal problem mutual interest. The titles of the seminars was that some equipment did not work Most of the early research of the Yel- are given in each year’s annual report, and well in the cold. The key to a successful lowstone Field Research Expeditions dealt the range of topics is very wide. research activity was to keep equipment with atmospheric research, primarily cloud In the expedition’s first years, the par- simple, and to design simple experiments. seeding. In the first expedition in 1961, ticipants were probably selected by Vin- This philosophy was an important part of Vincent Schaefer carried out three suc- cent Schaefer, from his wide circle of Vincent Schaefer’s lifelong approach to cessful seeding experiments. More suc- acquaintances. (Throughout the whole 11- science. cessful experiments would probably have year period, there was never a female par- Every year Vincent Schaefer assem- been possible but the weather was unusu- ticipant.) As the expeditions became more bled an annual report of activities that had ally warm that year. widely known, an individual with a suit- taken place at the Yellowstone Field The first seeding experiment was car- able project could apply for admission. Research Expedition. This served as a ried out on February 18, 1961, when the The rule was that a first-year participant progress report to the National Science outside temperature was 15°F. Using a fist- was automatically guaranteed a place for Foundation and also provided documen- sized chunk of dry ice fastened to the end

Fall 2002 7 ground. The cold air entrainment in a geyser plume; behavior of parti- infrared radiation of clear and cloudy skies cles in the air was around geyser and hot spring areas; air observed with a movements in the Old Faithful area; small searchlight. growth of ice crystal particles in the elec- These seedings trified plume of Old Faithful; study of rime also produced ice formation near hot springs; time-lapse spectacular optical and high-speed photos of convective effects. “A flash- motions in geyser clouds; radioactivity in

YNP ARCHIVES, VINCENT COURTESY SCHAEFER light pointed over- the vicinity of geysers and hot springs; head disclosed a electrical potential measurements in the bright spot at the Upper Geyser Basin; and optical and other zenith. A 22° halo physical properties of subcooled mist. and a vertical One result of the extreme cold and rich streak could be supply of moisture was the coating almost seen when looking every night of trees, bushes, and other toward a light objects with frost crystals. Even the elk Basket of dry ice used for cloud seeding. source. The moon, and bison became coated. The trees were which was at often turned into grotesque shapes, which of a wire and swung in a circle overhead, about half phase, produced a circum- Schaefer called Ghost Trees. “When seen seeding was carried out upwind of Old zenithal circle passing through the moon. against a deep blue sky or by moonlight Faithful Geyser and along the road in front Venus produced sufficient illumination to they provide a unique experience.” of the Old Faithful Inn (see page 2). The produce a striking vertical star streak.” Some of the research other than cloud seeding was carried out for about 30 min- To observe these optical phenomena, seeding should be noted. David Gates, utes. A faint bluish cloud of ice crystals Schaefer mounted a silvered garden sphere whose field was micrometeorology, car- could be seen forming in the wake of the at a bend in the Firehole River about a half ried out extensive measurements on ther- dry ice. Before the seeding the air was mile downstream from Old Faithful. This mal radiation from objects and organisms quite clear, fewer than 100 particles of ice sphere provided an excellent full-sky view in the Upper Geyser Basin. This work was crystals per cubic meter. Within five min- and sometimes revealed phenomena that published in Science in 1961. Bernard utes of the seeding, the concentration of were too faint to see YNP ARCHIVES, COURTESY VINCENT SCHAEFER COURTESYVINCENT YNP ARCHIVES, crystals had increased a million times. The when looking directly at area of crystallization continued to grow the sky. Schaefer reflect- until a snow shower of artificially-formed ed later: “Although I crystals extended all the way to Castle have watched the sky in Geyser, about a kilometer downwind. One the north country more of Schaefer’s colleagues, L.R. Koenig than 60 years, I have from the University of Chicago, used never seen displays such Schaefer’s replica method to collect ice as we observed frequent- crystals. The crystals were mostly in ly at Yellowstone.” hexagonal plates between 70 and 100 Schaefer concluded that microns in diameter. valuable information A second seeding, using silver iodide, could be obtained on the was carried out February 23, when the effectiveness of different temperature was 8°F. The silver iodide kinds of cloud seeding generator was a simple propane burner techniques using the which ignited a mixture of silver atmosphere surrounding iodide/sodium iodide dissolved in acetone Old Faithful and other that was burned in a flame holder. This geysers. generator was operated near a small steam A number of other vent east of Old Faithful. Within five min- natural phenomena were utes, dense clouds of ice crystals were studied during this first found within 100 yards of the generator, expedition. These includ- with concentrations exceeding 1,000 per ed: natural electrification cubic centimeter. Within 30 minutes, the phenomena at Old Faith- entire area was filled with ice crystals, cre- ful; radiation and heat “Ghost trees” coated with frost crystals at Old Faithful. ating a light snowfall that covered the bare balance of a hot spring;

8 Yellowstone Science Vonnegut, a long-time colleague of Schae- the Boeing Scientific Research Laborato- the St. Petersburg, Russia, halo complex of fer (and brother of author Kurt Vonnegut), ry. Their interest was in the scattering of the year 1790 (see cover). Seventeen dif- used sensitive electrical recording instru- infrared radiation by ice crystals. Although ferent effects were recorded during a sin- ments to measure the electrical potential of their research was independent, they par- gle period from 8:45 to 9:30 a.m., and the air in the geyser area. Although he ticipated in all joint activities of the expe- many were photographed. Examples of expected the geyser eruption to be electri- dition and shared the cooking and living these phenomena include halos, parhelia, fied, he found that this was not so. Von- quarters. Also, they shared some of their crosses with sun in the center, parhelic cir- negut also measured radioactivity in the equipment with the regular expedition cles, circumzenithal arcs, antisuns, antihe- air and near the ground. He found that the members. lion arcs, fuzzy sun discs, and sun streaks. air was extremely low in radioactivity, The Boeing engineers established their A variety of other research was carried much lower than is found in urban areas. own field headquarters in the Upper out in 1962: specific gravity of ice samples Geyser Basin near the Old Faithful Inn. from the Yellowstone area; computation of Second Expedition Their research concerned optical effects of the velocity of discharge of Old Faithful, (January 9–February 6, 1962) ice crystal clouds. According to an onlook- its peak water volume flow, peak mass dis- The 1962 expedition was the first sup- er, most of the observed effects had charge rate, peak rate of work done above ported by a three-year grant from the already been described in the literature but ground, and the estimated gallons of water National Science discharged during Foundation. Because COURTESY ROGER CHENG a single average of this assured fund- eruption; tempera- ing, Schaefer devel- ture measurements oped more formal of trees and snow procedures for how surfaces; micro- the expedition would scopic studies of operate. The second various snow crys- expedition was much tal structures; longer than the first, growth of snow 28 days, and had a crystals from the total of 21 different soil near Old scientists. Because Faithful Geyser; the weather had not infrared transmis- been consistently sion of snow and cold enough for effi- hot spring sur- cient cloud seeding in faces; physical the first expedition, structure of rime the second expedition and snow crystals was moved to early forming near gey- January. This was a sers; light diffrac- wise decision, and Thomas Brock and Vincent Schaefer (from left) observe brine flies at a spring, 1968. tion studies on the first two weeks of clouds forming the second expedition experienced plenty were based upon theoretical calculations near Old Faithful and Castle Geysers; test- of cold weather. In fact, two cold weather rather than direct observation. The advan- ing of a continuous recording particulate records were established, -44°F on January tage of Yellowstone was that it was possi- sampler; measurement of the concentra- 10 and -45°F on January 22. Parts of 25 ble to generate at will different kinds of sit- tion of condensation and freezing nuclei in days were 13°F and colder, and parts of 10 uations by use of the cloud seeding tech- the atmosphere using portable particle days were 0°F or colder. In addition to niques. Presumably, there was an aero- detectors; testing the suitability of com- Schaefer, four scientists from the first nautical or military significance to this mercial refrigerants as cloud seeding expedition returned again, and there were research. agents; measurement of temperatures of several new disciplines. Atmospheric science research. tree trunks; and measurement of snow Boeing Company research. Another Schaefer continued his cloud seeding depths around hot pools as a way of meas- expansion of the expedition involved a research, with an emphasis on optical phe- uring heat flow. group of engineers from the Boeing Com- nomena generated by dry ice and silver Brine flies. In addition to the physical pany of Seattle. A group of six engineers at iodide seeding. On February 3, Schaefer studies, Vincent Schafer noted the pres- Boeing’s Aero-Space Division, under was able to generate a complex halo phe- ence of brine flies upon the microbial mats leader Richard McDonald, became inter- nomenon with silver iodide seeding that at a number of hot springs in the Upper ested in using the Old Faithful area as a rivaled some of the most spectacular dis- Geyser Basin. Although brine flies had study site after Schaefer gave a seminar at plays in the scientific literature, including been known for many years to be associ-

