MIPB

April - June 2009 PB 34-O9-2

Operations in OEF Afghanistan by George A. Van Otten, PhD Introduction near the border in California, , New Mexico The border that separates the U.S. and Mexico runs and Texas regularly experience first hand the im- for approximately two thousand miles through some pacts of illegal immigration and drug trafficking. of the most challenging and inhospitable terrain in For many communities in these states, smuggling North America. It is also a place plagued by persis- strains the capabilities of their law enforcement and tent violence and crime. Currently, smugglers move emergency response agencies. Furthermore, the re- thousands of undocumented immigrants and mas- cruitment of young men and women by drug cartels sive quantities of illegal drugs across the border into weakens the social fabric of American towns, cit- the U.S. Moreover, until recently, illegal activities ies and rural counties in the region. Although hu- along the border have steadily increased over the man and drug smuggling along the entire reach of last several decades. the border between Mexico and the U.S. is an im- During the same period of time, violence along the mense problem that is, in one way or another, felt border has become almost endemic thereby forcing by all Americans, no community has suffered more the Mexican government to directly confront the ex- than the residents of the Tohono O’odham Nation of tremely well financed, well armed, and dangerous Southern Arizona. Mexican drug-trafficking organizations of northern Mexico. Smugglers who operate along the border spread terror by killing police, reporters, officials, Arizona and members of rival organized crime units.1 In bor- der cities such as Agua Prieta and Naco, Sonora, increasingly violent acts against police and other officials now make it difficult for Mexico to recruit C o

l people to serve in law enforcement. Since December o r a of 2006, more than 5,000 Mexican citizens (includ- d o

ing many public officials) have been killed in drug- R i 2 v related violence. e r In addition to the tumult that organized crime brings to the region, gang members and smugglers er also effectively bribe and intimidate people on both Riv alt sides of the border. They know how to recruit people Phoenix S driven by need, as well as those driven by greed. Gila River Reservation G ila Ben Gila River Mexican drug cartels and criminal gangs have d iver S R a greatly expanded their operations since the Medellin Gila n S Tohono O’odham ta a Cr n P and Cali drug cartels in Colombia were curtailed u z e d r by the cooperative efforts of the governments of Tohono Tucson o Ri O’odham Colombia and the U.S. In addition to illegal drugs, San Xavier v Reservation e Reservation r these cartels and gangs are also engaged in human Ri

3 v smuggling. e Mexico r Whereas most Americans worry about the onerous implications of the current situation, people who live The Tohono O’odham Reservation N 38 Military Intelligence The southern boundary of the Tohono O’odham He introduced European crops to indigenous farm- (formerly called Papago) Reservation runs for approx- ers and encouraged them to move into permanent imately 78 miles along the U.S. border with Mexico. settlements near the missions. When the current boundary was established in the In the 1700s, the Apache began to raid O’odham mid-nineteenth century by the Gadsden Treaty be- villages.5 Despite European influences and Apache tween Mexico and the U.S., no one seemed to no- raids however, the Tohono O’odham continued to tice that the new border cut through the traditional cling to their traditions. They were nonetheless homeland of the Tohono O’odham (Desert People). changed by these encroachments in that many ad- The Desert People generally disregarded the border opted the Catholic faith, learned to raise cattle and and travelled back and forth between Mexico and European crops, and were forced to develop effec- the U.S. with few restrictions. Over the last sev- tive defenses against those who attacked them.6 eral decades however, tightened security has made cross-border travel for the Tohono O’odham in- The Tohono O’odham and Mexico creasingly difficult. For all practical purposes, the Mexico became independent from Spain in 1821. Tohono O’odham who have always wanted to be left By 1828, the Mexican government began closing to live in keeping with their traditional ways and Spanish missions throughout the Tohono O’odham values (Him-dag), are now caught in the middle of homeland and for the most part, left the Desert the ongoing international crisis on the border. People alone. Even so, many Mexican citizens con- The Tohono O’odham tinued to establish farms, ranches and mines in ar- eas traditionally occupied by the Tohono O’odham. The Tohono O’odham have occupied the desert re- By 1840, such encroachments were becoming seri- gion of southern Arizona and northern Sonora for ous enough to cause conflicts between Mexican im- centuries. Their traditional semi-nomadic, agricul- migrants and the Desert People. At one point, the tural lifestyle was intrinsically intertwined with the Tohono O’odham battled with these immigrants summer monsoon rains of the desert that brought near the Mexican border-town of Cobota.7 their crops to fruition.

