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Great Plains Quarterly Studies, Center for

Summer 2011 JOINING THE GREAT PLAINS IN SPACE, PLACE, AND QUESTIONING A BOUNDARY Rob Kuper Temple University

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Kuper, Rob, "JOINING THE GREAT PLAINS IN SPACE, PLACE, AND TIME QUESTIONING A TIME ZONE BOUNDARY" (2011). Great Plains Quarterly. 2709. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/greatplainsquarterly/2709

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Great Plains Studies, Center for at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Great Plains Quarterly by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. JOINING THE GREAT PLAINS IN SPACE, PLACE, AND TIME QUESTIONING A TIME ZONE BOUNDARY

ROB KUPER

Standard time zone boundaries are invisible the world for various reasons that result in the in the landscape, yet they abruptly delineate synchronization of socioeconomic and politi­ a temporal difference of one between cal activities within and between communities two large areas located relative to one another and the simultaneous separation from others. on Earth. In cases, zone The zone boundary between mountain boundaries follow political ones and define standard time (MST) and central standard areas within which time (CST) in the Great Plains of the United (DST)-the seasonal advancement of stan­ States now follows the mostly rectilinear politi­ dard time by one hour-is observed. Moving cal boundaries of counties and states from the time zone boundaries and the decision to Canadian border in the north t'o the Mexican observe daylight saving time occurs throughout border in the south. North and , Nebraska, , and are bisected by the standard time zone boundary. All Plains states observe DST. Two consequences result Key Words: climate, commerce, daylight saving from this current configuration: first, com­ time, Nebraska, water munities on either side of the MST-CST zone boundary are united by time but may not be Rob Kuper is assistant professor of landscape architec­ related by environmental characteristics; and ture at Temple University and a registered landscape , that observing or eliininating DST in architect. He received a Bachelor of Science in Environmental Design and a Master of Landscape one state depends upon observance or elimina­ Architecture from Auburn University. In 2004, he tion in neighboring states. walked from west to east across Nebraska, his birthplace, Sutherland and Paxton, Nebraska, illus­ to learn more about the landscape. The walk served as trate the first consequence. These towns are a catalyst for research regarding perceptions of space, approximately twelve miles apart but lie in place, time, and water in landscapes. different counties and standard time zones, and are accordingly synchronized with socio­ [GPQ 31 (Summer 2011): 223-42) economic activities in the Midwest or the

