Energy Conversion and Management 72 (2013) 103–110
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Energy Conversion and Management
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Current status of wind energy and wind energy policy in Turkey ⇑ B. Yaniktepe a, , M.M. Savrun a, T. Koroglu b a Energy Systems Engineering Department, Osmaniye Korkut Ata University, Osmaniye, Turkey b Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department, Osmaniye Korkut Ata University, Osmaniye, Turkey article info abstract
Article history: Over the past decades, the importance of renewable and sustainable energy resources has increased in Available online 15 April 2013 the world due to both the rapid increase in energy demand and disadvantages of the fossil fuels. Many countries, such as Turkey, aim to increase the use of renewable and sustainable energy sources with dif- Keywords: ferent incentive mechanisms. In parallel with these incentive methods being implemented, wind energy Policy capacity in Turkey has a remarkable increase in the growing rates of renewable energy sources according Renewable energy to installed wind power. Up to now, several wind power projects have been developed at different Turkey regions of Turkey. Wind energy This paper aims to analyze the potential and development of wind energy systems in Turkey. Besides, the current usage and development of wind power installations have been explored for the World and Turkey in detail at the end of the 2011. Furthermore, this study also presents tax exemption, support, and incentive mechanisms to develop new wind energy investments in Turkey. Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction ingly recognize the potential role of wind power as part of the country’s future energy. Thus, the investment of wind energy as Over the past several years, energy has become the keyword in a renewable energy source has been carried out rapidly in the the national and international economical development and sus- World and Turkey. Growing concern about emissions from fossil tainability of all countries as in Turkey. Energy is essential to most fuel generation has increased government support, and higher economic activities. Industrialized economies rely on commercial costs for fossil fuels have helped wind power capacity in the Tur- energy to transport goods and people, to heat homes and offices, key to grow substantially over the last decade [3–5]. to power engines and appliances, and to run shops and factories Wind power is available from the kinetic energy of the mass of [1]. Nowadays, particularly renewable energy sources have been moving air. A wind energy system transforms the kinetic energy of becoming important for the World due to both energy dependency the wind into mechanical or electrical energy that can be har- and disadvantages of the fossil fuels. Advancing renewable energy nessed for practical use. Wind electricity generation systems con- development is the effective approach to address energy security vert wind energy into electricity by means of wind turbines. and climate change. Currently, the US, Japan, Brazil and other some Furthermore, it can also be used for many other purposes such as countries have listed development of renewable energy as an pumping, grinding grain, sawing, pushing a sailboat and the like. important strategy for the future [2]. Renewable energy which Wind electric turbines generate electricity for homes and busi- stems from natural sources such as sun light, wind, wave, water nesses and for sale to utilities [6]. and geothermal heat sustains itself. Renewable energy is derived Wind energy has many advantages, such as low cost, cleanli- from resources which, for all practical purposes, cannot be de- ness, and abundance in everywhere in the world. All forms of en- pleted and also produce fewer pollutants. Renewable energy ergy production have an environmental impact; however, the sources offer a lot of environmental and economical benefits in impacts of wind energy are low, local, and manageable. These envi- contrast to conventional energy sources. Therefore, this makes ronmental impacts are negligible when compared with conven- renewable energy fundamentally different from fossil fuels and it tional energy sources. Wind energy is also known as a renewable has prompted many countries, including Turkey, to promote its and environmentally friendly energy source [3]. Moreover, it is use through incentive and subsidy schemes. In addition, fuelled the cheapest form of renewable energy, which encourages invest- by preparations for joining the European Union and the approval ment. It also creates benefits in terms of employment, investment, of the Kyoto Protocol as an Annex I country, policy makers increas- research, economic activity, and energy independence in the elec- tricity sector [7]. Recently, the electric energy consumption in Turkey has been ⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 3288251818/3550; fax: +90 3288250097. increasing very fast due to the development of industry and E-mail address: [email protected] (B. Yaniktepe).