Prior to the official demarcation of the Reservation, The Americans and the New Border the Tohono O’odham system of governance focused In 1846, the U.S. and Mexico fought over the lo- on the family, clan, and village. Traditionally, vil- cation of the international border between the two lages were led by headmen who settled disputes and nations. In 1848, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo provided guidance. Headmen also protected the sa- ended the war, but the exact location of the bor- cred artifacts of the village and made certain that der was not formalized until 1853 when both na- ceremonies followed proper traditions.4 Throughout tions signed the Gadsden Treaty. Despite the fact their history, the Tohono O’odham were, and have that the new border cut through the heart of the remained, a peaceful people dedicated to the preser- Tohono O’odham homeland, the U.S. and Mexico vation of their language, culture and traditions. did not include representatives of the Desert People in the negotiations. Moreover, the U.S. did not grant Spanish Influence citizenship to the Tohono O’odham who lived on When the Spanish first arrived in the Santa Cruz the north side of the new border.8 Without citizen- River Valley in the 1680s, they were surprised to ship, and without the protection of a formally es- find irrigated fields spreading out for several miles tablished reservation, the O’odham homeland north on both sides of the river near the village of Bac of the border became part of the public domain of (near the site of modern-day Tucson). Soon after, the U.S., thereby opening these lands to American the Spanish priest, Eusebio Kino arrived in the re- settlers. As non-Indians began to settle on their gion and almost immediately initiated the construc- land, the Desert People moved further into more tion of missions in order to convert the indigenous isolated parts of their territory.9 Additionally, the people to Catholicism. He also sought to estab- Desert People and non-Indians disagreed over the lish European style ranches and mines. Although use of land and water. To put an end to this tension, he was primarily interested in saving souls, Father President U.S. Grant created the 71,000 acre San Kino also had a passion for farming and ranching. Xavier Reservation near the city of Tucson, Arizona

April - June 2009 39 in 1874. In 1882 the federal government set aside low freezing. Normally, rainfall is scant, but from another 10,000 acres near Gila Bend, Arizona. time to time, summer thunder storms result in tor- rents of water that flood washes and restrict travel. Because many of the Desert People did not move Natural vegetation on the Reservation is surpris- to the reservations, they continued to clash with ingly lush and includes a wide variety of desert non-Indians in the area. In 1916, the federal gov- flora. Reservation wildlife, typical of the desert cli- ernment responded by setting aside more than two mate, remains diverse and abundant despite years million acres for the use of the Desert People.10 Over of cattle ranching.14 the next thirty years, it added additional pieces of land to the Reservation. It is now the second larg- Despite its great beauty, the desert presents ma- est Native American reservation (after the ) in jor challenges to those who are unaccustomed to its the U.S.11 extremes. Summer heat, winter cold, long distances between sources of water, poisonous wildlife, wild In 1934, in keeping with the Indian Reorganization animals, rough terrain, and vast areas of isolated Act, the Tohono O’odham established the “Papago country pose serious risks to those who try to travel Tribe of Arizona.”12 The creation of a centralized over the Reservation on foot. tribal government was a dramatic departure from the traditionally decentralized, village-based, con- Crisis on the Border sensus-oriented O’odham culture and many tribal Until recently, the Desert People were free to members continued to go to their villages to discuss travel back and forth between Mexico and the 13 problems and ask for decisions. Reservation to visit family members and to take part Over the years following the implementation of in ceremonies and celebrations. Recently however, the Indian Reorganization Act, the tribal govern- robust enforcement makes cross-border travel dif- ment located at Sells, Arizona has increased its ficult. Whereas, stronger border security inconve- authority over the affairs of the Desert People. niences tribal members who travel back and forth Moreover, the Tribal Legislative Council is em- between Mexico and the U.S. legally, thousands powered by its fiduciary role for federal and tribal of immigrants from Mexico use the isolation of the dollars and by the tendency of all non-O’odham Reservation to avoid detection to cross illegally into to go to the Council to transact business on the the U.S. According to the Tohono O’odham Police, Reservation. Therefore, though many continue to as many as 1,500 people from Mexico pass through 15 practice traditional ways, and the O’odham lan- the Reservation every day. Furthermore, since guage is spoken throughout the Reservation, reg- 2000, the U.S. Border Patrol has investigated 1,156 ular interaction with the dominant society makes deaths of illegal migrants that have occurred on the the preservation of the traditional culture an in- Reservation as a result of the harsh remoteness of 16 creasingly challenging goal. the environment. These deaths have placed im- mense psychological, social, and financial burdens The Tohono O’odham Reservation on the Desert People. This is a vast, rugged region of exceptional beauty Over the last decade, there have been several in- that encompasses approximately three million acres cursions into the Reservation by people dressed immediately north of the U.S. border with Mexico. in Mexican uniforms. In March 1999, Homeland Despite some urban development near Sells (the Security personnel were fired on by personnel wear- Nation’s capital) and the cultivation of thousands ing Mexican military uniforms who were smuggling of acres by the tribal farm, the lion’s share of the illegal drugs into the U.S. In April 2000, a cattle Reservation continues to be characterized by large truck drove into the village of Menager’s Dam on tracts of natural desert and open range dotted with the O’odham Reservation carrying men wearing small villages and family compounds. Mexican military uniforms and armed with ma- The desert of Southern Arizona is characterized chine guns. In January 2002, two men, dressed as by hot summers with temperatures often exceed- Mexican soldiers, crashed into a car and killed two ing 100 degrees. Although winters are generally innocent people while smuggling drugs through the mild, night time temperatures sometimes drop be- Reservation. Later in May 2002, a Tohono O’odham