223 224 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SUMMER 2011

Plains and Rocky Mountains. Paxton keeps MST, the same time as Ogallala, Oshkosh, and Scottsbluff in Nebraska, Torrington and Cheyenne in , and Fort Collins and in . Sutherland keeps CST, as do communities farther east-Kearney, Grand Island, North Platte, and Omaha, Nebraska, and Kansas City, St. Louis, and . Historically, the twenty-inch isohyet-the line that connects locations of average annual rainfall totaling twenty inches-has been used to distinguish the Great Plains from the Midwest. West of this line, rainfall totals less than twenty inches annually, the climate is arid to some degree, and irrigation is consid­ ered necessary for successful agriculture, the dominant land use. East of this line, rainfall exceeds twenty inches annually, the climate is more humid, and irrigation in agriculture is generally considered unnecessary. Lying beneath and straddling the isohyet is the FIG. 1. The current boundary of the mountain Ogallala aquifer: 3 billion acre-feet of water in standard time and central standard time (MST-CST) gravel beds up to 300 feet thick that have sup­ zones, the twenty-inch isohyet (dashed), and the plied farmers and ranchers since the 1960s.1 approximate area of the Ogallala aquifer. All maps Unfortunately, the MST-CST zone bound­ were created by the author. ary does not synchronize communities that are closely related by climate and land use. To other state it abuts by one hour during the , no attempt has been made to align the and summer. The elimination of ­ MST-CST zone boundary, isohyet, and to some light saving time throughout the Great Plains extent, the use of the aquifer, although they are would require the five states currently bisected located close to one another in the landscape by the standard time zone boundary to petition (Fig. O. Aligning them has the potential to to move the MST-CST zone boundary to state define the Great Plains socioeconomically, boundaries. Thus, the communities within ecologically, geologically, spatially, and tempo­ these states could ensure that they would be rally using one line. temporally connected to those to the west or A January 2011 proposal to eliminate day­ east at one time of the or another. For light saving time in Nebraska illustrates the example, , the only state within the second consequence of how time is currently contiguous forty-eight United States that does observed in the Great Plains.2 Nebraska state not observe DST, follows MST with states to senator Ken Shilz and three residents stated the north and east during standard time, but that doing away with daylight saving time follows Pacific Daylight Time with would remove the health, social, and busi­ and during DST.4 Although the ness disruption that typically occurs with the boundaries of the states from seasonal time change} The bill went no fur­ to Texas approximate the climatic boundary ther than a hearing before the Government, of the Great Plains less accurately than the Military, and Veterans Affairs Committee, due county boundaries may, the state boundaries in part to the realization that eliminating DST have been used to distinguish the legal use of would temporally isolate Nebraska from every surface water in waterways.5 Thus, a regional, JOINING THE GREAT PLAINS IN SPACE, PLACE, AND TIME 225 spatial, political, hydrological, and temporal culture in the Great Plains susceptible to ero­ alignment is possible with a move of this sort. sion, recession or depression, and collapse. This article examines the potential use of Moreover, global climatic change will likely the MST-CST zone boundary to define the affect demands placed upon the aquifer and eastern edge of the Great Plains. The intro­ other aspects of agriculture in the Plains in duction of two problems prefaces the study some unknown capacity. Climatic change and provides the reasoning for examining two models consistently suggest that increasing possible moves: aligning the MST-CST zone concentrations of greenhouse gases could boundary with the twenty-inch isohyet, and increase the temperature in the Great Plains, aligning the MST-CST zone and state bound­ but the models vary as to whether precipitation aries. This study will address both problems could increase or decrease? Consequently, crop through looking at the former using informa­ yields in corn, soybean, wheat, alfalfa, tion gathered from county representatives and clover hay may decline or increase and whose constituents would be affected. The become more or less variable depending on the latter is examined by reviewing legislation model and the magnitude of temperature and related to standard time changes. Obstacles carbon dioxide concentration increases used that prevent either change to the standard time in the model.!o Evapotranspiration rates, water zone boundaries conclude the study. yields, and variation in yields may be similarly affected in major watershed resource regions.!! JUSTIFYING A MOVE Regardless, irrigation is shown to decline due to either a reduction of water supply following As it is, defining the boundary between the declining precipitation or plentiful increases Midwest and Great Plains is difficult. Unlike in precipitation that would render irrigation its sudden and striking mountainous end in generally unnecessary.!2 Models have also the west, the Plains gradually materializes shown that rising ambient air temperatures and in the east. This in turn creates at least two increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide, problems that adversely affect Great Plains coupled with other weather-related variables, land and people. The first has to do with the could decrease the number of days needed to creation and enforcement of water conserva­ grow confined swine in the west and north, and tion policies in the , the second with increase it in the east and south; increase the possible effects on land use in the time needed for beef cattle to mature through­ caused by global climatic change. Ideally, the out the Plains; and decrease milk production differences in average annual rainfall that by dairy cattle throughout the Plains.u The exist on opposite sides of the isohyet, between distribution and population of native the Great Plains and Midwest, should result and birds could also change.!4 The economic in differences in water demand and usage. implications are equally uncertain given the In reality, water demand and usage for agri­ possibilities outlined in the models. Declines culture in the Great Plains are high and rely in crop yields may shift land use to pasturage, on the finite supply of groundwater in the give an economic advantage to foreign crop Ogallala aquifer instead of rainfal1.6 Over producers, and increase the prices consum­ twenty ago, in southwestern Kansas and ers may pay for grain products; an increase in the panhandle of Texas, records of ground­ yields may result in an increase in land use for water levels showed dramatic drops, in some crops, a domestic advantage in crop produc­ locations beyond 100 feet.7 In 2007 these tion, and a reduction in costs to consumers.!5 areas grew in size, and declines exceeded 150 This latter study suggested analyzing economic feet. 8 A sudden disruption in or termination climatic change models by region to account of access to the aquifer in this semiarid to arid for geographical variations that exist. However, climate could make the land, economy, and figures illustrating the possible effects of climatic 226 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SUMMER 2011 change by model in the former studies often to roll their backward or forward one show that changes could result in a gradient hour to observe standard (or daylight-saving) that approximately follows the twenty-inch time. Missed appointments and limited access isohyet. to businesses, goods, and services are con­ Clearly defining the Great Plains along sequences of failing to observe time zones. this line is needed to monitor future climatic Secondly, the creation of a "temporal illusion" and economic changes and impose policies for or mental adjustment of time upon crossing the conservation and adaptation. Generally, lines boundary requires cognizance of one's time and help organize relationships people have with placeP Conceptually, the Great Plains and the one another and the land.I6 They are easy to Midwest become about fifty-five miles farther comprehend, communicate, mark, and enforce apart than they actually are (the distance in the landscape. Lines comprising artificial traveled by car in one hour). One is asked to boundaries spatially define the area within think that this place and this time are differ­ which socially derived laws and policies are ent. Consequently, the change in perspective imposed. In contrast, a line defining a natural could encourage perceptions and behavior that variable like the isohyet inherently misrepre­ are sensitive to the climatic and environmental sents the variable as fixed rather than fluctuat­ characteristics of the Plains. ing. Nonetheless, correlating lines that denote Finally, moving the MST-CST zone bound­ social or political bodies and the approximate ary may unify the sense of time and place for average location of natural variables reflects a communities in the Great Plains. According relationship that acknowledges both social and to J. B. Jackson, time creates a "sense of place," natural restrictions. the distinct quality of a place's environment: Using a modified MST-CST zone boundary "What brings us together with people is not as a regional boundary appears logical for at that we live near each other, but that we share least three reasons, each addressing a different the same timetable: the same work , the scale-regional, individual, and communal­ same religious observances, the same habits at which Great Plains space, place, and time and customs."IB Furthermore, he asserts that can be understood. First, and most obvious, a sense of time organized the landscape in the is to organize and define climatic,· ecological, Plains more than a sense of place did, citing social, and economic variables on a regional the lack of landmarks and the periodicity of the scale within the Great Plains. The amount of railroad on the towns through which it passed. annual rainfall received in the region, natural range of Plains flora and fauna, water conserva­ EXAMINING THE POSSIBLE ALIGNMENT tion and use, land use and the businesses sup­ porting and stemming from it, and when and Modifying the MST-CST Zone Boundary where communities exchange goods, services, for Study and information could all be related. Second, aligning the MST-CST zone boun­ Aligning the MST-CST zone boundary with dary with either the isohyet or state bound­ the state boundaries is a rather straightforward aries may make it easier for individuals to modification to articulate and illustrate: the distinguish the Great Plains from the Midwest states through which the isohyet currently in the landscape. This occurs in two ways. passes will share the same time year-round. First, isohyets and boundaries between water­ Aligning the MST-CST zone boundary with sheds, states, counties, municipalities, and the twenty-inch isohyet, on the other hand, resource districts can be easily ignored. Time required investigating how standard time zone zone boundaries must be acknowledged: to boundaries have been drawn and how studies participate in any social or economic activ­ examining the relationship between climate ity, persons crossing the are required and land-use policy have defined the eastern JOINING THE GREAT PLAINS IN SPACE, PLACE, AND TIME 227 boundary of the Great Plains. In each case census records in the by county boundaries were used. county and highlighted those counties having Shortly after the of fewer than two and six people per square mile 1918 was enacted, the Interstate Commerce (two figures used to define the frontier) on a Commission (ICC) consulted railroad, state, map.23 After another twenty years, Deborah and municipal representatives and defined and Frank Popper showed counties that lost standard time zone boundaries along county population between 1990 and 2000 in the states boundaries with "regard for the convenience of of North and South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, commerce and the existing junction points and , Texas, New , Colorado, division points of common carriers."19 The grid Wyoming, and .24 In each case, the of county boundaries within states gave the ICC counties that could be classified as frontier and and the U.S. Department of Transportation that lost population in the last of the (DOT), which assumed responsibility for twentieth were those that lie along and altering time zone boundaries in 1970, great west of the twenty-inch isohyet. Ultimately, the flexibility in defining the MST-CST zone Poppers proposed a new outlook for these coun­ boundary. The relatively small size of the coun­ ties, one that includes the government buying ties compared to states allowed for incremental land, turning farmland back to grassland, and adjustments around counties that preferred to replacing cattle with bison. The county bound­ be in one time zone or another and between aries define where policies encouraging this out­ communities that were socio-economically sep­ look in the future may be enacted and enforced. arated. Following county boundaries also ­ Given these examples, hypothetically align­ lated the observance of standard time with the ing the MST-CST zone boundary and twenty­ observance of local county laws, thus aligning inch isohyet in the United States requires temporal, spatial, social, economic, and political moving the time zone boundary eastward to facets of the landscape. Changes to time zone existing county boundaries that lay on or close boundaries since the Standard Time Act were to the isohyet (Figs. 2 and 3). Large munici­ made by petition from state governors, legisla­ palities and communities within relatively tors, and county commissioners. These moves comfortable driving distances were generally were made in order to place counties previously avoided in anticipation of existing socioeco­ separated by the time zone boundary into the nomic connections. same time zone, to have more sunlight in the The western boundaries of South and evening hours when people are most active, or to North Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, synchronize areas that are socially and economi­ and Texas were selected as an alternative cally connected.20 More recent changes appear location for the ,MST-CST zone boundary, to be for the same reasons.21 because this boundary has been used in the In at least three Plains studies, county to distinguish two water rights laws boundaries were used to suggest where con­ and because the current time zone bound­ servation and land-use policies should be ary is very close to the western boundaries of enacted. The Great Plains Committee, created Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. It may be also by President Franklin D. Roosevelt following assumed that the less densely populated west­ the Dust Bowl in the 1930s, noted the isohyet ern portions of North Dakota, South Dakota, and other natural boundaries when defining and Nebraska will be less susceptible to socio­ the eastern boundary of the Great Plains, but economic disruption when compared to the ultimately it used existing county boundaries to eastern portions. Eliminating daylight saving delineate the area within which soil and water time would allow these states to share time conservation policies could be enacted and with states in the arid west during the spring enforced by existing political bodies.22 Over a and summer when land and water use half-century later, Frank Popper examined 1980 is highest (Figs. 4 and 5). 228 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SUMMER 20ll