0196-8904/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2012.08.028 104 B. Yaniktepe et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 72 (2013) 103–110 increment of the population. Although Turkey has a wide range of energy resources such as coal, natural gas, petroleum and the like, they are limited. Therefore, Turkey has started to investigate the alternative energy resources. As a consequence, the investigation of wind energy has been carried out rapidly in Turkey over the last two decades. There are many investigations in the literature about Turkey’s wind characteristics that are mainly focused on regions which are highly suitable for wind energy applications. There are also some investigations about the wind energy policy and strategy is- sue in Turkey. But there are no any studies on tax exemption assessment of Turkey on renewable energy. This provided prima motivation behind doing the present study. Related scientific and industrial communities may be attracted by this investigation. Er- dogdu [8] not only presents a review of the potential and utiliza- tion of the wind power in Turkey but also provides some guidelines for policy makers. Current status of bioenergy and wind Fig. 1. Primary energy consumption rates of World 2011. energy economics are focused on this article. Wind electricity sta- tus in Turkey is also investigated according to the recent develop- consumption rate of fossil fuels has a large proportion by 92% ments on wind utilization in the world by Gokcek [9]. Kaygusuz and energy consumption rate from the renewable energy and and Sari [10] have analyzed those sustainable energy policies in hydroelectricity energy are, respectively, 2% and 6% in 2011 [20]. Turkey. They reviewed the present energy situation and the role Turkey, which is in the category of developing countries with of renewable energy for future directions in the Turkish energy respect to population, industrialization and the economy, is grow- sector. Sevim [11] has examined the current electricity market of ing rapidly. While the population of Turkey was 70,586,256 as of Turkey and economic parameters of wind energy investments. 2007, it reached the value of 73,722,988 in 2010. Growing rate of Hepbasli and Ozgener [12] have reviewed the development of the population of Turkey is approximately 4.44%. Furthermore, wind energy in Turkey at the end of the October 2010. Kurban Turkey’s economy has shown a big increase in the 1st, 2nd, and and Hocaoglu [13] have also examined briefly wind energy status 3rd quarters of 2011, with the values of 12.0, 8.8, and 8.2, respec- in Turkey and especially investigated wind energy potential of tively [21]. Turkey has left many countries behind with these Anadolu University campus area. Furthermore, Bilgili and Simsek growing rates of the economy. According to these developments, [14], Kaygusuz [15], Hepbasli and Ozgener [16], Ilkilic [3], Ilkilic, the increase in the amount of per capita energy consumption re- and Turkbay [17] have also studied the potential and the develop- veals the importance of energy. ment of wind energy systems in Turkey, installed capacity of Tur- The growing rate of primary energy demand in Turkey stood at key and policy issue and strategies. 4.3% annually on average in the period of 1990–2008 [19]. The va- This study focuses on the current state, potential, and develop- lue of primary energy consumption in Turkey was 108.8 Mtoe as of ment of wind energy systems in Turkey. The paper is organized in 2010, and it reached the value of 118.8 Mtoe in 2011 with the the following manner: The status of energy applications in the growing rate of 9.2% [20]. The World Energy Council Turkish Na- world is presented in Section 2. Section 3 provides installations tional Committee (WEC-TNC) states that the electricity demand of wind power in the world. Section 4 explains the current wind of Turkey will be 353,690 GW h by 2020. On the other hand, de- energy status in Turkey. Section 5 discusses the wind energy status mand scenario which was organized by the Turkish Electricity and support/incentive mechanisms in Turkey, and Section 6 con- Transmission Company (TEIAS) also implies that the annual grow- cludes and offers recommendations for the policy makers. ing rate of electricity demand will be between 6.3% and 8.4% from 2009 to 2016 [11,22,23]. Besides, the electrical energy production of the Turkey was 211.2 GW h in 2010 and it reached 2. The status of energy applications in the world 228.4 GW h in 2011. Increasing rate in electricity production be- The demand for energy is increasing at an exponential rate due tween the years of 2010 and 2011 was determined as 8.1% [20]. Consequently, Turkey has the most rapid increase in energy to the exponential growth of world population, industrial develop- ments, and the world economy [12]. In addition to energy demand of the increasing population, the major activities which consume the majority of the energy generated in the world in industry are construction, textiles and cloth manufacturing, vehicle manufac- turing, food processing, etc. [18]. Recently, World’s energy demand has increased gradually in parallel with the developments. The projections made by The International Energy Agency indicate that in case of continuation of the preferences of current energy policies and energy supply, world’s primary energy demand will increase by 40% between the years of 2007 and 2030 [19]. Electricity is one of the vital sources for human life and civiliza- tion. Nowadays, global electricity demand is also increasing with developing civilization and industrial levels [11]. The electrical en- ergy production of the world in 2010 was 21,365 TW h, and it reached 22,018 TW h in 2011. Increasing rate in electricity demand between the years of 2010 and 2011 was calculated as 3.1% [20].In meeting this huge energy demand of the world, mostly fossil fuels have been used up to now. As it can be seen from Fig. 1, Fig. 2. Primary energy consumption rates of Turkey 2010. B. Yaniktepe et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 72 (2013) 103–110 105
Fig. 4. Wind power capacity by region.