40 Military Intelligence Nation Ranger was pursued by men wearing Mexican wealth that smugglers offer to people who have military uniforms and driving a military vehicle.17 lived in poverty and deprivation for generations. The lure of tax free dollars in exchange for trans- Impacts of Illegal Immigration on the portation, food, water, and shelter has led some Reservation tribal members (especially the young) to partic- Through no fault of their own, the Desert People ipate in smuggling. Additionally, for humanitar- are now caught in the middle of an immense cri- ian reasons, some people have established water sis created by decisions made long ago and exac- stations along well-travelled routes through the erbated by perceptions of wealth and opportunity Reservation. Whereas these stations save lives, in the U.S. relative to the poverty and depriva- they also draw illegal migrants and smugglers. tion that is often synonymous with life in Mexico. Water stations are a contentious issue on the Furthermore, illegal immigration and drug smug- Reservation, and families are sometimes torn gling on the Reservation directly threaten the best apart by differences of opinion over interaction efforts of the Tohono O’odham to preserve their tra- with illegal migrants and smugglers. ditional culture and way-of-life. The Tohono O’odham value privacy and do not Many illegal immigrants who come from Mexico welcome intrusions by outsiders. The smuggling to the Reservation arrive in need of water, food, and of large numbers of people and drugs now brings medical attention. The humanitarian needs of these hundreds of law enforcement personnel to the people cannot be ignored by the Tohono O’odham Reservation. As Border Patrol agents and employ- who must, by tradition, help others in need. On the ees of other agencies attempt to apprehend undoc- other hand, tribal members do not want to be ar- umented migrants and drug smugglers, they often rested for aiding illegal immigrants. Because of these find it necessary to intrude on the private lives of and other similar problems, Tribal Chairman, Ned the Desert People. Additionally, most of the authori- Norris, stresses the need for better communica- ties who are assigned to work on the Reservation tions and consultation between O’odham leaders have not studied the nature of O’odham culture, and federal officials. Though cooperation between values, attitudes and beliefs. Sometimes, this lack the tribal and federal government is evident, and of knowledge leads to misunderstandings and tense despite efforts by the U.S. Border Patrol to improve encounters. relations with the O’odham nation, many tribal Costs of Illegal Immigration members believe the U.S. Department of Homeland Illegal immigrants leave more than 2,000 tons of Security (DHS) should show greater concern for the cast-off bottles, clothing, back packs, and human sovereignty of the Tohono O’odham Nation.18 waste on the Reservation each year. This trash is Large numbers of illegal immigrants have resulted more than merely an eyesore; it is hazardous to in increased levels of crime on the Reservation. wildlife, domestic animals, and local residents. The During March 2008 alone, an estimated 15,500 il- Tohono O’odham Nation now finds it necessary to legal immigrants entered the Reservation.19 The spend thousands of dollars each year to remove this Desert People now find it necessary to secure their garbage. Furthermore, those who live in the small homes because immigrants have stolen food, cloth- villages and ranches scattered over the Reservation ing and other possessions. Sometimes, people are also forced to haul away truck loads of garbage find undocumented immigrants sleeping on their and waste left near their homes.20 porches or in outbuildings near their homes. Until In 2003, the Tohono O’odham Nation spent more recently, people who lived on the Reservation were than three million dollars to combat illegal immigra- able to walk through the desert without fear. Now tion and smuggling and these costs have continued they have found it increasingly necessary to take to escalate. This, however, is not the only potentially personal security measures in order to protect their disastrous ramification of illegal immigration and families and their possessions. smuggling. The involvement of some tribal mem- Although these problems are immense, one of bers in these activities seriously complicates the the most damaging ramifications of human and Nation’s long term commitment to the preservation drug smuggling on the Reservation is the instant of the Tohono O’odham culture. Smugglers are will-

