PICACNSW • ACT

BRIDGING CULTURES A Guide to the Diverse Cultures in FOR AGED CARE SERVICE PROVIDERS Bridging Cultures A Guide to the Diverse Cultures in Australia for Aged Care Service Providers, 2016 3rd Ed.

Published in Australia by: Partners in Culturally Appropriate Care (PICAC) NSW & ACT Funded by the Department of Health.

PICAC NSW & ACT is a project under the auspices of: Multicultural Communities Council of Illawarra (MCCI) 117 Corrimal Street, NSW 2500 www.picacnsw.org.au www.mcci.org.au

ISBN 978-0-646-96223-8

Edited by PICAC NSW & ACT Designed by Shine Creative Printed in Australia by Snap Wollongong.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher.

The information in this directory about cultures and diverse attitudes to various issues is for general guidance only and does not encompass all views of the various languages, cultural and religious groups mentioned. It is also important to understand that the religion of the individual may impact greatly on their health behaviours and self-management. All information provided should therefore not be considered complete or exhaustive, nor is it intended to be a substitute for professional advice from cultural experts.

While every reasonable effort has been made to ensure that this publication is correct at the time of printing, PICAC NSW & ACT disclaim any and all liability to any person in respect of anything or the consequences of anything done or omitted to be done in reliance or upon the whole or any part of this publication.

2 BRIDGING CULTURES FOREWORD

Multicultural Communities Council of Illawarra (MCCI) is a community based, not-for-profit, organisation which seeks to represent the broad interests of people from culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) backgrounds.

Established in 1975, MCCI contributes to the development of a society which is culturally diverse and values and promotes this asset.

MCCI strives to enhance the capacity of CALD communities by assisting them in accessing a just and equitable place in society. We do this through our evidence-led advocacy, service delivery and the building of community capacity; underpinned by innovation, collaboration, professionalism and cultural expertise.

MCCI supports the aged care services sector to deliver care which is appropriate and sensitive to the needs of older people from CALD backgrounds, through programs, such as Partners in Culturally Appropriate Care (PICAC) NSW & ACT.

On behalf of MCCI and PICAC NSW & ACT, we are pleased to be able to share with you Bridging Cultures, 2016 3rd Ed.

Ken Habak OAM Chairperson Multicultural Communities Council of Illawarra

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 3 PICACNSW • ACT

Partners in Culturally Appropriate undertake a home visit to homes Care (PICAC) NSW & ACT is of diverse cultures, key events and pleased to publish Bridging dates, some case studies and an Cultures 2016, 3rd Ed. This interesting cultural facts. The case updated resource includes cultural studies will assist aged care staff information regarding Australia’s and students to understand some culturally and linguistically diverse of the complex issues that may arise ageing populations in over 30 when engaging with older people communities in Australia. from diverse backgrounds. Some of the case studies are intended to This book is intended to enhance highlight the challenges which can the readers’ understanding of the confront the service provider when cultural diversity of many people dealing with sensitive end-of-life seeking aged care services or who care and dementia. are currently receiving services from aged care service providers. It is culture chapter also intended that students who has material included which will are involved in learning to care assist the many diverse cultures for people aged 65 and over from which are currently employed in CALD backgrounds will find this the Australian aged care sector to resource to be a useful guide. better understand the language and the prevailing values and Included in this third edition is attitudes which exist in our society. information on carers in CALD communities. Extra features include In preparing this 2016 third edition, demographical information on each PICAC NSW & ACT would like cultural group, information to assist to acknowledge the resource professionals who are required to Demographic Data for Australia’s

4 BRIDGING CULTURES Older CALD population by State PICAC NSW & ACT can assist and ACPR Funding Regions from service providers in identifying and the Australian Population and addressing the unique needs of Migration Research Centre at The these communities. University of . The PICAC PICAC NSW & ACT work with team look forward to the results service providers to develop and of the 2016 Census which will provide culturally specific: underpin the information provided for future editions of Bridging • Strategic partnerships Cultures. • Training and professional The primary objective of the PICAC development NSW & ACT project is to equip and • Quality resources support residential and community aged care service providers to • Demographic data deliver culturally appropriate care A partnership with PICAC NSW & to older people, from culturally and ACT will enable your organisation linguistically diverse communities. to deliver services which are The project also aims to represent responsive, inclusive and sensitive the interests of people aged 65 to the individual. and over from CALD communities in alignment with the principles The Partners in Culturally of the National Ageing and Aged Appropriate Care program is a Care Strategy, for people from national initiative funded by the culturally and linguistically diverse Australian Government. backgrounds.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 5 CONTENTS

The Role of the Carer ...... 112 in the CALD Context...... 7 KOREA...... 118 Cultural Attitudes ...... 122 Towards Dementia...... 10 MACEDONIA (FYMR)...... 128 Cultural Attitudes Towards Palliative Care...... 16 MALAYSIA...... 132 Cultural Attitudes MALTA...... 136 Towards Continence...... 21 MYANMAR...... 140 ...... 146 AUSTRALIA...... 24 PHILIPPINES...... 150 ...... 36 POLAND...... 154 BALTIC STATES PORTUGAL...... 162 Estonia, Latvia & Lithuania...... 40 ...... 166 CAMBODIA...... 44 SLOVAKIA...... 170 CHILE...... 48 ...... 174 CHINA...... 52 SPAIN...... 178 ...... 58 SRI LANKA...... 182 ...... 62 ...... 186 CZECH REPUBLIC...... 66 UKRAINE...... 190 EGYPT...... 70 URUGUAY...... 194 FIJI...... 74 ...... 198 FINLAND...... 78 GERMANY...... 82 Contributors...... 202 ...... 86 Source List ...... 204 ...... 92 A Guide to Working INDIA...... 96 with Interpreters...... 205 ...... 104 Cultural Assessment IRAQ...... 108 Checklist...... 206

6 BRIDGING CULTURES THE ROLE OF THE CARER IN THE CALD CONTEXT

The Carer Recognition Act of The Australian Government is 2010 defines a Carer as being an committed to providing support for individual who provides personal carers as they contribute greatly to care, support and assistance to the welfare and longevity of large ROLE OF THE CARER IN CALD CONTEXT another individual who has a sections of our society. Their daily disability, a medical condition, activities in assisting, supporting, a mental illness or is frail and medicating, treating and looking after their person in need, greatly aged. This role is not conducted alleviates the burden of care for payment, education or in a from being a government funded volunteer capacity. exercise. The term carer is not always easily Carers from CALD backgrounds are translated into different languages. sometimes unaware that services For many culturally and linguistically exist to support their roles as carers. diverse families, caring is ingrained Low literacy and language skills into their cultural practices and act as barriers for the process of everyday living. Caring is a matter information retrieval. Many people which bears no special treatment from CALD backgrounds are or accolade. For many, it is simply identified as ‘hidden carers’. These an activity without reason for carers do not identify themselves distinction or merit. as carers and are not recognised The Australian Bureau of Statistics as carers by the government, has estimated that 30% of carers community or staff working in are from culturally and linguistically the aged and health care sector. diverse backgrounds. However, Networking with government they state that this figure could agencies such as Centrelink, be an underestimate of the real hospitals, primary health providers, picture, as difficulties in translation and local government will assist in can exist with the term, or that identifying ‘hidden carers’. questions pertaining to caring are Carers from CALD backgrounds not always answered correctly. face many cultural and language

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 7 barriers on a daily basis. Some of Many people who are carers from the barriers can include low literacy CALD backgrounds are not able and language skills which mean that to consider leaving their care they may have limited means of recipient out of an inherent feeling accessing information about what of ‘duty’ towards them. They will services are available to them to often experience a feeling of guilt if assist in their caring journey. they are seeking to take ‘time out’. CALD carers can experience family For older carers, low levels of pressures to maintain the current education in their birth countries situation of the frail person living at means that they may not be home. literate in their language of origin. Therefore, translated materials can Some CALD carers do not seek be of little or no use, if available. Government subsidised care or obtain support payments for Cultural barriers at times play a several reasons. This may include role as a misconception can exist their suspicious perceptions that adult family members of CALD of financial assessments. This older people will assist them with stems greatly from experiences translating and interpreting areas of living in oppressive regimes when they are in need. It must be and experiencing trauma in the considered that the offspring of past. Some also are not aware of ageing migrants may not always subsidised assistance as there is speak their heritage language well, a lack of appropriate information or in fact are able to understand which is provided to them. Some the language or able to read the cultures seek information from written word.

ROLE OF THE CARER IN CALD CONTEXT ethnic-specific services only. To live in a dominant culture and The Australian aged care system to be expected to carry out the is not understood by many CALD norms of an inherited culture can carers. Perhaps in their country of sometimes cause family issues. The origin there was no age care system older generations can feel that they in existence. Many countries have have failed in their parental duties limited or indeed no specific aged if they do not witness their children care framework. mirroring their cultural values and attitudes.

8 BRIDGING CULTURES Some CALD carers are not able to Sending a family member to an access translating and interpreting organised care scenario such as services as they are unaware respite or residential care is not that these services are available. seen as a favourable option. It is CALD carers may have little or often only considered when the no confidence in establishing the caring situation reaches a crisis initial communication. The use of point. the telephone to communicate Planning for aged care is not with people other than family considered amongst many people members is not considered an ROLE OF THE CARER IN CALD CONTEXT from CALD backgrounds. It is option for them. Communication in expected that the family will take some situations must be initiated care of the needs of the ageing by other family members. Many parent or family member. This is a carers from CALD backgrounds complex issue which is exacerbated have a low uptake of technology when one is ageing in a foreign and low computer literacy country, where cultural norms are levels. The current trend towards augmented by negotiating two providing online information can separate and unaligned cultural disadvantage CALD carers. contexts. Trust is an important factor for many There is generally little or indeed no people from CALD backgrounds. contemplation for advanced care This important value must be directives in CALD communities. established from the outset when Advance care planning appears to interacting with them on any level. be an unfamiliar concept for many Carer support groups are not people from CALD backgrounds. always appropriate for CALD Further information on providing populations, as discussing personal care in Australia from a CALD aspects of one’s lives is not always background can be obtained culturally appropriate, even with from the Carers Australia 2013 cohorts of the same culture. Carer comprehensive report, Culturally support frameworks will need and linguistically diverse carers to work collaboratively with the in Australia: background report. cultures involved and understand Please visit that it will take time for trust to develop. www.carersaustralia.com.au

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 9 CULTURAL ATTITUDES TOWARDS DEMENTIA

There are more than 100 régimes, support mechanisms, different disorders which cause including aged care service dementia. Dementia is a term provision and CALD community which encompasses a variety of acknowledgement. conditions including Alzheimer’s Subsequently, one of the greatest disease, Vascular Dementia, challenges faced by CALD Dementia with Lewy Bodies and community members, when Fronto-temporal lobe Dementia. diagnosed with dementia, is social Dementia is a leading cause of isolation. These challenges can death and burden of disease in lead CALD older people to under- Australia for which there is no utilise available community services. cure. For people aged over 65, Typically, these populations have dementia was the second leading a lower than average uptake of burden of disease in 2011 and the dementia respite services. leading cause of disability burden. There exists a research gap in For culturally and linguistically the area of cultural nuances diverse (CALD) populations living in regards to dementia. Many in Australia, the prevalence of cultures understand dementia dementia is projected to escalate to be a normal part of ageing. CULTURAL ATTITUDES TOWARDS DEMENTIA TOWARDS ATTITUDES CULTURAL to around 120,000 by 2050. This Additionally, they comprehend will inevitably place a great stress that the suitable treatment is to be on the supply of CALD trained conducted via medication. In some dementia care providers and on communities, dementia is hidden the demand for culturally where the overwhelming attitude is appropriate care. considered to be one of ‘disgrace’.

There are unique challenges Generalisations regarding regarding managing dementia perceptions and beliefs of dementia within cultural contexts. within diverse communities can These include identification assist care providers with an of the disorder, treatment overview of the prevailing attitude

10 BRIDGING CULTURES The information in this directory about the diverse attitudes to dementia care is for general guidance only and does not encompass all views of the various languages, cultural and religious groups mentioned.

towards dementia in CALD those who practice this faith that communities. However, every dementia is God’s will which is to individual with dementia is unique be accepted. However, treatment and generalisations should merely for dementia can still be sought CULTURAL ATTITUDES TOWARDS DEMENTIA serve as a technique to initially by the community as this fits into evaluate an individual. A person- the Islamic belief that God has centred care approach to caring for enabled such approaches to assist a person with dementia should be his followers. It is common to find engaged at all times. a stigma attached to dementia within this community, due in part Alzheimer’s Australia to the terminology used to describe produced a report in 2008, the condition. The interpretation following their project, Perceptions of the dementia equivalent word of Dementia in Ethnic Communities. in the Arabic language carries This important project and report negative implications, akin to has contributed greatly to the ‘losing one’s mind’. The causes of information in this section of dementia are not well understood Bridging Cultures. and therefore can be subject to personal interpretation. This ARABIC generally involves the person being The Arabic-speaking community involved in a particular event which in Australia is diverse and includes was shameful or an incidence of communities from 22 countries. The misfortune. most prevalent being the Lebanese community. Since 1960, Arabic- CHINESE speaking people from Egypt, Dementia knowledge and Iraq, Jordan, Palestine and the perceptions vary within the Chinese Arab Peninsula have migrated to community. Some consider Australia. Large numbers of Arabic- dementia to be associated with old speaking people practice Islam. age where even minimal instances It is generally accepted among of memory loss are associated with

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 11 the condition. Other perceptions ITALIAN are broader where a wider range of issues, such as wandering, Many attitudes towards dementia language problems, confusion and in Italian communities reflect incontinence are recognised as attitudes which were prevalent being signs of the condition. at the time of their emigration. This includes terminology used Dementia is not a topic which is for this condition. The word openly discussed in the Chinese demenza in Italian is a medical community. Hence, a family may term which is aligned with mental not willingly admit that they have health disabilities. Some older a family member with dementia. may use the term sclerosis This can lead to a person being which was frequently used in the excluded from their community past. It is important for Italians to and potentially will become socially understand the causes of dementia. isolated. Medical support will be They sometimes draw conclusions sought and family members will about the condition, blaming over attend, especially if the doctor is or under use of the brain, poor from a non-Chinese background. nutrition and physical inactivity. The community will accept western medical treatments; however, they Many Italians develop some will combine this with traditional knowledge of dementia as they Chinese medicine. Acupuncture witness their friends’ experiences and cupping may be used in the with the condition. As there are treatment of many conditions significant numbers of ageing and should not be confused with Italians in Australia, the incidence of dementia is quite high. Generally, CULTURAL ATTITUDES TOWARDS DEMENTIA TOWARDS ATTITUDES CULTURAL elder abuse. Italians do not realise the condition Some Chinese community members is a progressive and terminal illness. will embrace a healthy lifestyle It is common for carers to absorb in order to prevent dementia. the burden of care and therefore Activities such as Mahjong which not seek assistance from aged combines memory exercise and care services. The community calculations will be encouraged, as holds quite clear expectations that is a healthy diet and exercise. the family, in particular the eldest daughter, will take care of the needs of the ageing family member, including those with dementia. It is

12 BRIDGING CULTURES important to stress to members of to be a normal part of ageing. the Italian community who are in Additionally, they consider that it dementia caring roles, the benefits is caused by too much worry and of respite care and carer support stress. Commonly it is considered groups. that someone with dementia has ‘lost their mind.’ These pre- SPANISH conceptions lead to a diagnosis being made far too late which The greatest numbers of Spanish- does not allow people to finalise speaking people in Australia

their affairs in the manner that CULTURAL ATTITUDES TOWARDS DEMENTIA are from mainland Spain, Chile, they would prefer. Vietnamese Argentina and Uruguay. There is culture holds their elderly family little knowledge and understanding and community members in high of dementia in Spanish-speaking esteem. This can negatively impact communities. Some people believe on securing a timely diagnosis that dementia is caused by stress of dementia as it is perceived as and excessive worrying. The most being disrespectful to inform them common translation of the word of such a debilitating condition. dementia is loco or crazy. As dementia is not considered an illness, it is difficult for this VIETNAMESE community to understand that the condition is terminal and there Most arrived is no cure. Prayer, Chinese herbs in Australia after the end of the and acupuncture are all accepted Vietnam War as refugees. Many modes of treatment which are used endured a traumatic journey to alongside modern medicine. Australia on fishing boats to escape the communist government who took power at the end of the war. GREEK

There is little knowledge of The Greek community is a large dementia in this community. The CALD group in this country. Literacy terms dementia and Alzheimer’s levels amongst elderly Greek disease are recognised by younger people is quite low, however, they community members, however have good community support a deeper understanding of the networks across the country due to condition is not common. As is the their organisations’ demonstrating case in other CALD communities, commitment to preserving the the Vietnamese consider dementia Greek culture and heritage.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 13 Nevertheless, there is still a low care for their elderly family level of understanding of dementia. members. Most community members describe dementia in terms of its EASTERN EUROPE symptoms. The causes of dementia are associated with some sort of Eastern European cultures include trauma, shock or constant worrying. Polish, Russian, Hungarian and Some believe that dementia is Ukrainian ethnicities. Many of these associated with stroke. migrants were subjected to torture and were victims of oppressive Greek spouses are the main carers rule. Some communities have a of people with dementia. Carer prevalence of Post-Traumatic Stress fatigue is well recognised in the Disorder which can exaggerate the community, which can lead to symptoms of dementia. Certain compromised health for the carer. memories can cause challenging The Greek community relies heavily behaviours amongst the elderly on the family structure to support with dementia. their aged. It is of concern to them that the younger generations may Dementia can be seen as a not have strong normal part of ageing within these skills and therefore they cannot communities. When the dementia provide the traditional extended becomes advanced it can be family support. regarded to be a mental illness. Dementia in the Polish community The Arabic-speaking, Chinese, is highly stigmatised and it is Italian, Spanish-speaking, Greek commonly denied. This ultimately and Vietnamese communities all leads to social isolation which is CULTURAL ATTITUDES TOWARDS DEMENTIA TOWARDS ATTITUDES CULTURAL have preconceptions that their evidenced by fewer friends and children will provide care for their family members visiting and less elders when it becomes necessary. participation in social activities. Many older community members The Polish community refers to believe it is appropriate to spend dementia as sclerosis. their last days at home. It is becoming more common to see Russian community members people from these communities in prefer to seek treatment from care, as the economic pressures their doctor and they have faith in of modern living no longer enable modern medicine. They believe in children to provide personalised preventive health measures. The perception of dementia in this

14 BRIDGING CULTURES community depends on which area The Macedonian spouse is the main of Russia they originated from, and carer for the elderly with dementia. when they came to Australia. Families are the main support mechanism as there is a reluctance MACEDONIAN (FYMR) to seek outside assistance. There is a lack of awareness of It is important to remember that dementia in the Macedonian every person is an individual community. Some sections of the and the perceptions and beliefs community regard dementia as pertaining to dementia may differ CULTURAL ATTITUDES TOWARDS DEMENTIA a mental illness and that it is a between individuals in a specific punishment for mistakes of the culture. It is also essential that past. In some instances, dementia elderly CALD consumers receive is thought to be a curse placed support from aged care service upon a person. This is where the providers in a responsive, inclusive community relies on spiritual and sensitive manner which takes guidance to assist them with the into consideration their cultural condition. Family members are foundations. embarrassed to discuss dementia with friends and the community at large. Many Macedonian elderly refer to dementia as a sclerosis. Low literacy levels impact a heightened understanding of the condition.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 15 CULTURAL ATTITUDES TOWARDS PALLIATIVE CARE

A palliative approach aims to a carer will need to understand the improve the quality of life for role religion plays in their end-of- individuals and their families, life choices. with a life-limiting illness or who are becoming progressively WESTERN EUROPE frailer because of advanced age. In some Western European This is carried out by identifying, countries such as Austria, Germany assessing and addressing their and The Netherlands, palliative holistic treatment of pain, physical, care is a recent concept. It was psychological, social, cultural, and introduced into Germany in 1985 spiritual needs. The underlying and was relatively unknown in philosophy of a palliative approach the Netherlands prior to 2001. is a positive and open attitude Therefore, it is likely that elderly towards death and dying with an people born in these countries will emphasis on improving quality of be unaware that such services exist life. or what it entails.

Education about cultural diversity INDIAN is recommended for aged care CULTURAL ATTITUDES PALLIATIVE CARE PALLIATIVE ATTITUDES CULTURAL teams to enhance an understanding There is a general acceptance of care preferences of individuals of Western medical practices, from different cultural backgrounds. home hospice and hospital care Efforts to accommodate these by the Indian community. Health preferences promote individualised professionals are seen to minimise care which benefits individuals and discomfort and are therefore their families. welcomed in the family home by the Indian-born population. Culture It is important to understand that demands that there is close family there are a number of religions involvement in the care of the that cross language and cultural aged. boundaries. When working with a person facing a life-limiting illness,

16 BRIDGING CULTURES The information in this directory about the diverse attitudes to palliative care is for general guidance only and does not encompass all views of the various languages, cultural and religious groups mentioned.

CAMBODIAN self-respect, and self-blame, are embedded in Chinese culture and In the Australian Cambodian have a lot of implications for health community, there is a lack of choices during end-of-life care. understanding of palliative care

The open discussion of terminal CULTURAL ATTITUDES PALLIATIVE CARE and many people will feel more illness and end-of-life issues are not comfortable to be treated in their considered appropriate in Chinese home as aged care facilities do culture. not exist in Cambodia. Health professionals are expected to clarify ARABIC with the family, the diagnosis and prognosis of an illness. Giving news Doctors and qualified medical to the family first or telling both the people are well accepted and patient and family are acceptable. respected by Arabic speaking The guarantee of confidentiality is community members from important within the Cambodian countries such as Egypt, Iraq and community. Decision-making about Lebanon. The expectation by illness is likely to involve the client people from these communities is and the family. that information about a patient’s diagnosis and prognosis will be told CHINESE to the family first, and the family will decide whether or not to tell the Not every Chinese person wants patient. to die at home as they believe that death can bring negative FIJIAN energy to the house. Chinese values draw upon many influences The approach to inform a Fijian such as , and born person of a diagnosis, . Values such as loyalty, depends on the individual. filial piety, the maintenance of Generally for an aged Fijian social order, and superiority of born person who has not fully men over women, self-restraint, adopted Western culture, it would

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 17 be appropriate for their son or be told. Sometimes it may be the daughter, or aother older close eldest son that would tell his parent relative to tell them. This ‘buffering’ of the diagnosis. There is fear of of the impact of the news is very cancer and often the word ‘cancer’ important, both to the person, and is not used, instead many use to his or her family. an alternative word, such as ‘the terrible illness’. INDONESIAN EASTERN EUROPEAN In Indonesian culture, family and spiritual leaders are involved in In Eastern European countries caring for the dying person. The such as Hungary, Czech Republic, concept of palliation is not known. Poland, Ukraine, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovakia, Slovenia, FINNISH Croatia, Macedonia and Serbia, palliative care is a fairly new Options in palliative care are not concept. Elderly people from yet well known among Finnish these countries may not be aware people. However, when this stage that such services exist or what it of life is reached, they are keen entails. Traditionally, the diagnosis to know more about alternative of a terminal illness would not medicines, even though they may be communicated to the person initially show resistance. Information concerned but rather to their on pain management is especially families who then decide when and valued. how, or if at all, to tell the patient.

CULTURAL ATTITUDES PALLIATIVE CARE PALLIATIVE ATTITUDES CULTURAL Families, relatives and friends GREEK may wish to ‘protect’ the person from diagnosis and prognosis of Many Greek-born people are very a terminal illness. Often family sensitive about death and dying members believe if the prognosis is issues so it is very common that communicated to the patient, they Greek families do not want the may lose the will to live. A direct dying person to be told of their approach is not recommended diagnosis and prognosis, believing for these cultures. Individuals it will only burden the dying person from these countries may be further. Greek families prefer to be reluctant to accept palliative care, informed first of the diagnosis and as this is perceived as a sign of then decide if the ill person should imminent death. People from these

18 BRIDGING CULTURES communities believe it is important MALAYSIAN for relatives to be with a person who is dying to provide emotional In Malaysia, many are not aware of and spiritual support to the dying what palliative care is and certainly person and family. even if they knew, may not be aware of where they could access ITALIAN it. Palliative care has only been an option in Malaysia since 1991. To For elderly Italians, treatment at talk about death and dying is a home is preferred but hospital or huge taboo in this culture.

hospice is becoming increasingly CULTURAL ATTITUDES PALLIATIVE CARE acceptable. Family-centred care MALTESE is always preferred. The family needs to be involved at all stages It is important for people of of decision-making. The family may Maltese background to die at try to ‘protect’ the dying person home. As people from this culture by withholding information and age, they have a tendency to a diagnosis in order to maintain revert to speaking Maltese. It’s hope. A charade is often played difficult for health professionals out with family members and to understand the needs of the friends’ pretending the illness Maltese community when it comes is not terminal. There are high to health, palliative care, death and expectations that doctors and/or dying, as there is an expectation nurses will relieve symptoms and within this community that family is pain. Some Italians may accept the primary support option. morphine whilst others may express fears associated with its use and be FILIPINO reluctant to use it. It is important In the Philippines during times that the effects of morphine are of illness, the extended family communicated to all concerned. provides support and assistance. Italian carers have a strong sense Important values that might affect of duty. Roles are dictated by interactions between providers, family hierarchies and by gender. patients and families in the context Emotions are openly displayed, of terminal illness, include a strong including anger and grief. Carers respect for elders, reliance on family may encourage the patient to eat as decision-makers in the case of unnecessarily believing this to be illness, and high expectations of good for the patient. care by the family.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 19 PORTUGUESE higher than in other groups. This is also because similar services are For Portuguese people, dying and provided by the government in Sri death is accepted as a fundamental Lanka. part of life by most. Presence of a priest is important for Catholic TURKISH Portuguese to provide support to the dying person and family. For the Turkish community, the Medication is accepted to reduce preferred place of treatment is at suffering. home, if possible. Staff should give the diagnosis or prognosis to close SPANISH family members first, since some patients will not be able to cope Traditionally, Spanish speaking with the news. Some families would people, from countries such as like to be the ones to decide how Spain, Uruguay and Chile, prefer the patient should receive news of to die at home. It is important for impending treatment. family members and close friends to see their loved ones during VIETNAMESE their final hour. Family needs to be involved at all stages of the Traditionally, Vietnamese people decision-making process. The role prefer to die at home. It is of the family has a strong influence important for relatives and friends on anything relating to their loved to see the face of their loved one’s health care and they prefer to one in the last minutes of life. be given the diagnosis or prognosis Organ donation may be seen as CULTURAL ATTITUDES PALLIATIVE CARE PALLIATIVE ATTITUDES CULTURAL before their patient. meritorious in future lives, creating good karma.

SRI LANKAN Where possible, provide Sri Lankan born people are information about a palliative usually familiar with government approach to individuals from provided services and resources culturally and linguistically diverse for the elderly. General barriers to backgrounds in their own language, accessing services for the elderly as this this enhances cultural may not be as significant within the sensitivity for individuals and their Sri Lankan community as English families, and ensures adequate and language proficiency is generally appropriate care.

20 BRIDGING CULTURES CULTURAL ATTITUDES TOWARDS CONTINENCE

The information in this directory about the diverse attitudes to continence is for general guidance only and does not encompass all views of the various languages, cultural and religious groups mentioned.