CST 6:00 CDT7:00

N N (!) (!) Map Not Map Not to Scale to Scale FIG. 2. The MST-CST zone boundary hypothetically FIG. 3. The MST-CST zone boundary hypothetically aligned with the twenty-inch isohyet. aligned with the twenty-inch isohye t during daylight saving time (DST)

M_S_T-rS_:O-..:O_ -...1 CST 6:00

N N (!) Map Not MapC9 Not to Scale to Scale

FIG. 4. The MST-CST zone boundary aligned with FIG. 5. Time observance during daylight saving time the western boundaries of North and South Dakota, (DST) if North and South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas . If these states Oklahoma, and Texas eliminated DST. Arizona and continued to observe DST, this boundary would serve as , in , also do not observe DST. the mountain daylight time (MDT)-central daylight time (CDT) zone boundary in the United States. JOINING THE GREAT PLAINS IN SPACE, PLACE, AND TIME 229

Potential Impact of the Modified MST-CST acquire additional completed questionnaires, Zone Boundary county auditors and deputy auditors, assessors and deputy assessors, clerks and deputy clerks, To examine the feasibility of moving the or judges who had regular contact with com­ MST-CST zone boundary closer to the twenty­ missioners for monthly or biweekly commis­ inch isohyet, I contacted representatives of sion meetings were contacted by phone. An counties and railroads that would be affected. additional thirty-five questionnaires were com­ First, a twenty-item questionnaire was sent to pleted using this method. Overall, sixty-nine of county representatives in 121 counties adjacent 121 counties were represented in the survey. to the twenty-inch isohyet. Fourteen questions A spreadsheet and maps were used to orga­ were derived from the u.s. Department of nize and analyze responses .. To glean any lati­ Transportation. It asked for the name of the tudinal differences that may exist in responses nearest town where county businesses get sup­ to the six questions that supplemented the plies and ship to; where residents go for food, DOT-derived questions, the responses were clothing, schooling, recreation, healthcare, arranged in a spreadsheet by county and and religious worship; where local television state from north to south. Responses to the and radio stations are broadcast from; where fourteen questions derived from the DOT local newspapers are published; where bus were organized into two types of socioeco­ and rail stations and the local public airport nomic activities-internal and external to the are located; the percentage of residents who county-and mapped using town or county commute outside of the county and where names provided by respondents. The internal they commute tOj and the major elements and socioeconomic activities were represented by current state of the community's economy.25 drawing a line that begins and ends on the Six additional questions asked representatives county seat, thus creating a loop. External to identify the region in which they live, the socioeconomic activities were represented name of the county they live in, the standard by connecting the county seat of the county time most residents observe, when they typi­ representative responding to the questionnaire cally wake and retire during the day, and the and the town, city, or county seat outside the typical operating hours of businesses in the county where goods, services, or information community. are exchanged. For example, the county repre­ In order to administer the questionnaire to sentative from Nelson County, North Dakota, county representatives, we began by contacting stated that most county residents stay within commissioners who are generally knowledge­ the county to attend religious services but able about county life and typically involved in receive radio broadcasts from Devils Lake, to requests to change time zone boundaries. Our the west in Ramsey County. A loop was drawn inability to reach them led to the inclusion on the town of Lakota, the Nelson County of other county representatives in the survey. seat, to represent the social internal county The contact information for county commis­ activity of attendance to religious services. A sioners was acquired from one of three sources: line representing the social external county (1) the National Association of Counties activity of listening to radio broadcasts was website (www.naco.org); (2) county govern­ drawn between the towns of Lakota and Devils ment websites; or (3) speaking by phone with Lake. The maps that result using this method county auditors, clerks, or assessors. Initially, indicate basic socioeconomic patterns that county commissioners were contacted via exist within and between counties. However, e-mail. Those without an e-mail address were in reality, all other towns, villages, and ham­ contacted by phone. Five after adminis­ lets lying within county boundaries may have tering the questionnaire via e-mail and phone, similar or dissimilar connections that may not thirty-four questionnaires were complete. To be reflected in the overall results. 230 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SUMMER 2011