Fall 2002 9 ated with hot springs, their existence in snow on the ground for snowmobile trav- expedition a small library of reference vol- winter conditions had apparently never el. A four-wheel drive vehicle of the umes that proved of great use to the scien- been recorded. Schaefer noted that the flies Atmospheric Sciences Research Center tists. This was the first year that students were living in a unique microclimate. He was used to transport gear from Albany were participants. There were two under- observed pink areas on the surfaces of and to reach Old Faithful during the first graduate students and two graduate stu- microbial mats that dents who worked he determined to be YNP ARCHIVES, COURTESY VINCENT SCHAEFER as research assis- high densities of tants. brine fly egg mass- Further research es. on ice crystal for- Schaefer con- mation was carried cluded that “a very out, confirming intensive life cycle results of earlier existed among the years. Schaefer con- brine flies (Ephydra tinued his observa- brusei) and that tions on the micro- their environment climatic environ- consisted of a high- ment of brine flies. ly restricted micro- He used a Questar climate during Telescope, which extended periods in permitted focus as the wintertime hav- close as seven feet, ing the dimensions to observe brine of not more than flies feeding under- two or three meters water. This con- by one-half meter firmed his discov- by 10 centimeters. ery of the previous Thus their entire year that the fly was ‘world’consists of a able to feed under volume of air of less water encased in a Portable, battery-operated equipment was used extensively in the YFREs. Vincent Schaefer than a cubic bubble of air, which in center. 1962. meter…Many fasci- probably provided nating details of the short-term insula- life cycle of these creatures included their week of the expedition. The snow was one tion. Preliminary work was made on films feeding on algae under water having a third less than the previous year, although that develop on the surfaces of most hot temperature of 100–140°F protected by a the temperature regime was similar. On springs. surrounding air bubble... It is likely that January 12, a record low temperature of An interesting phenomenon observed studies in genetics would be very fruitful -47°F was reached. At the other extreme, a was the hissing sound that could be heard because of the winter isolation of each spectacular warm Chinook wind began on when hot water was thrown into air that colony.” January 21 and removed most of the was colder than -40°F (or -40°C, since As far as I know, winter observations remaining snow. On February 4 the tem- both scales are the same at this low tem- on brine flies had never been reported perature on Geyser Hill reached +53°F. perature). The sound was most pro- before these studies. Schaefer’s approach, Thus, within a three-week period the tem- nounced when the water temperature was using the tools of an atmospheric scien- perature ranged 100°F! Despite these wide above 100°F. It was uncertain whether this tist, were unique. He identified the hot variations in temperature and snow, the sound was due to a change in phase from spring as a tiny tropical environment com- researchers managed to keep busy. water to ice, an electrical effect, or was pletely surrounded by the depths of winter. New facilities were provided by the due to some mechanical friction. Exten- His insights here have been followed up by NPS that year. The building was insulated, sive electrical studies were performed on a number of biologists in the later 1960s which eliminated the pipe-freezing prob- the eruptions of Old Faithful. At tempera- and 1970s. We now know quite a bit about lems experienced in past years. Also, the tures below -40°F a striking electrical dis- these tiny ecosystems. mess hall had new equipment for food charge was measured. Studies on other storage and preparation. These facilities kinds of chemicals that could induce cloud Third Expedition were apparently used for the expedition seeding were carried out. Observations (January 8–February 5, 1963) each year until the late 1960s. The park were made on the mechanism that con- When the third expedition began in also provided a small auxiliary building trolled the ejection of mud droplets from early January 1963, there was insufficient for use as a cold room, and loaned the mud pots.

10 Yellowstone Science Although not part of the expedition, an educational film. This was a color film, to become Regional Director of the Mid- bear researchers John Craighead and Mau- sponsored by the American Meteorologi- west Region), Assistant Superintendent rice Hornocker visited the expedition and cal Society and supported by the National Richard A. Nelson, Chief Naturalist John carried out some hibernation studies on a Science Foundation. In addition, NBC M. Good, and several district naturalists. black bear. This was the first year that John Radio, through its Monitor program, visit- These officials were able to observe exper- Craighead and/or his brother Frank was ed the expedition and recorded a series of iments in progress. associated with the expedition, beginning tapes that were later broadcast nationwide. Atmospheric research. This year, a relationship that continued through the Additionally, Raymond Falconer of the apparently for the first time, arrangements 11th and last expedition. (I believe Vin- Atmospheric Sciences Research Center had been made with the Yellowstone Park cent Schaefer had known the Craighead presented daily broadcasts by telephone to Company for access to the “Captain’s twins since their childhood years growing a group of radio stations in New York Walk” at the top of Old Faithful Inn, per- up on the east coast.) At the conclusion of State. These broadcasts were also carried mitting observations and research experi- the third expedition, Schaefer entered into by the local Idaho Falls radio station. ments from this point high above Old an agreement with the National Park Ser- Schaefer also gave a number of noontime Faithful. The winterkeepers at the inn, Mr. vice and the Department of the Interior talks to groups of visitors who came to the and Mrs. Don Sun, gave eager coopera- that gave the Atmospheric Sciences Old Faithful area with Harold Young’s tion to this venture. Research Center the authority to “head and snowmobile service. The winter of 1964 was another mild coordinate winter research activity at Yel- Also, several regional newspapers winter, and the lack of extreme cold pre- lowstone for the next five years.” (Idaho, Utah, Montana, and Colorado) vented some types of research observa- wrote articles on the expedition and were tions. Only twice did the temperature drop Fourth Expedition given photographs. According to Schae- below -20°F and the maximum tempera- (January 7–February 4, 1964) fer: “We made the effort to assist in all of ture was mostly above +25°F, occasional- In the Fourth Expedition there were 46 these matters, since I believe it is the duty ly even above freezing. However, there individuals representing were enough

27 separate organiza- ARCHIVES, SUNY ALBANY cold mornings tions. Nineteen were for certain kinds from universities, 10 of cloud seeding from private research studies to be institutions, 9 from done. A method public research institu- was devised for tions, and 8 from gov- producing a line ernmental units. of silver iodide Although the disci- nuclei for ice plines represented were crystal forma- primarily in atmos- tion. This was pheric science, several done by impreg- biologists participated. nating 100 feet of Publicity and primacord with media activities. silver iodide and Schaefer was always detonating it mindful of his goal of almost instanta- communicating sci- neously. Samples ence to the public. Dur- of ice crystals ing the spring of 1963, resulting from Schaefer and three A Canadian film crew visits the YFRE site in 1964. this seeding were other scientists who collected about a had participated in that half mile away. A expedition made a one-hour television pro- of scientific groups supported by public new type of seeding procedure using a gram for national distribution on WNETV, monies to attempt to present to the inter- pyrotechnic road flare containing silver on the American Association for the ested public reliable information of an iodate was developed and tested. In anoth- Advancement of Science (AAAS) Engi- informative nature pertaining to research er study, a 200-foot lightweight sampling neering Series. Even greater public media efforts. We invariably found a most atten- boom was tested in the vicinity of Castle access was provided during the 1964 tive and seemingly appreciative audience.” Geyser. In findings that may have antici- expedition, when Schaefer arranged for a Several park officials visited the expedi- pated air pollution studies, evidence was film crew from the National Film Board of tion this winter, including Lemuel A. Gar- obtained of organic residues present in the Canada to join the expedition and prepare rison, superintendent of the park (and soon clean atmosphere of Yellowstone.

Fall 2002 11 YNP ARCHIVES, COURTESY VINCENT SCHAEFER COURTESYVINCENT YNP ARCHIVES,

Participants of the Second YFRE on the final day of the expedition, along with their cook and driver. Vincent Schaefer is on far right. February 6, 1962.

Frank C. Craighead. In his first par- fer’s interest in these animals. Craighead Maurice G. Hornocker of the Wildlife ticipation in the Yellowstone Field also reported the first stages of a radio- Management Institute of Montana State Research Expeditions, biologist Frank C. tracking program for large animal research University. Craighead tested a device he had con- in the park. This was a cooperative pro- The 1964 expedition was the final of a structed for telemetering temperature read- gram involving the National Park Service, three-year series supported by the Nation- ings from remote sites. At this time, Craig- the Montana Cooperative Wildlife al Science Foundation. Schaefer applied head was on the staff of the Environmen- Research Unit, and the Environmental for and received a grant for an additional tal Research Institute at Carlisle, Pennsyl- Research Institute of Carlisle, Pennsylva- three years, thus supporting the expedition vania. Later, he became a staff member of nia. Involved in this research as guests of through 1967. the Atmospheric Sciences Research Center the expedition were John J. Craighead and in Albany. To Be Continued The temperature probe Craighead used was able to transmit temperature data from Thomas D. Brock began researching the microor- the winter environment of brine flies feed- ganisms of Yellowstone hot springs in 1964. With ing on microbial mats in hot springs. He his students and associates, he carried out a was able to show that the temperature of a wide-ranging research program in the park in the brine fly egg mass about one inch above 1960s and 1970s. He participated in the Yellow- the water varied from 63°F to 86°F over a stone Field Research Expeditions in the winters of 40-minute period. The report includes a 1967 and 1968. Since his retirement from the Uni- photograph of Frank Craighead measur- versity of Wisconsin at Madison he has continued ing the temperature of the brine fly to maintain his interest in Yellowstone. He is on microenvironment. Presumably, Craig- the Board of the Yellowstone Association, and is a head had chosen the brine fly habitat for member of its Educational Services and Educa- testing this equipment because of Schae- tional Products Committees.

12 Yellowstone Science Honoring the Murie Legacy Mardy Murie turns 100

by Paul Schullery

Mardy and Olaus Murie at their Teton ranch home, 1953. The

ALL PHOTOGRAPHS COURTESY THE MURIE CENTER, COURTESY ALL PHOTOGRAPHS MOOSE, WYOMING Murie name and ranch have been synonymous with the cause of wilderness preservation and pathbreaking research in greater Yellowstone for more than a half century.