It is also important to not seek help. Embarrassment often understand that the religion prevents people talking about their CULTURAL ATTITUDES TOWARDS CONTINENCE of the individual may impact bladder and bowel problems. greatly on the health and Incontinence is one of the least self-management behaviours spoken about health conditions. relevant to the prevention and It’s estimated that 70% of people management of incontinence. affected by incontinence don’t Continence is the capacity to talk about it, according to the pass urine or faeces in socially Continence Foundation of and hygienically acceptable Australia, which is the peak national circumstances. Incontinence is organisation for affected the accidental or involuntary loss by bladder and bowel control of urine from the bladder (urinary problems. incontinence) or bowel motion, Discussing such a sensitive issue faeces or wind from the bowel is even more challenging if you (faecal or bowel incontinence). don’t speak English. As well as the Incontinence and continence lack of language skills; attitudes problems affect people of all ages, and social taboos common to gender, cultures and backgrounds. many culturally and linguistically Despite popular opinion, older diverse groups, make the topic a people are not the only ones particularly difficult one to address. affected by these conditions. In fact, in some languages there is It’s important to understand no direct translation for the words, that bladder and bowel control continence and incontinence. problems are not an inevitable The Victorian Continence part of ageing. The problems Resource Centre (VCRC) associated with incontinence have undertook a project in 2011, a considerable impact on a person’s titled ‘Awareness of Incontinence quality of life and many people do in Ethnic Communities’,

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 21 working in collaboration with much that the individual affected can various organisations and no longer cope. ethnic communities. The report The Maltese, Greek and Cypriot highlighted a lack of research in communities in Australia have Australia. Twenty ethno-specific minimal knowledge of incontinence focus groups were also surveyed treatments. There is a tendency to explore general attitudes and to restrict fluids amongst older awareness of people from various members of these communities to ethnicities to incontinence. manage their problem, which can In Eastern European countries have its own negative health effects such as Hungary, Czech Republic, such as dehydration and the risk Poland, Ukraine, Estonia, Latvia, of falling. Lithuania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Individuals from countries such Croatia, Macedonia, Serbia and as Portugal, Spain, Uruguay and Western European countries such Chile, may lack understanding as Austria, Germany and the about incontinence as a health Netherlands, continence issues issue and may not seek professional are not openly discussed as it is health care. It is perceived as an not regarded as an appropriate embarrassing and shameful matter topic. There is no wide interest to which is not openly discussed. improve an understanding about its causative factors, treatment and There is advancement in various management. As a consequence, Asian countries such as the it is often ignored or minimised. Philippines, India, Sri Lanka, Medical treatment is rarely sought, Indonesia, Malaysia, Cambodia, and the affected individuals use China, Vietnam and Korea, in CULTURAL ATTITUDES TOWARDS CONTINENCE TOWARDS ATTITUDES CULTURAL their own coping strategies to continence awareness. The manage the problem, like herbal diversity in the socioeconomic, remedies, hot spas or avoiding cultural and political backgrounds active participation in a social life. has generated diverse and unique problems for individuals Quite often, incontinence problems with continence related issues. are hidden from the family and Low levels of knowledge and an are considered a taboo. When it is understanding of incontinence, unbearable, health professionals may and little awareness about the then be involved in the treatment. causes and treatments has, led Medical aids are not widely used, to a poor understanding of the until the condition has progressed so

22 BRIDGING CULTURES illness and can result in a barrier to can often escalate to serious mental seeking help. In large or densely stress and anxiety. populated countries, particularly Italian-Australian attitudes to India and China, promoting continence related issues are similar continence awareness is difficult to those of other European ethnic with limited resources. For the groups. Generally there is a low predominantly Islamic countries understanding of health problems like Malaysia and Indonesia, where and treatments. Continence is often urinary incontinence is equated

seen as part of the normal ageing CULTURAL ATTITUDES TOWARDS CONTINENCE with uncleanliness, there is a huge process and not discussed to avoid barrier of denial and concealment. embarrassment or shame. Women In principally Islamic countries prefer to discuss the problem with a such as Turkey, Lebanon, Iraq close female relative, and typically and Egypt, urinary incontinence not outside the family. has a devastating effect on an Many Pacific Islander communities individual’s quality of life. For such as Fiji, Tonga and the Cook Muslims, praying is seen as a Islands are not aware of continence relationship between the person related services available to them. and God, and leaking urine is a In general, Islanders are only aware barrier. Ablution is a cleansing ritual of general practitioners and the carried out by every Muslim prior hospitals when they require medical to prayers. The passing of stool, assistance. Individuals from these flatus or urine whilst in the act communities do not access medical of ablution necessitates carrying services, partly due to language out the ritual again, as cleanliness barriers and limited knowledge of during prayers is required. Prayers health related services and how to are performed five times a day at access them. different intervals, and it requires a Muslim to stand, bend and sit while Where possible, provide reciting the verses of the Quran. information about continence These actions can cause a leakage related issues to individuals for a person who is incontinent. from culturally and linguistically The general association of being diverse backgrounds in their own unclean with incontinence leads language, as this enhances cultural to feeling sinful and increases a sensitivity for individuals and their person’s fear about not being able families, and ensures adequate and to fulfil religious obligations. This appropriate care.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 23 AUSTRALIA

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS At the time of European discovery and settlement, up to one million Australia is one of the most Indigenous people lived across the culturally and linguistically diverse continent. They were scattered in societies in the world, rich in over 300 clans and spoke at least Indigenous and immigrant cultures. 250 languages with more than 700 Australia is a successful and dialects. Each clan had a spiritual prosperous nation. connection with a specific area of Almost one in four Australian land. They also travelled widely in residents were born outside of order to trade, to find water and AUSTRALIA Australia and many more are first seasonal produce, and for ritual/ or second-generation Australians. totem gatherings. These are the children and Despite the diversity of their grandchildren of post-World War II homelands, including outback migrants and refugees. Considering deserts, tropical rainforests and the wide variety of backgrounds, snow-capped mountains, all together with the culture of Indigenous people share a belief who have in the timeless, magical realm lived on the Australian continent of the Dreamtime. According to for tens of thousands of years, it Indigenous beliefs, spirit ancestors becomes apparent why Australia’s forged all aspects of life during the unique identity and spirit has Dreamtime of the world’s creation. evolved and developed. These spirit ancestors continue to Australia’s Indigenous people were connect natural phenomena, as well thought to have arrived by boat as past, present and future, through from South East Asia during the last all aspects of Indigenous culture. Ice Age, at least 50,000 years ago.

24 BRIDGING CULTURES AUSTRALIA

A number of European explorers This led to the destruction of sailed the coast of Australia, then traditional lifestyles and practices. known as New Holland, in the Many hostilities also ensued in 17th century. However it wasn’t Australia post-colonisation between until 1770 that Captain James Indigenous communities and the Cook chartered the east coast newly arrived settlers. Indigenous and claimed it for Britain. The new people were subjected to ill- AUSTRALIA British outpost was utilised as a treatment and many of them were penal colony and on the 26 January killed in a series of massacres from 1788, the First Fleet of 11 ships the early years of colonisation carrying 1,500 people—half of through to the early parts of the them convicts—arrived in 20th century. Harbour. The anniversary of this day Between 1910 and 1970, the is now celebrated in Australia as Australian Government had a policy . However, this day is of assimilation which resulted in not considered as a celebratory day the forcible removal of indigenous for all Australians. The Indigenous children from their homes. The idea community associate the day with was to remove the influence of the ‘invasion’ of Australia and the the indigenous culture so that the loss of country that they had lived Australian society would become in for thousands of years. overwhelmingly ‘white’, which was Soon after British colonisation, considered to be superior. Indigenous people became The first of the migrants who were displaced by the new settlements. primarily convicts, were transported This dispossession of land was from Britain, Ireland and, to a lesser accompanied by illness and degree, other British colonies. death from introduced diseases.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 25 Altogether 80,000 arrived in Following Federation, Australia’s between control of immigration changed. 1788 and 1840. When penal Instead of each colony managing transportation ended in 1868, its own system, the Commonwealth 160,000 men and women had now oversaw the recruiting arrived in Australia as convicts. Life and selection of immigrants. for convicts in Australia was harsh. Assisted passages were offered to encourage migration with priority Free settlers began to flow into still being given to the British and Australia from the early 1790s Irish. Despite comparatively large and they were from many varied numbers of Chinese residents in backgrounds. Between 1851 and Australia, the first legislation passed 1861 over 600,000 people arrived by the new parliament was the in Australia. The majority were from Immigration Restriction Act. Britain and Ireland. Around 60,000 people were from Continental Often referred to as the ‘White Europe, 42,000 from China, 10,000 Australia’ policy, this legislation from the United States and just over effectively banned Asian migration 5,000 from New Zealand and the for the next 50 years. That same South Pacific. This was in response year the Federal Parliament passed

AUSTRALIA to the discovery of gold at several the Pacific Islands Labourers Act goldfields. Although Australia to prohibit their employment as never again saw such a rush of new contract labourers and to deport immigrants, the heightened interest those already here. in settling in Australia remained. In 1914, with the outbreak of The six self-governing colonies of the First World War, migration New South Wales, , almost ceased. Furthermore, some Victoria, , Western migrants from countries previously Australia and became a thought acceptable were now nation under a single constitution reclassified as ‘enemy aliens’. Those on 1 January 1901, known as born in Germany, the Austro- Federation Day. Hungarian Empire, and Turkey faced internment or general At the time of Federation the total restrictions on their daily lives. population of Australia was around Altogether about 7,000 people four million, with one in four born were interned, with camps in New overseas. South Wales (NSW) at Berrima,

26 BRIDGING CULTURES Trial Bay and Liverpool. After the When the war ended, the war, the 1901 Immigration Act was government took an entirely extended to ban people from these new approach to migration. The countries for five years. The ban on near invasion of Australia by the Turkish people was not lifted until Japanese caused a complete rethink 1930. of ideal population numbers.

With the end of the war in 1918 In 1945, the Department of came a revival of assisted migration Immigration was established, schemes. The British Government headed up by Arthur Calwell. It offered ex-servicemen free passage resolved that Australia should have to one of the dominions or colonies an annual population growth of and 17,000 arrived in Australia 2%, of which only half could come between 1919 and 1922. from natural increase and 70,000 immigrants a year were needed to As the United States sought to limit make up the difference.

migration of Southern Europeans, AUSTRALIA increasing numbers of young men Although the government wanted from Greece and Italy paid their the majority to be Anglo Celtic, own way to Australia. By the 1930s, the British Government was both Jewish settlers began arriving in unable and unwilling to meet such a greater numbers, many of them high target. At the same time, some refugees from Hitler’s Europe. 11 million people had survived the Nazi labour and concentration The 1929 stock market crash and camps and many, particularly Poles, the Great Depression put an end Yugoslavs, Latvians, Ukrainians to sponsored migration and it was and , were unable or not until Australia had again fought unwilling to return home. a war, that it was resumed. Just as in the First World War, with the On 28 November 1947, the first outbreak of the Second World War, Displaced Persons 844 young previously acceptable migrants Estonians, Latvians and Lithuanians, such as Germans, Italians, Japanese arrived on the General Heintzelman and Hungarians were reclassified in and were transferred ‘enemy aliens’. As a consequence, to the Bonegilla migration hostel. they were interned or kept under In exchange for free passage and close police surveillance. No assistance on their arrival, they distinction was made on the basis agreed to work for the government of political sympathies. for two years.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 27 During the seven years this scheme migration agreement with Turkey, a operated, nearly 171,000 people non-European country. arrived. Australia’s economy grew In 1973, Australian policy in throughout the 1950s with major regards to migration changed. The nation-building projects such as Australian Citizenship Act declared the Snowy Mountains Hydroelectric that all migrants were to be Scheme in the mountains near accorded equal treatment. Over the . International demand next three years, the government grew for Australia’s major exports of ended conscription, abolished metals, wools, meat and wheat, and university fees and introduced suburban Australia also prospered. free universal health care. It When this source came to an abandoned the White Australia end, the Federal Government policy, embraced multiculturalism negotiated a series of migration and introduced no-fault divorce and agreements including with The equal pay for women. Netherlands and Italy (1951), The term ‘boat people’ entered Austria, Belgium, West Germany, the Australian language in the Greece and Spain (1952), and 1970s with the arrival of the first the United States, Switzerland, wave of boats carrying people AUSTRALIA Denmark, Norway, Sweden and seeking asylum from the aftermath Finland (1954). of the Vietnam War. Over half From the 1950s, Australia began to the Vietnamese population was relax its . In displaced in these years and, while 1956 non-European residents were most fled to neighbouring Asian allowed to apply for citizenship. countries, some embarked on the Two years later the Dictation Test voyage by boat to Australia. was abolished as a further means of The first boat arrived in Darwin in exclusion. In these immediate post- April 1976 carrying five Indochinese war years, Australia was second men. Over the next five years only to Israel in the proportion of there were 2,059 Vietnamese boat migrants accepted. As a result, arrivals with the last arriving in Australian society became markedly August 1981. less British and Irish in character. The arrival of 27 Indochinese By the 1960s mixed race migration asylum seekers in November 1989 was becoming easier and in 1967 heralded the beginning of the Australia entered into its first

28 BRIDGING CULTURES second wave. Over the following Australia has a rich migration nine years, boats arrived at the history. The attitudes towards rate of about 300 per annum, migration and particularly to the mostly from Cambodia, Vietnam ideal source of migrants have and southern China. In 1999, a changed considerably over the third wave of asylum seekers, course of time, from when Australia predominantly from the Middle was first colonised by the British East, began to arrive, often in larger in 1788. The demand to live in numbers than previous arrivals Australia grows every year. Policy and usually with the assistance of and implementation challenges ‘people smugglers’. exist for the Australian Government as this demand grows due to The assisted passage scheme widespread issues which exist ended in 1981. In 1988, the globally. The pursuit of living in Fitzgerald Inquiry led to further a peaceful and safe environment changes in migration with a move brings many who seek this lifestyle away from ‘family reunion’ and AUSTRALIA to the shores of Australia. towards an emphasis on skilled and business categories. In 1996, for the first time in Australia’s SNAPSHOT OF AUSTRALIA migration history, the number of Key values that reflect the British migrants arriving fell to Australian way of life are: second place behind New Zealand. Renewed prosperity in Europe also • Democracy meant that, where once Italians and • Freedom of Speech made up the majority of non-British new arrivals, today, (after • Freedom of Religion New Zealand), it is people from • Equality based on gender, China, South Africa and India. religion, income and culture. Conflicts arising overseas have Australians are generally laid-back, contributed to Australia taking in open and direct. They say what refugees from countries previously they mean and tend to be very unrepresented. In 2006, the fastest outgoing. growing refugee group was from Non-indigenous Australians show Sudan, South Sudan followed by respect by looking people in the Afghanistan and Iraq. eye.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 29 Australians respect a person’s Australians support giving people a personal space and generally do ‘fair go’ or equal opportunity. They not stand close to each other. show support for the underdog in many realms of life. If Australians have difficulty pronouncing a name of someone from a diverse culture, they will WHAT ARE AUSTRALIANS LIKE? sometimes suggest that they adopt In the workplace and among an Australian name. Sometimes friends, Australians generally call they will give you a ‘nickname’ each other by their first names. which is very common in Australia. When meeting someone for the This is a gesture of friendship in first time, it is usual to shake the most cases. person’s right hand with the right hand. People who do not know English is the main language. There each other generally do not kiss or is no state religion in Australia. hug when meeting. However, the majority of its people identify as Christian (approximately Australians love sport. In some 13 million). There are approximately states (New South Wales and 400,000 Buddhists, 340,000 Queensland), Rugby League is the Muslims, 148,000 Hindus and

AUSTRALIA predominant football or ‘footy’ approximately 88,000 Jews. code. In Victoria, the dominant football code is AFL (Australian Despite its wide spaces, Australians Football League). The code is are mostly urban dwellers with more played throughout Australia. About than 80% living in big coastal cities, 9% of AFL players are Indigenous particularly along the eastern and Australians. Considering that southern areas of the continent. only 2% of the total Australian Education is important to population are Indigenous, this is Australians and is compulsory until an impressive statistic. Most people 15 or 16 years of age. support the finals of major sporting events by either attending the In common with many other event in person or by viewing it on developed countries, Australia is television. experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population with Mateship is a central part of the more retirees and fewer people of Australian culture. Mateship refers working age as a result of ageing to an unspoken understanding that ‘baby boomers’ and increased life people will look after each other expectancy.

30 BRIDGING CULTURES in difficult times. This concept A typical Aussie barbecue includes emerged as a national characteristic sausages, burgers, steak, fresh in the 1800s and features in popular seafood, and or stories of resilience against hardship barbecue sauce, they sometimes shown by pioneering Europeans include salad but it’s mainly about and the efforts shown by ANZACs the meat and fish (and of course a in the First World War. few ‘stubbies’ or beer).

Pies are a popular snack to eat on FOOD the go and almost every corner There are a number of foods shop, and supermarket will associated with Australia, including have a display case with lots of hot Vegemite, lamingtons, pavlova, meaty pies to choose from. There Anzac biscuits, pies, sausage rolls, are even specialty shops! Chicko rolls, snags (sausages), ANZAC Day is a public holiday in steak, prawns and beer, to name

Australia, which honours the men AUSTRALIA a few. Vegemite seems to be the that fought for the country during most common one that ‘visitors’ WWI. During the war, the wives discover, and more often than baked ANZAC cookies to send not, hate! Vegemite is a dark off to their men at war. They were brown paste made from various cheap to make and could stay fresh vegetables, yeast extract and spice throughout long boat journeys. additives. The most popular way to eat it is to spread it ‘lightly’ on bread or toast with . MEN AND WOMEN Australians also eat it with avocado, Men and women are generally melted or tomato. treated equally in Australia. Women make up nearly 50% of the The biggest culinary hobby in workforce and most women remain Australia is the Aussie barbecue, or in the workplace after they marry. ‘barbie’, which is a way for Aussies Many women return to work after to socialise with friends and family their children are born. Women are and enjoy the fantastic weather also free to breastfeed in public. for most of the year. Many people associate Australia with surfing, There are no social rules regarding nice weather, kangaroos and the friendships or dating in Australia. barbecue. Homosexuality is accepted and there are strong movements

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 31 by some sections of society to Bloke – man legalise marriage between same- sex couples. Friendships with Brekkie – members of the opposite sex and Cossies – swimsuit social events with both sexes are Dunno – don’t know, unsure common. It is also common for couples to live together before G’day – good day or hello they are married, or for men and Hang on – wait a minute women to live in a share-house arrangement. No worries – no problem/that’s OK

People in Australia generally don’t Peckish – hungry have servants, and men and women Ripoff – expensive equally share the cooking and Scorcher – hot temperature domestic duties in the home. Snags – sausages LANGUAGE Sunnies – sunglasses Australians often use humour and Telly – TV are considered to be quite sarcastic.

AUSTRALIA The Australian sense of irony may be difficult for newcomers to the country to grasp at first. AGED CARE IN AUSTRALIA The Australian accent and use of Australia has a well-developed ‘slang’ may also be confusing. aged care system. The aged care It is considered acceptable to system offers a range of care ask the meaning of slang terms options to meet the different or colloquialisms if they are not care needs of each individual. understood. Two main streams of care options Below are some slang terms or are available for older people: language abbreviations that are residential aged care and commonly used in Australia. community-based aged care. Often people first enter the aged Arvo – afternoon care system through community- Barbie – BBQ/barbeque based care, before eventually progressing to permanent Battler – hard worker residential care. Respite care in a

32 BRIDGING CULTURES residential aged care facility can level support services for also be a step along the way to older people who need some permanent care. assistance with daily living in order to live independently at Residential aged care provides care home. In Victoria and Western within a supported accommodation Australia, these services continue setting for those whose care needs to be offered through the joint can no longer be met within their Commonwealth-state funded own homes. There are two types of Home and Community Care care offered in residential aged care (HACC) Program. facilities: • The Home Care Packages • Permanent care offers ongoing Programme provides more care in a residential aged care complex, coordinated and facility, tailored to an individual’s personalised care at home, and needs. While permanent care offers four levels of care packages

was previously offered at two to progressively support people AUSTRALIA levels—low and high care—this with basic, low, intermediate and distinction was removed from 1 high care needs. From 1 July July 2014. 2015, consumer-directed care • Respite care offers temporary, applied to all packages. short-term care in a residential In addition to these mainstream aged care facility to support both options, there are several flexible older people and their carers care programs which provide care to live at home for as long as for special groups or circumstances possible. Unlike permanent care, in mixed settings. These include the respite care continues to be Transition Care Program, the Multi- offered as either low care or high Purpose Services Program and the care. Veteran’s Home Care Program. From 2015, two main programs To access government-funded deliver community-based care for aged care services and support in older Australians: Australia, My Aged Care is the one- • The Commonwealth Home stop-shop for these services as well Support Programme (CHSP) as information. commenced on 1 July 2015. It consolidated four existing programs and provides entry-

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 33 My Aged Care will provide AGED CARE CONSIDERATIONS FOR information on: THE 70+ CALD POPULATION* • the different types of aged care *Based on top 30 countries of birth services available • eligibility for those services and assistance with locating a local service in your area or your preferred service • assessments and referrals to the providers who can meet the needs of the individual • costs of the aged care services, including fee estimators. Caring for older people in the Source: ABS 2011 Census community often depends on the availability of informal carers to take on a caring role. These are KEY EVENTS

AUSTRALIA unpaid carers (family, friends, or 25 December ) who have assumed responsibility for another’s physical, Boxing Day 26 December emotional, or developmental New Year 1 January wellbeing. Australia Day 26 January Easter (changes with Christian calendar)

Anzac Day 25 April Queen’s Birthday (varies in celebrations each state) Labour Day (varies in each state)

34 BRIDGING CULTURES % OF CALD POPULATION AGED 70+ BASED ON TOP 30 COUNTRIES OF BIRTH

NT 0.3 QLD WA 9.3 8.4 SA 8.8 NSW 34.9 AUSTRALIA ACT

VIC 1.4 35.9 TAS 1.0 TOTAL OF THE CALD POPULATION AGED 70+ IN AUSTRALIA BY COUNTRIES OF BIRTH* 23% Italy 2% Hungary 12% Greece 2% Egypt 8% Germany 2% Lebanon 6% Netherlands 2% Sri Lanka 6% China 2% Malaysia 4% Croatia 2% Macedonia 4% Poland 2% Austria 4% India 1% S. Eastern Europe 3% Malta 1% Ukraine 3% Vietnam 1% Phillipines

*11% other countries of birth Source: ABS 2011 Census Source: ABS 2011 Census

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 35 AUSTRIA

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS and activities usually by linking into the various German communities’ At the time of the 2011 Census, networks; for example, German there were 17,010 Austrian-born Clubs, which exist in most States people in Australia with most living and key regional centres. in New South Wales, followed by Victoria then Queensland. Austrians are known for their Gemutlichkeit, a relaxed and Prior to 1938, and the annexation happy approach to life. A good- of Austria by Germany, only a small natured sense of frustration and AUSTRIA number of Austrians immigrated bittersweet attitude toward reality to Australia. Following this period, are considered unique national emigration greatly increased, traits. Although a relaxed people, initially with Jewish Austrians Austrians are committed to hard moving to Australia. Between 1947 work. They value cleanliness, and 1961, many others followed neatness and order. under the Assisted Passage Scheme. CUSTOMS The Austrian-born population Folk costumes are often worn peaked in 1971 at 23,940 and has on formal occasions and for recorded a drop in population celebrations. Each region has its at each following census. Most own particular costume. of these immigrants were skilled tradespersons. Due to the length Professional titles are important of time in Australia, Austrian- among the adult population and born people tend to have a well- are acknowledged whenever they established network of services are known.

36 BRIDGING CULTURES AUSTRIA

Most Austrians belong to a church, veal cutlet), Sachertorte (a rich even if they may not be regular chocolate cake with apricot jam attendees or practitioners of their and chocolate icing), knodel (moist faiths. At the 2011 Census, the potato dumplings), and . major religions among Austria-born A typical day begins early with residents in Australia were Catholic a light breakfast of coffee or hot and Lutheran. AUSTRIA chocolate, rolls, bread and jam or Cultural arts are important to marmalade. Later in the morning, Austrians and they are extremely some eat a second, heartier proud of their culture’s contributions breakfast, including goulash or hot to Western civilisation. Austrians sausages. The main meal can be at can often be mistakenly referred midday or in the evening. It usually to as Germans. This should be includes soup, meat (often pork) avoided as it may be considered an with potatoes or pasta. Afternoon insult. tea may include sandwiches, and coffee. Austrians enjoy FOOD beer, , herbal teas, apple juice with sparkling mineral water, fruit Austrians love good food and have juices and soft drinks. a rich and varied cuisine drawn from the various cultures that once made Certain traditions remain strong, up the Austro-Hungarian Empire. such as keeping hands above Such cultural influences come from the table during the meal, not Hungarian, Bohemian Czech, Jewish, gesturing with utensils, and not Italian, Balkan and French cuisines. placing elbows on the table while eating. It is considered impolite to Specialties vary by region but begin eating prior to all people at include Wienerschnitzel (breaded the table being served.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 37 VISITING CARE FOR THE ELDERLY Austrians enjoy entertaining in Austrians are often stoic about pain their home and having guests. It is and may loathe seeing a doctor too impolite to drop by unannounced. quickly. The patient will attempt Invited guests should arrive on to cope with pain for as long as time. Punctuality is important to possible mostly by trying to ignore Austrians. Customarily, guests it. The person generally won’t remove their when entering talk about it unless a close friend a home. However, this tradition is or family member mentions any not practiced in many homes today. changes they have noticed. Guests remain standing until invited Traditionally family members care to sit down. for their elderly at home for as Hosts customarily offer the best long as possible. Residential care is seats to their guests. Men stand seen as acceptable if other care is when a woman enters the room unavailable. or when talking to a woman who is standing. Invited guests bring END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS flowers, candy, or a small gift. Gifts AUSTRIA are given to the wife, or perhaps Austria is mainly a Catholic country, the children, but not the husband, and therefore many of their funeral even if the gift is for the family. rites and traditions are based on Catholic traditions. Austrian funerals To show courtesy to the hosts, are often grand affairs, with an guests do not ask to use the emphasis on wearing fashionable telephone, nor do they offer to and the performance of help make any preparations. When live music. guests leave they are accompanied outside to the gate. Hosts remain Generally speaking, Austrians until the guests are out of sight. It have been known to have quite a is polite and generally expected for preoccupation with death, which guests on foot to turn once or twice they inherited as part of their while walking away and wave to the imperialist history. The schöne hosts. leiche or beautiful corpse is a cult which emanated in the capital of Vienna when the Viennese would pay highly to be represented in an attractive way when deceased, the

38 BRIDGING CULTURES thought being that they would be KEY EVENTS remembered in death. Christmas 25 December Austrians have always been scared of being buried alive, thus a device New Year 1 January with a cord attached to the hand of Easter Varies the deceased that would a bell above ground if they came back to National Holiday 1 May life was common in the country. The National Holiday 26 October family is expected to stay with the (Octoberfest) dying person until the final hours of their lives. The deceased is bathed Aperschnalzen – A traditional event held and dressed in formal wear. in February in Salzburg. Young men in gather in uneven numbers Prior to the burial, it is common and use large whips to create loud sounds. for relatives and friends to gather This is meant to awake the seed in the soil to pray, to view the body and say and call good spirits to chase the snow AUSTRIA their final farewells. A requiem away. mass is generally celebrated prior to proceeding to the cemetery for the burial. Following the funeral, DID YOU KNOW? family and friends gather for drinks An Austrian named Josef and refreshments. It is important to ? Madersperger invented the establish each person’s wishes to sewing machine in 1818. prepare for end-of-life care and it should be recorded as part of their care plan.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 39 BALTIC STATES ESTONIA, LATVIA & LITHUANIA

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS Following the Russian Revolution of 1905, some Estonian and Latvian The Baltic States, also known as men sought refuge in Australia. the Baltics, Baltic Nations or Baltic Other people from the three Baltic countries are the three northern States arrived in Australia to escape European countries east of the the Nazi and Soviet occupations Baltic Sea, known as Estonia, and military campaigns during the Latvia and Lithuania. They gained 1940s. In fact, one-in-five Estonians independence from the Russian were deported from their homeland Empire in the wake of . during this period or forced to flee.

BALTIC STATES BALTIC In the period between the World In 1944, 60,000 Lithuanians left Wars, the Baltic States also included their homeland to escape the Finland. While the indigenous hostilities. Many came to Australia populations of Latvia and Lithuania as displaced persons from camps are known as Baltic peoples, in Germany. Arthur Calwell, the first Estonians are Finnic peoples. Australian Minister for Immigration, The first migrants from Latvia, went to camps for displaced people Lithuania and Estonia settled around Europe to look for suitable in Australia in the 1800s. Their immigrants. In November 1947, numbers were very small and a vessel containing people from consisted primarily of Latvian Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia arrived sailors who arrived on trading ships in Australia. from Europe. Most of the sailors Many Estonian immigrants settled never left Australia as they worked in Thirlmere, NSW, from 1924 on coastal vessels around the through to post-World War II, continent. when tens of thousands fled to avoid being sent to Siberia for

40 BRIDGING CULTURES BALTIC STATES

alleged political and economic independence. It is not considered crimes. Estonians are largely politically correct to refer to responsible for the development Estonian, Latvian and Lithuanian of the successful poultry industry people as ’Russians’. These in NSW, which at one stage was countries were formerly a part the largest egg producer in the of the Soviet Union; however, BALTIC STATES state and still provides the majority Estonians, Latvians and Lithuanians of NSW’s poultry produce. Many are distinct ethnic groups. There is of the younger generations of diversity in the languages, religions Estonians have left the area and and traditions leading to distinct moved closer to the city but other cultural identities. Estonians, original immigrants and newcomers Latvians and Lithuanians are often live in Australia’s only Estonian called the ‘singing nations’. Folk residential aged care facility located festivals and church choirs are in Thirlmere. popular in each community.