April - June 2009 41 ing to pay local people as much as $1,500 per per- times they are inconvenienced, or even harassed son to drive illegal immigrants from the Reservation by these personnel. They also point out that many to the Phoenix metropolitan area. They also pay for federal law enforcement officers and agents seem to storage, food, water, shelter, and the transporta- know little about the traditional ways of the Desert tion of illegal narcotics. A person who has access People. They call upon the Federal Government and to a six passenger vehicle could receive more than other governments to respect the sovereignty of the $7,000.00 (tax free) for making an eight hour round Tohono O’odham Nation.24 trip. For many people who live on the Reservation, Tribal Chairman, Ned Norris, Jr., in written tes- that is a lot of money. While no one knows the ex- timony to a Joint Subcommittee of the U.S. House act amount of personal income that comes to some of Representatives in April 2008, noted that the tribal members as a result of providing these ser- Tohono O’odham Nation has worked closely with vices, one study found that the annual total may the U.S. Customs and Border Protection to find al- 21 exceed $13,795,000. ternatives to walls along the border. He argues that The Desert People live in close-knit communi- viable alternatives include vehicle barriers, towers, ties. For them, the participation of tribal members check-points, and camera-radar systems. He be- in smuggling and other such activities presents lieves that these methods can effectively improve an immense challenge because the Tribal Police security without causing the environmental dam- are sometimes called upon to arrest people who age and personal inconveniences associated with they know very well. Even so, they work closely the construction of a wall. The Tohono O’odham are with federal, state, and county authorities to en- particularly concerned about the impacts of a bor- force the law and stem the flow of illegal migrants der wall on migratory wildlife such as the Mexican and smuggling on the Reservation.22 jaguar. Chairman Norris now calls upon the fed- eral government to repeal the authority given to the During fiscal year 2002, the Tohono O’odham Secretary of Homeland Security to wave the limita- Nation was forced to spend nearly $7,000,000 to tions of the Environmental Protection Act in the in- deal with the manifestations of illegal migration. terests of security.25 During this period, 85 illegal immigrants died on In recent years, the Border Patrol has sought to ex- the Reservation causing $266,050 to be spent on pose agents who patrol on the Reservation to Tohono autopsies and other related costs. At the same O’odham culture. It also employs a community rela- time, Tribal Police dealt with 140 drug smuggling tions officer who works closely with tribal members cases at a cost of $642,880; twelve immigrant re- to insure effective communications.26 Nevertheless, lated homicides costing $260,000 to investigate; the training that most Border Patrol personnel re- towed nearly 4,000 abandoned immigrant vehi- ceive about the culture of the Desert People remains cles at a cost of $180,000, and provided medical fairly light. Given the complex nature of the current emergency treatment to immigrants at a cost of situation, it is clear that law enforcement personnel more than $500,000.23 assigned to work on the Reservation would benefit Although the Tohono O’odham Nation receives from training designed to immerse them in the tra- some assistance from the federal government, ditions, values, attitudes, and beliefs of the Desert the massive numbers of illegal entrants to the People. Reservation have made it necessary for the Desert Initiatives to Deal with Illegal People to divert scarce resources from other press- Immigration and Smuggling ing needs including support to schools, economic Tribal police, as well as federal and state law en- development, and infrastructure improvements. forcement agencies, are making strides in finding Law Enforcement Issues effective ways to stop the flow of illegal migrants and While most tribal members want to put an end to drugs through the Reservation. Among the more crime on the Reservation, many are uncomfortable important of these initiatives are the employment with the presence of large numbers of non-O’odham of Native American ‘Shadow Wolf’ trackers, and the law enforcement personnel in their communi- training of law enforcement personnel in the gath- ties. Tribal members tell their leaders that some- ering, analysis and use of actionable intelligence by