The 100th birthday of Margaret brother), purchased a small but magnifi- ecosystem, was one of the most influential “Mardy” Murie, of Moose, Wyoming, on cently situated guest ranch near Moose, works in the history of national park August 18, 2002, has brought well- and converted it into the family home. wildlife management. Olaus’s study of the deserved attention to the legacy of the Olaus and Adolph used the ranch as their Jackson Hole elk served as the foundation Murie family in this region and beyond. home bases for research and conservation for his equally influential The Elk of North Sharing that attention with Mardy—and work the rest of their lives. America (1951). Olaus and Mardy co- leading the celebration—on this occasion Olaus died in 1963, and Mardy has wrote one of the most popular and power- was the recently established Murie Center, continued to live at the Murie Ranch. ful memoirs of life in this region, Wapiti of Moose, Wyoming, which seeks to honor Adolph died in 1974, and Louise, who cel- Wilderness (1966). the Murie legacy by serving as a “voice ebrated her 90th birthday in March, now The passion for wild places that these for the value of wild nature and its con- lives in Jackson and is still very active in works display was equally evident in many nection to the human spirit.” regional conservation, including work other Murie works, the best-known being The Murie legacy is a rich one, in with the Teton Science School and mem- their books and monographs: Mardy’s Two greater Yellowstone and internationally. bership on the boards of directors of both in the Far North (1962) and Island Mardy and her husband, Olaus, one of the the Jackson Hole Conservation Alliance Between (1977); Olaus’s Alaska-Yukon past century’s most influential wildlife and the Murie Center. Caribou (1935), Field Guide to Animal biologists and conservationists, arrived in Among their contributions to greater Tracks (1954), Fauna of the Aleutian Jackson Hole in 1927, so Olaus could Yellowstone, the Muries may be best Islands and Alaska Peninsula (1959), and study its already controversial elk herd. In known for several literary and scientific Journeys to the Far North (1973); and 1945, Mardy and Olaus, along with classics. Adolph’s Ecology of the Coyote Adolph’s The Wolves of Mount McKinley Mardy’s younger sister Louise and her in the Yellowstone (1940), a milestone (1944), A Naturalist in Alaska (1961), and husband Adolph Murie (Olaus’s half study of the role of predators in a wild The Grizzlies of Mount McKinley (1981).

Fall 2002 13 All of these works, and many more short- ed to be perhaps the most eloquent and er papers, reports, and publications, were effective voice on behalf of the protection and are important in the evolution of fed- of Alaskan lands during that great nation- eral land-management direction. al debate in the 1970s. Widely and fre- Though Olaus was the one with an quently honored as the matriarchal figure official leadership position in The Wilder- of the conservation movement, most ness Society (he served as its president recently Mardy was awarded the Presi- beginning in 1945), both Mardy and Olaus dential Medal of Freedom by President were universally recognized as a team in Clinton in 1998, and the National Wildlife the campaigns for wilderness protection. Federation’s J.N. Ding Darling Conserva- The ranch functioned as the headquarters tionist of the Year Award in 2002. Her life has been celebrated in a superbly produced video narrated by Harrison Ford, Arctic Dance: The Mardy Murie Story, and an equally memorable companion vol- ume by the same name writ- ten by Charles Craighead Olaus and Mardy Murie in their trail furs and Bonnie Kreps. Both are while on their Alaskan dogsled honeymoon. available from the Murie Center bookstore at the web already earned the involvement of many site address given below. conservation and literary luminaries, Lyndon Johnson signs the Wilderness Act. Mardy Murie The Murie Ranch’s role including Peter Matthiessen, George and Alice Zahniser stand left. as a center of conservation Schaller, Terry Tempest Williams, and thinking and action has been Barry Lopez. Former Yellowstone Super- for The Wilderness Society, and the continued by The Murie Center, created in intendent Bob Barbee currently serves as Muries continued to host society meetings 1997, the same year that the Murie prop- vice chair of the center’s board of direc- there into the 1960s. Aldo Leopold, Sigurd erty was designated a National Historic tors. For more information on Murie Cen- Olson, Howard Zahniser, and many other District. A non-profit organization work- ter programs, contact them at The Murie of the nation’s (and the world’s) leading ing in partnership with Grand Teton Center, P.O. Box 399, Moose, WY 83012, figures in ecology and conservation took National Park, the center is based at the (307) 739-2246, development@muriecen- part in important meetings at the ranch. ranch and has recently launched a cam- ter.org, or visit their web site at Momentous legislation that grew from the paign to restore the historic structures, www.muriecenter.org. energies mobilized at the ranch included establish additional facilities, and endow a the designation of the Arctic National long-range program to honor and promote Wildlife Refuge (1960) and the Wilder- the Murie legacy. Much like the Leopold ness Act (1964). family “shack” near Baraboo, Wisconsin, Following from which came Olaus’s death, Leopold’s classic work of Mardy carried on natural history and con- with their work, servation, A Sand County speaking, writing, Almanac (1949), the and continuing to Murie Ranch has become host the foremost a symbol of the accumu- conservationists lated wisdom it sheltered Fireplace at the Murie Ranch, which has of the time at the and the ideas it helped become a symbol of the ideas it helped Murie Ranch. inspire. inspire. Raised in Alaska This year, Murie Cen- and the first ter activities included a Paul Schullery, a former editor of Yellow- female graduate variety of workshops and stone Science, works part-time in the Yel- of the Alaska “conversations,” as well lowstone Center for Resources as a writer- Agricultural Col- as a symposium, “Wild editor. His most recent book is Lewis and lege and School Nature and the Human Clark Among the Grizzlies (Falcon/Globe of Mines (1924), Spirit,” held August Pequot, 2002). she was well-suit- Olaus and Mardy Murie later in life. 24–27. The center has

14 Yellowstone Science A Search for Life in Yellowstone's Well Y-7 Portal to the Subsurface

by John R. Spear, Jeffrey J. Walker, Susan M. Barns, and Norman R. Pace COURTESY JOHN SPEAR COURTESY

An in situ growth vial, designed to detect the presence of subsurface microbiota, is attached to a stainless steel cable for deployment into Yellow- stone’s Well Y-7.

Background west of Stockholm where oil and gas have Of the 13 wells that were originally drilled In the 1960s, Don White and col- been found within granite; and in subma- to depths ranging from 215 to over 1,000 leagues from the U.S. Geological Survey rine hydrothermal vent flows from below feet, only two, Well Y-7 in Biscuit Basin in Menlo Park, California, drilled a series the deep sea floor. Such organisms are of and Well Y-10 on the Mammoth Terrace, of experimental wells in Yellowstone interest due to their unique ecology and remain uncapped and as such, provide for National Park to study groundwater chem- potentially large impact on chemical research opportunity. Well Y-7 plunges 75 istry, heat flow below the surface, and sub- processes in the subsurface. m (245 ft) down into the aquifer of Biscuit surface mineral composition (White 1975, Most of the wells drilled by the USGS Basin. This makes the well a unique portal 1988). At the time, few people suspected in Yellowstone were under high pressure into the potential subsurface biosphere of that the Earth’s subsurface might be shot and required special fittings to prevent the Yellowstone geothermal system. The through with life. Scientists have since dis- eruption. Later, some of these wells did well is unpressurized, with standing water covered that microorganisms inhabit much erupt as man-made geysers that had to be one meter below a valve at the surface, and of the subsurface to depths of several kilo- capped with tons of concrete. The wells is lined with steel casing to 32m (102 ft.). meters, suggesting that a significant por- were drilled prior to the implementation A natural thermal gradient exists in the tion of the Earth’s biomass may occur of the National Environmental Policy Act well, from about 50°C at the surface to underground in the form of microorgan- (NEPA) that requires analysis of environ- 141°C at the bottom, which does not boil isms that inhabit soil, groundwater, and the mental impacts of given actions requiring due to hydrostatic pressure. Thus, in prin- pore spaces within rocks. Microorganisms a federal permit. To do this kind of work ciple, the well is a good location to seek have been observed as deep as seven kilo- today would require, at the least, an Envi- potential life at the highest temperatures, meters below the Earth’s surface in Swe- ronmental Assessment (EA), more likely above the normal boiling point of water of den’s Siljan Ring, a granitic region north- an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). 100°C at sea level (about 94°C at the alti-