Lutherans celebrate the major CUSTOMS Christian holidays, Christmas, Older people from the Baltic States , Palm Sunday, Ash are primarily Christian, and follow Wednesday, Easter, , Holy the doctrines of the Lutheran and Thursday, Good Friday and Catholic faiths. Lutheranism is the Pentecost. Lutherans also celebrate main religion in Estonia and Latvia, holidays associated with the history while Catholicism is dominant in of their faith, such as Reformation Lithuania. Day. Along with popular Christian celebrations, the celebration of People from the Baltic countries Midsummer’s Eve (St. John’s Eve) is are very proud of their heritage, an important festival for Estonians, especially in light of their recent Latvians and Lithuanians.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 41 Lutheranism is the oldest form of caraway seeds, marjoram, Protestantism and dates back to and . the Reformation and Martin Luther One of Estonia’s national dishes King. They share this heritage of is räim or Baltic dwarf herring. worship with other Christians as a Famous Riga Sprats are imported to symbol of unity through baptism. Australia from Lithuania. A cold fish This form of worship (liturgy) is sandwich with Riga Style Rye bread mostly spoken or sung from parts is a breakfast and lunch staple in of the Bible. Lutherans have a rich many households. heritage of singing together and the décor of their churches is kept to a minimum. VISITING Rural and older Latvians prefer FOOD to visit at home, by invitation. Gatherings of guests are relatively Cold climates and a relatively small small. It is considered polite to land area has limited the food arrive on time or just a few minutes options of the people who live in late. Shoes are removed at the the countries of Estonia, Latvia and door, often replaced with slippers Lithuania. The Baltic States tend offered by the host. Latvians to share the same basic available BALTIC STATES BALTIC appreciate a gift, especially flowers. produce such as potato, mushroom, Flowers are given in odd numbers, dill, beetroot, cabbage, cucumber, with even numbers reserved for barley, rye, rhubarb, apple and funerals. Refreshments served berries. People from Baltic countries may include liquor, apples, small also eat fish, pork and dairy sandwiches or maizites (meat- products such as milk, yoghurt, sour filled pastries). The way the food is cream and cottage cheese. Pickled presented is extremely important vegetables and jellied fruits and and, after the meal, the gathering meats are common. Estonians like often breaks into song. There are to eat black bread and dumplings. more than 200,000 folk songs Pancakes are enjoyed in Latvia in the repertoire. Goodbyes are and Lithuania. Soups, stews and repeated as guests prepare to leave roasts are enjoyed across all three and kisses and warm handshakes countries as well as pies made with accompany the parting. seasonal fruits, berries and rhubarb. Food is usually flavoured with ,

42 BRIDGING CULTURES CARE FOR THE ELDERLY Family and friends keep watch and ensure that candles stay lit In Estonian, Latvian and Lithuanian as people bring flowers—always cultures, family is central to the in even numbers—and pay their social structure. Some families respects. This is followed by a burial may have members of extended ceremony at a cemetery (cremation family living with them. The is not common) and a formal family provides both emotional luncheon for all funeral attendants. and financial support to each This luncheon is a time for friends other. It is common for parents and family to share their memories to provide financial assistance to of the deceased. adult children. In return, children are expected to take care of their It is common to visit the graves of elderly parents, rather than place loved ones on birthdays and on 1 them in care homes. People from November (All Saints’ Day), when

Baltic countries have a strong sense most cemeteries overflow with BALTIC STATES of respect for age, experience, flowers and burning candles. position or professional occupation. Older people are generally viewed KEY EVENTS as wiser and as a result revered and honoured. Christmas 25 December

Many people from these cultures New Year 1 January still use traditional home remedies Easter Varies that have been passed down for 1 May generations. Remedies based Labour Day around drinking hot tea with honey or lemon, vodka, chamomile. Mustard plasters on the back are DID YOU KNOW? considered a cure for the common ? Estonia embraces technology cold or the flu. and connectedness. Not only is Estonia the homeland of the END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS successful software program Skype, but you can find Wi-Fi Funeral practices generally follow these steps. First, the deceased is all over the country, including formally dressed and laid out for public parks. a three-day, three-night viewing either at home or in a public venue.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 43 CAMBODIA

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS Cambodian emigration. Between April 1975 and June 1986, more Cambodian-born migrants first than 12,000 Cambodians came to arrived in Australia during the late Australia under the Refugee and 1940s. In 1953, Cambodia gained Special Humanitarian Program. independence from French rule and Cambodian students began arriving During the late 1980s and early in Australia in small numbers. 1990s, the number of Cambodians settling in Australia declined. With During the 1960s and 1970s, political conditions stabilising, most larger groups of students came to

CAMBODIA Cambodians now settle in Australia Australia under the Colombo Plan under the Family Reunion Program. but were only offered temporary residency. CUSTOMS From 1975 to 1978, an estimated The national language of one million Cambodians died of Cambodia is Khmer. About 75% starvation or execution under the of Cambodian-born people in Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia Australia speak Khmer, about (then Kampuchea). Large numbers 10% speak Cantonese and 7% fled their homeland and many speak Min Nan. Less than 55% spent years in refugee camps in of Cambodian-born Australians Southeast Asia, waiting for decisions speak English well, and around about their future. The Australian 45% speak English not very well or Government responded by not at all. English proficiency in the increasing the quota of Cambodian Cambodian community, particularly refugees. After 1978, the guerrilla among the older generation, is war conducted by the ousted very low. Many older Cambodians Khmer Rouge resulted in increasing have had no formal education in

44 BRIDGING CULTURES CAMBODIA

Cambodia and as a result many are important role in Cambodian life not literate in their own language. by educating people on Khmer culture and values. At one stage in In Australia, about 79% of those Cambodia, monks were the only born in Cambodia are Buddhist literate people in rural communities. and 2.5% are Catholics. Khmer

Cambodians follow Theravada Monks generally only participate CAMBODIA Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism in the ceremonies of marriage and originated from North India and funerals but do not lead them. Nepal in the 6th century. Traditionally, monks had the roles of healers or mind practitioners, Theravada Buddhism emphasises similar to the role of the modern individual enlightenment; the ideal psychologist. is to become an arhat, which means ‘worthy one’ in Pali, the doctrinal Buddhism is still practiced by language. An arhat is a person who Cambodians living overseas, has become enlightened and who especially among the elderly. has freed himself from the cycle of Most Cambodians believe in a birth and death. supernatural world. They seek supernatural help when falling ill Buddhist monks have a special or in times of crisis. Traditionally, place in a Khmer’s life. Monks are Cambodians would enlist help from greatly respected and are allowed a practitioner whom they believed free passage when walking in could assist them via the spirits. All the community. Monks are not spirits must be respected. The living permitted to be touched by can show respect to the spirits females. Some families invite monks by providing food. If food is not to their homes for ceremonial provided, then a misfortune may be events. Buddhist monks play an experienced.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 45 FOOD VISITING Traditionally, Cambodians eat Among friends and relatives, together as a family usually three visiting is frequent and usually times a day. Rice and noodles unannounced. People remove their are the main components of a shoes when entering a home or Cambodian diet, with some being a place of worship and religious influenced by Chinese cooking. In education. A house guest may be Australia, rice and fish are popular greeted with a bouquet of jasmine as in Cambodia. flowers placed on their desk or table. Cambodians are extremely Noodles demonstrate the influence hospitable and friendly in general, of Chinese cuisine in Cambodian although they are cautious about cooking whereas curry dishes inviting strangers into the home. exemplify the influence of Indian Guests are given the best place to cuisine. However, the curry base is sit and the best portion of food. not the same. Fish is either freshly cooked or eaten dry or salted. Cambodians like seasonings such CARE FOR THE ELDERLY as hot peppers, lemon grass, ginger Cambodian elders traditionally

CAMBODIA and various mints. live with their children. Children feel that it is their responsibility Cambodians also use fish sauce as and duty to care for their parents. a dipping sauce, in soups and in stir If an elderly person does not have fries. children, then they live with other The main ingredient of many Khmer relatives. Following migration, many curries and desserts is coconut Cambodian families are faced with milk. Cambodians enjoy sweet difficulties in caring for their elders desserts made from either fruit or due to new lifestyles and changes in rice. They also drink tea and coffee responsibilities. These changes are with condensed milk which was challenging some of their traditional introduced by the French colonists. values and roles. Choosing Chillies are also consumed by residential care as an option is some Khmer people. Typically, still a huge challenge for many Cambodians have at least two or Cambodians. Many Cambodians three separate dishes for every feel uncomfortable, guilty and meal and each dish has a different ashamed to send their elderly to taste–sweet, sour, salty or bitter.. residential care. They are more

46 BRIDGING CULTURES comfortable to work with home Generally the funeral ceremony support and care services and other happens according to the families’ alternative support systems before religious practices. Family members considering residential care. collectively make decisions about funeral proceedings. After the END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS death, the body should be washed and prepared by the family. Hands Cambodian elders focus on are placed in the prayer position religious and spiritual principles. and candles and incense are placed These principles and life values in the deceased’s hands. assist them towards a harmonious ageing journey and peaceful dying Families sometimes place a coin process. Many elderly migrants in the mouth of the deceased. have lived more than half of their Cremation is preferred in life times in other countries such Cambodian culture although some as Australia, after escaping from may have different preferences, for the Khmer Rouge regime of Pol example, Chinese-Cambodian. CAMBODIA Pot. The Cambodian genocide saw Ceremonies are usually held on the 25% of the country’s population 7th day after the death and again at killed by starvation, overwork and 100 days and at every anniversary executions. thereafter. According to Cambodian Experiencing end-of-life in a culture, following the funeral foreign country can sometimes ceremonies, friends and family cause a wide range of emotional members visit the family and make suffering. Survivors can feel guilt- a financial contribution. Immediate ridden over memories from the male family members have their Cambodian genocide, especially if heads shaved when there is a death they had to leave family members. in the family. In Cambodia, end-of-life is mostly experienced in the home. KEY EVENTS When a person dies the body may Meak Bochea Day 7 February be kept at home for one to three days. This offers family members Khmer New 13, 14, 15 April Year Day an opportunity to share grief and sadness collectively. At the same Visak Bochea Day 5 May time this provides opportunities for Pchum Ben Day 14, 15, 16 October visitation and religious ceremonies. Independence Day 9 November

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 47 CHILE

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS wave of migration ensued when a number of Chileans felt increasingly According to the 2011 Census, worried about their economic there were approximately 24,936 and political future and therefore Chilean-born people living in decided to leave their country, Australia at the time, which includes some chose to move to Australia. 33,525 people who claim Chilean The majority of this group identified ancestry. They are one of the with the middle class that had largest groups of immigrants from traditionally associated itself with CHILE Latin America. the wealthy Chilean oligarchy. By The first known Chilean to arrive in 1971, the number of Chilean-born Australia was a political exile, the people in Australia had reached former President of Chile, General 3,760. Ramon Freire, who arrived in 1838. The third wave, and the greatest The number of Chilean migrants in number, came after the military to Australia remained low at the coup of General Augusto Pinochet beginning of the 20th century. on 11 September 1973. People Since the late 1940s, there have emigrated at this time for both been three distinctive waves of political and economic reasons, Chilean migration to Australia. and consisted mostly of working- Approximately 2,000 Chileans came class Chileans and lower middle- to Australia between 1968 and class backgrounds, a largely 1970 as a result of the economic homogenous population of skilled crisis that occurred under Eduardo workers. The military coup led Frei’s presidency. When Socialist by General Augusto Pinochet in candidate Dr Salvador Allende was 1973 prompted a large number of elected President in 1970, a second Chileans to flee to Australia.

48 BRIDGING CULTURES CHILE

By 1981, the number of Chilean that are still very much a part of born people reached 18,740. the national psyche today. Chilean customs differ quite a lot from Following the restoration of region-to-region. democracy in Chile in 1990, most Chileans have come to Australia Greetings in Chile are very under the Family Migration Stream. important because they stress

that an individual is welcome and CHILE CUSTOMS recognised. The abrazo is the most common greeting among Most Chileans are Christians, friends and relatives. It consists of a belonging to Catholic, various handshake and a hug. Kissing is the Protestant groups and other common greeting between women. Christian denominations. It is Handshakes are also appropriate, estimated that more than 80% particularly when meeting someone of the population belong to the for the first time. . Eye contact is very important when The Chilean people are friendly, greeting someone. Men stand to both among themselves and with greet a woman entering the room. strangers. They are known for their Chilean people show significant sharp and witty sense of humour. outward affection to friends and This behaviour, and their cultural relatives. The abrazo is repeated and educational refinements, has with each individual when one earned them the distinction of the leaves a small social gathering of ‘British of South America’. Chileans friends or family. take pride in their literacy, their nation and their heritage. Chile’s history has included dictatorships

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 49 FOOD and grandparents. The family is extremely self-sufficient and very Many national dishes are prepared much closed to outsiders, except with fish, seafood, chicken, beef, for very close friends. beans, eggs and corn. A common meal is soup or cazuela made with The extended family provides a meat, beans, corn, pumpkin and crucial support structure, both potato. emotionally and economically to each of its members. The father Chileans converse freely at is the unquestioned figure of the table and the hostess is authority; a mother is usually the complimented on the meal. Both main caregiver. Chilean families hands are kept above the table at usually care for their grandparents all times. in Australia. Family members that It is impolite to leave directly after have to work and study may limit eating; guests should stay for the time spent with the elderly. conversation. Older people are reluctant to go to residential care, even though they VISITING will be attended and looked after, CHILE they feel they will miss the nurturing Contrary to some areas in South from their family unit. Elderly America, guests wait outside the people consider residential care as door of a home until invited inside. the last resort. Chileans prefer to Dinner guests often bring flowers, stay in their homes or live with their wine, or bread for the host family. It sons and daughters. is appropriate to greet the head of the family first. Chileans appreciate Many Chilean migrants were guests who show genuine interest tortured and severely traumatised in their family, especially their in their country of origin and are children. reluctant to see a psychologist or psychiatrist about their resulting CARE FOR THE ELDERLY depression or personal problems. Some will ask for help and support Chileans respect the elderly and from relatives and friends, while family ties are strong. The family others will try to find peace and includes not just the immediate solace in the Church. family, but also the extended family, such as aunts, uncles and cousins

50 BRIDGING CULTURES END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS In Australia, the rites are simple and short compared with those held in Chileans pay great tribute to Latin America. loved ones who have passed away. Following death, a wake and a funeral are held at a church KEY EVENTS where close friends and the Christmas 25 December extended family assist with the religious service. Most Chileans New Year 1 January prefer graves, but in recent years Easter Varies an increasing number of people choose to be cremated. When Independence Day 18 September someone dies, an older person Columbus Day 12 October washes the deceased and dresses them in clean clothes. DID YOU KNOW? Candles are lit and the family Chile has one of the longest holds an all-night wake. Family ? CHILE and friends come to say their last recorded dry spells, recorded in farewells and a ritual meal is eaten. the Atacama Desert. It did not Family members visit the grave for rain for 40 years. nine days following the burial and it is common practice that each year on the anniversary of the death a Catholic mass is offered in the deceased’s memory.

On November 1, All Saints’ Day, a large number of Chileans visit cemeteries to bring flowers to the grave of family members and friends. Most Chileans believe that there is an afterlife and that death is not the end, but only one phase in an infinite cycle.

It is believed that what happened to the individual after he/she dies is determined largely by the way they lived.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 51 CHINA

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS CUSTOMS The first wave of Chinese migration Mandarin is the official state to Australia began in 1827. Large language of China and is the numbers of Chinese labourers were common language of the country. recruited to work in the pastoral It is the primary spoken language industry. In the 1870s, the gold in Beijing and Shanghai, although rush era brought another influx of some provinces still retain their own Chinese to Australia. local dialect. Mandarin is also the

CHINA main dialect in , Singapore According to the 1861 Colonial and within Chinese Malaysia. Census, Chinese-born migrants comprised 3.4% of Australia’s Cantonese is spoken by the population and they were the people of Hong Kong, Macau and second largest immigrant group Guangdong province, including after those from the British Isles. Guangzhou (previously known as Canton). Cantonese speaking The ‘Australian-Chinese Family Chinese are more prevalent in Reunion Agreements’ legislation Australia due to larger emigration (1976) increased the number of from these areas. older migrants who arrived to join their children in Australia. As Chinese migrants came from Cantonese and Mandarin are various countries and cities, they dialects of the Chinese Language. brought with them diverse cultural They share the same base alphabet, traditions, religions and dialects. but as a spoken language they are Chinese migrants may practice distinct from each other. Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism (pronounced Daoism) or a mixture

52 BRIDGING CULTURES CHINA

of these beliefs. There are a number There might be a statue of Buddha, of Chinese-born people practising candles and an incense burner. and Islam. People will chant to show their love for the Buddha. They make Confucianism is a system of offerings of flowers, candles, behaviours and ethics that incense and pure water at a shrine. emphasises the obligation of When Buddhists worship alone they people towards one another CHINA usually meditate and read from based upon their relationship. the Buddhist holy books. Every Confucianism stresses duty, month most Buddhists have special sincerity, loyalty, honour, filial religious days that they honour and piety, respect for age and go to the temples to workshop. seniority. Through well-maintained These are often days when there is harmonious relations as individuals, a full moon. society itself becomes stable. Chinese people wear bright Buddhism is a cultural system of colours, especially red, which is beliefs and practices based on considered a sign of good luck. At principles of compassion and traditional weddings, the bride will non-attachment. Buddhists do wear a red wedding gown. Chinese not believe in a personal creator. New Year celebrations will also Buddha is recognised by Buddhists witness people wearing this colour. as an awakened or enlightened Wearing black or white is reserved teacher. for mourning or a sad event such Some older people born in China as attending a funeral. It is not may have small family shrines or suitable at a traditional wedding. sacred spaces within their homes Many Chinese believe in the Yin- that only family members are Yang balance of food nutrition. allowed to touch or clean. Yin qualities include coolness,

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 53 dampness and darkness, as VISITING opposed to Yang’s warmth, dryness and light. Therefore, Yin foods tend Invitations are usually extended for to be cooling and/ or moistening formal occasions, but otherwise it is for the body, whereas, Yang foods common to drop by unannounced. tend to be warming and drying When invited, one is generally for the body. In general, Chinese prompt. Being more than a few believe most illnesses are caused minutes late is impolite. Guests by the disharmony and imbalance conduct themselves with restraint of energy flow within the body. and refrain from loud, boisterous speech and actions. Valuable gifts FOOD are usually not accepted from strangers, but small gifts may be Some popular Chinese dishes are: given by friends. In fact, friends sweet and sour pork or chicken, often bring gifts such as tea, gong bao chicken, ma po tofu, cigarettes, fruit, chocolates, cakes, wontons, dumplings, spring rolls, or wine when they visit. Hosts rarely chow mein and Peking duck. Many open wrapped gifts until visitors side dishes include rice, noodles leave.

CHINA and vegetables.

Chinese eating utensils normally CARE FOR THE ELDERLY are chopsticks, spoons and bowls. As a collective community, it Forks and knives are not usually is regarded as the children’s used at the table. It is believed that responsibility to look after their Confucius, a vegetarian, advised parents when they fall ill or grow people not to use knives at the old. Many Chinese take care of their table because knives would remind elderly parents by offering them them of the slaughtered animal. financial support to live at home There is also a tradition that the or support for living in residential dining table is a place of peace and homes. Older Chinese people in harmony. The knife is considered to Australia may become frustrated be a weapon and could disrupt the by their inability to speak or read harmony of the table. English and their reliance upon their children. The existence of Chinese Senior groups and other services for Chinese speaking communities help to reduce the social isolation

54 BRIDGING CULTURES which can be felt among older death may bring negative energy Chinese people. Chinese view age into the house. positively and as a sign of wisdom. Due to different religious However, some older Chinese backgrounds, there are different may experience inter-generational burial ceremonies that take place. conflict with their Australian-born The job of coordinating and grandchildren. Chinese values preparing the funerals of Chinese draw upon many influences such elders falls on children or younger as Confucianism, Taoism and family members. Buddhism.

Values such as loyalty, the KEY EVENTS maintenance of social order, superiority of men over women, Labour Day 1 May self-restraint, self-respect and National Day 1, 2 October self-blame are embedded in the Chinese culture and have Mid-Autumn Festival Varies considerable implications for health CHINA Chinese New Year February (Lunar care during the end of life. The Spring Festival calendar) implication of these values is that collective decision making within Lantern Festival Varies the family is regarded as the norm. Usually females take the caring role and the oldest male in the family DID YOU KNOW? is the decision-maker but does not ? Toilet paper was invented in necessarily provide the physical China in the late 1300s. It was care. for the use of emperors only.

END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS The open discussion of terminal illness and end-of-life issues are not considered appropriate in Chinese culture, it is regarded as highly inappropriate during celebrated festivals.

Not every Chinese wants to die at home as they believe that their

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 55 CASE STUDY

MR LEE Note: Chinese people do not generally say ‘please’ and Lee was born in China. He has ‘thank you’, and if they have to broken English and sometimes walk between two people who are people think he is rude. A staff having a conversation, they bow member and a resident in the their heads when walking between, facility in which Lee lives were instead of saying, ‘Excuse me having a conversation in the please’. The bowing of the head hallway. The hallways at the in China is a mark of respect. The facility are somewhat narrow and phrase ‘Excuse me, please’ is a Lee walked between the staff Western cultural norm and the member and resident having the meaning behind the phrase is not conversation with his head bowed necessarily understood by people without saying “excuse me please”. from CALD backgrounds. The resident was offended by

CHINA Lee’s action and called out behind him, “You are so rude”. The staff member that was with the resident said “I don’t know why, but I have noticed that Lee always does this, I don’t think he means to be rude”.

56 BRIDGING CULTURES EXERCISE 1. Do you think it was Lee’s intention to be rude when walking between the staff member and resident?

2. Is Lee’s behaviour acceptable and how would it make you feel?

3. Why do you think Lee did what he did?

4. After thinking about how you would feel in this situation, list some CHINA strategies you would use as a health professional when working with clients from CALD communities.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 57 CROATIA

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS In the 1960s, the Government of opened its borders to Croatian settlement in Australia allow citizens to seek employment began in the 19th century, abroad. Between 1961 and 1976 prompted by strong hostility almost 100,000 Croatian-born to Austro-Hungarian rule. By people took advantage of this 1854 there were many Croatians opportunity and migrated to working in the NSW and Victorian Australia. goldfields. Another wave of migrants came from the Croatian In June 1991 Croatia declared its CROATIA wine-making region of , independence from SFRY. Due to which was affected by phylloxera the conflicts during 1991-1995, disease that ravaged its wine most of the new arrivals came industry. under Australia’s Humanitarian and Refugee Program. The Croatian community in Australia is the largest national The former Yugoslavia was overall group from the former Socialist the third-largest source of migration Federal Republic of Yugoslavia from Continental Europe, behind (SFRY). Following the Second Italy and Greece. The 2011 Census World War, the Croatian population recorded 48,828 Croatian-born quadrupled from 5,870 in 1947 to people in Australia. At this time, the 22,860 in 1954. major religious affiliations among Croatian born were Catholic (36,531) Many migrated under the and Eastern Orthodox (7,076). Displaced Persons Scheme and a significant number of those were The Croatian community has well- Croatian speakers. The migration of established Catholic parishes, clubs displaced persons peaked in 1958. and sporting venues throughout

58 BRIDGING CULTURES CROATIA

Australia. In recent years, several Croatians live, but most famous is Croatian churches and community Marija Bistrica and Medjugorije. Centres and soccer clubs have Croatia’s Catholic heritage can be celebrated their 50th anniversary in seen in its celebration of Christmas. Wollongong, Canberra, Adelaide, is called Melbourne, Sydney, Geelong, in Croatia and is celebrated in a

Brisbane, and Wodonga. similar manner to other Eastern CROATIA Croatian churches and community Europe countries. centres, clubs and venues are On Christmas Eve, the Christmas more than just meeting places. wheat (which has been sprouting These venues are places where since St. Lucy’s Day on 13 one can enjoy Croatian food, December, is tied with ribbons in language, culture, music, sports, the colours of the Croatian flag— practice religion, and educate red, white and blue. It is common Australian-born Croatians in practice to attend midnight mass or language, religious education church on Christmas day. and folklore dancing. They are considered community assets, with Easter is also of great importance, considerable time and money spent Croatians celebrate this event in building them. traditional forms, including fasting during lent and the colouring of CUSTOMS eggs. Croatians especially worship the Celebrations of name days, as Virgin Mary, or as they often refer aligned with Catholic saints, to her as ‘Our Lady‘. There are has been more common than numerous shrines in her honour celebrating actual birthdays. throughout the areas where

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 59 FOOD coffee and espresso are important symbols of hospitality. Licitars are The food of Croatians originating colourfully decorated biscuits made from the north and inland is often of sweet honey dough that are part influenced by Austrian or Hungarian of Croatia’s cultural heritage. cuisines. A typical lunch includes chicken or beef soup, cooked VISITING meat (often pork), potatoes and bread. Greens with vinegar and Croatians enjoy visiting one another oil are served in the spring and to socialise. It is customary for summer and pickled vegetables in visitors to drop in unexpectedly and the winter. Along the coast, a meal if not home will leave a branch or usually includes fish and pasta, something in front of the door to risotto or polenta. Lamb is common show the resident that a visitor has in the Dalmatian highland region. been.

Breakfast is simple, usually When invited to a home, first time consisting of strong coffee and guests bring a gift to the host. It is bread with jam. A traditional dinner usually a bottle of wine, sweets, or typically consists of soup, meats flowers. CROATIA and salads and bread. Bread is generally served with everything. CARE FOR THE ELDERLY For holidays or special occasions, The family is the basis of the social there are larger quantities of food, structure. The extended family is the particularly meat. Roast pork and norm and relatives on both sides of lamb or pecenka is popular across the family remain quite close. The many areas of Croatia, including family provides its members with Zagreb and Slavonia. Special cakes a social network and assistance in are also prepared. Fried cheese, times of need. Croatians prefer to octopus salad, spicy grilled meats look after their elderly parents rather and dishes made with than sending them to an aged care reflect different cultural influences. facility. Elderly Croatian people are valued and highly respected. Whenever people get together Croatians who have lived in Australia for a celebration, they often drink for a long time have come to accept alcohol together. In Zagreb and on aged care services more openly. the coast, grape or herb brandies are popular. Strong Turkish-style

60 BRIDGING CULTURES END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS cemetery to light a candle for the deceased. Lighting of candles for Traditionally, a 24-hour vigil is held the deceased is a common practice at the bedside of the dying person. among the Croatians. The priest is generally invited to pray with the relatives and will When visiting a grieving family it is anoint the dying person. common to bring alcohol, a bag of Turkish coffee, sugar, sweets and The deceased is bathed and dressed flowers. When visiting a Croatian in clothes selected by the family Catholic family it is tradition to and rosary beads are placed in the enter a house with the greeting hands of the deceased. The rosary Hvaljen Isus I Marija (Thank & is recited in the church, or funeral Mary) the resident then replies with parlour, depending on where the Uvjek Hvaljen bilo (Always thankful). body of the deceased is located.

Mass is held prior to the burial KEY EVENTS CROATIA and prayers are recited at the Christmas Božić 25 December gravesite. Following the funeral, friends and family are invited to New Year Nova 1 January the wake of the deceased for light Godina refreshments. Mourners wear black Easter Varies clothes for up to a year or for life. Visits to cemeteries are very Assumption of 15 August important to family throughout the Mary Velika Gospa year, especially on the ‘Day of the All Saints Day Dan 1 November Deceased‘ and All Souls Day, where svih svetih the whole community and priest All Souls Day 2 November go from grave to grave to recite Dusni Dan prayers for the deceased person. A bunch of chrysanthemums are usually taken to the graves. It is DID YOU KNOW? common in Croatia for graves to ? Croatia takes credit for have candles, flowers and a photo. inventing the necktie. The Masses are paid for throughout French were intrigued by the Croat’s the year in remembrance of the practice of tying pieces of fabric around deceased person. A week after their necks and developed a fashion out the passing of a loved one, the of their inspiration during the 1700s. family attends a mass and then the

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 61 CYPRUS

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS retain a numerical dominance within the community. The largest Australia is home to the largest Greek-Cypriot communities are in Cypriot community outside Cyprus, Sydney and Melbourne. Melbourne with over 80,000 Cypriot-born has the most Turkish-Cypriots. migrants and their families. The Greek-Cypriots are mostly Greek Cypriot community of Australia is Orthodox (77%). Other religions active, successful and vibrant and include Sunni Muslim (18%), makes an important contribution and Eastern Orthodox (1%). The to the social and cultural richness CYPRUS majority of Turkish-Cypriots are of this country. Most Cypriots came Sunni Muslims. to Australia as either migrants or as refugees as a consequence of the CUSTOMS 1974 Turkish invasion. In Cypriot culture, it is important The earliest known Cypriot not to bring dishonour to the family. migrants arrived in Australia in Parents strive to provide young the 1850s, attracted by the gold couples with a home and perhaps rushes. By the 1890s, Cypriot even a car. With the onset of shopkeepers had established urbanisation relatives are not always businesses in Melbourne and in close proximity. Sydney. Turkish-Cypriots holding British passports migrated to In Cypriot culture, women tend to Australia after World War II. In the take responsibility for the smooth following years, migration from running of the household. Men Cyprus to Australia continued to often will take an interest in politics. rise. Today, there exists Cypriot- Children are a high priority both in born residents in all Australian the family and community. Cypriots capital cities. The Greek-Cypriots are expressive in their greetings.