Fig. 3. Fossil fuel reserves 2011.
the wind energy installed capacity is the European and Eurasia re- demand in OECD countries over the last decade. As it is apparent in gion, with almost half of the capacity world-wide [20]. Europe’s Fig. 2, fossil fuels are mostly used in order to meet the huge energy leading countries in wind energy are Germany, Spain, France, Italy, demand of the Turkey with the rate of 90% in 2010 [24]. Sekercio- and United Kingdom. glu and Yilmaz have also stated that biggest share in total primary Increasing rate in wind power installed capacity in the world energy consumption is natural gas, oil, and coal [25]. between the years of 2010 and 2011 was calculated as 20.5%. Fossil fuels used for meeting the energy demand everywhere in The majority of installed power has concentrated on the top 10 the world with the largest percentage have many disadvantages. countries. According to the installed capacities, top 10 countries Most important drawback is quick exhaustion. It is estimated that are China (62.412 GW), USA (56.144 GW), Germany (29.075 GW), fossil fuel reserves can handle approximately 100 years more. Spain (21.726 GW), India (16.078 GW), France (6.836 GW), Italy Remaining reserves of fossil fuels are mostly coal reserves. The (6.743 GW), England (6.470 GW), Portugal (4.214 GW), and Den- largest rate of coal reserves is clearly seen in Former Soviet Union mark (3.926 GW), respectively. Fig. 6 shows that China and USA as shown in Fig. 3 [20]. This figure also displays that fossil fuel re- have higher installed capacities than others [20]. However, Turkey serves of European Union have the lowest value. The combined ef- is located in the back row in the ranking of wind power installed fect of the widespread depletion of fossil fuels and the gradually capacity with the value of 1.729 GW [26]. emerging consciousness about environmental degradation has at- tracted institutions, organizations, and governments to find tech- nologies and has given priority to the use of conventional, clean, 4. The current wind energy status in Turkey and renewable alternative energy sources such as geothermal en- ergy, hydraulic energy, wind energy, wave energy, biomass energy, Turkey is located between Europe and Asia like a bridge and and solar energy [12]. surrounded by seas around three sides. The large part of the land of Turkey is in Asia, and the small part called as Thrace is in Europe 3. Installations of wind power in the world [27]. Turkey has 81 cities and seven geographical regions, and its size is 785,347 km2 [28]. Turkey’s economy has a dynamical struc- From past to present, the basic needs of social and industrial life ture, and the economy is growing every year with applying differ- of the electrical energy can be obtained from renewable energies ent government policies [29]. Turkey is the most important by using them in different applications. Over the years, renewable country in their region due to her strategic place as an energy energy sources have shown different growing rates. The installed bridge between Asia and Europe. Turkey is an energy importing capacity of geothermal energy, which is a renewable energy, country; more than half of her energy requirement has been sup- reached the value of 11.014 GW as of 2011. The installed capacity plied by imports [30]. Because domestic fossil fuels are limited, al- of solar