Fall 2002 15 theories suggest that life may have origi- nated in a hydrothermal environment, in the absence of oxygen, about four billion years ago. An expansion in our knowledge of the diversity of terrestrial life may tell us where life is possible elsewhere in the uni- verse. Since most planets have heated cores, a geothermally-warmed planetary subsurface could potentially harbor com- munities of microbial organisms protected from a harsh, outer world. Life in Earth’s own warm subsurface may be a model for life on other planets, where temperature, pressure and radiation on the surface may Well Y-7 exceed the limits for life. We know remarkably little about the natural microbial world even on Earth. Until recently it was usually impossible to identify most microbes in the environ- ment. It has been estimated that more than 99% of the microorganisms in the envi- ronment are incapable of being cultured using standard techniques (Amman et al. 1995). Microbiologists have traditionally relied on cultivation techniques (growth of organisms in the laboratory) to identify and compare microbes. This involves the growth of organisms in “pure” culture, free Locations of exploratory wells drilled in Yellowstone by the USGS during the 1960s. of other organisms. This, however, is a White, Fournier, & Truesdell, 1975. highly unnatural state, because most organisms in the environment live in com- tude of the Yellowstone area). Well Y-7 that catalyze important biochemical reac- munities, the composition of which can spans the thermal range where “ther- tions) that function well under the condi- vary with the local geochemistry and envi- mophiles” (heat-loving microorganisms) tions (Pace, 2001). Enzymes isolated from ronmental conditions, time of day and and even “hyperthermophiles,” can live extremeophiles have spawned a billion- night or season, etc. To be sure, tradition- (above 50°C and 80°C, respectively). Cur- dollar industry in biotechnology and bio- al culture techniques have revealed much rently, the known upper temperature limit medicine. For example, the recently com- about microorganisms. However, duplica- for life is 113°C, a record held by pleted human genome sequence project tion of the environmental requirements of Pyrolobus fumarii, a member of the was made possible by the discovery of the an organism in the laboratory is virtually domain of life Archaea, that lives in thermostable Taq DNA polymerase, iso- impossible. Consequently, naturally- hydrothermal vents on the floor of the lated from Thermus aquaticus, a bacteri- occurring microorganisms are seldom cap- Atlantic Ocean. um originally found and studied in Yel- tured in culture. Microbial life has recently been dis- lowstone National Park. However, modern molecular methods covered in several unique environments Since the 1960s, when Tom Brock and allow microbes to be identified without the previously considered inhospitable for life. colleagues began to study Yellowstone’s need to culture them. DNA gene Because such organisms thrive in environ- thermal pools and discovered bacterial res- sequences extracted directly from organ- ments humans would consider extreme, idents such as T. aquaticus, scientists have isms allow us to compare their similarities they are known as “extremeophiles.” In wondered about the upper temperature and differences, and can be used to make addition to high temperature and subsur- limit for life (Brock 1978). The occurrence maps of the evolutionary relatedness of face environments, microbes are found to of life at near-boiling temperatures raises organisms. Such phylogenetic studies of thrive in environments with high salt con- the question: What is the upper tempera- the small subunit of the ribosomal RNA centrations, high radiation, high pressure, ture limit at which an organism, or a com- (rRNA) gene have opened a new, molecu- low water availability, and very low tem- munity of organisms can thrive? Bio- lar view of microbial diversity, and indeed peratures. In order to accommodate these chemists theorize that the molecules that all biodiversity. The ribosome is the com- chemical and physical environments, such constitute life could function at tempera- ponent in all cells responsible for the pro- organisms have evolved enzymes (proteins tures perhaps up to 150°C. Indeed, current duction of proteins (the molecules that

16 Yellowstone Science allow cells to metabolize and function). It is made up of different sub-units, some of BACTERIA

s which are ribonucleic acid (RNA). For a e

mit yc ARCHAEA m number of reasons, the gene rDNA, that m

o o riu t Rhodo c h te Euryarchaeota codes for the small subunit of the riboso- c o

anc a Escherichia n b d Pl mal ribonucleic acid (RNA), is particular- rion r c Methanobacteriu yc te c c Flavo l ly useful for phylogenetic analyses (Woese S h Desulfovibriou a s lo low temp y s Thermococcu s u n a r u b e o e o c pla c ho in gl 1987). The molecular identification, by c sm Flexib r a o c s o e x

o c a Chla c t pl r Agrobacterium o ha fe means of 16S rRNA of organisms com- Gloe c ma c mydia u m alo ob s Me r Ar H

acte t m hano

hano t prising communities provides insight into Chloro The bium r s illum t Me thanospir Me he Me communal function, and the physiology of rm Leptonem thanopyr u naturally-occurring organisms often can a s marine Gp. 1 low temp Clostridium us Gp. 1 low temp Gp. be inferred based upon the physiology of Bacillus pSL 12 2 low temp m pSL 22 teriu cultivated organisms to which the molecu- obac r Gp. 3 low temp Heli cte oba thr 19 PyrodictiumSulfolobu larly identified organisms may be closely Ar PS s pO The The related. At this time, the use of these ga Root pSL 50rm rm to o flexus o o pro ro Thermusm filu Crenarchaeota r pJP 27 pJP 78 te molecular methods is the only way to iden- m us Chlo The pOPS66 uifex tify most microbial organisms in situ in q 17 A M the environment. E Korarchaeota The molecular identification of microbes is based on a relatedness frame- Coprinus work that includes all life. The molecular H om sequence-based view of life’s diversity o shows that there are three large relatedness Zea 0.1 changes / nucleotide groups, “domains” of life: Bacteria, Cryptomonas Crown Archaea, and Eukarya, of which we Achlya Group Costaria humans are representative (see Pace 1997 rphyra Po sia e Giardia for review). Figure 1 shows a phylogenet- b

Ba ic tree, or evolutionary map, containing 64 Paramecium

Trichomo species of organisms based upon their 16S a Phy

b

e (or 18S for the Eukarya) rDNA sequences. o sa Dictyostelium m ru Trypanosom Euglena m nas The more separated different species are Ence

Enta Va along the line segments in this tree, the EUKARYA Naegleria pha ir im o more distantly related they are. lito rpha a Molecular studies of Yellowstone’s hot zo on springs have revealed hundreds of new bacterial and archaeal species. Particular- Figure 1: A universal phylogenetic tree based on small sub-unit ribosomal RNA sequences. ly intriguing are the thermophilic microor- The scale bar represents 0.1 changes per nucleotide. Humans are represented by the Homo grouping within the crown group of Eukarya. Adapted from Pace, 1997. ganisms. Some of the Bacteria that are visually conspicuous in Yellowstone hot springs are shown in the phylogenetic tree in Figure 1, the “root” of the tree of life. can be retrieved at different times for of Figure 1. “EM-17,” a close relative of Thus, these Yellowstone microbes may be microscopic inspection. Any developed the cultivated Aquifex, is the main organ- among the most closely related of any biofilm can be scraped from the slide for ism that makes up pink filamentous mate- modern organisms to the earliest life. This rDNA analysis. We have successfully used rial that can be seen in several of the near- is one reason for the idea that life formed this method in several surface hot springs boiling springs in the park. OPS66, a rela- under hot conditions on the early Earth. in the park. tive of Thermatoga, is another abundant During the course of this study, we sur- constituent of high-temperature biofilms. Methodology veyed the temperature profile of Well Y-7 JP27 and JP78 are cloned rRNA genes that Any documentation of life in Well Y-7 at different times of the year over a sever- represent new kinds of archaeons, deeply would require microscopic analysis to al year period, and conducted a chemical divergent from known kinds of life and not detect organisms, and DNA sequence analysis of the well water at the surface. yet cultured, that were first discovered in analysis to identify them. Thus, our strat- The temperature profile of the well is Yellowstone’s Obsidian Pool. Organisms egy for seeking microbial life in well Y-7 depicted in Figure 2. The year-round tem- such as these high-temperature Yellow- has been to suspend in the well a cable perature of the well at the surface is stone microbes exhibit particularly short with attached glass slides, upon which approximately the same, at 47°C ± 2°C. lines from the original common ancestor microbial biofilms can develop. The slides The bottom temperature, however, ranged

Fall 2002 17 Yellowstone Well Y-7, Temperature Profile of any organisms present by adding appro- priate nutrients. We designed an in situ Temperature (C) growth chamber vial (see Figure 3) that 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 could be suspended from the cable (Figure 0 4) that contained a glass slide bathed in a 10 timed-release growth medium. The growth 20 chamber was perforated to allow exchange 30 of well water with the inside, and conse- Steel Casing Summer, August 1993 40 quently, inoculation by indigenous 50 microbes. Based on the chemistry of the well water, we designed a simple medium 60 Depth (meters) Winter, 18 Dec. 1999 to provide a carbon and energy source 70 18% cooler at bottom (lactate and formate), and an electron 80 Fall, 25 September 1999 acceptor (sulfate) that many microbes can 90 use in respiration. The timed-release of growth medium was achieved by infusing Figure 2. Well Y-7 temperature/depth profile. the pores of a balsa wood plug, on which the glass growth surface is supported, with from 135°C in September 1999 to 110°C coupled plasma analyzer for inorganic ele- the growth medium. Laboratory tests with in December 1999. By late spring 2000, ments in the water, a total organic carbon colored dyes showed that the medium the temperature at the bottom was back to analyzer (TOC) for carbon in the water,

135°C. Thus, any experiments in Well Y-7 and an ion chromatograph (IC) for anions In Situ Growth Chamber that may depend on temperature require in the water (Table 1). Particularly note- close monitoring of the temperature gradi- worthy is the absence of sulfate, even in ent. Such extreme seasonal temperature the presence of readily detectable (3 mg/L) Screw Top variation in the deep portion of the well total sulfur. This indicates that the Well Threads was completely unexpected, and will con- Y-7 water is highly reduced and contains Water-Inlet Port tinue to be monitored. very little oxygen. The non-sulfate sulfur (Front to Back-2 holes) Sample Vial The chemistry of the surface water of presumably occurs as hydrogen sulfide. (Polypropylene) Well Y-7 was determined with an ion The chemistry of the water at the bottom 6.4 cm of the well was not deter- mined, nor was the extent CONCENTRATION Glass Slide COMPOUND (MILLIGRAMS/LITER) of groundwater flow through the lower well. On several occasions Arsenic...... 0.66 Pore-Charged Boron ...... 2.05 over the six-year period Balsa Wood of the study we suspend- Calcium...... 0.40 1.3 cm Copper...... 0.53 ed plain glass slides along the length of the Iron...... 3.38 Figure 3. In situ growth chamber. Lithium ...... 1.13 well for times from a few Phosphorus...... 1.02 weeks to several months. Potassium...... 22.21 Any evidence for the continued to diffuse out of the balsa wood Silicon...... 103.76 development of micro- for more than a week. We put cotton bat- Sodium...... 265.05 bial biofilms was meager, ting in some of the vials to provide an Sulfur ...... 3.05 however. Only isolated organic growth surface for potential Zinc ...... 0.27 cells were detected. It microbes, as well as to restrict the diffu- Total Organic Carbon...... 39.0 appeared that if there was sion of the medium in the flux of well Fluoride...... 0.50 life in Well Y-7, there was water. We attached the autoclaved-sterile Chloride ...... 106.0 not much of it, and that vials and lowered the cable down the well, Phosphate...... 7.0 any growth was slow. where the growth vials were allowed to Nitrates...... no detect This led us to postulate hang for one to six months. Sulfates ...... no detect that some important After these deployments, we winched Oxygen...... no detect nutrient might be absent the cable up and collected the growth from the well, and that chambers for analysis. Vials with glass Table 1. Chemistry of Well Y-7 surface water. The chemistry we might be able to slides testing for microbial growth were of water from the bottom of the well was not determined. encourage faster growth suspended in 4% paraformaldehyde for