62 BRIDGING CULTURES CYPRUS

Men hug or slap male friends on and eventually dried and smoked, the back or shoulder. Women such as lountza, smoked pork loin, kiss friends on both cheeks. New charcoal-grilled lamb, souvlaki, pork acquaintances greet each other and chicken cooked over charcoal), more formally, whereas friends use and sheftalia, a type of Cypriot first names. sausage. Cyprus is also well known

for its desserts, including lokum, CYPRUS FOOD also known as and soutzoukos, a popular traditional Fresh salads (often with cucumber sweet made of grapes, and tomato) and plain yoghurt and . accompany most meals. The main meal consists of vegetables cooked VISITING in many ways, including yahni, made from oil, tomato and Visitors from outside Cyprus often onions. When eating out, people note that Cyprus seems to be a often order , which is a large place where most people know collection of smaller dishes, dips each other or are related. This and salads. The main course will familiarity is reflected in an air of usually be grilled meat or fish, casual and informal friendliness. including squid, octopus, red mullet Dropping in without notice is a and sea bass. Common vegetable common occurrence, although due dishes include potatoes in olive to time pressures in the city, this is oil and , pickled cauliflower changing. Guests are expected to and beets, asparagus and taro. eat and drink freely when pressed, Other traditional delicacies of to avoid hurt feelings. Cyprus are meat marinated in dried coriander, seeds and wine,

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 63 CYPRUS

CARE FOR THE ELDERLY generations in which a strong bond exists between grandparents Cypriots are typically more formal and grandchildren in Cypriot with their elders than other communities. nationalities. Older people are referred to as Kyrie (Mr) or Kyria END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS (Mrs), followed by their first name. This respect is mirrored in the Cypriots do not support cremation. way that Cypriot society treats Family bonding, as well as social their older generations. Cypriot and cultural traditions, may also partners tend to emphasise family play a role. The death of someone relationships over and above the in Cypriot culture has many couple relationship. There exists associated traditions. a strong emphasis on providing Funerals usually happen promptly care for the elderly in the family after the person has died. In the home. This is supported by all

64 BRIDGING CULTURES Greek Orthodox religion, the period KEY EVENTS of mourning is 40 days, however there are several memorial days, Christmas 25 December marked on the 3rd, 9th, 40th day; 6 1 January months and 1 year after death. New Year Easter (changes with Family members may choose Christian calendar) to wear black for the 40 day mourning period and many widows Greek Cypriot 1 April or widowers, especially older National Day generations, will wear only black Labour Day 1 May after their partner has passed. Independence Day 1 October Okhi Day (Greek 28 October National Day) CYPRUS

DID YOU KNOW? ? In 2004, archaeologists found the remains of a person buried with a cat in Cyprus, dating back about 9,500 years. This is the oldest known pet cat.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 65 CZECH REPUBLIC

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS Czechs are traditionally linked with Western European culture and Only a small number of Czechs they have maintained ties with came to Australia during the 19th many nations throughout history century. During the economic crisis which has helped shape the Czech of 1930 and Nazi occupation of eclectic mixture of identity and Bohemia, several hundred Jewish culture. Czechs arrived in Australia.

A bigger wave of Czech migration CUSTOMS occurred between 1947 and 1954 Czech Easter, known as Velikonoce, after Czechoslovakia became a

CZECH REPUBLIC is a significant holiday and satellite state of the Soviet Union. celebration. The significance of Over 12,000 Czechoslovakian Veliconoce is Great Nights. Many political refugees came to Australia. Czech Easter symbols are related Approximately 6,000 Czechs to spring and the beginning of migrated after 1968, following new life. Czech Easter eggs are the Soviet occupation of hand-painted or decorated in some Czechoslovakia. fashion and are known as kraslice. This is the most recognisable At the 2011 Census, the major symbol of Czech Easter. On the religious affiliation among Czech 30th November, St. Andrew’s Day, Republic born, were Catholic halushky, which is a national pasta (3,253). There were also a small dish, is traditionally cooked. Baked number of Anglican and followers goods are prepared over many of Judaism. evenings during December.

66 BRIDGING CULTURES CZECH REPUBLIC

FOOD and supper in the evening after all activities are finished for the day. Czech food differs by region, but Tea with sugar is the most popular generally includes soups, stewed hot beverage. Bread is served and boiled vegetables, stewed with every meal and hot soup is CZECH REPUBLIC fruits, smoked meats, particularly expected as the first course at the sausages, roasted meats, gruels main noon meal. Meat dishes are and dairy dishes. also served. The evening meal is Czech cuisine is heavily meat based usually light and may include bread, and dumplings or knedliky are the cheese and vegetables. most common side dish. There are two types of dumplings: bread or VISITING potato dumplings, made of either Czechs consider the home to wheat or potato flour. be private. Friends visit quite There are also sweet versions of frequently for small talk over coffee dumplings filled with strawberries, and drinks. Most first-time visitors blueberries, apricot or plums and are invited for a more formal coffee served with chocolate or sweet visit to get to know one another. An cottage cheese. Spicy foods are not invitation for guests to share a meal generally popular. at home is usually formal. Invited guests usually bring flowers to the Traditionally, five meals are eaten hostess. Out of respect for the each day: early in the morning upon hostess, most Czechs remove their rising, a snack at about ten in the shoes before entering the house morning, the main meal of the day and leave them in the hall entrance. at noon, known as obed, another It is an honour to be invited to a snack around four in the afternoon home for a meal.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 67 Czech people maintain eye contact In the Czech community, the while conversing. Avoiding eye tradition of non-disclosure of a contact is considered disrespectful. terminal diagnosis to the sick Conversations are usually person is commonly accepted, end- emphasised with hand gestures. of-life issues can be challenging Czechs often beckon and point with to discuss for family and patients. their index finger. Family will generally try to protect the sick by not disclosing the true CARE FOR THE ELDERLY nature of their illness. It is very important to be culturally sensitive The Czech elderly do not readily while informing Czech patients of a accept being admitted into terminal diagnosis. residential care. This option is considered only as a last resort. Funeral customs are determined by the Church and the wishes of the It is expected that family will care family. Funeral rituals depend on for parents. Generational conflict the religion of the individual with can be experienced when children most being from Catholic religion. are unable to meet this expectation. It is important to ascertain from END-OF-LIFE CARE CONSIDERATIONS the family the religious practices that the dying person wishes to CZECH REPUBLIC Hospitalisation, although feared, follow. Most Czechs have a stoic is an acceptable form of care. acceptance of death as part of the Respecting the needs for privacy life process. Family and friends stay is an important factor to be with a dying person, showing a considered. The clear description of strong sense of loyalty and respect illness, the probable outcome and for their loved ones. Cremation treatment is appreciated. is accepted among the Czech community. Following the funeral, There is a lack of understanding family and friends are invited to of palliative care practices among the deceased person’s home to the Czech community and mourn and fondly remember the reluctance to accept palliative deceased. Visits to cemeteries are care for pain management in the very important to older people. early stages of terminal disease, as Graves of loved ones are visited for this is perceived as acceptance of years, particularly on All Souls’ Day, imminent death. when a bunch of chrysanthemums is placed at the grave site.

68 BRIDGING CULTURES KEY EVENTS DID YOU KNOW? The Czechs’ national passion is National Liberation 8 May ? Day mushroom hunting. They are very serious about it and are 5 July Cyril & Methodius quite competitive in finding Day these fungi. Thousands of Jan Hus Day 6 July Czech nationals gather yearly Founding of the 28 October during the St. Václav Day, which Republic happens during the weekend that is nearest to September 28, to head to the forest and participate in mushroom hunting. CZECH REPUBLIC

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 69 EGYPT

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS Over 90% of all Egyptians belong to the Sunni branch of Islam. Islamic According to the 2011 Census, philosophy is deeply rooted in the 36,532 Australian residents minds, hearts and behaviour of declared that they were born in the people. Islamic scripture, the Egypt. This represents an increase Qurán (Koran), is considered the of some 5,000 people from final and complete word of Allah. the previous census. Egyptian Muslims accept and revere all major Australians might also have Judeo-Christian prophets from

EGYPT nominated themselves as being Adam to Jesus, but they proclaim of Coptic ancestry. Additionally, Mohammed to be the last and the 2006 Census shows that the greatest. majority of Egypt-born Australian residents are located in Sydney The Islamic day of worship is (16,238) or Melbourne (11,156), Friday, a day for men to pray at the with smaller communities located mosque. Women pray at home or in (1,407), Adelaide (982) and in a separate part of the mosque. (897). Muslims pray five times daily, always facing Makkah (Mecca) in Immigration from Egypt was Saudi Arabia. significant in the late 1940s and 1950s, with minorities escaping CUSTOMS the growing Arab nationalist movement which saw the overthrow Warmth in personal relations of the Egyptian monarchy and the is important to Egyptians and subsequent Suez Crisis. During this greetings are often elaborate. period around 2,000 Egyptian Jews Social structures play a key role in also left Egypt. society. Phrases used for greetings depend largely on differences

70 BRIDGING CULTURES EGYPT

between the individual’s social Part of Egyptian humour is a love classes. Generally, friends of the for riddles (especially during the same sex shake hands and kiss on month of Ramadan), jokes, sarcasm both cheeks. If the greeting comes and wordplays. Egyptians often after a long absence, the kisses identify with community groups, may be repeated more than once to the point that personal needs and can even end with a kiss to the become secondary to those of the EGYPT forehead. Men greet women with group. a handshake only if the woman The majority of Egyptian-Australians extends her hand first. Otherwise, are Copts, with 19,928 Australian the greeting is verbal. residents declaring membership of First names are not used unless one the Coptic Orthodox Church. is invited to do so. Good friends Congregations of the Coptic exchange first names in informal Orthodox Church in Australia are settings, but they may add a title to served by two Coptic Orthodox the first name in formal settings. To Dioceses with over 50 parishes, 2 thank someone for a compliment, monasteries, 2 theological colleges one responds with an equally and 5 schools. The Coptic Church respectful compliment on the same is a member of National Council of subject or wishes Allah’s (God’s) Churches in Australia. blessings.

Egyptians are expressive and FOOD emotional and are well known for their marvellous sense of humour. Egyptians eat rice, bread, fish, This has helped them endure lamb, chicken, turkey and stuffed difficult economic and living vegetables. Tahina ( seed conditions with great composure. paste), tomatoes, and

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 71 cucumbers are also eaten with If a gift is given, it is passed and meals. Muslims do not eat pork or received with both hands or pork products, such as ham, bacon, only the right hand, not the left. or food which contain ingredients Alcohol is prohibited by the Islamic like pork fat as the Qurán prohibits religion, so it is not given as a gift their consumption. All other meat is to Muslims. Business visits usually allowed, but only if it is halal. begin with light conversation over coffee or tea to establish trust and Traditional foods include fava beans confidence. prepared as foul or ta’miyya, and flat Egyptian bread. Bread, usually unleavened, is eaten with every CARE FOR THE ELDERLY meal. The Qurán also prohibits Egyptians tend to combine the consumption of alcohol. Dairy the modern health system with products are acceptable provided traditional practices such as that only halal animal rennet is herbal remedies and usually seek used. help from an Arabic speaking practitioner. Women may prefer During the month of Ramadan to be treated by a female health fasting is undertaken from sunrise EGYPT practitioner. Elders are highly to sunset, with nothing to eat and respected by the Egyptian drink. Egyptians prepare elaborate community and their extended and expensive meals when they family. There is a strong family have guests. Sometimes a person involvement in looking after older will not eat everything on the plate people and Egyptians expect their because leftover food is a symbol families to look after them. of abundance and a compliment to the host for providing so well. There is often a reluctance to enter into residential aged care as it is In restaurants, food is left as a sign a new concept for many , of wealth (one can afford to leave including Egyptians. It is often food behind). Finger food is eaten seen as a place where one goes to with the right hand. die. The family must be consulted in all aspects of health care and VISITING the needs of the elderly person. A Because personal relationships with preference is made when seeking friends and relatives are so vital, external care for Arabic based visiting is one of the most important residential facilities with Arabic activities in Egypt. speaking staff.

72 BRIDGING CULTURES Many Egyptians resist the services While all members of the of residential aged care as they community attend the funeral are of the opinion that their culture prayers, only the men of the may be misunderstood. Health community accompany the body interventions such as insulin are to the gravesite. Muslims strive not able to be used as they are to bury the deceased as soon made from pork products. Alcohol as possible after death and the is expressly forbidden even when deceased is buried in a graveyard used for medicinal purposes. without a casket, simply laid in the earth and covered lying on END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS its right side, and facing Makkah (Mecca). The official mourning When a Muslim is near death, those period is three days where people around him or her are called upon stay at home receiving visitors and to give comfort and reminders condolences. The mourning period of God’s mercy and forgiveness. differs, but is usually on the 7th and They may recite verses from the

40th days and 1 year after death, EGYPT Qurán, give physical comfort, the deceased are remembered. and encourage the dying one to Additionally, alms are given to the recite words of remembrance and poor and women wear black for a prayer. Upon death, those with year or more. the deceased are encouraged to remain calm, pray for the departed and begin preparations for burial. KEY EVENTS

The eyes of the deceased should Islamic New Year 25 December be closed and the body covered Ramadan Varies temporarily with a clean sheet. It is forbidden for those in mourning to Bairan Feast end of Ramadam excessively wail and scream. Once Labour Day 1 May a Muslim dies, the body should be prepared for burial by a person of Wafa’a el nil Varies the same gender. Preparations for burial include, washing the corpse DID YOU KNOW? with clean scented water, perfuming and shrouding. The funeral prayer is ? The oldest dress in the world then performed and the deceased comes from Egypt. It is 5,000 is taken to the cemetery. years old.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 73 FIJI

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS being descendants of Gujarati traders and Punjabi agriculturalists The foundations of a multiracial Fiji who arrived in the 1920s. Once were laid in the late 19th century. the indentured labour system was The first colonial governor of Fiji, abolished in Fiji in 1920, Indo- Sir Arthur Gordon, introduced Fijians settled in the sugar cane Indian indentured labourers to work belts of Fiji, principally on the two on Australian-owned sugar cane main islands of Viti Levu and Vanua plantations. Gordon prohibited Levu. By the end of World War FIJI indigenous Fijians from commercial II, Indo-Fijians outnumbered the employment so that they could indigenous Fijians. This trend, which enjoy their traditional lifestyle was not reversed until the 1980s, undisrupted by contact with outside caused concern among indigenous forces. This was done to escape the Fijians about their place and fate that befell other indigenous identity in their own ancestral land. communities that came into contact with the outside world. Fijian-born people have been in Australia since the late 1800s. Between 1879 and 1916, 60,000 By the mid-1950s there were Indian labourers went to Fiji, over 2,000 Fijian-born people and their work helped create the in Australia. Fijian migration to foundations of Fiji’s sugar-based Australia became significant in economy. Most of the migrants the late 1960s. The Fijians were chose to remain on the islands attracted to Australia by the after the expiration of their five- prospect of better employment, year contracts. Their descendants higher wages and improved welfare constitute the bulk of the present services. Migration accelerated in Indo-Fijian population, the rest the post-independence decade

74 BRIDGING CULTURES FIJI

of the 1970s and by 1986 there CUSTOMS were 14,749 Fijian-born people in Australia. Following the military Freedom of religion is guaranteed coups and political unrest in Fiji in by the constitution. Religion plays a 1987, Australia received an influx major role in the lives of all Fijians. of Fijian Indians seeking refugee Among Fijians, tilting the head asylum. By 1991 the Fijian-born downwards while speaking population in Australia had to someone shows respect. FIJI increased to 30,149. Agreement is indicated by raising The Fijian born are comprised the eyebrows, closing the mouth of several ethnic groups, Fijian, and making an “mm-mm” sound. Chinese, Indian, European, It is considered rude to point Rotuman and others, all of whom directly at someone while speaking are part of the migration stream to to them. Standing with hands on Australia. Most Fijians in Australia hips is thought to be aggressive are of Fijian-Indian ethnicity. About or brash. It is considered impolite 53% of Fijians in Australia are to point to the underside of one’s Christians (mainly Methodists), 38% foot at another person. Among are Hindus and 8% are Muslims. Fijians, it is especially offensive to touch someone’s head (except for Almost all Fijians are proficient in a child’s). Beckoning is done by English. Many Fijian Indians speak waving all fingers of the hand with Hindi or other Indian languages the palm facing down. Staring is at home. Over 80% of Fijians in seen to be offensive. Australia are under fifty years of age. Fijians retain strong social and Traditionally, neither Fijians nor economic ties with their relatives in Fijian Indians used eating utensils, Fiji. but spoons and forks are becoming

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 75 more common in urban areas. VISITING At meal times, it is customary to spread a cloth on a mat-covered Visiting is an important part of floor and sit cross-legged. Prayer is social relations. Most visiting is also conducted prior to eating. A done unannounced and guests bowl of water is passed around for are welcome. It is customary to washing hands. Food is generally remove one’s shoes when entering eaten from tin plates and bowls. a home. Sitting cross-legged on The water bowl is again passed a mat-covered floor is common in after the meal. a Fijian home, but Indian homes have furniture. A chief or guest sits Women and girls usually eat in a place of honour. It is impolite following the men and boys. Food to stand higher than those who are is shared in Fijian villages. For large sitting, so one takes care to also feasts and special meals, food is still be seated or to walk in a stooped cooked in the traditional manner in position when others are seated. a lovo (ground oven). The people of Fiji are hospitable; they enjoy sharing a visitor’s

FIJI FOOD company and visits may last a long time. Refreshments are nearly The mainstays of the Fijian diet always offered, including tea, juice, are boiled taro and cassava, these or food. It is impolite to refuse are starchy roots that can be them. grown in the family garden. This is accompanied with some leafy vegetables and many tropical CARE FOR THE ELDERLY fruit such as papayas, mangoes, Older people are respected for pineapples and bananas. Many their wisdom. They are viewed as dishes are prepared in lolo (coconut authoritative figures. Looking after milk). Seafood, chicken, pork and ones’ parents is considered punya, beef are all eaten in Fiji. Foods are or earning merit in the afterlife. rarely deep fried, but are steamed, There is also a belief in the need boiled, or roasted instead. for interaction with the elderly to Indian cuisine is often made with transmit traditional values such as curry and is spicy. Roti is a daily sharing, caring and patience for the Indian staple. younger generation. Old age is regarded as a period of ‘rightful dependency’ with the

76 BRIDGING CULTURES support of the extended family However, funeral practice for Fiji and, in particular, adult sons. The Indian Hindus is cremation. elderly remain active, with suitable There are very strong traditions activities for their age. Advancing associated with the handling of age often involves a movement the deceased depending on which toward greater spirituality and religion the person identified with. religious involvement and less household obligations. KEY EVENTS Generally speaking for an aged Fijian born person who practices Christmas 25 December traditional customs, it would 1 January be appropriate for their son or New Year daughter, or other older close Easter Varies relative to talk to them about illness Constitution Day 7 September and health care. This ‘buffering’ of the impact of the news is very October to Diwali November (varies important, both to the person and FIJI to their family. Placing relatives in year to year) aged care facilities is rare for Fijians, Milad un nabi varies year to year although Indo-Fijians do reside in nursing homes in Fiji. Traditionally older Fijians are cared for by their DID YOU KNOW? extended family and to place a ? The most precious gift to give Fijian into care would isolate them at funerals, marriages and and may result in them pining away. important rituals or holidays is sperm whale teeth. Presenting END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS sperm whale teeth to another It is important for the family to is always preceded by a decide decision how the deceased’s lengthy, formal speech about body should be prepared. the occasion and the people Traditionally, the family would dress involved. and prepare the body. Certain family members are tasked to dress and prepare deceased relatives. Traditionally, Fijian-born people do not cremate their loved ones.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 77 FINLAND

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS to Australia. By the end of the 1950s, approximately 5,000 The first Finn ever to visit Australia Finns had moved to Australia. or New Zealand was Herman Immigration was also made easier Dietrich Spöring who was born in by travel allowances given by the Turku. He was a draughtsman and Australia Government. The Finns, a scientist in Captain James Cook’s accustomed to heavy physical fleet, when he arrived in Australia work, were particularly lured by in 1770. Spöring’s drawings from the incomes from sugar cane fields the voyage are held in the British and mining in Mount Isa in North FINLAND Museum, London. In Canberra, Queensland. As a result, Mount there is a street named after this Isa has one of the largest Finnish adventurous Finn. communities in Australia. When the The first group of Finnish Finns first arrived in Australia, they immigrants who arrived in Australia were taken to migrant camps. Once came to work in the gold mines of in the camp, they were given free Victoria and NSW in the 1850s. A room and board until the head of larger wave of immigration occurred the family was assigned his first job. in the 1920s. Australia was to In the last three decades, Finnish become the second most important immigration has decreased Finnish immigrant destination, after significantly. Today there are Canada. Many Finnish immigrants approximately 30,000 people began arriving in Australia between who claim Finnish ancestry living 1947 and 1971. in Australia. Approximately 4,000 In the mid-1950s an economic of them have maintained their crisis occurred in Finland, causing Finnish citizenship. The Finns are a new wave of Finnish immigration found mostly living in Brisbane, Melbourne, Sydney and Canberra.

78 BRIDGING CULTURES FINLAND

CUSTOMS national identity having survived centuries of foreign domination. In The Finns are known for their active 1917, Finland was finally declared societies. Finnish societies are an independent Republic. Finns coordinated by the Australasian are also proud of their clean natural Federation of Finnish Societies. environment.

Up to the end of the 19th Century, FINLAND every Finn was obliged to belong FOOD to either the Lutheran or the Orthodox Church. Finnish cuisine has been influenced by many cultures, from French to The Finnish Government has Russian. It also maintains a variety an official policy of religious of Finnish specialities. These are neutrality. However, about 89% of based on seafood, wild game and Finns belong to the Evangelical vegetables. Traditionally, the Finnish Lutheran Church of Finland. Other diet includes potatoes, vegetables, Christian groups include the Finnish milk products, berries, grains and Orthodox Church, and 9% of the wholemeal products such as dark population is not affiliated with any rye bread. Herrings feature in religion. various sauces and sausages and In Australia, there are a number salmon are regularly eaten. of Pentecostals. Finns adopt a The smorgasbord or Finnish buffet high ideal of loyalty and reliability, is called poronkaristys. Open- honouring their promises and faced sandwiches on rye bread agreements. People are generally are often eaten for breakfast and reserved, and value punctuality. snacks. Milk and coffee are the They are proud of their cultural most popular drinks. Pastries are heritage, especially in light of their plentiful. A sweetbread called pulla

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 79 comes in many forms, flavoured CARE FOR THE ELDERLY with cardamon. Makkara, which is a sausage, is often roasted over a fire Finnish people are keen on healthy or sauna heater. life-style options for improving their quality of life and longevity. They Milk is prominent in the diet want to know more about healthy as a beverage and is the basic eating, suitable physical exercise, ingredient in a variety of curdled, and good sleeping habits and soured and cultured foods. It generally how to adopt a healthy is also found in broths used for lifestyle. Finnish society usually soups, stews and puddings; and regards older people and their care in regional specialty dishes such as important and younger family juustoleipä or cheese bread. members look after older loved ones, if possible. Today, Finnish VISITING people accept aged care services and see them as an essential part As the Finns respect privacy very of supporting healthy ageing. highly, an invitation to the home However, many people from Finnish is an invitation to friendship. It is backgrounds try to manage by a meaningful gesture. Visitors are themselves for as long as possible. FINLAND expected to be punctual and they They do not want to be a burden normally take flowers, wine or to anyone, not even to their own chocolates to the hosts. A visitor family members. will be served coffee, cakes and cookies. Finnish people talk about their illnesses openly with their family On formal occasions, guests wait members and friends, but might until the host has taken the first not be willing to share their worries sip before drinking. On special and concerns about their health occasions, a guest may be invited with a person they do not know. to share a sauna. This is a particular Options in palliative care are not pastime originated and enjoyed yet well known among Finnish by Finns. In fact, a good way to people; however, when this stage engage a Finn in lively discussion of life is reached they are then keen is to ask about the benefits of a to know more about alternative sauna! medicines even though they may initially show resistance.

80 BRIDGING CULTURES END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS KEY EVENTS Some Finnish people will want a Christmas Eve 24 December Pastor to visit them before they die. 25 December This usually occurs beforehand so Christmas Day that the person can still speak and Boxing Day 26 December communicate with the Pastor. New Year 1 January Living and dying form a close Easter Varies unity in traditional Finnish beliefs, and death is viewed largely as Vappu Labour Day Varies transferring to a different place. Independence Day 6 December The complex rituals accompanying death are usually organised by women, who arrange the wake, DID YOU KNOW? wash and shroud the body, and The Finns are the world’s sometimes sing laments to send ? FINLAND the deceased, along with food and biggest coffee drinkers, implements, to the place of the drinking no less than the family ancestors. equivalent of 12 kg of coffee beans annually, twice more A table with a photo of the person than the Italians, three times who has died, two candles and more than the Americans, and flowers are usually on display at four times more than the Brits. the funeral. Afterwards, coffee with cakes and slices are served, and sometimes speeches are made and a few hymns or even folk songs are sung. Mourners are neatly dressed, mainly in dark colours. Memorial feasts are held 6 weeks, and 1 year, after death. Those who have passed on to the realm of the dead known as Manala or Tuonela remain a profound moral force among their living descendants. Days set aside for commemorating the dead eventually were adapted to a Christian calendar under Catholic and Russian Orthodox influence.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 81 GERMANY

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS good farming land. The maintained strong In 1838, 517 Lutherans, pursuing cultural ties with their German religious freedom, were the first heritage up until World War I. significant group of German migrants to Australia. The first During World War I, German- Germans considered themselves speaking people in Australia were Australia’s founding pioneers treated as enemy subjects and were together with British settlers. interned. In New South Wales, the three main internment camps were

GERMANY From the 1850s German settlers at Trial Bay Gaol, Berrima Gaol escaping the rising nationalist and Holsworthy Army Barracks. sentiment in Germany began Germans lost their jobs or had their arriving in the Australian colonies businesses destroyed. German looking to start a new life. Around schools and churches in Australia 10,000 German settlers arrived were closed, German music and in this era. Port Adelaide was the food was banned and Germanic point of arrival for the majority of place names were changed to German settlers. British. Hundreds of Germans The Germans moved onto were deported and migration from , the Barossa Germany did not resume until 1925. Valley, the and South East During World War II, German Queensland where they found the settlers were interned in Australian regions suitable for wheat and dairy camps again. More than 2000 farming, the planting of vineyards Jewish refugees from Germany and wine-making. They formed were also interned for short close communities transforming periods. The two wars had a big the dry marginal environment into impact on the number of Germans

82 BRIDGING CULTURES GERMANY

in Australia, with their numbers Easter traditions are deeply falling to 15,000 (Census 1947). rooted in German culture. The annual Oktoberfest originates Australia’s post-war immigration in Munich and is celebrated by program, which was founded on many German associations and settling Europe’s displaced persons, clubs in Australia. The custom of

saw the German-born population GERMANY the developed in increase again to 109,315 by the early modern Germany, known as 1961 Census, peaking at 112,000 in Weihnachtsbaum or Christbaum, 1991. The Census in 2011 recorded when Christian predecessors that 108,003 German-born people in can be traced back to the 16th Australia. century brought decorated trees into their homes. CUSTOMS Shiny glass balls and tinsel as The two main Christian ornaments for Christmas trees are denominations in the German also of German cultural roots. The speaking community are Lutheran first blown-glass balls in the shapes and Catholic. At the 2011 Census, of nuts and fruits were produced in the major religious affiliations 1847. among German born were Catholic (30,478) and Lutheran (26,230). FOOD Many traditions that Australians DasFrühstück, or breakfast, consider to be typical for traditionally includes several Australians originated from places butterbrots or slices of bread with which are now modern Germany spreads, cheese, sausage meats and Austria. accompanied with a strong cup of coffee.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 83 Lunch is traditionally a hot meal in VISITING the middle of the day. In Australia, due to our warm climate it has been Punctuality is appreciated, but it replaced with sandwiches with cold is not an insult for guests to arrive meats. a few minutes late. Dinner guests often bring an odd number of Dinner is the main meal of the flowers such as yellow roses or day, usually eaten at home tea roses to the hosts. Guests with the family in the evening. usually stand when the host enters Traditionally, the German dinner the room and remain standing called Abendbrot, meaning evening until offered a seat again. It is bread, consists of a selection of also courteous to stand when whole grain bread, deli meats and a woman enters the room. sausages, cheese and a cold or Spontaneous visits, even between warm drink. neighbours, are not very common. Pork, beef and poultry dishes are Arrangements are usually made in favourite main courses for Germans. advance. Pork is the most popular as well as duck, goose, turkey and chicken. CARE FOR THE ELDERLY

GERMANY Game meats, include boar, rabbit Elderly German speaking people and venison are also eaten. Lamb prefer to stay in their own homes is not as popular. Schnitzel is for as long as possible. They highly particularly popular and can be value their independence. made from chicken, veal or pork. Herring, mackerel, salmon and In German communities, there sardines or freshwater fish like may be some concept present for trout, salmon, bream and carp are planning ahead and consideration popular. of different options as people age. However, most are reluctant to A long tradition of sausage making enter aged care facilities. Some exists in Germany, including would rather pay for care services more than 1500 different types of or depend on assistance and sausage known as Wurst. Sides support of family members. will include boiled or pan-fried potatoes, (pickled cabbage), green beans, cucumber salad with a sugar and vinegar dressing, alongside a green salad.

