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2017 Finifrock J Phd .Pdf Bangor University DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Trilingual Education in the Kam-Speaking Region of Guizhou Policy, Praxis, and Perceptions Finifrock, Jacob Award date: 2017 Awarding institution: Bangor University Link to publication General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. • Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. • You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain • You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal ? Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Download date: 05. Oct. 2021 Trilingual Education in the Kam- Speaking Region of Guizhou: Policy, Praxis, and Perceptions Jacob E. Finifrock School of Education Bangor University 2017 Abstract In recent years, as China has embraced global trends and promoted English-language instruction throughout the country, minority-language dominated regions have been facing the challenge of incorporating three languages into the curriculum. Research has indicated that combining the minority language (L1), the national language (L2), Mandarin, and an international language (L3), English, into one curriculum has taken different forms with varied characteristics depending on the minority language context in question. While the body of literature is growing in this field, primarily in minority language areas that had pre-existing scripts prior to the formation of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, there has been much less research into trilingual education practices in areas where minority language groups did not have pre-existing scripts. This study focuses on one such language group, the Southern Kam of Guizhou province. Adopting an ethnographic multi-case study approach, this research explores the sociolinguistic and historical context of education in the Kam region, and captures the status quo of language use practice and stakeholder attitudes towards the three languages involved in nine-year compulsory education in the current context. This research incorporated a mixed-methods approach, in which data were collected from a cohort of participants with whom the researcher had developed significant relationships. Ethnographic interviews were conducted and were complemented with site visits and classroom observations of participants teaching English. This study found that although the Kam language (L1) remains vital in the current context and at the time of the study was the dominant spoken language of Kam students; it was not used in academic instruction, nor was its use promoted in the classroom setting, though its use outside of the classroom was encouraged for cultural heritage purposes. Instead, Mandarin Chinese, the L2 of Kam students, was the dominant language of education, testing, and school functions. L3, English, was taught as an academic subject through the medium of Mandarin Chinese, but was not used as a medium of instruction in any circumstance. This study found that stakeholder perceptions and attitudes towards Kam, Mandarin, and English existed in a complex dynamic and opinions regarding language in VI education were largely based on misperceptions of best practices for trilingual education and a lack of awareness of beneficial demonstrated outcomes. Limitations are discussed and potential further studies are recommended. The research concludes by evaluating the findings of this study in light of previous research into additive trilingual education and recommendations are made for improving the current forms of language education in the Kam-speaking region. Most notably, this study calls for education officials in Guizhou to develop policy, in accordance with constitutional freedoms, that creates implementational space for developing minority language students’ L1 in accordance with research-based principles of additive trilingual education that will in turn improve performance and mastery of L2, Mandarin, and adequately develop L3, English. VII Acknowledgements I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude and respect to my supervisors, Dr. Anne- Marie Smith and Professor Anwei Feng for their vision, guidance, and support of me during the entirety of this journey. I especially appreciate Professor Feng’s advocacy in the initial stages of my PhD. journey and his attention to detail throughout this project, and Dr. Smith’s unwavering encouragement and empathy as I faced various obstacles and doubts along the way. Both of them have demonstrated patience and positive leadership that have been greatly appreciated. Thanks also to Dr. Jean Ware (Director of Research) Dr. Enlli Thomas (Chair of my Committee), Janet Thomas (Administrative Officer) and other research colleagues and staff in the School of Education for your encouragement, support, and friendship throughout this process, especially during my time in Bangor. Special thanks to Dr. Sion Owen, Dr.Nia Young, Dr. Ping Zhang, Dr. Nia Williams, Laura Jones, and Fliss Kiffyn for sharing your experiences and warm smiles, and for convincing me it was indeed possible to finish this project. I am particularly indebted to my colleagues in SIL International for your untiring support of minority languages around the world, and in particular for laboring along side of me while working together in Asia, and also for taking more of the load as I became more involved in this study. Dr. Norman and Ruth Geary, Dr. Keith Slater, Jaekyuing Cha, Chris Stokland, Richard and Esther Chen, Prollo and Ivy Ho, Stephen and Charman Hoff, Tomomi Minamimo, Dr. Catherine Young, Dr. Catherine Yang, and Dr. Curtis Wong were all instrumental in this journey. Special thanks to Dr. Dörthe Schilken for your constant guidance along the way, and for your critical eye and unflinching honesty towards my writing! I am most grateful to my wife, Monica, and my children Creed, Chloe, and Lincoln for bearing this burden with me. Your countless hours of sacrifice, releasing me of my duties of time and energy have not gone unappreciated. Indeed it is for you and your benefit that I have taken this path, and I am glad to have had your companionship, encouragement, and understanding along the way. In the end, I think it has made us richer as a family and I believe it will pay dividends in all of our lives in the future. You, to me, are a sky full of stars…’cause you get lighter the more it gets dark. To Alan and Sharon Finifrock, my parents, thanks for modeling a learner’s life and for your help along the way. To Julie O’Connor, my sister, I remember your promise. To all the Pullens, thank you for believing in me. As a man of deep faith, I would like to give thanks to Almighty God, Creator of the Universe and all people and languages for equipping me to do this work. May all credit I receive go to you. Lastly, I dedicate this work and its findings and benefits to current and future generations of Kam children. May you continue to love your language and culture that is full of beauty, dignity, and wisdom. May you continue to learn and share your language and to revel in its tones and take joy in its lyrics. Do not be ashamed of who you are or feel inferior to whom you are not. VIII List of Appendices Appendix A: Guizhou Province Research Permission ........................................... 225 Appendix B: Ethics Committee Approval Letter ...................................................... 226 Appendix C: Participant Consent Form ....................................................................... 227 Appendix D: Parent Guardian Consent Form ........................................................... 228 Appendix E: Parent/Participant Information Sheet ............................................... 229 Appendix F: Guizhou Province 2016 Compulsory Education Timetable (Chinese) ............................................................................................................................... 231 Appendix G: Participant 6 Observation Transcript ................................................ 233 Appendix H: Participant 1 Interview Transcription .............................................. 245 Appendix I: Site Visitation Checklist ............................................................................ 257 List of Tables Table 2.1 Enrollment data for Kaili Prefecture Compulsory Education 2001-2004 30 Table 2.2 Enrollment data for Kaili Prefecture and Misty Mountain County 2015 . 31 Table 3.1 Ytsma’s Criteria Used for Typology of Trilingual Education ................... 68 Table 4.1 Distinctive features used for coding ............................................................ 101 Table 4.2 Initially Proposed Participant Sample ....................................................... 111 Table 4.3 Final sample data ......................................................................................... 113 Table 5.1 Participant Data ........................................................................................... 124 Table 5.2: EGID Scale ................................................................................................... 127 Table 5.3 Language vitality responses
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