18 Yellowstone Science COURTESY JOHN SPEAR both light and scan- due to very low cell ning electron numbers, if any. microscopy (SEM). Thus, we conclude Vials with a cotton that the Well Y-7 growth surface for component of Yel- DNA extraction were lowstone’s subsur- suspended in tubes face is essentially with 70% ethanol. devoid of growing Samples were held at organisms. 4°C until analysis. Glass slides were Discussion visualized on a The detection of microscope with cells only in the light, phase contrast, upper 27 m of the and epifluorescence well, to a tempera- (cells stained with the ture of 89°C, is DNA stain DAPI). unequivocal. Howev- Slides for SEM were er, the sporadic prepared by standard occurrence of only protocols (Gerhardt, Figure 4. Cable with attached vials is lowered into the well. one or a few cells et al. 1994) and visu- suggests that they did alized with an SEM microscope. Cotton oped the lush bacterial biofilms observed not grow on the slides. In the absence of growth surfaces analyzed for DNA con- in other Yellowstone locations like Octo- biofilm-formation, it seems most likely tent were prepared as described by Hugen- pus Spring in the White Creek Region of that observed cells came from somewhere holz (1998a, b) with the addition of a des- the Midway Geyser Basin (Figure 5). higher in the well, perhaps dislodged dur- iccation step to remove the 70% ethanol. Instead, we saw, as with glass slides alone, ing operations. It is also possible, since the Observations of the glass slides indi- only a few cells, attached sporadically. The few cells found were only in the region of cated only a few bacterial cells present at greatest number of cells was obtained on the steel casing, not below the casing, that 27 m (90 feet) and 89°C. No slides devel- slides hung just below the surface at 47°C either iron concentration or groundwater (Figure 6a). Below 27 flow plays a role in where cells can survive m and 90°C, we found here. no cell-like structures Overall, it seems most likely that the on the glass slides. lack of microorganisms along the length of Instead, we found a Well Y-7 is due to thermodynamically

COURTESY JOHN SPEAR COURTESY crystal-like precipita- unfavorable conditions for life. That is, the tion formed on the sur- well water is sufficiently chemically face of the slide, reduced that life cannot occur. Life increasing in density processes require both an energy source the farther down the (food) and an “electron-acceptor” (some- well that the slide was thing for cells to breathe). The reduced suspended (Figure 6b). state found by the water chemistry analy- No cells were found sis discussed earlier indicates that the below the steel casing potential electron-acceptors sulfate, of the well that extends nitrate, and oxygen are absent. Although to 32 m below the sur- our experimental apparatus supplied an face. It appears that electron acceptor for cells to use, it seems any biomass that may likely that no cells were available in the be present is extremely subsurface system surrounding Y-7 to act low in concentration as innocula. This situation contrasts with throughout the length the surface hot springs, where the reduced, of the well. Addition- sub-surface waters emerge into an envi- ally, DNA extractions ronment rich in those electron acceptors, performed on cotton such as oxygen, where life can flourish. Figure 5. Scanning electron micrograph of a glass slide sus- growth surface sam- We suppose that this essentially lifeless pended in Octopus Spring. Biofilm containing a variety of cell ples hung at various state of Well Y-7 extends throughout the types is visible. depths were negative, reduced subsurface Yellowstone

Fall 2002 19 hydrothermal system, The Yellowstone high-temperature and probably other microbial ecosystem has long been con- hydrothermal systems sidered by researchers to be supported worldwide. mainly by sulfur-metabolism. In such a

COURTESY JOHN SPEAR COURTESY system, hydrogen sulfide (food), is utilized Conclusions along with oxygen (electron-acceptor). We believe that these However, recent research shows that that in situ experiments show kind of metabolism, however, is probably that Well Y-7 is probably only a minor component of the productive devoid of metabolically metabolism of the Yellowstone ecosystem. active life. The well Sulfides and other sulfur compounds are remains a valuable certainly conspicuous, both in measure- research tool, however, ments and in the rich odor of hydrogen as a portal for other sulfide that emanates from several thermal Figure 6a. Scanning electron micrograph of a glass slide sus- probes into the features, but another element, hydrogen, pended just under the surface of the water in Well Y-7. A cou- hydrothermal system of is likely to be the dominant energy source ple of cell types are apparent, but no biofilm is visible. Biscuit Basin. Only the in the Yellowstone system. Hydrogen is upper one-third of the the strongest electron donor (energy well’s length is cased, so source) available to microbiota, and pre- the lower well is in con- liminary results indicate that Yellowstone’s tact with the local hot springs are rich in hydrogen (Spear,

COURTESY JOHN SPEAR COURTESY hydrothermal flow. Well 2001). The biological observations in hot Y-7 is an excellent loca- springs are consistent with the notion of tion to study and monitor hydrogen as a dominant energy source. groundwater properties The Aquifex-like and Thermatoga-like such as temperature, organisms that dominate both high-sulfur chemical, and isotopic (e.g. Norris Geyser Basin) and low-sulfur contents. Variations in (e.g. Midway Geyser Basin) hot springs, the properties of the sub- although not studied in culture, are close surface waters probably relatives of hydrogen-metabolizing organ- drive variation in the isms that respire with oxygen or sulfate. Figure 6b. Crystal-like structures observed on glass slides behavior of the Biscuit Molecular hydrogen, a potential energy from the 50 m depth of Well Y-7, at approximately 110°C. No Basin thermal features. source for microbes, probably is common cell-like structures are observable. in all ground waters (Stevens and McKinley 1995). The mechanism by which hydro- gen is formed in groundwa- NORMAN PACE ters is not entirely clear. One main reaction between water and iron-bearing rock is the oxidation of reduced iron (Fe2+), to form oxidized iron (Fe3+) and hydrogen. Deter- minations of hydrogen in Yellowstone hot springs and correlated molecular phylo- genetic surveys for microbial species are ongoing in our laboratory in order to explore relationships between geo- chemistry and microbial diversity.

Well Y-7 is uncapped for researchers John Spear, Jeff Walker, and Kirk Harris.

20 Yellowstone Science Acknowledgements KIRK HARRIS

We thank Ann Deutch at the Yellow- stone Center for Resources, who allowed this research project to proceed smoothly, and the several rangers and volunteers of Yellowstone National Park who helped with access to the well and provided pub- lic interpretation for visitors to the proj- ect. In addition, we thank Richard Har- nish, Environmental Science and Engi- neering Division at the Colorado School of Mines, for assistance with the water chem- istry analysis. Tom Moses (USGS, Menlo Park, CA) provided some early tempera- ture data. Brett Goebel (Australian Mining Company) conducted early tests with in situ growth chambers. Contributions from Mary Bateson, Montana State University, Anna-Louise Reysenbach, Portland State University, and Robert Fournier, retired John Spear (right) is a postdoctoral fellow in Dr. Norman Pace’s laboratory in the from USGS, are appreciated. Funds for Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology at the University of Col- this work were provided by the National orado at Boulder. He earned degrees (M.S. and Ph.D.) in Environmental Science and Science Foundation's Life in Extreme Engineering from the Colorado School of Mines in Golden, Colorado, studying the Environments program. reduction of soluble uranium by sulfate reducing bacteria. In his current position, he is looking for microbiota in and around Yellowstone with consideration for how that microbiota is related to various environmental chemistries. Literature Cited Amann, R.I., W. Ludwig, and K.H. Schleifer. Jeff Walker (left) is a graduate student at the University of Colorado at Boulder in the 1995. Phylogenetic identification and in situ laboratory of Norman Pace. In his doctoral research, Jeff studies endolithic microbial detection of individual microbial cells with- ecosystems—communities of microorganisms that live in the pore space of rocks. Jeff is out cultivation. Microbial. Rev. 59: 143–169. also involved in studying the microbiology of Yellowstone National Park. Barns, S.M. 1995. Phylogenetic analysis of nat- urally occurring high temperature microbial Sue Barns (not pictured) was an undergraduate and graduate student in the laborato- populations. University of Indiana, Bloom- ry of Norman Pace, and focused her doctoral research on high temperature microor- ington, Ph.D. Thesis. ganisms in Yellowstone. She is currently a researcher at Los Alamos National Labora- Brock, T.D. 1978. Thermophilic microorgan- tory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, using DNA-based techniques to study bacterial diversi- isms and life at high temperatures. New ty in soils. York: Springer-Verlag. Gerhardt, P., R.G.E. Murray, W.A. Wood, and Norman Pace (top) is a Professor in the Department of Molecular, Cellular and Devel- N.R. Krieg. 1994. Methods for general and opmental Biology at the University of Colorado at Boulder. His laboratory has long been molecular bacteriology. Washington D.C.: involved in molecular studies of microbes in extreme environments. Pace is a member American Society for Microbiology. of the National Academy of Sciences and a Fellow of the MacArthur Foundation. He is Hugenholtz, P., C. Pitulle, K.L. Hershberger, also a Fellow and Bicking Award recipient of the National Speleological Society. and N.R. Pace. 1998a. Novel division level bacterial diversity in a Yellowstone hot Pace. 1994. Phylogenetic analysis of the National Park, Wyoming. U.S. Geological spring. J. Bacteriol. 180: 366–376. hyperthermophilic pink filament community Survey Professional Paper #1456. Washing- Hugenholtz, P., B.M.Goebel, and N.R. Pace. in Octopus Spring, Yellowstone National ton, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1998b. Impact of culture-independent stud- Park. Appl. Env. Micro. 60: 2113–2119. White, D.E., R.O. Fournier, L.J.P. Muffler & ies on the emerging view of bacterial diver- Spear, J.R., and N.R. Pace. 2001. Manuscript in A.H. Truesdell. 1975. Physical results of sity. J. Bacteriol. 180: 4765–4774. preparation. research drilling in thermal areas of Yellow- Pace, Norman R. 1997. A molecular view of Stevens, T.O., and J.P. McKinley. 1995. stone National Park, Wyoming. USGS Pro- microbial diversity and the biosphere. Sci- Lithoautotrophic microbial ecosystems in fessional Paper 892, Washington, D.C.: ence 276: 734–740. deep basalt aquifers. Science 270: 450–454. USGPO. —- 2001. The universal nature of biochem- White, D.E., R.A. Hutchinson, and T.C. Keith. Woese, C.R. 1987. Bacterial evolution. Micro- istry. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 98: 805–808. 1988. The geology and remarkable thermal biol. Rev. 51: 221–271. Reysenbach, A-L., G.S. Wickham, and N.R. activity of Norris Geyser Basin,Yellowstone