84 BRIDGING CULTURES END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS KEY EVENTS German speaking nations Christmas Day 25 December are among the leaders in the (Weihnachtstag) development of both Western New Year’s Day 1 January biomedicine and national health (Neujahrstag) insurance. When it comes to the end-of-life care, prescribed Easter Varies medication is accepted, Labour Day 1 May homeopathy or naturopathy (Tag der Arbeit) remedies may be used as alternatives to reduce suffering. As German Unity Day (Tag der Deutschen 3 October mentioned, almost 70% of Germans Einheit) have an affiliation with Christian churches, and many of these September to Oktoberfest October share common Christian beliefs in Himmel or heaven, and Hölle or GERMANY hell, as destinations of the soul after DID YOU KNOW? death. ? German law bans baby names Funerary rites involve either a that do not denote a gender church service or a civil ceremony, or use a family name as a depending on the beliefs of the first name. In 2014, the most deceased and their survivors. popular children’s names were Embalming is almost always Sofie for a girl and Maximilian mandatory. for a boy. It is common for friends and neighbours to dress the deceased before they go to the funeral home. Funerals take place between Monday and Friday and it is traditional to wear black. Cremation is not as common although it has become more popular in recent times, partly due to cost.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 85 GREECE

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS In the 1920s a quota system limited the number of non-British Greek immigrants to Australia, including began in the early colonial period Greeks, and between 1925 and of the 19th century. The first known 1929 only 100 Greeks were allowed Greeks arrived in 1829 and then to immigrate each month. many immigrated during the gold rush of the 1850s. Many Greeks Post-World War II, and during the were among the sailors who left civil war in Greece that followed, their English ships in Australian over 160,000 Greeks came to GREECE waters when they heard the Australia, mostly settling in Victoria. discovery of gold. Many intended Initially, the majority found work in to return home as rich men, so factories or farms as unskilled or few women came to join them. semi-skilled labours, even educated After the gold declined, those who migrants had to settle for manual stayed found work in restaurants, work. Community groups, churches, cafés and shops. The community welfare agencies, newspapers began to consolidate through and schools gradually developed chain migration, relatives and and eventually the population of townspeople joining Greek settlers Melbourne became one of the who were already here. largest Greek settlements in the world, outside of Greece. The In 1901, the year of Federation, majority of Greek migrants arrived the Australian Census recorded between World War II and the 878 Greek-born people. The Greek 1960s, with immigration declining language press in Australia began in the 1970s. in 1913 with the launch of the first Greek weekly newspaper, Australis.

86 BRIDGING CULTURES GREECE

CUSTOMS Contemporary Greek cookery makes wide use of , Members of the Greek community vegetables, herbs, grains, bread, are predominantly Greek Orthodox wine, fish and various meats, and at the 2011 Census, the including lamb, poultry, rabbit major religious affiliation among and pork. Also important are Greek born was Eastern Orthodox

, cheese, , zucchini GREECE (93,346). Although other religions and yoghurt. Greek desserts are are also represented, they are in characterised by the dominant use much smaller numbers. Greek of nuts and honey. Some dishes use Australian society retains elements filo pastry. of their homeland traditions. Yoghurts and dips are served Religion is a stronger influence with with bread loaves or bread. older Greeks than with the younger Soups, vegetarian dishes, meat and generation. Icons are significant seafood dishes are also integrated religious symbols in Orthodox into a cultural and seasonal Christianity. Orthodox Christians calendar, following important pay honour and respect to the religious dates and fasting periods person or the event depicted on during the year. the icon and usually have them in their homes. Fasting is an essential part of the Orthodox religion which means FOOD abstinence from meats, oil and dairy products. It is customary to is a combination of fast 40 days prior to midnight on primarily Mediterranean food, with Easter Saturday. For an Orthodox some influences of Middle Eastern Christian this symbolises their dishes. journey with Christ until his

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 87 crucifixion and resurrection, where as possible. There is a fear and they celebrate and break their fast. resistance of being placed in an aged care facility and this doesn’t During Lent, Greek people spring usually occur until much later in life clean their homes and properties when their needs are high. in preparation for the Holy Week. At national celebrations, traditional Greek elders have a high status in costumes may be worn. the family and community and are treated with respect. Grandparents VISITING often play an important role in caring for their grandchildren. It is very common for friends and relatives to drop by unannounced END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS in small towns. This happens less often in large cities, but only In cases of terminal illness, there because schedules are more hectic. is a tendency to avoid telling the Greeks enjoy having friends to their ill person that they are dying. The homes for dinner or for special perception being that this will occasions. If a Greek host insists on hasten death. Palliative care as a something several times, such as concept is not well understood GREECE staying for longer or eating more by many older they usually mean it and guests try and can result in confusion as to to accommodate them so as not to eligibility, who provides the service hurt their feelings. and what is provided. Generally the family and the patient would CARE FOR THE ELDERLY want death to occur in one’s home. Greek Australians tend to seek Traditionally, children and family Greek doctors who understand members care for the sick or elderly their language and culture. and they often live with or reside in close proximity to extended family. The role of the parish priest is As a consequence of migration, integrated during the period of Greek families in Australia generally illness. Where death is imminent, do not live together as extended Greek tradition calls for the family units, as was the case in attendance of a priest to offer Greece. the last sacraments. This includes communion and confession. Many elderly live alone in their In addition to tending to the own homes and do so for as long dying, the priest will provide an

88 BRIDGING CULTURES invaluable comfort to the family in KEY EVENTS this distressing time. Following a death, a kandili, a religious burner Christmas 25 December comprising oil, water and a floating 1 January wick, must remain lit for 40 days, New Year next to an icon and a photo of the Independence Day 25 March deceased until the soul leaves this Varies world. Orthodox Easter Labour Day 1 May Immediately after the person has died, one of the most important rituals is then conducted for the first DID YOU KNOW? time, this is known as the Trisagion. This will be performed before the ? In the 1950s, only about 30% funeral, at the church or graveside of Greek adults could read and after the funeral service, and write. Now, the literacy rate is repeated on the 3rd, 9th and 40th more than 95%. GREECE day after death, and on the 6th month and one-year anniversaries. A feature of Greek culture is wearing black during mourning.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 89 CASE STUDY

MR ADAMIDIS a smooth blood flow and gaining more nutrition from injections. The Mr Adamidis was a 75-year-old truth was that he did not know his retired carpenter who suffered from real diagnosis. His family withheld leukaemia for two years. He had a medical care information from Mr very supportive family. He lived with Adamidis and liaised directly with his wife, who did all of the cooking. health care providers for any of His four children visited them often his treatments as they believed and helped with the shopping, leukaemia was incurable and washing and heavy housework. terminal. The children also provided financial support for Mr Adamidis’s medical Mr Adamidis died suddenly after treatment. Mr Adamidis received reading the laboratory results of his regular chemotherapy since he was blood test and realising what he diagnosed with leukaemia. was suffering from on the second day of his admission. This accident As he lived close to the hospital, he was caused by laboratory staff walked to the hospital admission sending a test result to the patient every time over two years to receive directly. The test results showed regular medical treatments in the that his disease was under control haematological department. and the medical treatment was Mr Adamidis was a very kind man satisfactory. A possible reason and treated staff and ward patients for his death may be because he politely and with a sense of humour. could not accept the reality of his He always said that he came to the diagnosis and had a large shock. hospital in the hope of obtaining

90 BRIDGING CULTURES GREECE EXERCISE 1. If Mr Adamidis had prior knowledge of his diagnosis, do you think he would have had a better quality rather than not knowing his diagnosis?

2. Did his family have the right to withhold the information from him?

3. Was a Power of Attorney required from Mr Adamidis’s family?

4. Do we need to consider different cultural perspectives in palliative care? GREECE

5. Do the patient’s rights override the family members’ rights?

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 91 HUNGARY

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS many people from rural or village backgrounds, refugees that arrived The first known Hungarian migrants after 1956 included a considerable arrived in Australia after the proportion of tradesmen and Hungarian Revolution of 1848. factory workers, many of them In the 1930s, a second wave of being quite young. migration brought Hungarians who were mostly Jewish intellectuals Some 22% of people living and businessmen to Australia, in Australia of Hungarian escaping Nazi oppression. ancestry were born in countries

HUNGARY neighbouring Hungary, mostly Some Hungarian Jewish Holocaust from former Yugoslavia, Romania, survivors arrived between 1945 Austria, Germany, and Croatia. and 1947, as well as some anti- Communists who foresaw the The 2011 Census recorded 19,092 likelihood of Hungary being Hungarian-born people in Australia. occupied by Soviet troops. At this time the major religious affiliations among Hungary-born In the next five years, many were Catholic (10,424), Judaism thousands fled to the West and (1,351) and Presbyterian and spent some time in Displaced Reformed (1,070). Persons Camps before migrating. About 17,000 Hungarians arrived in CUSTOMS Australia as a result of this process. The last significant group to Hungarian traditions are linked migrate included people fleeing the with religious festivities, family aftermath of the Hungarian Uprising events and celebrations of the of 1956. While the earlier waves of nation’s historical events. They are Hungarian migration had included influenced by Western European,

92 BRIDGING CULTURES HUNGARY

especially Austro-Germanic cultural decorated with pictures of various trends, Catholicism and strong saint and statuettes brought back Hungarian folkloric elements. from Catholic pilgrimages. Popular The dominant religion of their pilgrimages may be to the city of country changed several times Eszterom, where Saint Stephan was under different rulers. Therefore, born, or Eger, the place of the first Hungarians are known for Benedictine Orders. HUNGARY their religious tolerance. Many Hungarians do not formally belong FOOD to or regularly practice any form of religion; however, baptisms, Traditional relies weddings, and funerals tie them on high quality ingredients, meats, informally to churches. sausages, seasonal vegetables, fruits, honey, garlic and . Hungarians, like people in other Hungarians generally do not eat primarily Catholic countries, tend fish. to celebrate the feast day of the saint for whom they are named. Hungarian cuisine is spicy and Name days are widely known and influenced by the availability of celebrated and each acceptable locally grown agricultural products. first name is assigned to one or The most famous dish is Hungarian more days of the calendar, based goulash. Bread is a staple food, on religious traditions, historical eaten at breakfast, lunch and events or a birthday of a famous dinner. Common ingredients in person who has shared the same Hungarian cooking are paprika, first name. lard, butter, eggs, vinegar, pickled foods, apricots, prunes, poppy Some Hungarian households seeds, sour cream, walnuts, have sacred corners which are , smoked bacon, cabbage,

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 93 tomatoes, potatoes, pork, beef are not able to due to resistance and garlic. Paprika is used in by the person they care for. Carers many Hungarian foods and more are also reluctant to use residential traditional recipes, with varying respite to have a break because levels of spice and heat. Dumpling it is perceived by family, friends and pastries are also very popular. and community as neglecting their elderly. VISITING END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS While close friends, relatives and sometimes neighbours may The Western model of healthcare make short unannounced visits, is generally well accepted by most are arranged in advance Hungarian people. However, in the where possible. First time visits by case of terminal illness, Hungarians acquaintances are usually short. are reluctant to accept palliative Hungarians enjoy socialising in the care, as this is perceived as a sign home but also frequently meet at of imminent death. restaurants, coffee houses and tea It is traditionally expected that the rooms. diagnosis of a terminal illness is

HUNGARY communicated to the family rather CARE FOR THE ELDERLY than to the person concerned. Hungarians are very reluctant to Hungarians believe that openly access community and residential telling a patient they have a care services. Traditionally it is the terminal illness may negatively moral obligation of children to affect their attitude to treatment care for elderly parents at home. and cause a loss of will to live Unrealistic care expectations often Generally, Hungarians expect result in intergenerational conflicts. that medications are the most There is a cultural expectation effective form of treatment. The of wives and daughters to be administration of morphine, as part caregivers. of pain management, is seen as a Couples can rely on each other for sign of an inevitable end. It is often support, which places a great deal deferred to the very end of the of stress on elderly carers. Respite treatment process. care is accessed very rarely. In many Hungarian people believe it is cases, carers who would accept important for relatives to be with respite or other support services

94 BRIDGING CULTURES a person who is dying to provide DID YOU KNOW? emotional and spiritual support to them and their family. ? Hungarian language is known as Magyar and is the direct Family and friends prefer staying descendent of the language with the dying person and a priest spoken by the Huns. It is not is usually called to administer the an Indo-European language Last Rites. In addition, traditional in- and has only two related ground burials and cremations, with languages in Europe (Finnish special places for the placement of funeral urns, has been widely and Estonian). practiced by Hungarians. Dark clothes are worn traditionally at funerals to indicate mourning.

KEY EVENTS HUNGARY Christmas 25 December New Year 1 January Easter (changes with Christian calendar)

Labour Day 1 May

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 95 INDIA

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS from Punjab were working in the sugar cane fields in Queensland. In the early 19th century, a small Others worked clearing bushland number of Indians arrived in and establishing pastures for sheep Australia as convicts transported by and cattle. Later, some migrants the British Colonial Government in moved to the NSW North Coast to India. Others arrived as labourers establish farming communities and or domestic servants with British build Australia’s first purpose-built subjects who had been living in Sikh temple in Woolgoolga, near INDIA India. A few Indians came to live Coffs Harbour. At the beginning of and work in Australia under the the 20th century, there were around indentured labour system in the 7,000 Indians living in Australia. 1830s but returned to India after the completion of their contracts. The White Australia policy was Others came as camel drivers and introduced in 1901, restricting some as itinerant merchants or further Indian immigration, except hawkers (street vendors). for Indian Anglo-Celtic colonials. The Indian population remained Some found their way to the the same until after the end of Victorian and NSW goldfields. In World War II. When India became 1846 a group of 50 men, eight independent from Britain in 1947, women and three children arrived an increasing number of Indian- in Sydney. Generally, there were born British citizens immigrated to very few women or children among Australia along with Anglo-Indians. the 19th century immigrants. Many men travelled back and In 1950, Australia joined the forth to their original homelands Colombo Plan which brought Asia with some returning permanently. and the West together at a time In the 1890s, nearly 250 workers of great political and economic

96 BRIDGING CULTURES INDIA

uncertainty. Some thousands of CUSTOMS Asian students, including many from India, were sponsored to Indians living in Australia may be study or train in Australian tertiary from various groups, with differing institutions. Some of these students languages and a variety of countries settled in Australia, diversifying the of birth. They may come from India, Australian Indian community. Malaysia, Sri Lanka, East and South Africa or Fiji. INDIA After the end of the White Australia policy in 1973, Indian migration Among them are Punjabis, to Australia accelerated and Gujaratis, Bengalis, Tamils and professionals such as doctors, Anglo-Indians, all with their own teachers and engineers, some languages and cultural norms. of whom initially accepted work Some Indian customs include in regional Australia, came with prohibiting women from whistling their families. Since the 1980s or winking as it is considered not large numbers of Indian software fitting for a lady and impolite. The professionals also began arriving grasping of one’s ears expresses in Australia. The community of repentance or sincerity. A person’s nearly 400,000 feet or shoes should not touch contribute to the greater Australian another person and, if they do, an community in their roles as immediate apology is necessary. teachers, doctors, accountants, Also, the bottom of one’s foot or engineers and researchers, as well should not point at another as farmers and other urban and person. Beckoning is done with the rural roles. There are also about palm turned down and pointing is 36,000 Indian students currently often done with the chin. studying in Australian universities.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 97 A person must cover their head structure, it does have clearly when entering a Sikh shrine and defined beliefs regarding the remove their shoes at every purpose of life. The caste system entrance of a shrine or temple. dictates that individuals must work their way up to the highest caste Hindu temples require the removal through reincarnation before they of shoes and cleansing of feet prior can exit life on Earth to a better to entering a temple. Females existence. Below the fourth caste are not allowed to enter temples or labourers are the ‘untouchables’, and shrines or partake in religious with whom other Hindus are to activities during their menstrual have no contact. They are usually cycle. poor and powerless. The caste India’s constitution proclaims the system has been constitutionally country to be a secular state, abolished but continues to be which is particularly important in a practiced. It limits social and society of such religious diversity. economic mobility for millions of India is the birthplace of Hinduism, Indians, and maintains the status Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism— of the privileged few. Almost 12% all of which believe in reincarnation. of the population are Muslim, 2% INDIA practice the Sikh religion and less Although Islam came to India than 3% are Christian. from Arab conquerors, much Islamic research has taken place in Eating habits vary greatly between India and there are many lslamic traditional and modern settings. institutes and Madrassas in India. Most often, urban families will eat India is also the adopted home of together and follow many Western most followers of Zoroastrianism. customs. Traditionally, women may The famous Taj Mahal located in eat after other members of the Agra is an Islamic structure with family and any guests. A gesture of minarets being a feature of its namaste can indicate one has had construction. enough to eat. Some Hindus object to having their food handled by About 80% of the population are members of lower castes. Hindu. Hinduism is highly diverse, polytheistic (worship of many gods), FOOD rich in ceremony, and associated with the caste system. Although Foods vary widely, depending on Hinduism lacks an authoritative the culture and region of origin.

98 BRIDGING CULTURES INDIA

For example, rice is a staple in VISITING the south, while wheat bread or roti is the staple in the north. Visiting between friends and Indian meals are usually very spicy. families is very common. Most Different types of curry are made visiting occurs in the home and with eggs, fish, meat or vegetables visits between friends or family are in a spicy sauce, which are popular. often unannounced. The need for Vegetarianism is widely practiced, prior arrangements is increasing in often for religious reasons. large cities.

All castes have varied food laws At social gatherings, the guest of and customs, as does each religion. honour is often adorned with a The Hindus consider cows to be garland of flowers which should be sacred and will not eat beef or immediately removed and carried even use anything made of leather. in the hand as an expression of Muslims do not eat pork and do humility. When guests visit for the not drink alcohol. Muslims consume first time, it is not polite to come Halal food which means permissible empty ended. It is custom to bring food. a small gift (food, sweets and

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 99 flowers) as a gesture. Many Indians END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS do not wear shoes inside the home. Shoes are generally removed Most Hindus choose to cremate before entering the living room. their deceased, usually within a When visitors are ready to leave, day of the death. In Hinduism, they often indicate it by saying death applies only to the physical namaste. Namaste is the greeting presence of the body. The soul utilised upon meeting someone which truly represented the person and when departing ways. is believed to have departed Depending on certain religious or detached. The body has no rituals, women may not be on the significance and, therefore, no forefront. Indians are too polite attempt is made to preserve it. to say ‘no’ to an invitation; if they On the fourth day, the ashes are cannot attend, they will more likely dispersed in a sacred body of water say ‘I’ll try’. or other place of importance to the deceased person.

CARE FOR THE ELDERLY Hindu funeral rites will vary among families and locations, but Older people are respected for

INDIA some common customs include, their wisdom. They are viewed mourners wearing simple, white, as authoritative figures. Looking casual clothes. A priest or oldest after parents is considered punya, son, or other male of the family or earning merit in the afterlife. usually presides at the service, and There is also a belief in the need prayers and hymns (mantras) are for interaction with the elderly to conducted. There are usually many transmit traditional values such as flowers placed on the body. sharing, caring and patience to the younger generation. Flowers can also be sent to the family home before the service but Advancing age is regarded as a generally not brought to the funeral period of rightful dependency with home. No wake or food is part of the support of the extended family the ceremony and sending food is and, in particular, adult sons. The inappropriate. Traditionally, there elderly remain active by adapting is no casket, deceased bodies are their activities. Entering this period wrapped in material from head to of life often involves a movement toe and placed on a grass mat, toward greater spirituality and and all mourners are expected to religious involvement and fewer quietly view the deceased. household obligations.

100 BRIDGING CULTURES Many families celebrate the community gathers in prayer, known departed life on the 12th or 13th as ardas. The two daily prayers day after the funeral. The eldest son of Japji and Kirtan Sohila will be of the deceased shaves his head as recited. Following these prayers, a ritual. the cremation begins.

According to Hindu scripture known as the Bhagavad Gita, the soul is KEY EVENTS a spirit that a sword cannot pierce, fire cannot burn, water cannot melt, Christmas 25 December and air cannot dry. The soul is free, New Year 1 January unbounded, holy, pure, and perfect. Eid Varies At a Sikh funeral, a yoghurt bath is prepared for the body while Republic Day 26 January prayers are recited. Afterwards, the Independence Day 15 August body is dressed in new clothes. Divali Festival Varies If the deceased has fulfilled the INDIA Sikh baptismal ritual then the five symbols of Sikh membership will also be placed in the coffin. DID YOU KNOW? Cremation is usually within three ? Chess was invented in India. days of passing.

The five holy articles of faith are kesh, or hair, a Sikh is forbidden to cut or dispose of any hair growing on their bodies; kirpan, which is a Sikh knife that represents compassion and one’s task to defend the truth; kara, which is a stainless steel bracelet; kachera, cotton Sikh underwear, representing modesty and kanga, which is a small comb.

A small ceremony takes place at a funeral home before the cremation. To commence the service, the

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 101 CASE STUDY

MR SINGH When Millie was preparing Mr Singh for bedtime, he began In the Sikh tradition, it is the screaming at her. She was unsure responsibility of children to care what was wrong with him. She had for their ageing parents. Generally, some dried food on her uniform it is not common to find them in and on her arms from assisting residential care. Unfortunately, another resident to eat during Mr Singh did find himself in care as dinner time. She touched Mr Singh his recently widowed son, Malik, and tried to calm him down. This could no longer care for his father made him even more agitated. as he simply could not afford to leave his job as a taxi driver. Millie attempted to make Mr Singh Mr Singh, also a widow, had been lie down on his bed and she found diagnosed with dementia and it a book covered in cloth on the was unsafe to leave him at home bed that she gently placed on the

INDIA without care or supervision. floor near his bed. This act enraged Mr Singh. Millie then reached out Since admission to a residential and touched Mr Singh on his head. aged care facility, Mr Singh has Mr Singh reacted in a violent way been agitated and uncommonly and lashed out by punching her tearful. He was found to be arm. Millie ran out of his room aggressive towards any staff upset, she was unsure what is member who would walk into his wrong with Mr Singh. room.

The staff at the facility had been briefed by Malik in regards to the five articles of faith which are important to all initiated Sikhs. However, a new staff member Millie commenced her shift with minimal induction and unfortunately was not briefed on matters of importance to this cultural group.

102 BRIDGING CULTURES EXERCISE 1. How could the violent situation with Mr Singh have been avoided? 2. What are the considerations that facilities should prepare for when accepting a person from a diverse background? 3. Why should the facility be responsible for caring for a resident in a culturally appropriate fashion? INDIA

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 103 INDONESIA

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS over 100 Indonesians arrived each year. From the early 1950s, Between the 1870s and 1940s, Australia also accepted Indonesian Indonesians were recruited to students under the Colombo Plan. work in the pearling industry in As restrictions on the entry of Western Australia and the sugar non-Europeans eased in the late cane industry in North Queensland. 1960s, more Indonesians settled in With the introduction of the White Australia. Australia policy in 1901, many of these workers returned home. The 2011 Census recorded

INDONESIA 63,160 Indonesian born people The Indonesian community in in Australia. NSW had the largest Australia is made up of diverse number with 26,834. The major groups. Some are of European, religious affiliations among mainly Dutch origin, who were born Indonesia-born living in Australia to parents posted to the Dutch East were Catholics (16,825), Muslims Indies during colonial times. The (12,241) and Buddhists (6,480). more recent arrivals are of mixed ancestries, reflecting the myriad of CUSTOMS groups that make up the modern Indonesian nation. Indonesians value loyalty to family and friends more than their own During World War II, the Dutch East concerns. They rarely disagree in Indies Government-in-exile settled public, seldom say ‘no’ (they say in Australia. It brought with it Belum, ‘not yet’), and generally around 4,500 Indonesian refugees, have time for others. Punctuality, most of who were repatriated after while important, is not emphasised the Japanese surrender. From at the expense of personal the late 1940s to the mid-1960s, relations. Indonesians appreciate a

104 BRIDGING CULTURES INDONESIA

quiet voice, an unassuming attitude eat rice as the main dish, served and discretion. To embarrass with a wide range of vegetables someone is a terrible insult. and meat. Indonesian dishes are Indonesians often view Westerners usually spicy, using a wide range of as being too quick to anger, too spices, notably chilli peppers and serious about themselves, and too coconut milk. committed to the idea that ‘time INDONESIA Many Indonesian traditional is money’. Patience is the key to customs and ceremonies interaction. Attitudes vary according incorporate food and feasting. One to diverse ethnic, political and of the best examples is tumpeng. religious backgrounds. Originally from , tumpeng Traditionally, Indonesian people is a cone shaped mound of rice regard ‘saving face‘, and not surrounded by an assortment of suffering public embarrassment, or other dishes. Traditionally featured causing shame to oneself and the in selamatan ceremonies, a cone family as important. Hierarchical of rice is made by using bamboo relationships are respected, leaves woven into a cone-shaped emphasised and maintained. container. Respect is usually shown to those Another Indonesian feast, the with status, power, position, and Rijsttafel (a Dutch word meaning age. Elders must be respected. rice table), demonstrates both colonial opulence and the diversity FOOD of . The classic The cuisine of Indonesia has been style Rijsttafel involved the serving influenced for centuries by the of up to 40 different dishes by Chinese, European and Indian 40 male waiters; the waiters are cultures. Most native Indonesians typically bare foot and dressed

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 105 in formal white uniforms with is polite to eat a little bit to avoid blangkon, traditional Javanese offending the hosts. If the host or on their heads and cloth hostess is not wearing footwear, it around their waists. Indonesians is polite for visitors to remove their generally dress up for special own footwear. occasions wearing traditional Shoes are removed before entering costume—kain batik and . carpeted rooms, feasting places, places of funeral viewing, or holy VISITING places (especially mosques). More Indonesians believe that visits bring Westernised Indonesians appreciate honour to the host and they warmly flowers from guests invited to welcome all guests. Unannounced dinner, but gifts are not expected visits are common. Visitors sit when by traditional Indonesians. Any invited to, but they will also rise gift given is accepted graciously when the host or hostess enters the because it is impolite to refuse room. A drink is often served, but anything. Gifts are not opened in a guest does not drink until invited the giver’s presence. to. If refreshments are served, it INDONESIA

106 BRIDGING CULTURES CARE FOR THE ELDERLY KEY EVENTS Traditional aged care is seen Christmas 25 December as the responsibility of the family. Generally speaking, most New Year 1 January Indonesian families are close Easter Varies and work hard to help each other. Indonesians feel a sense Waisak Day May of responsibility towards their Ramadan and Varies families especially their elders. They Eid al-Adha are expected to look after their 17 August parents in advancing age. However, Independence Day demands on modern families can make caring for an elderly loved DID YOU KNOW? one difficult. ? Indonesia is the world’s largest For some Indonesian-born country comprised solely INDONESIA Australians, the lack of knowledge of islands. It is comprised about the Australian aged care of 17,508 islands, with system may lead to reluctance some 6,000 of these being to seek assistance. They are not inhabited. familiar with such services as there is no aged care system in Indonesia.

END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS Family and spiritual leaders are involved in caring for the dying person. The rituals surrounding death and dying are often closely linked to a person’s beliefs or religion. For people of Catholic faith, one of the main rituals performed at the time of dying is the administering of the last rites. Muslim burials are performed as soon as possible after death, sometimes on the same day.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 107 IRAQ

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS camps for up to five years before being accepted into Australia under Since the 1991 Gulf War, thousands the Special Humanitarian Program. of Iraqis have found refuge in During this period the visas of Australia. The total population is around 400 Iraqis living in Australia estimated to be as high as 80,000. were extended until the end of the Australia’s Iraqi born population Gulf War. includes Kurds, Assyrians, Armenians, Mandeans, Turkmens Islam is the recognised religion

IRAQ and Jews. of Iraq, and 95% of the people practice Islam. There is no The 1976 Australian Census of distinction between church and Population and Housing recorded state. The two forms of Islam in the number of Iraqi-born living in Iraq are the majority Shiites, and Australia as 2,273. By 1986, the the minority Sunnis. The Sunnis are population had risen to 4,516. By considered the orthodox branch of the end of the Gulf War in 1991, Islam. A small percentage of Iraqi it had numbered 5,186, mainly in people are Christian. NSW and Victoria.

Many recent arrivals have entered CUSTOMS Australia under the Special The majority of Iraqis speak Arabic, Humanitarian Program. The Gulf with variations in dialect according War and the uprisings of the Shi’a to region. Formal Arabic is spoken and the Kurds in Iraq resulted in a by educated Iraqis and is the large increase in the number of Iraqi written language. Other languages people coming to Australia after spoken include Chaldean, 1991. Iraqi immigration to Australia Armenian, Syriac, Turkish dialects, peaked between 1992 and 1995. Kurdish and Persian. Some refugees lived in processing

108 BRIDGING CULTURES IRAQ

When sitting next to a person, cushions on the floor. It is polite crossing the legs and pointing the and common to take some food, sole of the foot towards a person or a small gift such as chocolates. is considered impolite. Women are The hosts may decline several expected to eat in a different area. times before graciously accepting. They are also expected to serve the The male host usually does all the men their meals. Food is prepared talking. in abundance for guests. The right IRAQ hand is used for eating. Food can CARE FOR THE ELDERLY be eaten in the hand, although spoons are now more commonly Iraqi communities have a high used. Devout Muslims do not eat regard for their older people and pork and eat only halal meat. The the family will look after them at Iraqi diet is based around rice, home if possible. Respite care, unleavened bread, meat dishes and residential care and hospitals are stuffed vegetables. Strong coffee acceptable to many, although they or tea is served often before meals. will be most concerned if the older The main meal is usually mid- person is in care and has little or no afternoon. English.

VISITING END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS Friends and relatives visit A medical diagnosis should be unannounced, but otherwise given to the closest family member warning is appreciated. Shoes are of the elderly person. Families may often removed at the door and not want their family member to be guests wait until the host asks them told about a life-threatening illness to have a seat. People often sit on or disease as it is felt that such news

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 109 may exacerbate the condition. It KEY EVENTS is generally a requirement that patients and their families are to be Islamic feasts after Eid al-Fitr treated by members of their own Ramadam gender. Iraqi Independence 3 October Muslim clients may also need to Day be supported to perform their five Prophet’s Birthday 12 December daily prayers, perhaps requiring orientation of their bed to face Makkah (Mecca) and ablutions (in DID YOU KNOW? private, for example) if they express For 5,000 years Iraqis have a wish to do so. ? been keeping bees. Honey is Funerals are very simple and an important source of food sombre events. People are buried and income for many Iraqi on the day following their death, families. and are wrapped in a white cloth and placed in a plain box,

IRAQ if available. Funerals tend not to reflect a person’s wealth as they generally are the same for everyone.

