Military Intelligence Professional Bulletin

MIPB April - June 2009 PB 34-O9-2 Operations in OEF Afghanistan by George A. Van Otten, PhD Introduction near the border in California, Arizona, New Mexico The border that separates the U.S. and Mexico runs and Texas regularly experience first hand the im- for approximately two thousand miles through some pacts of illegal immigration and drug trafficking. of the most challenging and inhospitable terrain in For many communities in these states, smuggling North America. It is also a place plagued by persis- strains the capabilities of their law enforcement and tent violence and crime. Currently, smugglers move emergency response agencies. Furthermore, the re- thousands of undocumented immigrants and mas- cruitment of young men and women by drug cartels sive quantities of illegal drugs across the border into weakens the social fabric of American towns, cit- the U.S. Moreover, until recently, illegal activities ies and rural counties in the region. Although hu- along the border have steadily increased over the man and drug smuggling along the entire reach of last several decades. the border between Mexico and the U.S. is an im- During the same period of time, violence along the mense problem that is, in one way or another, felt border has become almost endemic thereby forcing by all Americans, no community has suffered more the Mexican government to directly confront the ex- than the residents of the Tohono O’odham Nation of tremely well financed, well armed, and dangerous Southern Arizona. Mexican drug-trafficking organizations of northern Mexico. Smugglers who operate along the border spread terror by killing police, reporters, officials, Arizona and members of rival organized crime units.1 In border cities such as Agua Prieta and Naco, Sonora, increasingly violent acts against police and other officials now make it difficult for Mexico to recruit C o l people to serve in law enforcement. Since December o r a of 2006, more than 5,000 Mexican citizens (includ- d o ing many public officials) have been killed in drug- R i 2 v related violence. e r In addition to the tumult that organized crime brings to the region, gang members and smugglers er also effectively bribe and intimidate people on both Riv alt sides of the border. They know how to recruit people Phoenix S driven by need, as well as those driven by greed. Gila River Reservation G ila Ben Gila River Mexican drug cartels and criminal gangs have d iver S R a greatly expanded their operations since the Medellin Gila n S Tohono O’odham ta a n Cr P and Cali drug cartels in Colombia were curtailed u z e d r by the cooperative efforts of the governments of Tohono Tucson o Ri O’odham Colombia and the U.S. In addition to illegal drugs, San Xavier v Reservation e Reservation r these cartels and gangs are also engaged in human Ri 3 v smuggling. e Mexico r Whereas most Americans worry about the onerous implications of the current situation, people who live The Tohono O’odham Reservation N 38 Military Intelligence The southern boundary of the Tohono O’odham He introduced European crops to indigenous farm- (formerly called Papago) Reservation runs for approx- ers and encouraged them to move into permanent imately 78 miles along the U.S. border with Mexico. settlements near the missions. When the current boundary was established in the In the 1700s, the Apache began to raid O’odham mid-nineteenth century by the Gadsden Treaty be- villages.5 Despite European influences and Apache tween Mexico and the U.S., no one seemed to no- raids however, the Tohono O’odham continued to tice that the new border cut through the traditional cling to their traditions. They were nonetheless homeland of the Tohono O’odham (Desert People). changed by these encroachments in that many ad- The Desert People generally disregarded the border opted the Catholic faith, learned to raise cattle and and travelled back and forth between Mexico and European crops, and were forced to develop effec- the U.S. with few restrictions. Over the last sev- tive defenses against those who attacked them.6 eral decades however, tightened security has made cross-border travel for the Tohono O’odham in- The Tohono O’odham and Mexico creasingly difficult. For all practical purposes, the Mexico became independent from Spain in 1821. Tohono O’odham who have always wanted to be left By 1828, the Mexican government began closing to live in keeping with their traditional ways and Spanish missions throughout the Tohono O’odham values (Him-dag), are now caught in the middle of homeland and for the most part, left the Desert the ongoing international crisis on the border. People alone. Even so, many Mexican citizens con- The Tohono O’odham tinued to establish farms, ranches and mines in areas traditionally occupied