Fall 2002 21 Evidence of grizzly bear predation on a black bear in Hayden Valley

by Kerry A. Gunther and Mark J. Biel

Both grizzly and black bears live in Yellowstone National Park. In this and other areas where grizzly bears and black bears are sympatric (share habitat), temporal isolation and behavioral differences tend to reduce direct com- petition between the two species. In the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, grizzly bears are generally most active from dusk until dawn, while black bears are most active during the daytime. Grizzly bears evolved to forage in open meadow habitats, whereas black bears are primarily adapted to living in forests. Grizzlies also have longer claws and larger shoulder musculature than black bears, making them more efficient at foraging roots and ground- dwelling small mammals abundant in open meadows. Grizzlies are generally larger than black bears, and are much more aggressive in defending themselves and their offspring from predators, including other grizzlies. Black bears typically escape predators by running into forest cover or climbing trees. On August 2, 1998, park visitors looking for grizzly bears from Grizzly Overlook in Hayden Valley observed some ravens on a carcass on the northeast side of the Yellowstone River. Upon focusing their spotting scope on the carcass, they could clearly see the partially consumed remains of a black bear in the tall grass next to the river. The visitors reported the presence of the carcass to Canyon area rangers, who immediately forwarded the report to the park’s Bear Management Office. We received permission from the rangers to canoe across the Yellowstone River to

22 Yellowstone Science YNP BEAR MANAGEMENT OFFICE examine and retrieve the carcass. Accompa- nied by biological technician Christie Hendrix and park ranger Keith Gad, we canoed across the river to the carcass. Although the dead bear was not visible to motorists along the road, a large number of park visitors immedi- ately pulled over to watch as we launched the canoe, creating a large canoe-jam. We pad- dled downstream and across the river and pulled the canoe up onto the bank next to the black bear’s carcass to examine it. The carcass was that of an adult male weighing (minus the eaten tissue) 171 pounds. Prior to being con- sumed, the bear had likely weighed over 200 pounds. The bear had canine puncture wounds to the head and nose, as well as a crushed skull and left eye socket. The wounds were consistent with those that would have been inflicted by a bear or other large predator. When fighting, bears will often bite each other on the nose in an effort to neutralize their opponents’ weapons (teeth). We also found two bear scats containing vege- tation next to the carcass. The predator that had killed and partially consumed the black bear had likely defecated these scats while feeding on its carcass. We collected the scats for DNA analysis to aid in determining the species of the predator that had killed the black bear, then loaded the carcass and two scats into the canoe and ferried upstream back across the river to the large aggregation of Black bear as found by river. people that had congregated to watch. After letting the visitors see the bear, and explaining possible scenarios of what may have happened, we loaded the carcass into our truck, covered it with a tarp, and headed back to Mammoth. We took the bear’s carcass to Neil Anderson at the Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks Wildlife Laboratory in Boze- YNP BISON MANAGEMENT OFFICE

Hayden Valley landscape, a couple of miles upriver from where the black bear was found.

Fall 2002 23 YNP BEAR MANAGEMENT OFFICE man, Montana, for necropsy. Neil was Idaho for analysis, and DNA extracted able to measure one set of canine from the scats indicated that they were, puncture marks he believed were in fact, from a grizzly bear. caused by the lower canines of the When threatened, black bears typi- predator that killed the black bear. The cally run to forest cover or climb a tree. center-to-center distance of these In this case, the nearest climbable tree to canine puncture marks measured 59 the site where the black bear was killed mm, too large to have been from an was a single dead snag on a small island adult wolf, mountain lion, or average- in the middle of the Yellowstone River sized black bear. Measurements taken over 70 meters away. The nearest from reference skulls show that canine climbable live trees were approximately widths in that range are typical of aver- 130 meters away on the opposite shore age size, adult male grizzly bears in from the bank where the black bear was the GYE, although we could not com- killed. The nearest climbable trees that pletely rule out a very large adult male could be reached without swimming black bear as the predator. The identifi- were almost 1,000 meters northeast of cation of the predator that killed the the kill site. This observation lends black bear as a grizzly (based on the insight into what can happen to black canine width of wounds found on the bears that wander too far from forest black bear’s head) was later supported cover in areas occupied by grizzly bears, through laboratory analysis of DNA and why we rarely see black bears in the extracted from the bear scats collected large, non-forested areas of YNP such as at the kill site. We sent the scats to Dr. Pelican and Hayden Valleys, where griz- Head of mauled black bear. Lisette Waits at the University of zly bears are common.

Kerry Gunther is Yellowstone National Park’s Bear Manage- Mark Biel is the Field Biologist for Yellowstone National ment Biologist. He oversees bear-human conflict resolution Park’s Bison Management Office. He assists in coordinating and bear research and monitoring throughout the park, and bison research and monitoring in and around the park and has worked in YNP for 19 years. He has also worked in griz- is overseeing the vaccination approach study for the even- zly and black bear research and management for the U.S. tual implementation of a bison brucellosis vaccination pro- Forest Service and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Kerry gram within the park. Mark has worked for the National holds a B.S. in biology with minor studies in earth sciences Park Service since 1993 in the Bear and then Bison Man- from Northland College in Wisconsin, and an M.S. in Fish and agement Offices. He received his B.S. in Animal Science Wildlife Management from Montana State University. He has with minor studies in animal nutrition and equine manage- published papers ment from Michi- on bear manage- gan State Universi- ment, bear-human ty and his M.S. in conflicts, bear- animal nutrition inflicted human and equine exer- injuries, impacts of cise physiology recreation on griz- from the University zly bears, and griz- of Illinois at zly bear predation. Champaign– He is the recipient Urbana. In his of the 1997 Sigurd spare time, Mark Olsen Environmen- enjoys horseback tal Achievement riding, woodwork- Award. In his spare ing, hiking, and time he enjoys pho- fishing. He and his tographing polar fiance, Alice, live bears in the arctic in Gardiner, Mon- and sea kayaking in tana. Baja.