42 Military Intelligence the Directorate of Intelligence Support to Homeland combating terrorism, interviewing techniques, in- Security (DISHLS), U.S. Army Intelligence Center terrogation, and effective report writing. (USAIC), at Fort Huachuca, Arizona. DISHLS has made courses available to U.S. Border The Shadow Wolves Patrol and other law enforcement agencies in a va- Although high-tech intelligence and tracking riety of locations throughout the U.S. and provided techniques are employed in order to capture illegal training to personnel attached to the Tucson Sector immigrants and smugglers on the Reservation, the of the U.S. Border Patrol, charged with protecting Shadow Wolves effectively employ low-tech proce- the border from the Eastern Yuma County to the dures and techniques. These federal agents are a Arizona/New Mexico boundary. Native American group of interdiction specialists, who work under U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), within the DHS, using their highly honed tracking skills to find and apprehend drug smugglers operating on the Reservation. During the first six months of 2007, the Shadow Wolves seized almost 50,000 pounds of marijuana on the Reservation. In addition to putting their tracking skills to work, they also train other U.S law enforcement agents as well as border guards from other nations including , Latvia, Tajikistan, , , and Macedonia.27 Cultural Awareness and Intelligence Training The ongoing war against terrorism in the Middle East has brought about increasingly sophisticated Tucson Sector intelligence capabilities, more effective training In addition to providing intelligence training strategies and techniques, and an expanding em- through MTTs, DISHLS is currently striving to sup- phasis on cultural awareness training and educa- plement traditional intelligence training with appro- tion within the U.S. military. Although the Tohono priately designed distributed learning (DL) courses O’odham are loyal U.S. citizens, they are strongly offered through USAIC’s University of Military committed to the preservation of their culture and Intelligence (UMI). The Directorate is also working language, and they think of the Reservation as a with Cochise College and other institutions of higher sacred homeland. Non-O’odham law enforcement learning (including the Tohono O’odham Nation’s personnel assigned to work on the Reservation Community College) to gain college credits for many should receive cultural awareness training that is of these courses. Available supplemental courses at least as robust as the training given to members include writing and critical thinking. Additionally, of the U.S. Armed Forces who are stationed in Iraq UMI is currently developing DL courses on the im- and Afghanistan. USAIC has been at the forefront portance of culture and intelligence. in the development and delivery of cultural aware- It is increasingly evident that securing the na- ness training for the military. tion’s borders is dependent on the robust collection For six years USAIC, through DISHLS, has pro- of information, effective analysis and the insight- vided basic and advanced intelligence training and ful application of the resultant intelligence. In or- education for personnel from a variety of agencies der to do this, all law enforcement personnel who associated with the DHS mission. DISHLS has pro- work along the border (as well as local residents) vided specialized training via mobile training teams should be trained to concisely report observations (MTTs) including courses on terrorism and counter- that could provide a tactical advantage to tribal terrorism, the reporting of intelligence data, intelli- and other officials charged with bringing smug- gence preparation of the operational environment, gling and illegal immigration on the Reservation