by the Tohono O’odham. The Tohono O’odham have occupied the desert re- By 1840, such encroachments were becoming seri- gion of southern Arizona and northern Sonora for ous enough to cause conflicts between Mexican im- centuries. Their traditional semi-nomadic, agricul- migrants and the Desert People. At one point, the tural lifestyle was intrinsically intertwined with the Tohono O’odham battled with these immigrants summer monsoon rains of the desert that brought near the Mexican border-town of Cobota.7 their crops to fruition. Prior to the official demarcation of the Reservation, The Americans and the New Border the Tohono O’odham system of governance focused In 1846, the U.S. and Mexico fought over the lo- on the family, clan, and village. Traditionally, vil- cation of the international border between the two lages were led by headmen who settled disputes and nations. In 1848, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo provided guidance. Headmen also protected the sa- ended the war, but the exact location of the bor- cred artifacts of the village and made certain that der was not formalized until 1853 when both na- ceremonies followed proper traditions.4 Throughout tions signed the Gadsden Treaty. Despite the fact their history, the Tohono O’odham were, and have that the new border cut through the heart of the remained, a peaceful people dedicated to the preser- Tohono O’odham homeland, the U.S. and Mexico vation of their language, culture and traditions. did not include representatives of the Desert People in the negotiations. Moreover, the U.S. did not grant Spanish Influence citizenship to the Tohono O’odham who lived on When the Spanish first arrived in the Santa Cruz the north side of the new border.8 Without citizen- River Valley in the 1680s, they were surprised to ship, and without the protection of a formally es- find irrigated fields spreading out for several miles tablished reservation, the O’odham homeland north on both sides of the river near the village of Bac of the border became part of the public domain of (near the site of modern-day Tucson). Soon after, the U.S., thereby opening these lands to American the Spanish priest, Eusebio Kino arrived in the re- settlers. As non-Indians began to settle on their gion and almost immediately initiated the construc- land, the Desert People moved further into more tion of missions in order to convert the indigenous isolated parts of their territory.9 Additionally, the people to Catholicism. He also sought to estab- Desert People and non-Indians disagreed over the lish European style ranches and mines. Although use of land and water. To put an end to this tension, he was primarily interested in saving souls, Father President U.S. Grant created the 71,000 acre San Kino also had a passion for farming and ranching. Xavier Reservation near the city of Tucson, Arizona April - June 2009 39 in 1874. In 1882 the federal government set aside low freezing. Normally, rainfall is scant, but from another 10,000 acres near Gila Bend, Arizona. time to time, summer thunder storms result in tor- rents of water that flood washes and restrict travel. Because many of the Desert People did not move Natural vegetation on the Reservation is surpris- to the reservations, they continued to clash with ingly lush and includes a wide variety of desert non-Indians in the area. In 1916, the federal gov- flora. Reservation wildlife, typical of the desert cli- ernment responded by setting aside more than two mate, remains diverse and abundant despite years million acres for the use of the Desert People.10 Over of cattle ranching.14 the next thirty years, it added additional pieces of land to the Reservation. It is now the second larg- Despite its great beauty, the desert presents ma- est Native American reservation (after the Navajo) in jor challenges to those who are unaccustomed to its the U.S.11 extremes. Summer heat, winter cold, long distances between sources of water, poisonous wildlife, wild In 1934, in keeping with the Indian Reorganization animals, rough terrain, and vast areas of isolated Act, the Tohono O’odham established the “Papago country pose serious risks to those who try to travel Tribe of Arizona.”12 The creation of a centralized over the Reservation on foot. tribal government was a dramatic departure from the traditionally decentralized, village-based, con- Crisis on the Border sensus-oriented O’odham culture and many tribal Until recently, the Desert People were free to members continued to go to their villages to discuss travel back and forth between Mexico and the 13 problems and ask for decisions. Reservation to visit family members and to take part Over the years following the implementation of in ceremonies and celebrations.

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