24 Yellowstone Science Jay Anderson, ecologist and teacher by Nancy Huntly

The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem He also co-edited a book on physiological entific accomplishments to the Pacific lost a friend, supporter, and scientific ecology of North American desert plants, Northwest leader this summer, when Jay E. Ander- and conducted several studies within Yel- Jay was widely recognized as an son, Professor Emeritus of Ecology at lowstone National Park, including exceptional teacher. He not only advised Idaho State University and a resident of research of the grazing ecosystem of the and taught many undergraduate and grad- Driggs, Idaho, died suddenly and unex- northern range and of the regeneration of uate students and post-doctoral pectedly of a stroke on July 4, 2002. Jay Yellowstone’s forests following the fires researchers, but also was generous in pro- was born in Logan, Utah, and grew up on of 1988. viding advice and support to colleagues, a ranch in the Big Hole Valley of Mon- Jay was committed to making scientif- especially the many younger scientists that tana. He studied agriculture and education ic information widely available to the pub- he encouraged. He received the Master at Montana State University (B.S. Agri- lic, so that ecological understanding could Teacher award from Idaho State Universi- cultural Education), taught high school for inform land use decisions. He served on ty, as well as the Jerome Bigelow Award four years, then studied plant physiology for his involvement of students in research. and ecology at Syracuse University He made many presentations to school (M.S., Ph.D. Plant Ecology). He classes and civic organizations on joined the Biology Depart- the Yellowstone fires and on ment of Idaho State Uni- vegetation dynamics and versity in 1975 and was grazing. a faculty member Jay will be remem- there for 26 years, bered as a man who retiring in June loved his family and 2001. friends, enjoyed his Jay was active in life and work, and research, education, both worked hard and and scientific advise- played hard. He was an ment for and in the avid and accomplished greater Yellowstone, Inter- skier, kayaker, cyclist, back mountain, and Pacific North- packer, and fly fisherman, and west regions. He conducted many much younger colleagues research primarily in the sage aspired to meet Jay’s standards steppe, shrubland, grassland, Jay Anderson discusses ecology and land use with students atop of physical and professional and forest ecosystems of West- Sawtelle Peak in Idaho. Photo courtesy Nancy Huntly. accomplishment, as well as his ern North America, and also enjoyment of life. spent three sabbaticals collaborating with many advisory panels for resource man- The Ecological Society of America has Australian colleagues on the ecology of agement, including the Birds of Prey Tech- established the Jay E. Anderson Endow- Australian deserts and forests. His main nical Review Committee, the Resource ment, which will honor Jay through spon- research areas were plant physiological Advisory Council for the Upper Snake sorship of programs and projects that fur- ecology, vegetation dynamics, and fire River Districts, and the Advisory Com- ther his interests in and love of the ecosys- ecology. He worked extensively within the mittee to the Idaho Falls District of the tems of the West and Pacific Northwest. sage-steppe ecosystems of the Idaho Bureau of Land Management, and he was Contributions to the Jay Anderson Endow- National Engineering and Environmental a member of the Greater Yellowstone ment, which are tax-deductible, can be Laboratory, where his research included Coalition’s Science Council for many sent to: Ecological Society of America, physiological ecology of plants’ use of years. Jay received ISU’s Distinguished 1707 H Street, NW, Suite 400, Washing- water and nitrogen in photosynthesis; pat- Researcher Award in 1998 and, in 2001, he ton, D.C. 20006. terns and causes of long-term vegetation received the Outstanding Scientist award dynamics; and pioneering applications of from the Northwest Scientific Association Nancy Huntly is a professor of ecology at these basic sciences to waste management. in recognition of the importance of his sci- Idaho State University.

Fall 2002 25 Dave Love, “grand old man of Rocky Mountain geology” J. David Love, geologist, died August office for 44 years. His work encompassed geologic formations and their influence on 23 in Laramie, Wyoming. He was born in research on strategic minerals during and the habitats of animals in the wild. With Riverton on April 17, 1913, and lived in after World War II, established the USGS his wife, Jane, he was awarded the Silver Lander and then in Laramie, where in Wyoming Fuels Branch, compiled the Medal from the Jackson Hole Medal Asso- 1933 he earned his bachelor’s degree in 1955 and 1985 editions of Wyoming’s ciation for their gift of land to Teton Coun- geology and chemistry from the Universi- geologic map and was chief author of the ty for affordable housing. ty of Wyoming, followed by a Master’s 1992 Grand Teton National Park geologic Dave Love, however, was more than degree in 1934. After working for the map and the 1993 chart correlating all the sum of his publications and awards. Wyoming State Geological Survey for two Wyoming geologic formations. Love He was a friend and mentor to geologists years, he was accepted (as the advisor for 140 as a graduate student at Master’s theses and 50 Yale University, where His breadth of knowledge on all manner of natural doctoral dissertations), he received his doctor- history—geology, botany, wildlife, archeology, and writers, and young people ate in 1938. from around the world. David Love called history—was inspiring. The story of his life was his teacher, University –former student Dr. Cathy Whitlock provocative enough as to of Wyoming geologist have captured the imagina- “Doc” Knight, “the tion of John McPhee, who great man of geology and the finest kind of authored more than 250 geologic publica- made Love, his ancestors, and their human being.” The student proved worthy tions, articles, and lectures as well as fam- Wyoming ranch the subject of his Rising of his teacher. He was employed by the ily-oriented stories and vignettes of his From the Plains (1986). In that work, USGS and Shell Oil until 1940, when he childhood. McPhee called Love “an autochthonous returned to the USGS until his 1987 Love received a wide array of honors geologist. The term refers to a rock that retirement as USGS scientist emeritus throughout his career as a geologist and has not moved…To be sure, experience after directing the USGS’s Wyoming humanitarian. In 1981, the University of had come to him beyond the borders—a Wyoming recog- Yale Ph.D., explorations for oil in the nized Love as a Dis- southern Appalachians and the mid-conti- tinguished Alumnus. nent—but his career had been accom- The Wyoming Geo- plished almost wholly in his home terrain.

CATHY WHITLOCK CATHY logical Survey gave For several decades now, he had been him honorary mem- regarded by colleagues as one of the two or bership as well as its three most influential field geologists in Distinguished Ser- the Survey, and, in recent time, inevitably, vice Award, and as ‘the grand old man of Rocky Mountain established a field geology.’” geology fellowship Dr. Love is survived by his wife, four in his name. He won children, seven grandchildren, and the the Interior Depart- enduring landscape to which he devoted ment’s Meritorious his professional life. Memorial gifts may and Distinguished be made to any of the following: The J. Service Awards, and David Love Field Scholarship, Wyoming the American Asso- Geological Association, c/o Kent Sundell, ciation of Profes- 5034 Alcova Rte. Box 12, Casper, WY sional Geologists’ 82604; The Museum of the American Public Service West, 636 Lincoln, Lander, WY 82520; Award. He recently The University of Wyoming Geological received the Rungius Museum, Box 3006, Laramie, WY 82071; Medal from the or the Laramie Plains Museum, 603 Ivin- National Museum of son Ave., Laramie, WY 82070. Wildlife Art for his Dave and Jane Love. collective studies of

26 Yellowstone Science Boyd Evison, beloved NPS leader

Boyd Evison, beloved National Park standard to this day. He also became per- Service leader for more than 40 years and, sonally involved in the issue of air quality more recently, the Executive Director of and soundscape management, an interest the Grand Teton Natural History Associa- that continued as he participated after tion, died in California on October 4. Evi- retirement in the National Parks Overflight son was one of the greatest and most influ- Working Group. ential leaders of the modern NPS. He ded- Evison retired from the National Park icated his career to conservation, environ- Service in 1994, providing time for him OREYJCSNHL ES AKO,WYOMING JACKSON, COURTESY JACKSON HOLE NEWS, mental education, and courageous leader- and his wife, Barbara to do the traveling ship in the field of natural resource pro- they always enjoyed. But in 1999 the tection, touched the lives of thousands of Tetons beckoned yet again, when Evison NPS employees, and influenced the over- became Executive Director of the Grand all management of the entire national park Teton Natural History Association. He is system. credited with expanding scientific and Evison, a native of Washington, D.C., educational outreach opportunities earned his B.S. in forestry and wildlife through the work of the association as well management from Colorado A&M in as enhancing the long-standing partnership 1954. In 1968, he earned a Master’s degree with the NPS, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife in environmental communications from Service, and the U.S. Forest Service. the University of Wisconsin at Madison. Evison received many accolades and He began working seasonally with the Boyd Evison. prestigious awards throughout his NPS National Park Service in 1952 as a fire career and professional life, including the control aide in Grand Teton National Park. led a cutting-edge science program that Department of the Interior’s highest Evison moved into the permanent began his career-long efforts to promote award, the Distinguished Service Award; ranks in 1960 as a park ranger in Petrified the use of parks as laboratories for study. the National Parks Conservation Associa- Forest National Park. He subsequently In 1978 Evison became Assistant tion’s Mather Award; and the National served in Lake Mead National Recreation Director for Park Operations in Washing- Park Foundation’s Pugsley Award. He was Area and Hot Springs National Park ton D.C. He was then offered the position recently awarded the George Melendez before being accepted into the Department of NPS Director, but chose instead to go to Wright Award for lifetime achievement by of the Interior’s Management Develop- Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks the George Wright Society. ment Program in Washington D.C. as superintendent in 1980. In 1985, Evison Boyd is survived by his beloved wife, In 1971, he returned to Grand Teton as moved to Alaska where he became region- Barbara, who has shared his career as a assistant superintendent, but was too al director and faced the biggest challenge true partner, along with their son, Chris, impressive a voice for conservation to of his career when the Exxon Valdez oil and daughter, Kathy. The family also remain undiscovered in one place. In the spill occurred. His heroic and steadfast includes son-in-law Randy Katz and coming years he was tapped to be superin- support for his superintendents during the daughter-in-law Lauren. During the last tendent of Saguaro National Monument cleanup and for years afterward as few years, one of Boyd’s greatest joys has and the Horace Albright Training Center in resources damage assessments went been being a grandfather to Joe and Sarah Grand Canyon National Park. through the legal process distinguish him Katz. In 1975, Evison was named superin- in the annals of NPS history. In 1991 Evi- In honor of Boyd, the family and the tendent of Great Smoky Mountains son left for Denver to serve as deputy Grand Teton Natural History Association National Park, where the European wild regional director in the Rocky Mountain have established a Boyd Evison Graduate boar, a non-native species living in the Region until he was asked to serve as inter- Fellowship to encourage scientific and park, was multiplying in such great num- im superintendent of Grand Canyon conservation research in the national bers that the damage to resources was National Park during a period crucial to parks. Memorial donations may be made extensive. Evison boldly contracted for the completion of the general management to the Boyd Evison Graduate Fellowship, out-of-state hog hunters to come in and plan from 1993 to November 1994. During c/o Grand Teton Natural History Associa- control the problem, which set off a furor this time he was instrumental in develop- tion, P.O. Box 170, Moose WY, 83012. of local opposition. His refusal to back ing a rationale for setting the use numbers Cards may be sent to Barbara Evison, c/o down resulted in the ongoing reduction within the Colorado River Management Randy and Kathy Katz, 615 Walden Drive, program that continues to this day. He also Plan—numbers that continue to set the Beverly Hills, CA 90210.