energy also reached the value of 69.371 GW in 2011. In most all of the petroleum and natural gas needed is imported. addition, the value of 239.485 GW in the installed capacity of wind Especially, hydro power plants and thermal power plants consum- energy was achieved at the end of 2011 [20]. Wind energy as a ing fossil fuels have been used to meet the energy demand in Tur- renewable energy source is now the leader in terms of installed key. Fig. 7 presents the breakdown of electricity production rates in capacity. Wind energy has the fastest growing rate of the renew- Turkey. According to Fig. 7, coal, natural gas, and hydro based en- able energy sources in the world with a 92% learning curve value. ergy are produced with the percentage of 33.14, 30.22, and 23.28, From 1997 to 2008, global installed wind power capacity increased respectively [19]. However, renewable energy production rates by 35% per year [11]. In 1996, the installed wind power capacity have very low percentages. Moreover, only wind energy produc- was 6070 MW. Wind power capacity has grown by 20 times since tion rate is 3.11% (1.729 GW). It shows that wind power installed 1996, and it reached the value of 122.158 MW at the beginning of capacity is very low with respect to technical wind energy poten- 2009. tial (80 GW) in Turkey. The growth of wind energy is not evenly distributed around the Renewable energy resources seem to be one of the most effi- world and is manifested in Figs. 4 and 5. By the end of 2011, in- cient and effective solution to prevent the environmental pollution, stalled wind energy capacity in the World reached 239.485 GW to decrease energy importing rate and to get sustainable energy in as in Fig. 6, around 40.4% (96.835 GW) of the worldwide wind en- Turkey. Turkey is under the influence of different air masses be- ergy capacity in Europe and Eurasia, a further 35.6% (85.156 GW) cause of its geographical location. These air masses of different in Asia and the Pacific, and 22.3% (53.485 GW) in North America. areas cause potential wind energy generation possibilities. Hepba- As it is obvious from Figs. 4 and 5, the world leader according to sli and Ozgener [16] specified that wind energy seems to be the 106 B. Yaniktepe et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 72 (2013) 103–110
Fig. 5. Share of total installed wind power in the World. most interesting domestic and clean energy source for Turkey ow- More than 98% of the wind energy potential is concentrated on re- ing to the important potential for the use of wind energy. gions of Aegean, Marmara, and the East Mediterranean. It is also Turkey’s wind energy potential has been determined as approx- estimated that Turkey has an economical wind power potential imately 48,000 MW in a height of 50 m above from ground level of about 10 GW [12]. Table 1 presents that Turkey has a rich wind and in areas where wind speeds are more than 7.5 m/s (Table 1). energy potential [31]. B. Yaniktepe et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 72 (2013) 103–110 107
Table 1 Wind speed, power density, and capacity of Turkey.
Annual mean Power density Capacity wind speed 50 m (W/m2) (MW) 50 m (m/s) 7.0–7.5 400–500 29,259.36 7.5–8.0 500–600 12,994.32 8.0–9.0 600–800 5,399.92 >9 >800 195.84 Total 47,849
Fig. 6. Installed wind power in top 10 countries and Turkey.
Fig. 8. Development of wind energy in Turkey.