Cremation is forbidden for Muslims and Coptic Orthodox. There are also strong beliefs about the handling of the deceased, timing of burial and autopsies.

110 BRIDGING CULTURES IRAQ

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 111 ITALY

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS CUSTOMS According to the 2011 Census, In Italian culture the family is highly Italians were the largest group of valued and forms an integral part older Australians born overseas and of the social and community fabric. numbered 185,402. They have long Religion also plays an important since played an important role in role in daily life and Italians are Australia’s history. predominantly Catholic.

The first wave of migration was a Italians tend to identify themselves ITALY group of approximately 200 people on a regional basis. The Italian state who arrived from the region compromises of 20 regions in total. in 1882. These families settled in It is common to hear Italians ask the northern New South Wales each other from where in Italy they (NSW) town of Woodburn, near were born or emigrated from. The Lismore, known as ‘’. term paesano refers to coming from the same village or township and is Italians arrived in large numbers in an esteemed social greeting which the decades following the Second can be heard when meeting friends. World War. An Assisted Passage Scheme was introduced in 1951, Some Italians observe religious and whereby the Australian Government cultural customs before meals such paid for fares and accommodation as saying a prayer or making the in migrant camps such as Bonegilla . It is a common in Victoria and Greta in NSW, custom for Italians to wish people in return for several years of whom they are sharing meals with employment. Between 1951 and buon appetito or enjoy your meal. 1968, over 42,000 Italians arrived under this scheme.

112 BRIDGING CULTURES ITALY

FOOD which might include pasta followed by a second course of meat, poultry Italians are famous for their love of or fish and salad or vegetables. food and for their cuisine. There are regional differences in food. VISITING For example, dairy-based sauces are commonplace in Northern Italy, Italians enjoy visiting one another, as is polenta which is made from especially on holidays and Sundays. ITALY cornmeal. Guests invited to dinner often take a bottle of good wine, a box of Pasta with tomato-based sauces chocolates or flowers to the host. and hot spices are preferred in Unless they are told otherwise, Central Italy and in the South. guests wait for the hosts to sit Bread, focaccia, pizza, cheese, before they are seated, and they wine, gelato, granita and coffee are also wait for the hosts to begin also staples of the Italian diet. eating before they eat. Some Older Italians often enjoy a glass Italians say the word permesso of red wine with their meal and or permission before entering many like to end their meals with the home of friends. It is seen as a piece of fruit. Almost all Italians a friendly and respectful gesture enjoy an espresso coffee after the before entering the home. meal. Sharing morning or afternoon coffee/tea with friends and family is CARE FOR THE ELDERLY an important routine maintained by Families often try to ‘protect’ their many Italians. sick family members by withholding In Australia, Italians will typically information and diagnoses to have their main meal at dinner time, maintain a sense of hope, especially

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 113 in cases of serious illnesses such as END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS cancer or other terminal conditions. Many families might not be aware generally have of the issues in ‘planning ahead’, respect for doctors and will usually including awareness of guardianship, accept their opinion and follow organising power of attorney and their directions. They also have high wills. expectations that doctors and nurses will relieve their symptoms and pain. Dying at home is preferred and Catholic rituals are common, Italian doctors are preferred as including administration of the communication is easier that way. ‘last rites’. The ritual of ‘Lutto’ is Carers have a strong sense of duty conducted at home where the and roles are often dictated by bereaved family receives visits and gender—daughters usually take condolences from extended family on the physical caring role while and friends. sons being responsible for decision making and handling finances. The Rosary is recited over the Emotions are openly displayed, deceased’s body and a full church service is held, followed by burial

ITALY including anger and grief. in a cemetery. Emotions are openly Food is considered important in the displayed and mourners traditionally healing process and patients will be wear dark colours and have an encouraged to eat—sometimes this opportunity to throw a flower on the may be in contradiction to medical casket as a final goodbye. Elaborate advice. Italians prefer not to talk headstones and caskets are often directly about ‘cancer’ and ‘dying’ regarded as fitting tributes. as they believe this will have a negative impact on the patient. KEY EVENTS Treatment at home is preferred but Christmas 25 December hospital or hospice is increasingly becoming acceptable. Italians will New Year 1 January tend to favour Italian specific care Easter Varies provided by care facilities and community organisations. Family- Liberation Day 25 April centred care is always preferred and Labour Day 1 May the family needs to be involved at all stages of decision making. Assumption Day 15 August All Saints’ Day 1 November

114 BRIDGING CULTURES CASE STUDY

IOLE’S STORY I know now that dementia cannot be healed. He was great I cared for my poor dear husband, at mathematics and would Guido, for eight years while he keep his mind busy by keeping had ‘that disease’. This was the account balances and performing first time in my life that I had had calculations whenever he could. to deal so closely with someone But he came to realise that he who had dementia. I thought that eventually couldn’t do this any in time after taking the prescription longer. He lost interest in reading, pills and the cures advised by the watching TV and even following doctor, Guido would get better. the soccer and sport which he I had friends who were caring for absolutely loved. He just lost their husbands and even knew a interest. He realised that he lady who had it herself and would couldn’t follow it. ITALY hear what they had to say, but then I forgot their issues, even when I didn’t know what was happening eventually these issues would apply to Guido, I thought initially that to myself and my life. Until you he was being lazy. I implored have actually experienced life as a him to help himself more; to try carer of someone with this disease to read and maintain interest in you just do not know what this something. Initially doctors never means. used the diagnosis of dementia to describe what was happening to At 69 years old, Guido already Guido. It wasn’t until it was very started to feel in himself that he was tired and starting to feel insecure of his abilities and memory. He used DID YOU KNOW? to say that he couldn’t perform ? Italy’s birth rate is the second his usual life activities as he used lowest in the Western world. to; that he “couldn’t do things Both political and church anymore”. He lost weight even leaders have expressed concern though he used to eat well, but the and have offered rewards to doctors could not foresee the onset couples who have more than of dementia in his case. one child.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 115 obvious that Guido couldn’t hold I lead a women’s group in a conversation or remain in social Blacktown on Wednesdays and company that the doctor then was obliged to keep attending. called his symptoms ‘dementia’. Good friends of mine would come Guido could not remain in company and stay with Guido for about 1.5 with people, wouldn’t participate in hours while I attended the group or conversation, was unstable on his whenever I had to keep specialist feet, would shut himself away and appointments for myself. I felt really ate less and less. great when I was able to leave the house and socialise with friends. It Eventually Guido suffered a fall that really was a respite. caused fluid to accumulate in his brain. After a stay in hospital he was I began to use formal respite after left with other symptoms that were this. Even though Guido refused like those of Parkinson’s Disease. to attend a centre based day His health deteriorated after this care group, I was able to receive event. I never actually said to him in home respite from Co.As.It. A that he had dementia but he knew lovely carer called Gianni would that something was wrong. stay with Guido while I attended my

ITALY group. They would communicate There would be times when Guido in Italian, pray together, share appeared to be his previous an afternoon coffee and biscuits self. These times appeared and or sometimes Guido would disappeared in a flash and happened have a nap. But my mind was at rarely. It seemed as if he understood ease because Guido was being what was happening and I felt so sad looked after by someone that he and sorry for him. Two years before connected with. For those few Guido passed away, I remember very hours I felt a great relief because clearly that he said to me, “I am no the life of a carer is very wearing longer myself”. and tiring. I would say to Guido, “Do you feel As Guido’s restlessness increased, ill, where do you feel pain?”, but he especially at night, when he would would remain quiet. Guido is the feel that he would have to get youngest of all his brothers and he ready for work at any time between outlived them all, having made it to 10 pm and 3 am, my health began 86 years old. His brothers all died at to wane. The caring responsibilities around 77 to 78 years of age from were draining me physically. I cancer. don’t know of any services that

116 BRIDGING CULTURES are provided for nighttime care. EXERCISE My children and my family doctor encouraged me to place Guido in 1. Which methods did Iole use residential care before I became a to attain information about complete wreck. dementia?

Guido remained in a residential 2. Why was Iole’s mind at ease care facility exactly one year before about leaving Guido with the he died. I used to take him home respite service? on weekends but it was so painful 3. Do you consider that all carers every time he had to return. I felt so would feel this way? guilty that I had made this decision 4. Why is it that a great number of but it was the only one that I could CALD carers feel guilty about make and my family supported me employing some sort of respite 100%. None the less I felt that I had service? done as much as I could for Guido at home before the toll on my health began to show. ITALY

If I could give other carers any advice regarding their caring role when they care for someone with dementia, it would be this: It’s great when you say, “I can’t do it any longer” and to get assistance earlier. When you care for someone you love, you don’t want to give up because you love them and you don’t want to send them away from their home where you have spent a lifetime together. I advise carers to get services earlier to try to save their own health, especially when you are older.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 117 KOREA

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS arrivals subsequently sponsored family members for migration. A small number of Koreans arrived Between 1976 and 1985, around in Australia between 1921 and 500 Korean-born immigrants 1941, primarily to seek further arrived each year for short-term educational opportunities. After stays mostly as students. the Korean War from 1950 to 1953, many Korean women came to From 1986 to 1991, there was a Australia as war brides and children further increase in settler arrivals, with an average of about 1400

KOREA as orphans, who were adopted by Australian families. each year, many coming under the Skilled and Business migration The relaxation of immigration categories. restrictions in the late 1960s provided the first opportunity for The 2011 Census recorded 74,538 larger numbers of Koreans to enter Republic of South Korean-born Australia. In 1969, the first Korean people in Australia with major immigrants arrived in Sydney under religious affiliations among this the Skilled Migration Program. group being Catholic (16,712), However, there were only 468 Presbyterian (16,113) and Uniting Korean-born recorded as living in Church (7,531). Australia at the time of the 1971 Census. CUSTOMS In the early 1970s, about 1000 After the family, the state is the Koreans arrived each year for short- most important group and South term stays, mostly as students and Koreans have a strong sense of around 100 arrived for permanent nationalism, with military service residence. Some of these new being compulsory for men.

118 BRIDGING CULTURES KOREA

Korean people are very proud of Koreans follow the traditions of the their achievements but are usually religious affiliations to which they very modest when speaking about belong. They also celebrate secular themselves. Reluctance to accept holidays. honours and praise is the mark of good manners and compliments FOOD are graciously denied. Koreans KOREA are quick to make friends and Korean cuisine is largely based friendships are highly valued. upon rice, vegetables and meats. Giving gifts as a means of obtaining Traditional Korean meals are noted favours is common, especially in the for the number of side dishes or workplace. banchan that accompany steam cooked short-grain rice. Kimchi Accepting a gift carries the (pickled cabbage) is served often, responsibility of reciprocity. Open sometimes at every meal. criticism and public disagreement are considered very serious Commonly used ingredients because it is not proper to damage include sesame oil, doenjang or another person’s reputation. Due fermented bean paste, soy sauce, to the attitude of respect for the salt, garlic, ginger, pepper flakes feelings of others, Koreans may and gochujang or fermented red withhold bad news or adverse chili paste. Eating with fingers is opinions or express them in an considered impolite, but slurping indirect way. Touching between soup and noodles is accepted. strangers or casual acquaintances, Spoons for soup and chopsticks especially between the opposite for everything else are the most sex, is considered inappropriate. common utensils.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 119 VISITING CARE FOR THE ELDERLY Unless special business calls for it, a Respect and care for sick and for superior never visits a subordinate. the aged has long been a norm Those who are invited are nearly and obligation of adult children always offered light refreshments, in traditional Korean culture. The consisting of a drink, fruit, crackers, customary expression has been for cookies or coffee. It is considered older parents to live with the eldest polite and a sign of respect for son, his wife and children in three- guests to take a gift to the hosts. generational households. The value of the gift is far less Housekeeping is regarded as a important than the gesture of women’s role and most senior giving it. In most cases, a gift will daughters-in-law are expected to be fruit, a beverage, or something care for elders with disabilities. from one’s home region. Shoes Often, all members of the three- and are removed indoors. In generational household share the some cases, slippers are provided work of a collective family business, otherwise people wear only socks in farm or shop. the home. KOREA Observing etiquette involves END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS paying particular attention to the host and making sure his or her Attitudes towards death and dying feelings are respected. Showing in elderly Korean-born people vary. respect for the family and the Some elderly people are highly state are of utmost importance dependent upon religion and tend for most visits. Koreans are very to rely on their faith in God and generous hosts. They view the care the religious minister for guidance. of a guest as basic good manners, Science-adherent elders have great so visitors are given the best the affection for life and believe in household has to offer. If there are modern medical advancements. many guests, then age or status are Other elders regard death as the used to determine who gets the dispensation of nature so there is best seat, the best cut of meat, the no need to be afraid of dying. largest drink, and so forth. Funeral rites are performed according to religious affiliation. Traditionally, funeral rites adhere to strict Confucian norms, which have

120 BRIDGING CULTURES clear and fixed hierarchical lines DID YOU KNOW? between the genders. For example, women are restricted from entering ? Valentine’s Day in Korea is all or witnessing a dying male relative. about the men. This is a day Similarly, men are not permitted where women show their love to observe the last moments of by giving chocolates and gifts a female’s life, regardless of the to their husbands/boyfriends. relationship. Everything changes on March 14. Known as White Day, this KEY EVENTS is the holiday where men buy gifts for women, but there’s a 25 December Christmas catch: A man is supposed to New Year 1 January spend three times the amount of the gift he received on Easter Varies Valentine’s Day. The gifts are Children’s Day 5 May often in the colour white. KOREA Parents’ Day 8 May Constitution Day 17 July National Foundation 3 October

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 121 LEBANON

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS of worship soon followed. An area centred on Elizabeth Street in Lebanese migrants have been Redfern became the economic and settling in Australia from the mid- social hub for the community. The 19th century. By the 1880s sizeable area became known as Little numbers of Lebanese were living in and later Little Lebanon. Sydney, Melbourne and Adelaide. These migrants were not welcomed Because the first Lebanese arrived by the White Australia policy which from the Ottoman district of came into force in 1901 and held

LEBANON Mount Lebanon in the province sway until the latter half of the of Syria, they were called Syrians, 20th century. The policy originally or sometimes Ottomans. Only favoured migrants from Britain since the formation of the modern and Ireland and required all to state of Lebanon in 1943 have pass a dictation test in a language new settlers been referred to as nominated by the immigration Lebanese, although some may officer. have said they came from Mount Lebanon. This new federal legislation effectively halted substantial At the turn of the 20th century Lebanese immigration because many Lebanese settled in and the Syrian/Lebanese were officially around the Sydney suburbs of classed as Asiatics, until there was Redfern, Waterloo and Surry some relaxation of the policy in the Hills. Some established retail 1920s. Relaxation of White Australia and warehousing businesses and policy regulations affecting Syrian/ factories which prospered and Lebanese in the early 1920s and a provided employment for the newly famine in Lebanon saw a second arrived. Churches and other places wave of immigration.

122 BRIDGING CULTURES LEBANON

Thousands arrived in Australia should be used. Knees may be before the disruptions caused by crossed, but crossing an ankle over World War II halted immigration. a knee risks offending any person By 1945 almost every rural and positioned where the bottom of urban centre in NSW had at least the foot is pointed. The soles of the one Lebanese small business and, shoes or feet should always face the in many of the larger towns, small earth and never another person. LEBANON discrete communities of Lebanese Eye contact is important as long appeared and they created a as there is no touching between network of rural businesses. genders. Men should never curse in front of women. CUSTOMS FOOD Lebanese society is heavily influenced by religion. The majority The Lebanese cuisine can often be of Lebanese are Muslim, the largest spicy. However, due to Lebanon’s groups being Shi’ite Muslims and warm climate, many dishes are also Sunni Muslims. Christians account light and vegetarian. A traditional for 25% of the population. meal for special occasions is the Meza. Kibbeh is a popular beef dish In Lebanese culture, pointing or that can be baked, fried, or eaten beckoning with the index finger raw. The main meal of the day is is impolite. To beckon another eaten between 12 pm and 3 pm. person, all fingers wave with the This meal may last two or more palm facing down. A closed fist hours. should never be waved in the air. For many, it is offensive to pass or receive objects with the left hand. The right hand or both hands

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 123 VISITING individuals in decision making may result in them feeling unmotivated Hospitality is a prized tradition in and a sense of uselessness. The Lebanon. People feel honoured to intention is usually benevolent have guests in their homes, and but may lead to depression and they also love to visit others. Hosts accelerated ageing in the older always serve guests something person. to drink, usually tea or coffee is prepared and served without asking Older adults can sometimes feel the guests. Hospitality requires that they have become a burden that it be accepted, so a word of to their families, both physically polite explanation is in order if and financially. They may isolate it is refused. If invited to a meal, themselves and refrain from sharing guests might bring flowers, a plant, their symptoms and concerns with a special dessert or something family members. for the home. Guests invited for lunch generally do not leave until END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS after 4 pm and dinner guests Lebanese funerals are usually very are expected to stay the entire elaborate. People are encouraged evening. It is extremely impolite to LEBANON to express their feelings of loss leave directly after eating. It is not openly and to follow funeral considered appropriate to discuss processions. (Muslim burials) business during a meal. All the religions in Lebanon place CARE FOR THE ELDERLY much emphasis on the afterlife. Individuals are constantly exhorted A predominant view is that after to live righteous lives in the present, a certain age the approach to which will allow them to enter a elder care is one of expectant paradise when they die. management, pending the eventual outcome of death. Moreover, a KEY EVENTS displacement of decision making occurs where family members often Arab League 22 March adopt a paternalistic approach and Anniversary replace older adults in assuming Independence Day 22 November responsibility for family issues, including health-related decisions. Evacuation Day 31 December The lack of involvement of elderly Islamic holidays for Varies Ramadan and feasts

124 BRIDGING CULTURES CASE STUDY

A STORY OF CULTURE not quite right with Saidy when she AND DEMENTIA started placing objects in unfamiliar places, she was aged 79. Generally, Saidy was a woman who emigrated an impeccably clean person, Saidy from Lebanon. She had five started to not change her clothing children—two boys and three when she spilled anything on them. girls. She was widowed when She, in fact, started to deny that she pregnant with her youngest had spilled anything at all. Saidy child. Her brother-in-law took paid regular visits to her doctor as responsibility for Saidy’s economic she had a heart murmur which was and social wellbeing. In 1962, her monitored regularly. Having a close son requested and sponsored her association with her GP led to a migration to Australia. She was diagnosis of dementia. LEBANON accompanied with one son and one daughter. Eventually, all of her Saidy was unaware of the condition children came to live in Australia. and did not fully understand what was wrong with her. The Saidy resided with her son and perceptions of dementia in the daughter-in-law Nouhad. She family and community at large practiced the Maronite faith. as retold by Nouhad are that Lebanese mothers are revered in “people think that they have the culture. The eldest son is the gone crazy…cuckoo”. “I would person responsible for looking after tell people that she had lost her the family and in particular if the mind, her memory”. “I had to treat mother is widowed. It is unheard of her like a baby”, Nouhad stated. allowing a Lebanese mother to go Nouhad herself had never heard out to work. The Lebanese family is of dementia previously. She recalls very much hinged on the matriarch.

Saidy loved Australia. She lived DID YOU KNOW? here happily with all of her family. ? The first ever people to build She never returned to Lebanon as a boat and set sail in it were war destroyed her family home. the Phoenicians who were the Saidy’s daughter-in-law, Nouhad, original occupants of Lebanon. realised that there was something

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 125 that her “heart was broken” when Nouhad recalls that she had to be given the diagnosis of dementia of at the hospital at 6 am the time her mother-in-law by the GP. “She when Saidy would wake and also was like a second Mum, it upset at 10 pm to ensure that she was my husband as well. What upset asleep. Saidy would at times not me was that she was not the wise allow Nouhad to leave her side. In woman that she once was”. essence, Nouhad felt as though she had to care for her mother-in-law Indeed Nouhad expressed that she even when she when she was not in found it difficult to treat her mother- her care. in-law “as a baby”, as Saidy was a very strong and an emotionally On the home front, Nouhad herself intelligent woman. Nouhad recalled had a young family of five to raise. fondly that Saidy could perceive She found some respite (only Nouhad’s state of being by just through the constant badgering of looking at her face. The two women medical staff) when she enrolled in were very close and emotionally TAFE to complete sewing classes. attached. She did this one day a week and then at night time. She did employ Nouhad had little respite from her some home care in the final stages

LEBANON caring duties. She looked after her of Saidy’s condition. Staff would mother-in-law until the end of her attend three times per week to days. Saidy was difficult at times shower her. Nouhad said that they and rarely wanted to leave the were “very good, very helpful”. house. At one time, Saidy needed to be hospitalised due to a kidney At the end of Saidy’s life things infection. She refused to allow were difficult as she even refused nursing staff to touch her. This assistance from Nouhad, and her meant that Nouhad had to attend daughters. Nouhad had to play to the hospital to assist with her tricks on her just to get showered. care. Nouhad recalls that she had to Saidy would also constantly pull wear gum boots and rainproof gear out her catheter which made things in order to accompany Saidy in the difficult to care for her. shower in order to pacify her and Nouhad remembered her mother- attend to her personal hygiene. in-law with great affection. It Nouhad also had to be present highlighted to me the great bond when medical staff were trying to which exists in Lebanese families. complete interventions.

126 BRIDGING CULTURES REFLECTION Consider how difficult caring for a person living with dementia would be. Not being able to do the things that one takes for granted, like meeting friends, attending outings with your own family, or even just having time to sit and watch television without being disturbed.

1. What specific services could assist these carers? 2. Is providing care for a person from a CALD background different to caring for a person of English language and cultural background? LEBANON

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 127 MACEDONIA (FYRM)

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS During the 1980s, the Macedonian community in Australia established first came to several cultural organisations Australia in the early 20th century to support its members. The as pechalbari, or men who came Macedonian Community Welfare seeking fortunes with the intention Association and a range of artistic of returning home. Many of these and sporting groups were also men decided to settle, however, established during this period. and travelled the Australian countryside looking for work In 1991, Macedonia declared its as itinerant labourers. Others independence from the Yugoslav established market gardens or Federation. Economic migrants MACEDONIA (FYMR) small businesses in both rural and from Macedonia soon began to city areas. Members of this first arrive in Australia. wave of immigrants sponsored the The 2011 Census data recorded immigration of family members, 40,223 Former Yugoslav Republic many of whom had lived through of Macedonian-born people in the civil war that ravaged Aegean Australia. The major religious group Macedonia or Northern Greece in is Orthodox Christians (34 844). the late 1940s. Small scale migration continued CUSTOMS after World War II, and numbers Religion and the church play a increased in the late 1960s through big role in the lives Macedonians to the 1970s. This was due to a people. Macedonians usually like worsening economic situation in the to have church services conducted Socialist Republic of Macedonia, for their weddings, christenings and which was then part of the Yugoslav funerals. Federation.

128 BRIDGING CULTURES MACEDONIA (FYRM)

Traditionally, older Macedonian (compote), lokum or Turkish delight people keep icons of the Lord, and . Virgin Mary and the Christian saints Alcohol is traditionally accepted hanging on the walls in their homes

and is also part of many MACEDONIA (FYMR) and some of them have a spot celebrations. Fasting is done in their house where they keep a regularly for religious holidays. candle or a wick burning in a glass Macedonia has a well- developed of oil. coffee culture, and Turkish coffee is by far the most popular coffee FOOD beverage. Macedonians are very hospitable Macedonian traditional folk and like to cook for their guests. costumes are worn just at cultural Macedonian cuisine includes, celebrations. In the past, they were bread, homemade pastries such as worn regularly in the villages. Each zelnik and banica. Burek are savoury area in Macedonian has its own pastries filled with cheese, spinach unique traditional costumes. or meat, capsicums, chillies, beans, potatoes, all kind of meats. is a red pepper relish. Kebapi, a VISITING type of sausage, polneti piperki, Relatives, friends and neighbours or stuffed capsicum usually filled visit regularly and informally. with rice or rice with meat, pita, However, it is important to give malidzano, an eggplant spread, advance notice of a visit if you are pindzur, a spicy vegetable relish, a stranger, in order for the host to and stuffed pickled cabbage rolls. receive you in the desired manner. Hospitality is a hallmark of the Traditional Macedonian desserts are culture, and shoes are traditionally palačinki a type of crêpe, kompot

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 129 taken off at the door as a show It is preferred that the terminally of respect. A person entering the ill die in the family home, but if room where others are seated the ill person is in hospital, family shakes hands with each person. members may visit palliative care Staring at strangers has been units and help with care. Should the considered impolite. terminally ill person understand that they are dying they may not wish CARE FOR THE ELDERLY for the community to know as they would like to be remembered as Sons are expected to care for they once were. aged and sick parents and families generally delegate shifts in this role. When someone dies, a priest is often called to say a prayer for their Caring for elderly and ill is an soul, it is hoped that the prayer will integral part of life. There is a cleanse the body of sins and for it strong stigma towards people to be accepted into the afterlife. with disabilities and mental health There are often unique traditions issues—problems are kept within for each individual person when the family and services are not they pass away. adequately utilised. Immediately after death, family will END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS sit by the side of their deceased

MACEDONIA (FYMR) family member until it is time for The issue of death in the transportation to the morgue. Macedonian community is The body of the deceased can considered taboo, especially in be handled without significant cases where the person is terminally restrictions, usually cleaned and ill. Death is very rarely spoken formally dressed for the burial. about outside the family home, Cremation is not widely accepted. especially in case of a cancer diagnosis. There is a genuine fear of becoming the subject of gossip if this diagnosis is known by the wider community. A person with cancer can be perceived as being ‘cursed’ and this may bring shame or embarrassment to the family.

130 BRIDGING CULTURES MACEDONIA (FYMR)

KEY EVENTS DID YOU KNOW? Macedonia is the first country New Year ? in the world to have full access Orthodox Christmas to wireless broadband. Orthodox Easter International Day of Labour St Elijah’s Day Macedonian Independence Day

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 131 MALAYSIA

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS In the late 1960s many ethnic Chinese left Malaysia after the Immigration from Malaysia government introduced affirmative (previously known as Malaya) action policies favouring indigenous first began during the mid-19th Malays. After the Immigration century, with many finding work Restriction Act had officially ended in the pearling industry. Others in 1973, Australia became a more worked in South Australian mines, favourable destination for Malaysian agriculture and in the cane fields immigrants, largely ethnic Chinese. of Queensland. Despite the high

MALAYSIA demand for Malay workers in The largest number of Malaysian Australia, the introduction of the born immigrants arrived in Immigration Restriction Act in 1901 Australia after 1981, under the severely curtailed the growth of this Family Reunion Program, skilled or community. business migrants. The Malaysian- born population in Australia There was a slight increase in the doubled between 1986 and 1991. size of the community during World War II when people were evacuated English (29%) and Cantonese from British Malaya. Most arrivals (26%) are the two most common were of European descent. languages spoken at home followed by Mandarin (25%). In the post-war period, Malaysian students were given temporary CUSTOMS residency under the Colombo Plan. In the 1950s, 17,000 students Malaysians may be influenced arrived and many of them stayed in by or practice a variety of beliefs Australia, later sponsoring parents due to the diversity of their ethnic and siblings. backgrounds.

132 BRIDGING CULTURES MALAYSIA

Islam is the official religion of patriarchal in structure. Malaysian- Malaysia, although the constitution born families tend to be very guarantees freedom of worship. private and reluctant to discuss Ethnic Malays are generally Muslim. family issues or conflict with non- The Chinese on the peninsula family members. are chiefly Buddhist, with some

Malaysian-born people highly value MALAYSIA Taoists, Christians, Confucianists emotional self-control. Arguments and other religions. Those of Indian or disagreements are kept to a background are Hindus, Catholics minimum. and Buddhists. While 27% identify as Buddhist, there has been a rapid growth of Christianity, now 40% due FOOD to recent arrivals. Eating customs differ among ethnic Traditionally, the family system is Malay groups. Malays and Indians the most important social unit in eat with their hands and with Malaysia. It is common for two or spoons. more generations to live together Some cultural groups refrain from in the same house. Cooperation, eating certain foods. For example, loyalty, and unity are important in Muslims do not eat pork or drink the family. Saving face or not being alcoholic beverages. Hindus and publicly embarrassed or causing some Buddhists do not eat beef. shame to the family is important Due to Malaysia’s cultural diversity, to Malaysian-born people. It is a wide variety of foods are eaten. important to conform to family and Rice is the dietary staple and fish is societal norms. the main source of protein. Spiced The family is the core social unit foods such as hot peppers or and is traditionally hierarchical and chillies are also widely eaten.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 133 MALAYSIA VISITING CARE FOR THE ELDERLY Visiting one’s relatives and friends Traditionally in Malaysia, children is an important part of Malaysian and family members care for their life, especially when one does not elderly. There is a respect for and share a house with the extended a sense of duty towards elders family. Dropping by without prior and parents. Malaysians view age arrangement is common. When positively and age is seen as a sign invited, persons are generally of wisdom. not expected to arrive on time. As with other Asian communities, Punctuality is not important in the guidance of elders, as well as Malaysia because of the emphasis religious and community leaders is on people over schedules. Shoes also held in high regard. are removed when entering a home.