Respondents were contacted again by The map does not illustrate what, if any, phone or e-mail after analysis of the maps was socioeconomic relationships span the North completed. Respondents were asked to provide Dakota- state boundary, but a fol­ their perspective on how most county resi­ low-up question to representatives did. When dents would feel about (1) eliminating daylight asked how most county residents would feel saving time and (2) moving the MST-CST about moving the time zone boundary, eight zone boundary to a county boundary relative of nine representatives answered "oppose," half to the respondents' location. Due to the lapse of which were "strongly oppose" (the other in time between the first and second contacts, respondent answered "didn't know"). The fifty-eight of the original sixty-nine representa­ most frequent reason for opposition was that it tives provided responses. The representatives would be disruptive to existing socioeconomic used a Likert-type scale ranging from "strongly relationships with towns in Minnesota like favor" to "strongly oppose" and gave short Moorhead. Three representatives stated that answers to explain their selections. the whole state should be in one time zone Representatives from Amtrak and Union rather than two. Pacific Railroad were also contacted by phone and e-mail to provide perspectives on how Current socioeconomic patterns in South Dakota. modifying the MST-CST boundary would The cities of Pierre, in Hughes County, and affect railroad operations. Each responded in , in Brown County, appear to have writing to four questions. They were asked the strongest socioeconomic connections to which standard time is used; whether the the South Dakota counties polled (Fig. 7). In railroad follows the time zone boundaries that each case, respondents indicated that residents communities use; what operational problems two to three counties away had connections to would occur with a MST-CST zone boundary each town. Moving the MST-CST zone bound­ change; and whether the problems are insur­ ary farther east than its current location would mountable. likely be problematic to residents in several counties where representatives responded­ Questionnaire Results Campbell, Walworth, Potter, Hand, and Brule. Moving it beyond the twenty-inch isohyet, Current socioeconomic patterns in North Dakota. based upon the reach of Aberdeen and Sioux The city of Fargo, in Cass County, and Grand Falls, will also likely disrupt social and eco­ Forks, in Grand Forks County, appear to have nomic ties residents currently have with these numerous socioeconomic connections to the and other communities. counties in eastern North Dakota that were Six of nine representatives stated that most queried (Fig. 6). A MST-CST zone boundary county residents would be opposed to moving aligned with the twenty-inch isohyet may, the time zone boundary farther east to more given the data, cause little disruption to socio­ closely align with the twenty-inch isohyet, economic relationships that currently exist in with four of these giving strongly opposed all but four counties in the extreme southeast­ responses. The most frequently cited reason ern portion of the state. Questionnaires from for opposition was, like in North Dakota, that representatives of Dickey, Ransom, Sargent, the state should not be split between two time and Richland Counties were not completed. zones even though it currently is. Of the three Given the proximity of these counties to Fargo, representatives who answered "neither favor and the importance Fargo appears to play in nor oppose," one said that residents are used other, more distant counties, it is likely that to such a split. Other reasons for opposition these four counties are closely linked to Fargo, were concern about the sun going down too too. Socioeconomic disruption is likely within early in the evening; farmers would not like these four counties. it; television programming is adjusted to CST; JOINING THE GREAT PLAINS IN SPACE, PLACE, AND TIME 231

FIG. 6. Mapped responses from North Dakota county representatives showing socioeconomic relationships.

it is unwelcome; and the most exclamatory Counties, which currently have socioeco­ explanation from a representative in Hyde nomic connections to North Platte, and pos­ County, "Holy smacks! My kids' schedules will sibly even Custer County, which did not have be crazy!" a representative complete a questionnaire. In addition, Red Willow and Furnas Counties Current socioeconomic patterns in Nebraska. have close ties. Moving the standard time Based on the data received from Nebraska zone boundary farther east than the modi­ county representatives, the city of North fied MST-CST zone boundary would likely Platte, in Lincoln County, appears to have a prove difficult, too, because towns and cities strong connection to neighboring Nebraska are more numerous and located closer to one counties (Fig. 8). An MST-CST zone bound­ another in the eastern part of the state. ary aligned with the isohyet may be too dis­ Representatives' answers to how most ruptive for residents in Blaine and Dawson residents would feel about moving the time 232 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SUMMER 2011

N C) Map Not to Scale

( 1 "/ ) "/ l ------'"\, NEBRASKA '1...... _ ""'"""...,... _ "- J ...... / I. ( ~ , ,~ FIG. 7. Mapped responses from South Dakota county representatives showing socioeconomic relationships.

zone boundary farther east were split almost Current socioeconomic patterns in Kansas. equally between "neither favor nor oppose," Of the counties where representatives were "oppose," and "strongly oppose." One was contacted, the town of Hays, in Ellis County, unsure. Three of those who answered "oppose" appears to have the most numerous socioeco­ stated they could not give a good explanation nomic connections to other Kansas counties and just reacted to the question "off the cuff," (Fig. 9). A modified MST-CST zone boundary as the representative in Blaine County put it. will create tension between Ellis, Sheridan, Statements from other representatives express­ and Gove Counties. The connections Edwards ing general satisfaction with observing CST County has with Dodge City, in Ford County, may explain these responses. One representa­ will be strained as well. For comparison, tive stated that it would be easier if the whole moving the standard time zone boundary just state observed one time zone. west of the twenty-inch isohyet may disturb JOINING THE GREAT PLAINS IN SPACE, PLACE, AND TIME 233 . ----"'1"":: -___ / SOUTH DAKOTA --f-."------r --- -"'

----::-~-t_~~lQl :,I """"' ""\.. ./'..,. .../

N C) Map Not to

KANSAS

FIG. 8. Mapped responses from Nebraska county representatives showing socioeconomic relationships.

the socioeconomic connections that residents zone boundary would lead to opposition to the in Decatur, Sheridan, and Gove Counties cur­ move. Another representative responded by rently have with Thomas County and those saying, "Why would you do that?" with an air that Lane County have with Finney and Ford of disgust at being asked to consider the move. Counties. Of all representatives polled in the follow up Eight of nine representatives said that most questionnaire, out of all six states, the only residents in their respective counties would be representative to answer favorably ("strongly opposed to moving the time zone boundary, favor") to moving the time zone boundary said with five of them answering "strongly oppose." his constituents would be "OK with it just so Four representatives said that the confusion long as they left it alone once they moved it."26 accompanying the coordination of appoint­ At least one representative wished that all of ments and activities on either side of the time Kansas was within one time zone. 234 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SUMMER 2011

-..?',-/'------NEBRASKA

N C) Map Not to Scale

FIG. 9. Mapped responses from Kansas county representatives showing socioeconomic relationships.