April - June 2009 43 under control. In keeping with this concept, the Although the majority of the Desert People sup- DISHLS and UMI are working to provide access to port efforts to stop smuggling and illegal immigra- such training and education to appropriate tribal, tion from Mexico into the U.S. through their vast community, county, and federal personnel. This Reservation, many are often disconcerted by con- initiative is designed to increase the cost effective- stant interaction with non-O’odham law enforce- ness and timeliness of homeland security training ment personnel. Differences in values, attitudes, and education, and rests upon the current federal and beliefs sometimes lead to misunderstandings mandate to all branches of government to share that are not conducive to effective cooperation be- information and resources wherever and when- tween local tribal members who may have infor- ever possible. mation that could help build the intelligence base needed to secure the border. Securing the Reservation Border Gaining the cooperation of the Desert People could Although there is, as yet, insufficient data avail- be more easily accomplished if they were convinced able to definitively state that illegal immigration from that non-O’odham law enforcement personnel un- Mexico into the U.S. is in a long term decline, Leslie derstood, and showed deference to, O’odham ways Fulbright (San Francisco Chronicle), reported in and culture. The successful completion of a com- October 2008 that the numbers of illegal immigrants prehensive course on the language, history, tradi- have decreased in response to a slowing U.S. econ- tions, values, and culture of the Desert People by all omy and more effective border security measures.28 non-O’odham tasked with securing the Reservation Ronald J. Hansen (The Arizona Republic) stated that border with Mexico would be compelling evidence of illegal immigration in the U.S. has dropped by about the desire of local, state, and federal governments eleven percent over the last year. He attributes this to work in respectful partnership with the Tohono to the slowing American economy and the stepped O’odham Nation. Such a course could be developed up efforts of the Border Patrol.29 and offered (some parts of it via DL) through a coop- Despite these reports however, there has yet to erative venture between USAIC (DISHLS and UMI) be a noticeable decline in the social and economic and the Tohono O’odham Community College. costs of smuggling and illegal immigration on the Many tribal members now view with alarm the Reservation. Tribal, state, and federal personnel numbers of O’odham youth who have been recruited continue to find enforcement of the 78 mile Tohono to work for the drug cartels and smugglers. They O’odham border with Mexico a daunting challenge know that unless the current invasion is halted, and continue to seek effective and efficient intelli- the Reservation cannot become a prosperous, safe gence training opportunities through which they hearth of traditional O’odham culture. An effective, can enhance their abilities to collect, process, and well planned long term effort to stop illegal immi- apply intelligence to their vital homeland security gration and drug smuggling on the Reservation is mission. possible if federal, state, and other authorities fully Conclusion cooperate and consult with the Tohono O’odham The creation of the border between Mexico and the Nation. U.S. caused many serious, although not immedi- Though the federal government has a moral obli- ately apparent, problems for the Desert People. In gation to protect the rights of all indigenous groups 1853, none who signed the Gadsden Treaty could in the Nation, shielding the Tohono O’odham from have foreseen the wave of violence and crime that the disastrous consequences of smuggling and ille- now characterizes life on the border. Because they gal immigration is especially important because the had nothing to do with creating the border in the security of the Reservation is increasingly linked first place, the Tohono O’odham have historically to the security of the entire U.S. Actionable intel- regarded it with ambivalence. In recent decades ligence coupled with high quality applied training however, drug and human smuggling have made it and education can do much to assist the tribal po- necessary for federal officials, including the Border lice, Border Patrol and other law enforcement agen- Patrol, to critically scrutinize roads and communi- cies as they cooperatively endeavor to secure the ties throughout the Reservation. border.