Fall 2002 27 NEWS notes

COURTESY MARCEL HUIJSER Experimental Animal Detection Driver on parks and cultural sites: The George Warning System Installed Wright Society Biennial Conference and An experimental animal detection sys- Cultural Resources 2003, the National tem that warns travelers about wildlife Park Service’s flagship cultural resources approaching a roadway was recently conference. installed on a section of U.S. Highway 191 The conference is scheduled to include (between mileposts 28–29 in the Black four plenary sessions, 90 concurrent ses- Butte area) in Yellowstone National Park. sions, and a poster/computer demo/exhib- The system was designed by the Western it session, as well as workshops, special Transportation Institute (Montana State events, and field trips. The conference pro- University) and Sensor Technologies and ceedings will be published. For informa- Systems, Inc. This is part of a two-year tion on attending the conference, go to study funded by 15 state Departments of www.georgewright.org/2003.html or con- Transportation, including the Montana tact The George Wright Society, P.O. Box Department of Transportation, to look at 65, Hancock, Michigan 49930-0065 USA; ways to reduce and mitigate the impacts 1-(906)-487-9722; fax 1-(906)-487-9405; associated with animal-vehicle collisions [email protected]. (e.g., human injuries/fatalities, wildlife injuries/fatalities, property damage). Wondrak Wins MHS Award As wildlife approach the roadway in The animal detection system should be The Montana Historical Society and the study area, a continuous radar beam is operational in December 2002. Montana: The Magazine of Western His- broken, and flashing lights on warning of the earthquakes. tory named YCR’s Alice Wondrak the signs are activated, warning drivers of the While the data are preliminary, they winner of this year’s Burlingame-Toole possible presence of wildlife. The system suggest that the Yellowstone earthquakes award, given each year to the author of the is only activated by large wildlife like may have been triggered by the passage best article MARK BIEL bison, elk, deer, and moose. of large seismic waves generated by the submitted by Alaskan earthquake. The apparent trigger- a graduate Alaska Quake Seems to Trigger ing is suggested by the fact the Yellow- student. The Yellowstone Jolts stone activity began within a half hour of award was The magnitude 7.9 earthquake that the Alaska earthquake, which hit at 3:12 presented at rocked Alaska on November 4 apparently p.m. MST Nov. 3 (1:12 p.m. local time in the annual triggered scores of earthquakes here in Yel- Alaska). meeting of lowstone, some 2,000 miles away. By 8:30 Scientists once believed that an earth- the Montana a.m. on that day, about 17 hours after the quake at one location could not trigger Historical Alaskan quake, more than 200 small earth- earthquakes at distant sites. But that belief Society in quakes had been detected occurring in was shattered in 1992 when the magnitude Havre on Alice Wondrak. clusters throughout the Yellowstone area. 7.3 Landers earthquake in California’s October 25. The quakes were recorded by the Yellow- Mojave Desert triggered a swarm of Alice’s winning submission, “Wrestling stone seismic network operated by the quakes more than 800 miles away at Yel- with Horace Albright: Edmund Rogers, University of Utah Seismograph Stations. lowstone, as well as other jolts near Mam- Visitors, and Bears in Yellowstone,” is Clusters of small earthquakes in time moth Lakes, California, and Yucca Moun- being published in Montana: The Maga- and space are common in Yellowstone. tain, Nevada. zine of Western History in two parts, begin- However, the clusters of Yellowstone ning in Autumn 2002. earthquakes following the Alaskan main- 2003 GWS Conference Announced shock extended across much of the park On April 14–18, 2003, the George Yellowstone Film Earns High Honors and were not concentrated in a single loca- Wright Society and National Park Service for Locals tion. will co-sponsor “Protecting Our Diverse “Yellowstone: America’s Sacred The smallest events were of magnitude Heritage: The Role of Parks, Protected Wilderness,” a one-hour film first broad- less than 0, and the largest of about mag- Areas, and Cultural Sites” in San Diego, cast on PBS in January 2001, has brought nitude 2.5. NPS rangers at Old Faithful California. This meeting will incorporate important recognition to three people in and Canyon Village reported feeling some two of the country’s leading conferences the Yellowstone region. The film, part of

28 Yellowstone Science NEWS notes

PBS’s “The Living Edens” series, was co- requirements; implementing an adaptive expertise, monitoring techniques and produced by filmmakers Hugh Miles, of management program; requiring that results of peer review. Wimborne, Dorset, England, and Shane access is guided; ensuring that phase-in is Guided Access: Training will be Moore, of Jackson, Wyoming, with addi- reasonable and shared with the communi- required for both commercial and non- tional filming done by veteran Yellowstone ties; developing a new generation of snow- commercial guides. Guides will be trained filmmaker Bob Landis, of Gardiner, Mon- coaches as a key to winter transportation; to avoid conflict with wildlife. The model tana. YCR writer Paul Schullery wrote the and ensuring that funding is available for will be tested during the phase-in period script and narrated the film. implementation. starting with 20% non-commercially guid- In September 2001, the Daily Limits: Snowmo- ed use, including a training program for film won the Best Cine- bile numbers could increase certification. Adaptive management tech- matography award at the or decrease slightly over the niques would be applied as experience is Jackson Hole Wildlife Film existing historic average. gained to adjust numbers within the limits Festival in Jackson, Peak use would be dramati- as appropriate. Wyoming, where it out- cally reduced, and some use Phase-in: These components would be competed 650 other films. would be directed away implemented over the course of two to In November 2001, the from the heavily impacted three winter use seasons to allow commu- film won the Grand Prize at West Yellowstone to Old nities, permittees, visitors, and conces- the Banff Mountain Film Faithful corridor. Total actu- sioners time to adapt. Festival in Banff, Alberta, al average daily use would Year 1 (2003/2004): Implement daily Canada, as the best of the be capped at the historical limits; begin comprehensive monitoring 250 films competing. In average for West Entrance program; require commercially-guided October 2002, at the bien- and allow for minor growth operations to be BAT; encourage rentals nial Wildscreen 2002 Film The award-winning video. and redistribution of use at and private snowmobiles to be BAT; com- Festival in Bristol, England, the other entrances. Initial plete concession contracting for commer- Paul Schullery won the “panda” (as Wild- snowmobile daily limits are: North cially guided operations; establish train- screen’s awards are known) award for best Entrance (Mammoth Terraces),50; West ing program for non-commercial guides; script. “Yellowstone’s” co-producer, Hugh Entrance, 550; East Entrance, 100; South propose changes for following winter. Miles, was awarded the Wildscreen festi- Entrance, 250; Continental Snowmobile Year 2 (2004/2005): Retain daily lim- val’s highest award, the panda for Out- Divide Trail, 75; and Grassy Lake Road, its; continue comprehensive monitoring standing Achievement. The Wildscreen 75. Total: 1,100. program; require all snowmobile entries competition is regarded as the most presti- Best Available Technology: Best Avail- to be guided (80%/20%); require all snow- gious in the nature film world; its pandas able Technology (BAT) would ensure that mobile entries to be BAT; propose changes are often referred to as the “green Oscars.” oversnow vehicles are the cleanest and for following winter. “Yellowstone: America’s Sacred quietest possible under today’s technology. Year 3 (2005/2006): Implement Wilderness” is still occasionally rebroad- For the winter of 2003/2004 NPS would changes, if required with regard to guid- cast on PBS. Copies of the film may be set BAT as any snowmobile that is capable ing, BAT, limits, monitoring program, ordered from the Yellowstone Association of reducing hydrocarbon emissions by hours of operation, etc. through their web site at www.Yellow- 90% and carbon monoxide emissions by Snowcoach Development: Continue to stoneAssociation.org. 70%. support and help fund the current research Adaptive Management: Specific stan- and development for new snowcoach tech- FSEIS Released to Cooperators dards would be set for each winter man- nology; support exploration of ways to On November 12, 2002, the Internal agement zone. The SEIS will prescribe fund purchase of an initial fleet of new Review Draft of the Supplemental Winter monitoring standards, methods and man- snowcoach vehicles through DOE, DOT, Use EIS was released to the States and agement actions for critical resources in and FHWA grants; require all snowcoach- Counties serving as Cooperating Agencies winter management Zone 3, (where snow- es must meet BAT standards. with the National Park Service. Details of mobiles and snowcoaches will travel). For Funding: The National Park Service is the preferred alternative will be presented each indicator, a standard either exists or is seeking operational funding as well as to the public in the Final SEIS on February hypothesized (for adaptive management). one-time funds to focus on enhanced win- 19, 2003. The framework, as well as the Each indicator and monitoring method and ter operations, to implement a comprehen- details, are a package, with all components intensity is prescribed. Management sive monitoring program, to replace equip- inextricably linked. The principal compo- actions are implemented if the standards ment, and to continue with research and nents of the package are: reducing num- are exceeded. The NPS will establish an development of the next generation of bers of snowmobiles through daily limits; “open forum” strategy for the dissemina- snowcoaches. implementing Best Available Technology tion of monitoring results, technical

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