Current socioeconomic patterns in Oklahoma. in little stress to socioeconomic ties in the Of the six states examined in this study; Oklahoma panhandle. However, separating Oklahoma may have the sttongest potential the panhandle from the rest of Oklahoma, for aligning the standard time zone boundary which has been legally forbidden in some caSes with the twenty-inch isohyet, which passes due to historical precedents, may prevent this through Beaver County, in the panhandle (Fig. change from ocqming.27 10). Cimarron, Texas, and Beaver Counties Temporally severing the ~tate was the mOSt each appear to .have strong socioeconomic frequent reason representatives gave for their connections to Amarillo, Texas; to the south, opinion that most reSidents in their respec­ or to locations in Kansas, to the north. Few tive counties would oppose moving the tiine connections exist that cross 100 degrees west zone boundary. All six were opposed, with four , which serves as the boundary strongly opposed. Resiqents in the panhandle between Texas on the west and Oklahoma on are especially sensitive about being forgot­ the east. Given the data, moving the standard ten by the rest of Oklahoma residents. The time zone boundary to this location may result representative in Beaver County said that she JOINING THE GREAT PLAINS IN SPACE, PLACE, AND TIME 235

Twenty-inch Isohyet KANSAS

C) Map Not to

,-7 '-) r l,./ \..LI

FIG. 10. Mapped responses from Oklahoma county representatives showing socioeconomic relationships.

avoided watching a television station based A modified MST-CST zone boundary aligned in because the weatherman with the isohyet could possibly strain numer­ always stands in front of the panhandle when ous socioeconomic relationships between giving the forecast. Farther west, in Cimarron these and surrounding counties. Moving the County, the representative stated that most standard time zone boundary out of range of residents want to be on the same time as counties that are connected socioeconomi­ Amarillo, Texas, and Oklahoma City, the cally would, in the north, result in the current nearest metropolitan areas. MST-CST zone boundary location, and, in the south, be so far away from the twenty-inch Current socioeconomic patterns in Texas. The isohyet as to no longer relate to it. data received shows that the cities of Amarillo, Some of the most colorful and emphatic Lubbock, San Angelo, and in the opposition against moving the time zone counties of Potter, Lubbock, Tom Green, and boundary came from county representatives in Bexar, respectively, have the most numerous Texas. Representatives were so moved by the socioeconomic connections to other counties question that some initially answered in their in the portion of Texas near the isohyet (Fig. own way. "No. No. No!," said the representative 11). The twenty-inch isohyet passes to the east in Hall County. The representative in Wheeler of Amarillo and Lubbock, to the west of San County was unsure and held the phone to ask Angelo, and to the southwest of San Antonio. two local gentlemen visiting her office who 236 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SUMMER 2011

Modified MST-CST Line

NEW MEXICO OKLAHOMA

N C) Map Not

MEXICO

FIG. 11. Mapped responses from Texas county representatives showing socioeconomic relationships. JOINING THE GREAT PLAINS IN SPACE, PLACE, AND TIME 237

could be heard to say, "Hell no." The Likert­ no matter the location. Favoring the removal of type scale appeared ineffective in communicat­ daylight saving time was usually accompanied ing the strength of opposition for others, like by a comment expressing the inconvenience or the representative in Uvalde County who tried "hassle" of changing time twice a year. Twelve every way to express his opposition: "There's no representatives gave "neither" answers followed waiver on that. It's almost unanimous. It would by explaining that "some [residents] are for, make a of people uncomfortable. No!" some are against." Also of interest was the way Overall, fifteen of seventeen said that most in which representatives answered the follow up residents in their respective counties would questions. When asked about doing away with oppose moving the time zone boundary, with daylight saving time, laughs or long pauses eleven of these answering "strongly oppose." preceded answers suggesting that the issue is The remaining two representatives answered unclear, even humorous. The question about "neither favor nor oppose." Those answer­ moving the time zone boundary was answered, ing "oppose" mostly cited the socio-temporal in most cases, curtly, with an occasional skepti­ disruption and confusion that would result calor defensive inquiry preceding an answer. from frequent business and travel between With the exception of Texas, most respondents nearby towns. As the representative in Kenedy identified the region they lived in as "Midwest" County put it, "Those are [our] neighbors. Can or "Central"; most in Texas said they lived in you imagine being in a different time zone than the "Southwest." Overall, only five respondents the county beside yours?" Although one repre­ (7.2 percent) said they lived in the Plains; two sentative stated that "everybody considers EI stated both the Midwest and the Plains in their Paso part of " (EI Paso, Hudspeth, responses. and extreme northwestern Culberson Counties Time and again, representatives noted that in West Texas observe MST), four representa­ clocks have little effect on county economies tives would like the entire state to observe one based in extractive industries: farmers, ranch­ time zone. ers, and oilmen and women work from sunup to sundown. Moving south, the number of Other responses. Responses regarding when major elements comprising the local economy representatives wake and retire during the day increased: farming was viewed as a major ele­ and when residents work and shop appear to ment in the Northern Plains; ranching and be unaffected by the latitudinal differences in farming were important in the Central Plains; the amount of daylight that exists; responses oil and gas exploration and production along regarding the elimination of daylight saving with farming and ranching are important time do appear to be affected. Overall, rep­ in the Southern Plains. Just under half the resentatives appear to slightly favor doing respondents (n = 33) said that the local county away with DST. Twenty-five representatives economy was holding steady. Almost equal answered "favor" or "strongly favor" and eigh­ numbers said that it was declining or growing teen answered "oppose" or "strongly oppose" (n = 15 and 13, respectively). Many representa­ (fifteen answered "oppose"). Representatives in tives noted that economic development was North and South Dakota, where the amount actively occurring. The development of wind of daylight fluctuates most between the winter energy was a recurring response in South and summer in comparison to the Dakota, Oklahoma, and Texas. other states, gave more opposed answers than favorable. Having more daylight in the evening The effects on railroads. According to an hours was indeed the most frequent reason Amtrak operations representative, Amtrak behind these answers in both states, especially would be minimally affected by changing the for residents who work "9 to 5." Generally, this location of the standard time zone boundary explanation was given with "oppose" answers in the Great Plains. The California Zephyr, 238 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SUMMER 2011