and outside the residential areas, at Marmara, West Black sea, and the East Mediterranean coasts and inner parts of these regions are 6.0–7.0 and 4.5–5.0 m/s, respectively. The northwest Aegean coasts are also 7.0–8.5 m/s and in the inner parts are 6.5–7.0 m/s. All regions of Turkey are not suitable for the installation of wind turbines due to a topographic structure and a low level of wind en- ergy potential [14]. Fig. 7. Electricity production rates in Turkey. Recently, wind energy investments have started a serious trend in Turkey in parallel with the ninth development plan and Renew- According to the Turkey Wind Map, prepared by the General able Energy Law which was published in 2005. As it is evident in Manager of Renewable Energy (EIE), wind speed at 50 m height Fig. 8, although wind power plant (WPP) investments have been
Fig. 9. Installed wind farms in Turkey. 108 B. Yaniktepe et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 72 (2013) 103–110
Table 2 Table 2 (continued) Under construction and licensed wind farms in Turkey. Under construction WPP Under construction WPP Project name Installed capacity (MW) Project name Installed capacity (MW) Cerit WPP 90 Soke-Catalbuk WPP 30 Petkim WPP 25 AkRES 45 Poyraz WPP 54.9 Susurluk WPP 45 Demirciler WPP 60 Korkmaz WPP 24 Saritepe WPP 50 Mordogan WPP 30.75 Aloren WPP 45 AyRES 5.4 Meryem WPP 30 Banguc WPP 15 Kandira WPP 49 Balikesir WPP 142.5 Saray WPP 4 Metristepe WPP 40 Zonguldak WPP 120 Seyitali WPP 30 Usak WPP 54 Dagpazari WPP 39 Amasya WPP 42 Senkoy WPP 26 Incesu WPP 10 SahRES 93 Sincik WPP 25 Karadag WPP 10 Seferihisar WPP 14 Bozkaya WPP 12.5 Yalova WPP 54 Madranbaba WPP 19.5 Zeytineli-2 WPP 49.5 Tokat WPP 40 Yalakoy WPP 15 Soma II WPP 60.9 Eber WPP 36 Licensed WPP Project name Installed capacity Alibeyhuyugu WPP 3 applied, it can be seen very low now on the European basis. Wind Cesme WPP 16 Turkeli WPP 30 energy investments have increased seriously, and increasing ratio Atik WPP 30 between 2010 and 2011 is 30.9%. Therefore, Turkey ranks fourth Aksu WPP 72 with this increasing ratio between European countries [20]. Seferihisar WPP 16 Turkey’s first wind farm connected to the network was estab- Kiblekayasi WPP 15 Kiyikoy WPP 27 lished in 1998 and has a capacity of 1.5 MWs. The installed capac- Sarikayalar WPP 12 ity of wind power was 9 MWs at the end of the 1998. Between the Yurttepe WPP 13.5 years of 1998 and 2005, wind power installed capacity grows very Geycek WPP 150 slowly and wind power installed capacity was also achieved as Gazi WPP 5 20 MWs in 2005. However, wind power installed capacity begins Sakarbayir WPP 3 Aydos WPP 14 to increase seriously after the Renewable Energy Law was put into Amasya WPP 39 force in May 2005. Thus, wind power installed capacity in Turkey Balabanli WPP 50 reached 1.729 GW by the year of 2012. Alibey Adasi WPP 30 Fig. 9 indicates the map of installed wind farms in Turkey [26]. Ovacik WPP 18 Balikesir WPP 60 According to this map, installed wind farm investments have been Bereketli WPP 30 applied to the regions of especially the coast of Marmara region, Demircilik WPP 40 Aegean coast region, and Mediterranean coast region. Sarpincik WPP 32 Turkey has a lot of new investments as under construction and Çayonu WPP 35 licensed wind power plants, as well. These investments are de- Kozbeyli WPP 30 Samurlu WPP 30 tailed in Table 2 [26]. The capacity of WPP in under construction Alacati WPP 16 is 708.55 MW. Besides, the licensed capacity of wind power plant Germiyan WPP 10.8 is 2.572 GW. Results indicate that there is going to be remarkable Mordogan WPP 13.8 wind energy investments in Turkey in the near future. Incentives Urla WPP 13 Ardicli WPP 50 coming from the Renewable Energy Law accelerate the wind en- Baglar WPP 100 ergy investments. Gol Marmara WPP 45 Golkaya WPP 15 5. Institutional framework and support/incentive mechanisms Sandikli WPP 15 Urla WPP 15 in Turkey Subasi WPP 48 Inebolu WPP 30 Some of the institutions of wind energy in Turkey are as fol- Afyon 2 WPP 88 lows: the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources (MENR) is Kahta WPP 42.75 Dilek WPP 27.5 responsible for the preparation and implementation of energy pol- Kapidag WPP 34.85 icies, plans, and programs in co-ordination with its affiliated insti- Karacaoren WPP 35 tutions and other public and private entities. The General Uluborlu WPP 60 Directorate of Energy Affairs (EIGM) conducts studies and develops Karakapi WPP 40 policies on renewable energy Within MENR. EIGM is responsible Suloglu WPP 60 Karaburun WPP 120 for the co-ordination of the electricity and natural gas reform pro- Hamzabeyli WPP 3 