44 Military Intelligence Endnotes 18. McCombs and Volante. 1. Michael F. Logan, The Lessening Stream: An Environmental 19. Ned Norris, Written Testimony to the Subcommittee on History of the Santa Cruz River (Tucson, Arizona: The University of Fisheries, Wildlife and Oceans and Subcommittee on National Arizona Press, 2000), 15-181. Parks, Forests and Public Lands of the House Committee on Natural Resources: Joint Oversight Hearing, Walls and Waivers: Expedited 2. Chris Hawley, Drug Monitor, “Violence Rises on the US/Mexico Construction of the Southern Border Wall and Collateral Impacts to Border,” 14 September 2008, at http://mexicomonitor.blogspot. Communities and the Environment, 28 April 2008 at http://www. com/2008/09/drug-monitor-on-violence-on-usmexico.html. tiamatpublications.com/docs/testimony_norris.pdf. 3. House Committee on Homeland Security, Subcommittee on 20. Gary Gross, Union Tribune, “Triple Fence along Border Would Investigations, Michael T. McCaul, Chairman, “A Line in the Sand: Split Indian Nation,” 22 October 2006 at http://www.signonsandiego. Confronting the Threat at the Southwest Border,” 2007 at http:// com/news/nation/20061022-9999-1n22tohono.html. www.house.gov/sites/members/tx10_mccaul/pdf/Investigaions- Border-Report.pdf. and Lee Morgan, The Reaper’s Line: Life 21. Kenneth D. Madsen, “A Nation Across Nations: The Tohono and Death on the Mexican Border (Tucson, Arizona: Rio Nuevo O’odham and the U.S. Mexico Border,” unpublished doctoral Publishers, 2006), 54-245. dissertation, (Tempe, Arizona: Arizona State University, 2005), 139- 176. 4. Ruth Underhill, The Papago and Pima Indians of Arizona (Palmer Lake, Colorado: The Filter Press, 1979), 1-57. 22. Ibid. 5. Logan. 23. National Congress of American Indians and the Tohono O’odham 6. J.D. Hendricks, Resistance and Collaboration: O’odham Responses Nation. to U.S. Invasion (Long Beach, California: Tiamat Publications, 2004) 24. Madsen. at http://www.tiamatpublications.com/docs/Collaboration_and_ Resistance.pdf. 25. Norris. 7. Bernard Fontana, Of Earth and Little Rain (Tucson, Arizona: The University of Arizona Press, 1989), 1-40. 26. Jose A. Gonzalez and Cristina Metheney, U.S. Border Patrol Agents, Personal telephone interview, 9 December 2007. 8. In general, American Indians were not granted American citizenship until the Indian Citizenship Act was enacted in 1924. 27. Sylvia Moreno, The Washington Post, “‘Shadow Wolves’ Prowl the U.S.–Mexico Border,” 6 May 2007 at http://www.washingtonpost. 9. Hendricks. com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/05/AR2007050500771_ pf.html. 10. Hendricks. 28. Leslie Fulbright, The San Francisco Chronicle, “Illegal Immigration 11. George Van Otten, “A Development Feasibility Study for San Lucy Slows as Economy Weakens,” 3 October 2008 at http://www.sfgate. District,” Department of Geography and Public Planning, Northern com/c/a/2008/10/02/BAGU139QIL.DTL. Arizona University, 1-18. 29. Ronald J. Hansen, Arizonal Republic, “Number of Illegal Migrants 12. The Indian Reorganization Act (Wheeler-Howard Act) of 1934 in Arizona, U.S. Plummets,” 31 July 2008 at http://www.azcentral. called for Indian Nations to establish home rule or tribal governments. com/news/articles/2008/07/31/20080731immigration0731.html. See http://www.maquah.net/Kafkaesque/statutes/IRA-330.html.

13. Peter Blaine, Sr. with Michael S. Adams, Papagos and Politics (Tucson, Arizona: The Arizona Historical Society Press, 1981), 67-90.

14. William G. McGinnies, “An Overview of the Sonoran Desert, An Essay,” Developed from a Paper, Second Annual Conference of the Consortium of Arid Lands Institutions, 4 February 1976, Tucson, Arizona at http://alic.aric.arizona.edu/sonoran/documents/ mcginnies/McGinnies_overview.html.

15. John Dougherty, High Country News, “One Nation, Under Fire,” 19 February 2007 at http://www.hcn.org/issues/340/16834. George A. Van Otten, PhD is a retired Lieutenant Colonel, USAR, and graduate of the MI Advanced Course and the 16. Brady McCombs and Eric Volante, Arizona Daily Star, 9 Command and General Staff College. He is a professor December 2007, “Deadliest Migrant Trail in U.S. is Right on Tucson’s emeritus at Northern Arizona University and retired Dean Doorstep,” A1-A2. of Training for USAIC. Dr. Van Otten holds a BS and MS 17. National Congress of American Indians, The Tohono O’odham in Education from Western Oregon University and PhD in Nation and Homeland Security Report, 2003 at http://www. Geography from Oregon State University. Currently, he is a ncai.org/ncai/resource/agreements/Tohono%20O’Odham%20 Strategic Planner for CACI, working with USAIC’s UMI and Nation%20Law%20Enforcement%20Materials.pdf DISHLS.

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