Empire Builder, and Southwest Chief lines zone boundary alignment and whether day­ each have two trains that cross the MST-CST light-saving time will continue being observed. zone boundary daily. The crosses it Currently, the northern portion of North three days a in each direction.28 In each Dakota shares time with both Canadian prov­ case, the timetables available to passengers inces during standard time, but only and crew base locations follow local standard during daylight saving time (Saskatchewan time, including variations and exceptions like does not observe DST). If the time zone a state not observing daylight saving time. If boundary were to be aligned with the isohyet time observance were to change, the represen­ and DST continued, most of North Dakota tative wrote, the timetables and observance would only share time with Saskatchewan of time at crew bases would change as well. during standard time (Figs. 2 and 3). If the However, operations at Amtrak, which shares time zone boundary were to be aligned with rail lines with freight railroad companies like the western state boundary and DST elimi­ CSX or Union Pacific, may be forced to follow nated, North Dakota would share time with the "company standard" and varied time both Saskatchewan and Manitoba during zone boundaries observed by the freight rail­ standard time and only Saskatchewan during roads. the summer months when other states and Currently, Union Pacific, which has hun­ provinces are observing DST (Figs. 4 and 5). dreds of trains crossing the MST-CST zone Although existing socioeconomic relationships boundary daily, observes a slightly different between Manitoba and North Dakota may be time zone boundary than the rest of Lincoln strained in either scenario, when compared to County, Nebraska. East of North Platte, home how time is currently observed, the latter is to the largest freight classification yard in the least disruptive. world, the Bailey Rail Yard, Union Pacific Major cities in the Mexican states of observes CST; west of North Platte it observes , Nuevo Leon, and share MST. According to Steve Barkley, vice presi­ boundaries with Texan counties that would dent of the Harriman Dispatching Center and lose an hour if the MST-CST zone boundary Network Operations at Union Pacific, moving were aligned with the twenty-inch isohyet, thus the time zone boundary would not coincide making it likely that socioeconomic disruption with the location of crew changes and cause would occur. In southern Texas, a temporal confusion regarding the federal hours of service peninsula would be created, isolating residents law, which limits the number of hours a crew from other Texan and Mexican communities member may work in a single period to twelve. (Figs. 2 and 3). Moving the time zone boundary Should a time zone boundary change occur, to the western boundary of Texas and elimi­ software programs including the computer­ nating DST would synchronize many Texan aided dispatching system would need changes, and Mexican communities during standard which would require substantial investment. If time while separating them during the summer it changes in Nebraska, or in Kansas and Texas months (Figs. 4 and 5). To minimize the disrup­ where other crew bases also exist, Barkley said, tion of socioeconomic activities in the latter Union Pacific probably would not change their scenario, relocating the time zone boundary in definitions of time observance. Mexico would have to occur in remote areas within the states and DST would have to be International effects. Modifying the MST-CST eliminated. zone boundary would likely cause interference In sum, existing international socioeco­ with international socioeconomic relation­ nomic relationships between the United ships. In the north, along the Saskatchewan­ States, Mexico, and Canada would be strained Manitoba-North Dakota border, the degree of by modifying the MST-CST zone boundary interference depends upon the selected time in the United States. However, both Mexico JOINING THE GREAT PLAINS IN SPACE, PLACE, AND TIME 239 and Canada have mirrored DST observance favored doing away with DST, with the greatest changes in the United States before. In 2007, opposition in North and South Dakota where legislation was introduced in Manitoba that the extra daylight in the evenings is desired. extended DST to match that of the United Second, an alignment with state boundaries States; in 2010, Mexico's House of could encompass and reflect the ambiguous Representatives passed a similar law that nature of the eastern boundary of the Great allowed cities along the Texas-Mexico border Plains. County representatives straddling to begin DST when Texas communities did.29 the twenty-inch isohyet generally viewed the A domino effect of time observance debates region in which they live as the central United and changes may nevertheless occur in Mexico States and the Midwest, not the Great Plains. and Canada as a result of any time change in Annual rainfall totals that fluctuate over time the United States. and space may contribute to this perception as may practicing water-intensive agriculture, CONCLUSION made possible by the Ogallala aquifer. General circulation models show that changes in pre­ Of the two possible alternative locations cipitation, evapotranspiration, crop and water for the MST-CST zone boundary examined yields and variability, and time needed to grow in this study, aligning it with existing state swine and beef cattle due to increasing green­ boundaries seems most feasible but still prob­ house gases appear to occur near the location lematic. Responses from county representatives of the twenty-inch isohyet. Observing Central in North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Standard Time year-round within North and Kansas, and Texas showed that moving the South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, MST-CST zone boundary to coincide with and Texas acknowledges these historical and the twenty-inch isohyet would disrupt existing potential future relationships to the eastern socioeconomic relationships. Socioeconomic and . patterns in Oklahoma appear to be mostly Nevertheless, a number of obstacles must immune to a move that would temporally sepa­ be addressed. As one county representative rate the panhandle ftom the rest of the state, in North Dakota noted, existing interstate but such a separation is highly unlikely due to socioeconomic relationships that are cur­ past and present instances that occurred for rently unaffected by a time change may other reasons and were unwelcome by residents. become strained by aligning the MST-CST On the other hand, county representatives in zone and state boundaries ahd eliminating each of the other states currently bisected by DST. Counties in North and South Dakota, the MST-CST zone boundary offered support Kansas, and Texas that would have to switch for synchronizing time within the state, even from observing MST to CST have resisted or though they said that moving the time zone reversed similar changes in the past.30 Union boundary to align with the isohyet would likely Pacific Railroad would probably not support meet strong opposition from residents. moving the MST-CST zone boundary, no If the move were to occur, two positive and matter the location; Amtrak may defer to related outcomes follow: first, individual states the opinions and actions of Union Pacific could realistically opt out of observing DST and other freight railroads with which they and share time with at least one neighboring share tracks. Interrtational socioeconomic state throughout the year. As was recently connections between North Dakota and expressed by Senator Shilz and residents in Saskatchewan would be out of sync during Nebraska, eliminating DST could eliminate the summer months, as would connections health, social, and business problems that stem between Texan counties and Mexican states. from changing time twice a year. On the whole, In each case, changing the MST-CST zone county representatives in this study slightly boundary could adversely affect socioeconomic 240 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SUMMER 2011 activities on scales ranging from local to Generally, future research seeking to define international. the eastern boundary of the Great Plains Within the Plains, the majority of responses should begin by considering how social and stating that county economies are holding natural boundaries relate to one another spa­ steady imply that existing socioeconomic tially and functionally. The natural availability relationships will remain in place. Projections of water will certainly playa role, as will politi­ of the Great Plains population and economy cal boundaries, which define the bodies that could additionally prevent changing the loca­ enforce policies. Ultimately, defining the Great tion of the MST-CST zone boundary in the Plains on maps, in the landscape, in our