grams. It also deals with the consequences of the past efforts to Mutlu WPP 44 bring private investments into the electricity sector. The Electrical Hereke WPP 2 Power Resources Survey and Development Administration which Karadag WPP 16.25 Dinar WPP 50 changed its name as The General Manager of Renewable Energy (EIE) in 2011 is responsible for surveys and research on renewable B. Yaniktepe et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 72 (2013) 103–110 109 energy source and energy efficiency. The Energy Market Regulatory Countries have developed support and incentive mechanisms to Authority (EMRA) regulates and supervises the electricity market apply new wind power projects like Turkey. As a result, Turkey and monitors the progress in the renewable energy segment of wind energy policy supports particularly domestic productions the market, as well. and new wind power projects. The main objective of Turkey’s energy policy is to supply the reliable and sufficient energy together with measures for environ- 6. Conclusion mental protection by supporting the economical growing and so- cial development. Some of the main elements of Turkey’s energy This study concluded that Turkey has a significantly high poten- policy according to MENR are the following: tial of wind energy. This potential can be utilized to satisfy a part of the total energy demand in the country. Turkey has about 48 GW To increase in the variety of resources and energy security. wind energy potential. Marmara, Aegean, and Mediterranean coast To continue the reform studies needed for the sector. regions are seen higher wind energy potential values compared To consider the environmental impacts, supplying of increase with other regions. This investigation indicates that wind energy for the investments in the all areas of the energy sector. has the higher increasing rate than the other forms of renewable To get an active role in the recognition and trade of hydrocar- energy source in Turkey during the last 6 years. By the end of bons within the framework of ‘‘Energy Corridor and Terminal’’. 2011, installed capacity of the wind power plants reached 1.729 GW in Turkey. Furthermore, wind energy installed capacity Furthermore, utilization and development of new and renew- will be achieved as 20 GW in 2023 according to the Turkey’s gen- able sources will be given priority, with particular emphasis on eral wind energy policy. domestic sources to reduce dependence on imported, compatible The recommendations to Government of Turkey can be summa- with the environment, industry structure and the establishment rized as follows: of an energy system is targeted according to the ninth develop- ment plan [32]. To develop new financial mechanisms for investing wind In accordance with these policies applied by Turkey, installed energy projects. wind capacity is expected to 10 GW by 2015. Besides, the objective To encourage new investors for wind energy investments. of wind energy capacity in Turkey is also 20 GW by 2023, helping To realize the production of wind turbine and instruments in the country to source 30% of its electricity generation from renew- Turkey rapidly. able sources by 2023. To develop new program for high quality human resources in In order to boost the use of renewable energy, in May 2005, the the wind energy sector and to increase Research and Develop- Turkish government published the first Renewable Energy Law ment on wind energy. (REL), which introduced tariff support for electricity produced by To monitor and evaluate the wind energy policies and cost and renewable sources. In May 2007, a revision of the law increased effectiveness of Renewable Energy Law. the tariff slightly to 5–5.5 Euro ct/kW h for a period of 10 years To improve coordination among government agencies in wind and in a reformation of 2010, tariff is also converted to USD energy sector. 7.3 cent/kW h for wind energy. By this Renewable Energy Law, To reinforce the incentive mechanisms like developed not only wind energy is encouraged, but also other renewable countries. energies are promoted in a similar origin as it can be seen from To regulate new tax exemption with respect to installed capac- Table 3 [33]. ity and employment to attract new investors. According to revised law in 2010, incentives cover the facilities that enter into operation at the end of 2013, with the reformation this time being extended until the end of 2015. References In 2010, a local content element has introduced the Renewable Energy Law, which envisages an addition to the feed-in tariff of a [1] Kaygusuz K. 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