134 BRIDGING CULTURES END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS DID YOU KNOW? Like other customary rituals held ? The Sarawak Chamber in in Malaysia, funerary practices are Malaysia is the world’s largest influenced not only by culture, underground cave. This cave is but religion as well. Buddhists, very spacious and could easily Christians, Hindus and Muslims accommodate forty Boeing have very different ways of caring 747 planes. for their deceased and preferred burial methods also differ, being either burials or cremations. While the final resting place is typically KEY EVENTS a community burial ground or a memorial park, some families opt to Christmas 25 December scatter the ashes of their loved one 1 January into the sea. New Year Easter Varies MALAYSIA Even though each race and religion has its own sets of beliefs and Ramadan & Eid Varies funerary practices, there are certain Official birthday June factors that unify the different of HM the Yang cultures in Malaysia. For example, di-Pertuan Agong during the difficult times following 31 August the untimely death of a family Malaysia’s National Day member, there is a strong sense of support from the community, Diwali Varies particularly among the extended family, friends and neighbours. Central to all Malaysian funerals, is prayer, both at home and in houses of worship.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 135 MALTA

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS According to the 2011 Census there were 41,274 Maltese-born people The first organised migrant in Australia with the major religious group arrived in 1883 when 61 affiliation being Catholic (37,817). Maltese labourers were recruited to work on the sugar plantations CUSTOMS in Queensland. Many of these migrants returned to Malta because Maltese culture and customs are of the harsh working conditions mostly influenced by Catholic

MALTA they experienced. festivals and national celebrations.

Migration from Malta to Australia St Paul is considered to be the gradually increased after 1905. The spiritual father of the Maltese. 1911 Australian Census reported Religious celebrations form an 248 Maltese-born residents. important part of culture in Malta Between 1911 and 1919 a further and around 80 such events are 2,000 migrated. The 1933 Census held during spring and summer recorded 2,782 Maltese born in months in Malta and Gozo. Catholic Australia. Immigration from Malta Maltese have a strong devotion to increased after 1944, when Maltese the Rosary. migrants were classified as White During World War II, while Malta British subjects. In 1948 the Maltese was being heavily bombed, the were offered assisted migrant Maltese people, led by the clergy, passage to Australia. Most of the took refuge in shelters and prayed Maltese migrants who came in the the Rosary, on the feast of Mary’s 1950s were semi-skilled or unskilled Assumption on 15 August 1941. workers. The Maltese attribute the prayers on this day, with the entry through

136 BRIDGING CULTURES MALTA

the Grand Harbour of a ship full with gravy. Stuffed poultry and of provisions, which saved the baked pasta dishes are common. islanders from starvation. Rabbit stewed in wine is a specialty, often served with pasta as a first FOOD course and lamb is eaten at Easter. Figolli are pastries cooked Maltese cooking is influenced for Easter and they cut to represent MALTA by Italian, North African and the symbolic figures. Eastern and has much in common with its VISITING Sicilian neighbours. Going out to socialise is a favourite Pastizzi are popular finger food. activity for most Maltese, preferred They are pastries filled with ricotta over spending time in each other’s cheese, , meat or anchovies homes. It is polite to arrange a and is the best known culinary visit. Men and women share house export of Malta. chores. The hosts generally offer A heavy meal includes pasta, meat a drink and refreshments (cakes, and vegetables, and dessert or fruit. biscuits or sandwiches). Guests Occasionally, a small bowl of soup often bring a gift of wine, chocolate called minestra begins the meal. or flowers when invited to a meal. Lampuki pie is a seasonal pastry- Foreign guests may present a covered fish casserole containing souvenir from their country. spinach, cauliflower, and sultanas. Stuffed octopus, squid, and cuttlefish are served with tomato sauce, while a roulade of beef known as bragoli is served

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 137 CARE FOR THE ELDERLY Burial practices and ceremonies are conducted in accordance with There is a strong family involvement the Catholic religion. The night in the care for the elderly and it is before the funeral, the Rosary is expected they will be cared for by held and the body is viewed. In the their children and family members. following days a mass is held and The elderly are traditionally cared friends accompany the family to the for at home and most rely on family cemetery. for support. It is common to pray for the souls END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS of the departed to assist those in purgatory, and family members Death is not a taboo subject in openly discuss the kinds of graves Maltese culture. Citizens celebrate they are considering buying. A death and several daily routines sharp distinction is made between reflect the Maltese respect for a common grave and a family death. grave, which is considered more honourable. One of the oldest traditions is the practice of placing salt on the MALTA stomach of the deceased, known as being ‘salted for the pit’. Prior to the funeral, the body is kept in the family’s house. Maltese people traditionally cover all mirrors in accordance with the traditional belief that mirrors are supernatural portals for spirits.

138 BRIDGING CULTURES KEY EVENTS DID YOU KNOW? Malta is home to ancient Christmas 25 December ? Megalithic Temples, one of the New Year 1 January oldest surviving free-standing Easter Varies structures in the world. They date back to 3600 BC, making St Pauls’ Shipwreck 10 February them older than the pyramids Freedom Day 31 March in Egypt, the Great Wall of Workers’ Day 1 May China, and Stonehenge in England. Sette Giugno 7 June Imnarja harvest feast 29 June Assumption Day 15 August Independence Day 21 September MALTA

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 139 MYANMAR (FORMERLY BURMA)

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS the Migration Refugee Special Humanitarian Programme. By The first Myanmar people to settle 1991, the Census recorded 8,223 in Australia were the so called Myanmar-born people in Australia. ‘Anglo-Burmese’. The Anglo- Burmese were of Myanmar and Since 1988, more Myanmar European descent, and emerged people fled the country due to as a distinct community through ethnic tensions and government relations between the British and oppression. An estimated one other European settlers and the million Myanmar people fled

MYANMAR indigenous peoples of Myanmar. to neighbouring countries, Myanmar was administered by the predominantly Thailand. Significant British from 1886 as Burma. numbers have arrived in Australia as refugees, often after long stays in Following independence from refugee camps. Britain in 1948 and the rise of nationalism, employment for the Myanmar Australian communities Anglo-Burmese became difficult are ethnically diverse, each with forcing many to leave Myanmar. their own unique dialects, beliefs Between 1947 and 1959, about and customs, reflecting the ethnic 3,500 Anglo-Burmese settled makeup of Myanmar. Members of in Australia. Following the 1962 Myanmar communities have tended military takeover of the Myanmar to self-identify based on ethnicity. government, a further 2,500 There are more than 135 different Anglo-Burmese settled in Australia ethnic groups in Myanmar, each between 1965 and 1972. Numbers with its own history, culture and grew significantly due to the language. The majority Bamar intake of Myanmar people under makes up about

140 BRIDGING CULTURES MYANMAR

two-thirds of the population in Rakhine State, and many more and controls the military and the live as refugees in neighbouring government. The minority ethnic countries like Bangladesh. nationalities, making up the A group of 160 Karen people remaining one-third, live mainly in of Myanmar have resettled in a the resource-rich border areas and

regional area of Australia in the MYANMAR hills of Myanmar. township of Nhill in Victoria. The The seven largest minority social impact of this resettlement nationalities are the Chin, the has had a significant impact for Kachin, the Karenni (sometimes this township, both socially and called Kayah), the Karen (sometimes economically. It has revitalised called Kayin), the Mhong, the industry in the town with much Rakhine, and the Shan. Myanmar needed labour. is divided into seven states, each The Myanmar people have named after these seven ethnic experienced decades of oppression nationalities, and seven regions from a succession of military (formerly called divisions), which are regimes and internal displacement. largely inhabited by the Bamar. This led to significant numbers The Rohingya people are not seeking refuge in Australia, often recognised by the government as after long stays in refugee camps. an ethnic nationality of Myanmar, Many women have come to and thus suffer from some of the Australia under the provision of worst discrimination and human ‘Women at risk’ visas. rights abuses of all the people The 2011 Census recorded 21,760 of Myanmar. Estimates put the Myanmar-born people in Australia, Rohingya population of Myanmar an increase of 75.8% from the 2006 at close to 2 million, living mainly

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 141 Census. Distribution by state and while Aung is used for younger territory showed Western Australia men. A woman’s name is preceded had the largest number with by Daw. A handshake is considered 7,456 followed by Victoria (5,607), an acceptable form of greeting. New South Wales (5,159) and Shoes are usually removed before Queensland (1,897). entering a traditional home. The main religions of the country Displaying the soles of the feet are Buddhism (89.2%), Christianity is considered offensive, as is (5.0%), Islam (3.8%). pointing feet at people or objects or touching people on the head. CUSTOMS Public displays of affection between men and women are frowned upon. A person’s name is preceded by a Small presents are acceptable number of different titles. Ko is the and appreciated, although never general title for an adult male. U expected. (pronounced oo) precedes an older or well-respected man’s name, MYANMAR

142 BRIDGING CULTURES FOOD typical of Myanmar. Chewing of Beattle is common practice. Myanmar people enjoy rice as their main food and it comprises about VISITING 75% of the diet. Rice is served with meat or fish, soup, salad and When visiting a traditional Myanmar vegetables all cooked in their home a sign of respect is to place own ways, and some relishes to the hands in front at chest level and complement the meal. palms together. A slight bow of the head accompanies this gesture. During meals, all the dishes are Monks are at the top of the social laid out on the dining table and ranking of people deemed worthy served together so that diners of respect. Next come parents’ can make their own choices and (mother and then father), teachers combinations. Although the dishes and elders. These people should be are prepared in a variety of ways, deferred to and never contradicted the most common method is to MYANMAR directly, in order to avoid awkward cook meat or fish in oil, seasoned situations from developing, with pounded , garlic, ginger, however unwittingly. The Myanmar turmeric, chili and spices, and people are known for their gentle simmer until all or most of the water friendliness. evaporates. The essential and most popular condiment is a kind of relish made from preserved fish or CARE FOR THE ELDERLY prawn, served with chili powder. In Myanmar, religion and culture are closely linked and play a central Most traditional snacks, which role in the care for the elderly. are rich in variety and taste, Traditionally, care for the elderly are generally made with rice or has been considered as a noble glutinous rice. Mohinga, or rice practice. Younger family members noodle served with fish soup, is serve the needs of the elderly the favourite Myanmar dish mostly with great pride. People live in enjoyed at breakfast or on special extended families with the younger occasions. generation. The nature of the family Laphet or pickled tea leaves with a structure enables the family to take dash of oil and served with sesame care of the elderly who, in turn, also seeds, fried garlic and roasted play a meaningful role as advisors peanuts, is another popular snack and community leaders within their

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 143 capacities. The Myanmar society END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS generally treats their elderly with great respect. Buddhists believe that those who die are reborn in a form that is In addition to family care, there in keeping with the merit they are two ways of taking care for the accumulated while alive. The cycle elderly in Myanmar. The first is the of death and rebirth is believed to traditional way of caring. A Home continue as long as ignorance and for the Aged was first established craving remain. in 1898 by Daw Oo Zonn, a well- known lady. Since then many homes for the aged have been established The cycle can be broken only in various places in the country through personal wisdom and the depending on the needs of the elimination of desire. Funerals local community. Another model involve either burial or cremation. of care embraced in Myanmar is The ceremony includes a through the volunteering based procession of monks and mourners home care program which was who accompany the coffin to the introduced to the country in cemetery or crematorium, with the 2004. International bodies have monks chanting and performing MYANMAR introduced home based and rites. Funerals for monks tend to community based care services. be elaborate, while those who Along with day care services all have died a violent death generally are considered appropriate in the are quickly buried with very little Myanmar context as they are cost ceremony, since their spirits are effective options for care. believed to linger as malevolent ghosts.

144 BRIDGING CULTURES KEY EVENTS DID YOU KNOW? There is a widespread Independence Day January ? superstition around cutting Union Day February hair in Myanmar. No one cuts their hair on a Monday, Friday Full Moon Day of March Tabaung or on their birthday.

Thingyan April (Water Festival) May Day May

Full Moon Day of July Waso

Fulll Moon Day of October Thi Dyin Kyut MYANMAR Full Moon Day of November Ta Saung Mone

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 145 NETHERLANDS

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS to help with the defence and evacuation of Dutch residents of the Dutch sailors were among the first . The Dutch East Europeans to reach Australia in Indies and Australian government 1606 when the Duyfken became reached an agreement that all the first ship to chart part of financial responsibilities, for Dutch Australia’s coastline. The Dutch women and children evacuated to named the west coast of Australia Australia, would fall on the Dutch ‘New Holland’ and many of their East Indies Administration. ships sunk or were disabled on the Western Australian coast. After World War II, the government NETHERLANDS Aboriginal oral history conveys of the Netherlands actively that survivors of Dutch shipwrecks encouraged emigration to relieve came ashore and joined Indigenous housing shortages and economic communities. Dutch East Indies distress in Holland. The Netherlands Company ships stopped visiting Australia Migration Agreement Western Australian shores in 1796. (NAMA) of 1951 facilitated the immigration of Dutch people to In the early 19th century a Australia. The economic situation few Dutch-born convicts were in the Netherlands improved in the transported to Australia. A small 1960s, and the number of people number of free settlers also immigrating to Australia began immigrated, and the gold rush drew to decrease. Others already living increasing numbers in the 1850s. in Australia chose to return to the It was not until from 1942 to 1945 Netherlands and, by 1981, the that Dutch numbers increased Netherlands-born population of significantly when Dutch military Australia had fallen. personnel arrived in Australia

146 BRIDGING CULTURES NETHERLANDS

CUSTOMS On New Year’s Eve, the Dutch reflect on the year that has passed There are three main religions and gather with friends rather than in the Dutch community in family members. The New Year is Australia—Catholic, Protestant welcomed with champagne and and Calvinist Christians. Some fireworks and resolutions are made. NETHERLANDS traditional celebrations of the Dutch, irrespective of their religious ‘Gezelligheid’ (a sense of cosiness, affiliations are Koninginnedag, atmosphere, sharing and company) King’s Day, which falls in April. is a key characteristic of Dutch culture. This concept is echoed in Remembrance of Dutch casualties the décor of the home. in World War II is commemorated whereby the nation observes a FOOD minute’s silence at 8 pm to honour those who died in the war. Traditional Dutch foods include soup, kale stew, hotchpotch, Pasen (Dutch Easter) is celebrated a thick stew, white asparagus, in accordance with Christian french fries with mayonnaise, meat traditions. They prepare festive croquettes, and raw herrings. For , brunches or lunches. breakfast Dutch usually eat several The Feast of Saint Nicholas sandwiches with cheese, peanut (Sinterklaas) is celebrated on butter, or chocolate sprinkles. 5 December. Family members Lunch consists of sandwiches, often and friends exchange gifts on the with cold cuts and perhaps a small Eve of Saint Nicholas’ Day, while salad on the side. Raw herring children receive gifts on his birthday served with raw onion is extremely (6 December). popular and in the Netherlands

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 147 this is sold everywhere by street CARE FOR THE ELDERLY vendors. The Dutch prefer to be Dinner is usually a two- or three- independent for as long as course meal that often begins possible. They fear the loss of with soup. The main dish usually independence, the loss culture, contains a mixture of potatoes and the loss of ability to have a with vegetables and meat, fish, or choice of how to live. They usually poultry and is followed by dessert. will accept going to an aged care Due to influences from travels facility to live when they are unable and colonial campaigns, Chinese- to care for themselves and if there Indonesian, Surinamese, and Italian is no family members to care for cuisines have now become part of them. the Dutch diet. Coffee has a strong social significance and neighbours The Dutch believe family visits often invite each other over for a are important and it is expected cup of coffee. that family visit often and check that quality care is provided. Other traditional dishes include, Dutch elderly often have a need poffertjes, similar to mini pancakes to be closer to their roots and with sprinkled sugar. Hagelslag have someone to speak to in

NETHERLANDS or Muisjes, which are chocolate their native language. This can be sprinkles are usually eaten on difficult within families, as not all bread. Kroketten, consist of rolled Australian-born Dutch children were up leftover meat in a paste rolled in encouraged to maintain their Dutch breadcrumbs and then fried. language and culture. Aanpassen, or fitting in, was a distinctive aspect VISITING of Dutch resettlement in Australia. The Dutch are hospitable and In public, most Dutch people enjoy having visitors. Unannounced seemed willing to get rid of, visiting is not common, except or at least cover up, any social between very close friends or characteristics defined as ethnic relatives. When visiting, it is by Australians. Anglo-conformity customary to shake hands with became the hallmark of Dutch everyone present, including identity in Australia. These children. Dinner guests usually assimilation patterns made the bring flowers or another small gift Dutch somewhat invisible and saw to their hosts. them labelled ‘model migrants’.

148 BRIDGING CULTURES The Dutch believe that medical KEY EVENTS expertise is better in specialised facilities. Dutch-born people Christmas 25 December practice a Western model of health 1 January in conjunction with alternative New Year therapies. Easter Varies King’s Birthday 27 April END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS National Liberation 5 May The Dutch accept death as a natural Day process. Medication is accepted to 4 May relieve physical discomfort. Spiritual Remembrance Day needs and emotional support is provided by close family members, clergy and friends. Attendance at DID YOU KNOW? funerals is generally by invitation NETHERLANDS only, and the invitation will most ? The Dutch are the tallest in the likely only entitle you to take part world with an average height in one specific part of the funeral of 184cm for men and 170cm process. The funeral process does for women. Some believe it’s not necessarily have to take place the combined result of DNA at the church. The funeral director and dairy. approaches the family after a loved one has passed, asking if they prefer a cremation or a burial. Generally, a burial may take place around four days after the death.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 149 PHILIPPINES

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS to the Philippine Independent (or Aglipayan) church, and 3% In the post-war period, many belong to various other Christian Filipinos came as students under churches. The majority of Muslim the Colombo Plan and remained in people live mainly on the southern Australia. In 1966 an immigration islands, particularly Mindanao. A reform allowed well-educated, non- number of Buddhists also live in the Europeans to migrate to Australia. Philippines.

A large influx of Filipinos entered Filipinos have been influenced Australia during the 1970s as by the Chinese, Malay, Spanish PHILIPPINES brides sponsored by Australian and US cultures. Although casual male residents. This was generated and fun loving, Filipinos are by the final demise of the White sensitive people. Insincerity is Australia policy and the declaration easily detected and can ruin a of martial law in the Philippines relationship. Individualism is less in 1972. The Australian Filipino important than the family. population doubled every five years from 1966 until 1991. From the CUSTOMS mid-1980s to date, skilled migrants and family reunion have been the Interdependence is more important major features of Filipino migration. than independence; a family member will often sacrifice personal The Philippines is unique among goals or desires to help the family Asian countries because it is the or another family member. In only nation that is predominantly general, Filipinos have a more Christian. Approximately 83% relaxed view of time and may of the population belong to the not always begin meetings or Catholic Church, 6% belong appointments promptly.

150 BRIDGING CULTURES PHILIPPINES

Gratitude and saving face is Rice, the mainstay of Filipino paramount to Filipinos. Fatalism is a cuisine, is prepared in a variety of common attitude. Success may also tasty ways and is often included in be attributed to fate rather than desserts as well as main meals. The ability or effort. primary source of protein is fish, which is accompanied by a variety Conversation is generally casual PHILIPPINES of vegetables and tropical fruit. during meals. The best way for a guest to compliment a meal is to The traditions of Chinese and eat heartily. A small portion is left Spanish cuisines are present on the plate to indicate that the in Filipino cooking and have person has eaten adequately. contributed to a unique cuisine, with variations across different FOOD regions. Some Filipino dishes are: Sinigang, a sightly sour soup made Filipinos cannot go a day without with meat or fish and a range of rice and it is not considered a vegetables; Nilaga, meat bones meal if rice is not included. They simmered for a long time until have very regular eating habits— tender and garnished with a range breakfast, mid-morning and of vegetables and condiments; afternoon snacks or merienda, Panchit Palabok, rice noodles with lunch at midday and dinner. prawns and Kare Kare an oxtail Filipino food is not spicy, except stew which is enriched with peanut for some specialty foods. Forks butter. and spoons are used for dining. The food is eaten from a spoon. It is also acceptable to eat with your fingers.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 151 VISITING END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS Initial greetings are friendly and Death and burial rights include a informal. Because English is broad range of practices among commonly used in urban areas, Filipinos. Friends will come normal English greetings are together at varying times over acceptable. The common greeting several days until the eve of the for acquaintances and friends is funeral to make the wake a most Komusta or an expression which memorable one. is loosely translated in English as Viewings are acceptable to some ‘How are you’. People are taught to families but not all. Families and show respect to each other. Proper friends look for emotional support titles are used (Doctor, Professor) or at this time from all who are around terms like aunt or uncle. them, including staff in facilities. Priests and Ministers of religion CARE FOR THE ELDERLY are important parts of these rites Filipinos generally seek their of passage as are church services, families to look after them when prayers and masses for the they are sick or when they are departed.

PHILIPPINES no longer able to live at home. Separation from families by moving to a hospital or residential care facility can be very difficult. Visits by relatives, close friends and church friends are very important at this time. The latter are considered to be a part of the extended family.

152 BRIDGING CULTURES PHILIPPINES

KEY EVENTS DID YOU KNOW? Do you remember the ‘yo-yo’ Christmas 25 December ? toy? It was primarily made and New Year 1 January used as a weapon for hunting Easter Varies in ancient Filipino times. Labour Day May Independence Day June All Souls’ Day 2 November

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 153 POLAND

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS different from earlier immigrants as they were mostly young, educated Polish immigration to Australia and married and they often brought began in the 19th century and their elderly parents to Australia. the largest group (63,000) arrived as refugees between 1947 and The 2011 Census recorded 1954. Post World War II, those 48,678 Polish-born people in that immigrated were usually ex- Australia with the major religious servicemen, prisoners of war and affiliations among them being survivors of Nazi concentration Catholic (36,121). There are also POLAND camps and labour camps. In some Judaism, Eastern Orthodox, Australia, they worked under Protestant, Seventh Day Adventists two-year contracts and many and Jehovah Witnesses. were employed on the Snowy Mountains Hydroelectric Scheme. CUSTOMS These migrants survived torture Polish customs and traditions are and trauma at the hands of their closely linked with European culture oppressors. and have evolved around Catholic Almost 15,000 Polish-born people religious festivities. Significant came to Australia between 1957 holidays and traditional celebrations and 1966 as refugees, fleeing the include Lent and Easter, when communist regime. The emergence the blessing of food and painting of solidarity and martial law in eggs is widely practiced. In Polish Poland brought another influx of tradition, name days or imieniny Polish refugees. Between 1980 are more important than birthdays and 1991, 25,000 Poles settled and are widely celebrated. The in Australia. These people were Polish calendar contains the names of saints and a number of names

154 BRIDGING CULTURES POLAND

are celebrated each day. Name day Every day staple foods include celebrations traditionally involve a potatoes, cabbage either fresh or gathering of friends and family at sour and small goods, sausages, the home of the name day host, ham, pork, chicken and beef. where dinner is served followed by Black tea with lemon and sugar or drinking and socialising, similar to honey and herbal teas are the most

birthday celebrations. popular drinks. POLAND

The most popular religious worship Some popular dishes are sour beet is connected with the painting of root soup or barszcz, cabbage rolls Our Lady of Częstochowa or Black or golabki, dumplings or pierogi, Madonna. Many religious items can or paczki, pork rissoles be displayed in the homes of Polish or kotlety and bigos or sauerkraut. people, including, rosary beads, a picture of the Black Madonna, VISITING pictures of Jesus Christ and a photo of the Polish Pope, John Paul II. Unannounced visits among friends and relatives are common. More formal, longer visits are arranged FOOD in advance. It is proper to give to Polish cuisine is similar to European the hostess flowers for the first cuisines, especially Eastern visit. Entertaining is traditionally European. Poles like to eat potato done in the home because the and meat. On Fridays most Catholic hostess might wish to prepare Poles eat fish or other meat certain special dishes. Moreover, substitutes like buckwheat, barley going out is quite expensive. or dumplings. Bread, preferably Dining in restaurants is reserved for sour dough rye, is served with most special occasions and has become meals. more popular over last few years.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 155 Cafeterias, clubs and bars are well- widows. The Polish elderly are often liked places to get-together with socially isolated due to a general friends. lack of chain or family migration and family reunions. In addition, CARE FOR THE ELDERLY due to the ageing population, existing community support Most elderly Poles regularly attend structures either disintegrate or are mass in Polish Catholic Parishes. no longer accessible as people’s Polish priests and nuns provide health deteriorates. pastoral care and support in people’s homes and aged care Polish migrants who arrived in facilities. Traditional family values Australia after experiencing the and loyalty are very strong in most horrors of war were often teenagers Polish households. The elderly play or young men and women who an active role in helping to raise were forced into Nazi labour grandchildren and it is traditionally and concentration camps. These accepted that children will look people experienced violence and after their parents. trauma. These experiences have affected them profoundly. War or Families often consider it a war related experiences are usually POLAND moral obligation to care for their rarely spoken about in many Polish loved ones at home and they are families, especially those who reluctant and feel guilty about arrived in Australia after Wold War II. placing them in aged care facilities. Most Polish elderly prefer to stay There exists a clear division of roles in their own homes for as long as between husband and wife. There possible, regardless of their health are also strong cultural expectations status and financial circumstances. of women to be ‘caregivers’. They often resist seeking help until facing a crisis point. This is a END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS result of unwillingness to lose their Traditionally, the diagnosis of independence and self-sufficiency a terminal illness would not be and a sense of embarrassment at communicated to the person having to seek help from outsiders. concerned but rather to their Among elderly members of the families who then decide when and Polish community in Australia, there how or if at all, to convey it to the is a high proportion of childless patient. Some may believe that if couples, single-aged men and the prognosis is communicated

156 BRIDGING CULTURES to the patient he or she may lose At the funeral and during mourning hope and the will to live. Polish black is commonly worn. The people can at times display stoicism majority of Polish-born people do towards pain and may suffer in not display grief in an open way. silence. They tend to suffer in silence and are reluctant to seek support from Some people turn to self- professionals. management, seeking homeopathic remedies, changing their lifestyle and eating habits. Most Poles KEY EVENTS have an acceptance of death Christmas 25 December and consider it as part of the life process. At the time of death most New Year 1 January Polish Catholics, even those who Easter Varies are not regular church attendees, would wish to see a priest and Labour Day 1 May

receive Holy Communion and POLAND Independence Day 11 November the Last Rites. Funeral customs are determined by the religious All Saints’ Day 1 November affiliation and wishes of the person Assumption Day 15 August or family.

Most people prefer burial and more recently some have accepted DID YOU KNOW? cremations. Graves of loved ones ? Poles have won a total of 17 are visited at least yearly on All Nobel Prizes (more than Japan, Saints’ Day, (1 November), when China, India, or Australia), flowers and candles are placed on including four Peace Prizes the graves. and five Pulitzer Prizes (in literature).

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 157

CASE STUDY

STAN’S STORY Perception of dementia – Stan’s wife, his carer Stan was a 91-year-old Polish man Stan’s wife, who was his carer, diagnosed with vascular dementia. had a very poor understanding He came to Australia in 1947 as of dementia. Having her own part of the displaced person’s health problems and suffering migrant cohort. He worked at from an anxiety disorder, she often Sydney Water until his retirement. expressed her frustration of her He lived in his own unit and was husband’s behaviours. She felt an active member of the local that he was doing this to make her Polish community club. Stan was upset or out of spite. This led to a practicing Catholic. He had a escalating conflicts between the basic level of education and spoke couple and resulted in her seeking English well. He married in his 60s. police interventions after rows and Stan’s wife came to Australia in the quarrels.