minds, foreseeable future. A continual depopulation, and among communities affects the present reliance on diminishing groundwater supplies treatment and future well-being of the land. and intensive agriculture, and the more dire effects of global climatic change may create NOTES social and economic connections that are more easily disrupted than those that exist 1. John Opie, Ogallala: Water for a Dry Land (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1993), 22; today, particularly in small towns and villages. Richard K. Sutton, "Circles on the Plains: Center Goods, services, and sources of information Pivot Irrigation," Landscape 22, no. 1 (1977): 3-10. may become more concentrated in fewer towns 2. Nebraska Legislature, 102nd Legislature, having the largest populations and capital to 1st sess., Day 11, 2011, Government, Military, and support them. Consequently, the number and Veterans Affairs Committee. LB101-Eliminate daylight savings time. http://www.nebraskalegisla­ distance of socioeconomic connections to ture.gov /bills/view_bill.php ?DocumentID = 12332 these towns could increase. (accessed March 17, 2011). Future research should begin by survey­ 3. Studies conducted after the 2005 amend­ ing representatives in counties that straddle ment to the that extended DST the western and eastern state boundaries of observance by three weeks in the United States have questioned the energy savings that have his­ North and South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, torically been used to justify observing DST and Oklahoma, and Texas to further test possible have examined other effects of DST. Uniform Time alignments of the standard time zone bound­ Act, Public Law 109-58, 119 Stat. 615, Section 110 ary. Beyond understanding the current and (August 8, 2005); Thomas Kantermann, Myriam projected socioeconomic connections com­ Juda, Martha Merrow, and Till Roenneberg, "The Human Circadian 's Seasonal Adjustment munities have, and their preferences for time Is Disrupted by Daylight Saving Time," Current observance, the investigation should include Biology 17, no. 22 ( 2007): 1996-2000; questions about attitudes, opinions, percep­ Myriam B. C. Aries and Guy R. Newsham, "Effect of tions, and behaviors of regional environmental Daylight Saving Time On Lighting Energy Use: A characteristics. "Mountain" standard time Literature Review," Energy Policy 36 (March 2008): 1858-66. is appropriate given the general geographic 4. The Canadian Province of Saskatchewan vocabulary used for the other time zones­ also does not observe DST. During the winter Eastern, Central, and Pacific. However, Webb residents share CST with Manitoba to the east; suggested that aridity defines much of the west­ in spring and summer, residents share Mountain ern United States, not mountains.3! Residents' Daylight Time (MDT) with to the west. Government of Saskatchewan, "Saskatchewan knowledge and perceptions may differ and Time: A Scientific and Historical Background," should be compared to natural and social http://www.municipal.gov.sk.ca/Administration/ characteristics including population density Guides/SaskTime (accessed 7, 2011). and change, land use, ownership, and sizes of 5. North and South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, landholding to reveal existing overlaps that Oklahoma, and Texas all adopted the Western Doctrine of Riparian Rights, or the California doc­ could help define regional boundaries, conser­ trine, to allow landowners to use water in non-nav­ vation policies, and the nomenclature used to igable waterways for irrigation. Each has since also communicate each. converted these riparian rights into appropriative JOINING THE GREAT PLAINS IN SPACE, PLACE, AND TIME 241 rights whereby individuals who divert and put water . 14. W. K. Lauenroth, 1. C. Burke, and M. P. Gut­ to "beneficial" uses like mining and agriculture are mann, "The Structure and Function of Ecosystems given priority rights to water. See Walter Prescott in the Central North American Grassland Region," Webb, The Great Plains (: Houghton Mifflin, Great Plains Research 9, no. 2 (1999): 223-59; A. 1931), 436; and Bureau of Land Management, Townsend Peterson, "Projected Climate Change "Water Appropriation Systems," http://www.blm. Effects on Rocky Mountain and Great Plains Birds: gov/nstc/WaterLaws/appsystems.html (accessed Generalities of Biodiversity Consequences," Global April 7, 2011). Change Biology 9 (2003): 647-55. 6. Opie, Ogallala, 324. 15. Ronald D. Sands and James A. Edmonds, 7. Gail P. Thelin and Frederick J. Heimes, "Climate Change Impacts for the Coterminous "Figure 4, Regional Aquifer-System Analysis," in USA: An Integrated Assessment, Part 7. Economic Mapping Irrigated Cropland from Landsat Data for Analysis of Field Crops and Land Use with Climate Determination of Water Use from the High Plains Change," Climatic Change 69 (2005): 127-50. Aquifer in Parts of Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, 16. J. B. Jackson, "A Pair of Ideal Landscapes," in New Mexico, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Texas, and Discovering the Vernacular Landscape (New Haven, Wyoming (U.S. Geological Survey Professional CT: Yale University Press, 1984), 13-16, 32-35. Paper 1400-C, 1987). Jackson wrote that those who make boundaries try 8. V. L. McGuire, "Figure 11: Water-Level to accurately delineate them according to the inter­ Changes in the High Plains Aquifer, Pre develop­ nal use of space and natural or social content. ment to 2007," in Water-Level Changes in the High 17. Yi-Fu Tuan, Space and Place: The Perspective of Plains Aquifer, Predevelopment to 2007, 2005-06, Experience (: University of Minnesota and 2006-07 (U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Press, 1977), 125. Investigations Report 2009-5019), http://pubs.usgs. 18. J. B. Jackson, "A Sense of Place, a Sense of gov/sir/2009/5019/ (accessed , 2011). Time," Design Quarterly 164 (Spring 1995): 24-27. 9. Norman J. Rosenberg, Daniel J. Epstein, David 19. Ian R. Bartky, One Time Fits All (Stanford, Wang, Lance Vail, Raghavan Srinivasan, and Jeffrey CA: Stanford University Press, 2007), 192. G. Arnold, "Possible Impacts of Global Warming 20. This is based upon a review of the Federal on the Hydtology of the Ogallala Aquifer Region," Register Reports for the Great Plains states noted Climatic Change 42, no. 4 (1999): 677-92; Steven J. in United States Department of Transportation, Smith, Allison M. Thomson, Norman;: Rosenberg, Standard Time in the United States (, R. Cesar Izaurralde, Robert A. Brown, and Tom M. L. DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970), Wigley, "Climate Change Impacts for the Coterminous appendix 1. For notes on the preference for more USA: An Integrated Assessment, Part 1. Scenarios and daylight in the evening, see Bartky, One Time Fits Context," Climatic Change 69 (2005): 7-25. All, 197, 200. 10. Allison M. Thomson, Robert A. Brown, 21. In 2003, residents observing MST in Jones, Norman J. Rosenberg, and Verel Benson, "Climate Mellette, and Todd Counties in South Dakota Change Impacts for the Coterminous USA: An requested that each county be located entirely Integrated Assessment, Part 3. Dryland Production within CST to synchronize where people shop, of Grain and Forage Crops," Climatic Change 69 live, and vote. U.S. Department of Transportation, (2005): 49-65. "Standard Time Zone Boundary in the State of 11. Allison M. Thomson, Robert A. Brown, South Dakota: Relocation of Jones, Mellette, Norman J. Rosenberg, Raghavan Srinivasan, and R. and Todd Counties," http://www.epa.gov/EPA­ Cesar lzaurralde, "Climate Change Impacts for the IMPACT/2003/0ctober/Day-28/i27056.htm (accessed Coterminous USA: An Integrated Assessment, Part 4. April 7, 2011). Water Resources," Climatic Change 69 (2005): 67-88. 22. Great Plains Committee, The Future of the 12. Allison M. Thomson, Norman J. Rosenberg, Great Plains. Report of the Great Plains Committee R. Cesar Izaurralde, and Robert A. Brown, "Climate (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Change Impacts for the Coterminous USA: An Office, 1936), figs. 2 and 3. Integrated Assessment, Part 5. Irrigated Agriculture 23. Frank J. Popper, "The Strange Case of the and National Grain Crop Production," Climatic Contemporary American Frontier," Yale Review 76 Change 69 (2005): 89-105; Rosenberg et aI., (1986): 101-21. "Possible Impacts of Global Warming." 24. Deborah E. Popper and FrankJ. Popper, "The 13. Terry L. Mader, Katrina L. Frank, John Onset of the Buffalo Commons," Journal of the West A. Herrington Jr., G. Leroy Hahn, and John A. 45, no. 2 (2006): 29-34. Nienaber, "Potential Climate Change Effects on 25. The DOT developed eight questions that Warm- Livestock Production in the Great are used to assist communities in determin­ Plains," Climatic Change 97 (2009): 529-41. ing the impact of a change in the standard 242 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SUMMER 2011

time zone boundary on the "convenience of =5127480&fecha=06/01/201O (accessed April 4, commerce." Compound questions were broken 2011); Province of Manitoba, Canada, "Province down into individual questions in this study to Introduces Legislation That Would Extend Day­ isolate questionnaire responses for analysis. U.S. light Saving Time in Manitoba," November 2, 2005, Federal Register, govpulse, "Standard Time Zone http://www.gov.mb.ca/chc/press/top/2005/11/2005- Boundary in the State of North Dakota: Proposed 11-02-06.html (accessed April 4, 2011). Change for Mercer County, North Dakota, From 30. CST was extended to include all but the Mountain to ," http://govpulse.us/ most extreme southwestern corner of North entries/2010/03/03/2010-4372/standard-time-zone­ Dakota in 1929. The change was reversed in 1968 boundary-in-the-state-of-north-dakota-proposed­ after both a petition from the governor and a time change-for-mercer-county-north-dak (accessed April preference ballot in the primary elec­ 7,2011). tion that stated residents' preference for MST. In 26. The last change to the standard time zone South Dakota, a 1963 petition to extend CST to boundary in Kansas occurred in 1969. U.S. Depart­ include the western half of the state was denied. ment of Transportation, Standard Time, 21. A governor and state legislature's petition to 27. Arthur H. Doerr and John W. Morris, "Okla­ include the entire state of Kansas in CST received homa Panhandle," Landscape 10, no. 1 (Fall 1960): a limited number of responses that were overall in 32-35. The Oklahoma panhandle was forgotten favor of remaining in MST. A proposal to include when the New Mexico and Kansas territories were all western counties except the four currently initially delineated and became a no-man's-land for in MST was enacted in 1969. Finally, one of the outlaws. Later, to save printing costs in textbooks, most recent alterations of the MST-CST bound­ early Oklahoma maps left off the panhandle. It has ary in the Great Plains, in EI Paso and Hudspeth since become law that all of Oklahoma, including Counties in Texas, occurred in 1970, when these the panhandle, be shown on maps. counties were restored to MST. U.S. Department 28. The information regarding the number of of Transportation, Standard Time, appendix 1; crossings per line is based on a review of current Federal Register 32, no. 153 (August 9, 1967): 11479; Amtrak timetables. http://www.amtrak.com/ Federal Register 33, no. 122 (June 22, 1968): 18062; serv lett ContentS erver/Page/ 123 7405732505/ Federal Register 33, no. 188 (September 26, 1968): 1237405732505 (accessed April 7, 2011). 14470. 29. Diario Oficial de la Federaci6n, Secretarfa 31. Walter Prescott Webb, "The American West, de Gobernaci6n, Estados Unidos Mexicanos, Perpetual Mirage," Harper's Magazine 214, no. 1284 http://dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php ?codigo (May 1957): 25-31.