POLAND 1980s leaving her daughter behind Experiences that led to in Poland. She had very limited seek a diagnosis English. She was a devout Catholic and had a well-developed circle of In 2005, Stan was admitted to friends in her parish and among the hospital after he became lost when Polish community. coming back home from the club. Police reported his behaviours as being erratic with occasional STAN’S MEDICAL HISTORY aggression. During his admission Brain injury in the 1960s, enlarged he experienced delusions and prostate, history of re-occurring when tested scored 16/30 in the UTI, incontinence (refusing to use RUDAS. Further tests resulted in the continence products), deafness, diagnosis of dementia. unsteady gait, history of falls, hypertension, poor concentration, Behaviours prior to diagnosis agitation, disturbed sleep patterns. and post diagnosis Stan was able to comply with his Stan’s wife reported aggression. regular intake of medication. Stan could be verbally abusive towards his wife. He admitted

158 BRIDGING CULTURES

pushing his wife because he stated Access to services to assist in the that he “could not cope with her management of the condition: attacks and screaming”. No service, especially those Persecutory delusions focusing on addressing behaviours and neighbours, wife, her friends and relationship issues were ever staff assisting with care. Refusal accepted. to take medications, regular visits Carer was not interested in to his GP to undertake medical accessing counselling services treatment and fear of being forced and or support from dementia to be placed in a residential aged behavioural management services. care facility (RAFA) by wife. Carer was continuously denying her

Stan spent most of his days in local husband’s diagnosis of dementia POLAND club and would come home late in and blamed him for being difficult. the afternoon to avoid conflict with Listed below are some strategies his wife. which were used by the Home Care Post diagnosis, Stan was in denial Package provider to assist both and refused to undergo a cognitive Stan and his wife: re-assessment. • Setting clear boundaries The diagnosis of dementia did not between the two packages of change his wife’s behaviour towards care provided – different days/ him. Her aggressive, hostile way of different staff communicating, attacking, raising • Continuing education of carer voice and agitation contributed to about nature of her husband’s Stan’s aggressive behaviour towards condition, including importance her. of appropriate communication. She often called the police and It was observed that Stan’s accused Stan of domestic violence, aggression was triggered by his asked for him to be taken away and wife’s behaviour and was never locked up. She often spoke about directed towards staff. the immediate need to place him in • Providing a lot of reassurance a RACF. and emotional support to carer,

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 159 especially after her health challenging behaviours. Staff was deteriorated and she needed provided with regular debriefing more care. about strategies to manage challenging situations in this • Allocation of two case managers household. to manage each package. Both were reinforcing the need to • PAWA also worked very closely respect dignity, privacy and with Polish GP. independence of carer and care Outcomes of use of services for recipient as individuals. Stan and his wife: • Providing advocacy on behalf of • Introduction of service reduced Stan to ensure that his needs and tension and conflict between dignity as a person living with couple. dementia were understood and met. • Carer felt supported and acknowledged. Her anxiety • Setting and reinforcing clear reduced over time. boundaries of appropriate behaviour for carer and care • Both care and care recipient’s recipient towards each of them, needs were separately addressed POLAND especially in front and/or towards by individual HCP. staff. • Carer was supported through Note: Staff witnessed carer’s period of illness until she entered aggressive behaviour towards Stan palliative care services. and was attempting to calm carer • Stan continued to live down and defuse conflict. It put a independently at home with the lot of pressure on staff. As carer was support of HCP for another year unable to distinguish between her after his wife passed away part of package services and her husbands, at a certain point she • He experienced episodes of was asked that she was not at home deterioration in his cognition and when the staff came to provide the periods of increased delusion service to her husband. usually caused by re-occurring UTI. He was very independent • Care staff who provided support and used services in a few aspects to both carer and care recipient of his life: medical transport, were experienced in supporting personal care (occasionally), people with dementia and washing, heavier housework

160 BRIDGING CULTURES and some meal preparation. He continued to manage his finances independently and went to the club every day to socialise and to have dinner. He developed a great deal of trust towards staff • He passed away at home at the age of 91.

NOTES POLAND

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 161 PORTUGAL

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS Australia with the major religious affiliations being Catholic (13,200). Portuguese sailors explored parts of the north and western coastline of CUSTOMS Australia, most likely as early as 250 years before Captain James Cook’s Portuguese-speaking people have voyage of 1770. The Portuguese a number of traditions and rituals colony in Timor, located only 475 that are celebrated according to km north of the Australian coastline their religious affiliation. All Saints’ was established in 1516, and small Day is an occasion for special

PORTUGAL numbers of Portuguese-speaking reverence for those who have settlers started to arrive to Australia departed. Many Catholic families in the 19th century. attend the Midnight Mass called Missa do Galo on Christmas Eve. In the 1950s the number of settlers On Christmas Day, carollers sing increased slightly with the arrival Christmas carols called Janeiras. of some immigrants from Madeira. People will greet each other with There was also an influx of migrants Feliz Natal or Boas Festas, which due to the return of troops means Merry Christmas and happy following the end of the prolonged holidays. The festivities end on 6 Portuguese colonial wars in January. Angola and Mozambique. In 1974, numbers increased with the return Portugal has a long tradition in of expatriate Portuguese following celebrating Easter. On Good Friday the arrival of Indonesian troops in almost all Portuguese Christians East Timor in 1975. do not eat meat. This fasting ends on the Saturday of Easter, with a The 2011 Census recorded 5,328 traditional roast and festivities. Portuguese-born people in

162 BRIDGING CULTURES PORTUGAL

The family is the foundation of the Fish and cheese are common, while social structure and the extended seafood such as octopus, squid and family is also quite close. The eel are abundant. Other popular individual derives a social network dishes include a form of gazpacho and assistance from the family and with bread and smoked pork, and loyalty to the family comes before a pork and clam stew cooked in a other social relationships, even cataplana tightly sealed steamer. PORTUGAL business. A traditional family meal is served on Christmas Eve which includes FOOD bacalhau with molho verde, a green sauce made with virgin olive oil. Portuguese cuisine varies greatly This is served alongside couve and depends on which area that (cabbage) and boiled potatoes. person has migrated from. A kale and potato soup, generally On the Twelfth Night, a bolo rei or flavoured with a slice of chouriço kings’ bread is served, often with (spicy sausage), is popular. Also a lucky coin in it. Coffee shops are popular are grilled sardines and a popular places to meet friends, talk traditional bread of the northwest business, and study. Various styles called broa, which is made of of coffee are served, each with a grainy corn with a thick crust. The special name. traditional wine is vinho verde. Fresh and cured pork is used in a VISITING number of dishes, and a stew of When visiting a family, guests wait mixed meats and vegetables called outside the door until invited inside cozida a` portuguesa originated in the home. Likewise, guests do not the northwest and has become a let themselves out when leaving but . they let the hosts open the door.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 163 Guests are expected to wipe END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS their feet before entering. Guests PORTUGAL usually avoid inquisitive personal Dying and death is accepted questions. Guests often take as a fundamental part of life by small gifts to their hosts or send most. The presence of a priest is a thank you note after a dinner important for Catholic Portuguese engagement. people to provide support to the dying person and family. CARE FOR THE ELDERLY Medication is usually accepted to reduce suffering. Elders and senior members of the The burial rites are conducted family should always be shown according to religious affiliation. respect and treated with dignity. Commonly, burial is carried out in There is a degree of saving face local cemeteries and family graves in Portugal and family honour and are well tended by living kin. loyalty is of the utmost importance, Mourning is signified by wearing and should always be respected. It black attire; a widow will generally is very common practice for family wear black for the rest of her life, members to provide care and look while other family members remain after their sick and elderly relatives.

164 BRIDGING CULTURES in mourning for varying lengths of KEY EVENTS time depending on their age and relationship to the deceased. Christmas 25 December Portugal is also characterised by New Year 1 January various cults of death, for example, Easter (changes with beliefs about souls in purgatory or Christian calendar) incorrupt bodies. Such beliefs are not confined to rural areas. Saints’ Days, Corpus Varies Christi, Assumption of our Lady Carnival February or March

DID YOU KNOW? Freedom Day 25 April ? Portugal is home to the longest Labour Day 1 May bridge in Europe, the Vasco de National Portugal 10 June Gama Bridge. It stretches over PORTUGAL Day 17 km and spans the Tagus River just outside of the city of Proclamation of the 5 October Republic Lisbon. All Saints’ Day Varies

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 165 SERBIA

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS relatives as the agreement between the Australian and Yugoslavian Following World War I, the governments made the sponsorship Kingdom of Serbia united with process easier. other Balkan territories to form the Kingdom of , Croats Many people had been working and Slovenians. The Kingdom of temporarily in Western Europe, Yugoslavia was formally named in particularly Germany, before 1929. Yugoslavia was occupied by immigrating to Australia. Between 1961 and 1971, the Yugoslavian-

SERBIA the Axis powers and temporarily dismantled during World War II, born population in Australia when large numbers of people fled. increased nearly threefold. The most recent wave of migration was There were three waves of in the 1990s by those escaping migration to Australia with conflict in the former Yugoslavia. Yugoslavs one of the largest groups migrating between 1948 and 1955 Serbia is overwhelmingly Orthodox from Displaced Persons Camps Christian, however, there is a in Europe. Many who came to significant number of citizens who Australia during this period were are Catholic, Protestant, Muslim or opposed to the newly formed Jewish. communist regime in Yugoslavia. The second wave of immigration CUSTOMS was due to the worsening economic is the most important annual situation in Yugoslavia, which Serbian custom. It is a celebration included high unemployment in of a family patron saint day, which the 1960s and 1970s. During this is passed on from one generation time many Serbian Australians to the next. Friends and family sponsored the migration of

166 BRIDGING CULTURES SERBIA

gather in a festive spirit on this day. is a layered breakfast pie made of Serbians are proud of their history, cheese or meat, while krompirusa is diversity and rich cultural heritage. a version made with potatoes. They are usually outgoing and value Some other typical dishes are good humour and friendships. cevapcici, kebabs of spiced minced Serbians are generous, especially beef, mesano meso, a with guests. of pork cutlet, liver sausage and SERBIA minced meat patties with onions FOOD and duvec a Serbian stew. Salads Serbian food is rich in flavour are typically simple, consisting of and influenced by neighbouring peppers, onions and tomatoes European cuisines, such as Austrian, seasoned with oil and vinegar. Italian, Turkish and Hungarian. The Serbian staple diet relies on bread, VISITING fruit, meat, and dairy products, Serbians frequently visit one including yoghurt and cottage another, and it is an important cheese. Strong black coffee is part of the culture to keep close served throughout the day. Lunch ties with family and friends. If you is the main meal of the day and is are invited to someone’s home for commonly served at 3 pm. dinner or Slava (the celebration of Peppers are a common ingredient the family saint day), bring along in many dishes. Other Serbian a symbolic gift such as a bottle of specialities include a type of wine and/or flowers. It is impolite to , called , a cheese open the gifts with guests present. pie called , cabbage leaves filled with meat called ; palacinke or crepes, burek

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 167 CARE FOR THE ELDERLY Serbian families prefer to be informed of the diagnosis before In traditional Serbian society deciding whether or not to notify sometimes three generations can the ill person. live together, providing emotional and practical security. Older Serbs When a person is near death, a expect that the family will take care priest is often called to say a prayer of them at home. This sometimes in aid of the person’s suffering and creates family conflict as younger to hear their Holy Confession. The people may not be able to provide closest family members will stay by sufficient home care. Sending the deceased’s side immediately the elderly to aged care facilities after death for a period of 24 hours may appear insulting to the family or until the body is transferred to honour. the morgue. Organ donation is not common in the Serbian community END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS as the Orthodox Church teaches that the body should remain whole In order to prevent a sense of at burial, exiting the world as it abandonment and exclusion, family entered. Female mourners may

SERBIA involvement is vital during times of wear black clothes for one year or illness. The concept of hospice and longer. Men may sometimes not palliative care is not acknowledged shave for 40 days or longer and in Serbia, where dealing with they might wear a black armband terminally ill people has been a as a sign of mourning. family responsibility. In the Serbian community, it is preferred that the Given the importance of terminally ill person dies in the commemorating death and dying family home. However, if the person in Serbian tradition, elderly Serbian is in palliative care at the hospital people and their family would have or in an aged care facility, family discussed funeral arrangements. members will generally make a For those who belong to the constant effort to visit and care for Serbian Orthodox Church, burial them. practices and ceremonies are conducted in accordance with the It is general practice for Serbian Orthodox religion, which does not families to withhold informing the allow for cremation. Many Serbian dying person of their diagnosis families want funeral arrangements in an effort not to burden them. to be made by specific funeral

168 BRIDGING CULTURES directors who are familiar with DID YOU KNOW? Serbian traditions. Traditions Serbia is the largest raspberry include bringing food and drink to ? the cemetery on day of burial and exporter, accounting for one 40-day remembrance). third of all the raspberries in the world. Close to 95% of the world’s top quality raspberries KEY EVENTS come from Serbia. New Year 1 January Orthodox Christmas 7 January Orthodox New Year 14 January National Day 15 February ‘Sretenje’ (Meeting of the Lord) Orthodox Easter Varies SERBIA Labour Day 1 May

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 169 SLOVAKIA

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS around 6,000 immigrated to Australia from Czechoslovakia. The first Slovak migrant recorded Since the democratisation of in Australia was a Jesuit priest sent Czechoslovakia in 1989 and its to Australia in 1888 to undertake dissolution into separate Czech and missionary work in the Northern Slovak Republics in 1993, there has Territory and later in South been little migration of Slovaks to Australia. More significant numbers Australia. of Slovaks began to migrate in the late 1920s. In 1928, 160 Slovaks The 2011 Census recorded 3,939

SLOVAKIA came to eastern Australia in search Slovakian-born people in Australia of work. with the major religious affiliations among the Slovakian-born being By 1939, about 350 Slovaks lived in Catholic (2,318) and Lutheran (178). Australia. This number increased to around 3,000 following World War CUSTOMS II when many arrived as displaced persons. In the late 1950s, more Slovaks are proud of their rich than 3,000 Slovaks from the cultural heritage and value their northern parts of Yugoslavia were national identity. They are friendly permitted to migrate and came and open-minded people with a to Australia. After 1968 following modern innovative outlook, while the Prague Spring (Prague is the simultaneously having great respect capital of the former Republic of for traditions. The most popular Czechoslovakia), around 1,200 religious artifacts are connected with Slovaks, with relatives or friends in Catholic symbols and pictures of Australia, arrived. During the Soviet Holy Family and Saints are commonly occupation of Czechoslovakia found in elderly Slovaks homes.

170 BRIDGING CULTURES SLOVAKIA

FOOD VISITING Traditional dinner on Christmas Eve Impromptu visits are common, but is prepared and even today many only between close friends and Slovak families must have on the family members. Guests remove Christmas table, garlic, in order hats and shoes in a home; hosts to ward off demons. There is also sometimes provide slippers. SLOVAKIA honey, wafers, nuts, cooked peas Visitors wait for hosts to invite or French beans, dried fruit, and them to be seated. Invited guests the main dish, cabbage soup with often present the hosts with a mushrooms. Opekance are small gift of flowers, wine liquor, or pieces of dough with poppy seeds something similar. However, do and honey. not offer chrysanthemums or other flowers wrapped in purple ribbons Slovak food is hearty and typically because of their association with country-style food. It relies on funerals. Out of courtesy, guests meats, especially pork, potatoes, often politely decline offers before dumplings, thick sauces, cheese eventually accepting them. and vegetables. There is always cabbage, often in the form of sauerkraut. A typical feature CARE FOR THE ELDERLY of Slovak cuisine is its regional Slovaks are fiercely independent diversity, with traditional dishes for and often rely on friends and family each area such as pirohy, a large for support. They tend to enter ravioli, potato pancakes stuffed services at crisis point and typically with savoury or sweet feeling, roast do not plan for future aged care goose, and fruit dumplings. requirements.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 171 Slovaks are very reluctant to access END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS residential care services. It is expected by elderly parents that In the Christian community, their children will provide care and emotional and spiritual support support. These expectations can is commonly provided by priests, often be quite unrealistic and can family and close friends. Slovak cause intergenerational conflicts. Christians believe that the soul survives death and they bury the Due to a reluctance to use dead below ground in cemetery interpreters and with little to plots rather than cremating. no access to technology, older Mourning lasts for nearly a year and Slovakians may not have full access traditionally adult daughters and to information on service availability widows wear only black or subdued and their rights. This makes it colours during this time. difficult to determine where they may find appropriate services, Funeral customs are determined by leaving them particularly vulnerable the Church and wishes of the family to financial abuse. for Slovak Catholics and religious rituals include the administration Western medicine is practiced, of Holy Communion and Last

SLOVAKIA although many individuals are Rites. Most Slovaks have a stoic turning to alternative medicines acceptance of death as part of the such as herbal and homeopathic life process. Family and friends remedies, frequenting medicinal remain with the dying person so spas and getting professional deep that they do not feel abandoned. tissue massages. This shows a strong sense of loyalty Slovaks would traditionally and respect to their loved ones. attribute illness and misfortune to Following burial, mourners are supernatural causes and sought invited for a zanoga, where drinks people who would offer cures to and food are served in memory diagnose their problems and to of the person. Graves of loved provide remedies. Through this ones are visited for years to come, tradition there is an extensive use particularly on All Souls’ Day, when of medicinal plants. For example, flowers and candles are placed on Linden or Lipa blossoms were the graves. collected and dried to make tea infusions.

172 BRIDGING CULTURES SLOVAKIA

KEY EVENTS DID YOU KNOW? Pop art artist Andy Warhol’s Christmas 25 December ? parents were from Slovakia. New Year 1 January Easter Varies All Saints’ Day Varies

Establishment of the 1 January Slovak Republic Labour Day 1 May

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 173 SLOVENIA

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS of Slovenian immigrants declined. Today, three-quarters of Slovenian- Slovenians have been immigrating born Australians are aged over to Australia since the mid-19th 50, reflecting the low level of century, when Slovenia was then immigration from Slovenia since part of the Hapsburg Empire. independence. Slovene territory joined the Kingdoms of Serbs, Croats and The most common religion of Slovenes in 1918, renamed Slovenians is Catholic, followed by Yugoslavia in 1929. During World Orthodox.

SLOVENIA War II, the nation was invaded and fractured, but after the war CUSTOMS Slovenia re-joined Yugoslavia. The Slovenian Franciscan Order Many Slovenes opposed the new plays a significant role in the life communist government and joined of the community in Australia. the influx of post-war refugees It founded three churches in migrating to Australia. Adelaide, Melbourne, and Sydney, The Slovenian-born community for the pastoral care of Slovenian in Australia flourished during the Catholics and social services 1950s, assisted by the Catholic extending to regional Australia. Church. During the early 1960s As soon as Slovenians arrived in a degree of liberalisation within Australia, they met and started the Yugoslav government saw forming friendships and Slovenian economic immigrants from Slovenia clubs, where they could meet, begin to settle in Australia. After converse in Slovenian language, Slovenia became independent from enjoy Slovenian cuisine and sing Yugoslavia in 1991, the number Slovenian songs, recite poetry and

174 BRIDGING CULTURES SLOVENIA

dance. The care for the elderly For lunch, the main meal of the was established very soon after day, people eat soup, meat, a their arrival. They formed clubs, main-course starch, vegetables, organised dances, meetings, and a salad. Supper is a light meal picnics, celebrations, pilgrimages, with salads, yoghurt, and leftovers and participated in many from lunch. Slovenians have many multicultural events. traditional dishes, often prepared SLOVENIA for celebrations. One of their most Slovenians are egalitarian, genuine festive foods is a rolled yet interestingly their natural yeast cake, called potica, with communication style tends to be sweet walnuts, tarragon, raisins or indirect. However, they are quick salty with crackling or crisp pork fat to adapt their communication style fillings.Potica is served at Christmas to the person with whom they are and Easter. Among traditional meat conversing. dishes, kranjske klobase, sausages, similar to Polish kielbasa are well FOOD known, as are pork dishes or koline Slovenians love and in winter. potatoes. Potatoes are served boiled, sautéed, deep-fried, or VISITING roasted, and are used in various While family and friends enjoy dishes. Breakfast consists of visiting, it is customary to call coffee, tea, or hot chocolate, and ahead. It is very common to invite rolls with butter and jam. Zemlja, friends to the home, especially a special type of hard roll, is on Sundays and holidays. Guests especially popular. Some people may take a bouquet of flowers, a skip breakfast and drink only strong bottle of wine or a small gift for coffee.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 175 the children. Refreshments such as lack of different non-institutional coffee, juice, pastries or biscuits solutions, they choose to go to an are generally offered, and visitors aged care facility over staying at are careful not to stay too long. home when they can no longer care Hosts usually accompany the guests for themselves. to the street or the car. In many The willingness of family to Slovene households, it is a good care is very high. Family care, in idea to offer to remove one’s shoes cohabitation with the older family before entering the house. member, and caring for them is one of the main tasks of the family. CARE FOR THE ELDERLY Therefore, the biggest problem Generally, elderly Slovenian people is not the willingness to care but prefer to stay in their own home rather the ability to care. until they die or at least for as long as possible. However, data indicates END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS that due to the fear from becoming Slovenian burial arrangement a burden to the family and the practices are influenced by religious SLOVENIA

176 BRIDGING CULTURES and cultural traditions, costs and KEY EVENTS personal preferences. Christmas 25 December These factors help determine whether the funeral will be New Year 1 January elaborate or simple, public or Easter Varies private, religious or secular. They also influence whether the body Assumptions Day Varies will be present at the funeral, or if All Souls Day Varies there will be a viewing or visitation. Decisions need to be made on Labour Day 1 May whether the casket will be open or Statehood Day 25 June closed, and whether the remains will be buried or cremated. A Independence and 26 December type of funeral, often referred to Unity Day as a traditional Slovenian funeral, includes a viewing along with a SLOVENIA formal Slovenian funeral service, DID YOU KNOW? the use of a hearse (funeral car) to Over 400 bears make their transport the body to the Slovenian ? home in Slovenia. funeral site and cemetery, and even burial, entombment, or simply cremation of the remains.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 177 SPAIN

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS coincided with a slowing of Spanish immigration to Australia. The Although Spanish seafarers began Spanish-born community in Australia exploring the South Pacific in the is ageing with 45% of its population 14th century, it was not until the being between the ages of 50 and gold rush of the 1850s that Spanish 75. The community is supported by a immigrants, mainly men, began to number of groups and organisations arrive in Australia. Over the next two providing counselling, community decades, the number of Spanish development and educational

SPAIN women arriving tripled and a few programs. more men also arrived. Although the 2011 Census recorded Despite a military coup in Spain the total numbers of Spanish- in 1923 and the Spanish Civil War speaking people in Australia as of 1936–39, few Spanish refugees 117,493, not all were necessarily settled in Australia. Immigration from Spain as there are 22 Spanish- Acts passed in the 1920s restricted speaking countries in the world. the entry of Spaniards and other southern Europeans. The major religions among the Spanish-speaking communities are The Spanish-born population Catholic, Baptist and Anglican. In dramatically increased from the late the last 20 years, there has been 1950s, following the 1958 Spanish- an increase in people who follow Australian migration agreement. Evangelical Churches, in particular The agreement provided assisted Pentecostals. passages to Spanish migrants, with many escaping poverty and hunger. Since the 1960s decades of economic improvements in Spain

178 BRIDGING CULTURES SPAIN

CUSTOMS By the 2nd century BC, Spain was under Roman domination. In the Some of the most significant and early 8th century AD, the Moors or widespread events are those Arabs from northern Africa crossed rooted in the religious calendar Gibraltar and entered Spain, and traditions with many Spanish occupying it for the next 700 years towns and cities having their before Christian kingdoms drove own particular celebrations. them out. SPAIN Independence days are one of the most important celebrations of the This long history of invasion is still year as are Christian festivities such evident in Spain’s cuisine. Olives, as Saint Days, Easter and Christmas. olive oil, and wine are tied closely Religious artefacts are mostly to Greek and Roman or Italian used by Catholic Spanish and are culture, while meat and fish pies consistent with those of the Catholic show the Celtic heritage. Spanish Church. cuisine includes vegetables, fruits, meat and poultry. Jamón Serrano, a FOOD cured ham, and chorizo, a seasoned sausage, are popular. Seafood and Spanish food is diverse due to the fish are popular in coastal areas. many cultures influencing its cuisine. Other popular foods are , As a gateway between Europe and eggs, beans, rice, nuts (especially Africa, the Mediterranean Sea and almonds) and bread (a crusty white the Atlantic Ocean, Spain has been bread baked fresh daily is common). much fought over throughout history. Olive oil and garlic are common The Greeks settled its coastal areas ingredients. Spain is also known for as early as the 8th century BC, while its , including the rioja, made in Celts occupied interior regions. the northern provinces.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 179 Sherry, a fortified wine that may On special occasions, hosts be dry or sweet; and sangria, wine might give gifts to guests, which mixed with fruit and soda water. are opened immediately in the presence of the host as a sign of The best-known Spanish dish is thanks to the gift giver. Spaniards called paella, which originated in generally act and speak informally Valencia, an eastern province on the and spontaneously, therefore it is Mediterranean Sea. Rice is a main not considered rude to interrupt ingredient of this dish and is grown someone when they are speaking. in Valencia’s tidal flatlands. Though there are numerous variations, paella is usually made from a variety of CARE FOR THE ELDERLY shellfish such as shrimp, clams, crab, Family, immediate and extended, and lobster, chorizo, vegetables, comes first. Family involvement is chicken and/or rabbit, and long- very prominent in the care for the grained rice. Broth, onion, garlic, elderly and older Spanish speaking wine and saffron add flavour. Tortilla people. It is a cultural expectation española, a potato omelette, is that parents and seniors will be cared served throughout the country. for by their children and or relatives

SPAIN if needed. VISITING Involving the family in all matters When meeting someone for the first regarding their relative is time, it is appropriate to say ‘good encouraged and the family must be day’ (Buenos dias senor/senora/ consulted about aged care needs senorita) or ‘good evening’ (buenas where possible, especially during tardes) and shake hands. ‘Hi’ or times of illness. ‘hello’ (hola!) is used more among Due to past experiences with friends and young people. Older torture and trauma following their people are often addressed as don experiences under the regime of (male) or dona (female) following by General Franco in the Spanish Civil their first name. War, some people may be suspicious When guests are invited to a home of aged care staff coming into their they are usually expected to stay for homes and may even be reluctant to only one to two hours. It is polite seek help outside their family. for a guest to take or send flowers, especially if the visit is a dinner invitation or if someone is ill.

180 BRIDGING CULTURES END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS KEY EVENTS Traditionally, Spanish-speaking Christmas 25 December people prefer to die at home. It is 1 January important for family members and New Year close friends to see their loved ones Easter Varies during their final hour. Family needs to be involved at all stages of the St Joseph the 1 May Workman decision-making process. The role of the family has a strong influence King Juan Carlos 24 June on anything relating to their loved Saint’s Day one’s health care—it is the expected National Day 12 October norm. The family prefers to be given the diagnosis/prognosis before their Constitution Day 6 December loved one. Catholic holidays and Varies Saints’ days, fiestas Death is viewed as a family and communal affair and it is standard SPAIN practice for friends and relatives DID YOU KNOW? to visit the mourning family in Spanish is the second most their family home to pass on their ? spoken language in the condolences and to bring flowers. Burial practices and ceremonies are world, with 329 million native conducted in accordance with the speakers worldwide. religious beliefs of the deceased, in essence to celebrate their life.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 181 SRI LANKA

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS Tamil-speaking students arrived from Sri Lanka under the Colombo Sri Lankans, formerly known as Plan following the Second World Ceylonese, have been settling in War. The end of the White Australia Australia since the 19th century, policy in 1973 saw increasing immigrating as labourers or gold numbers of Sinhalese and Tamil prospectors. settlers in Australia. In the 1970s The Sri Lankan-born community mainly Sinhalese and Tamil in Australia is made up of three professionals migrated to Australia main ethnic groups—the British, due to political unrest in their SRI LANKA Dutch and Portuguese—collectively country. known as Burghers who are the During the 1980s, migrants from Sri direct descendants of European Lanka were mainly Tamil-speaking. colonisers, and the Sinhalese and They arrived as humanitarian Tamil communities. entrants, later sponsoring family The Burghers, being of European members under the Family Reunion descent, were welcomed under the Program. Subsequently, Sri Lankan- terms of the White Australia policy. born arrivals have come to Australia The community began to increase under the Family Reunion Program, after World War II. Sri Lanka gained or as Skilled or Independent independence from England immigrants. in 1948 many more Sri Lankan The majority of Sri Lankan people Burghers began to immigrate in Australia live in Victoria and to English-speaking countries, New South Wales. There has been including Australia. around 52 years of civil unrest in Sri Lanka, which ended with an uneasy truce in 1995.

182 BRIDGING CULTURES SRI LANKA

It is important to remember that Objects are passed using the right there is also a southern Indian-born hand or with both hands. As with Tamil community in Australia. many Asian cultures, the head is considered the most sacred part CUSTOMS of the body. The soles of the feet are the least sacred. One should Nearly 70% of the population not touch a person’s head, nor SRI LANKA practice Buddhism and about 15% should one use one’s foot to point practice Hinduism. Freedom of at a person or an object. Women worship is guaranteed by the Sri are forbidden to touch a Buddhist Lankan constitution. monk. Pointing with the index The majority of Sinhalese are finger is impolite. Beckoning is Theravada Buddhist and majority done by waving all fingers with the of Tamils are Hindu. There is a palm facing down. The different minority Muslim community that religions of the country play a is Tamil-speaking. The majority of large role in determining what can European descendants (Burghers) be eaten. are Christians. Sri Lankans, of all religious Forms of greeting vary between groups, seek to avoid issues that different cultural groups. The would cause spiritual pollution. traditional greeting of placing Because food enters the body, one’s palms together under the it is considered a prime source chin and bowing the head slightly of potential pollution. Those is widely practiced. A handshake that adhere strictly to Buddhist is also acceptable. Titles are doctrines do not eat flesh of any important to Sri Lankans and it is kind. Some Buddhists, however, proper to address acquaintances include fish or eggs in their diet. by their titles.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 183 Hindus do not eat beef or pork and generally familiar with government Muslims do not eat pork. provided services and resources for the elderly.

FOOD General barriers to accessing Rice is the staple in the Sri Lankan services for the elderly may not be diet and is the basic food for all as significant within the Sri Lankan meals. Each ethnic group is known community as English language for its own dishes, but each has proficiency is generally higher than also borrowed from the others over other groups and similar services time. This makes Sri Lankan cuisine were provided by the government a combination of cultural foods. in Sri Lanka. A variety of curries are popular, from mild to very spicy. Sri Lankans END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS typically consume little meat, but Sri Lanka has several funeral they do eat large amounts of pulses customs depending on religious (peas and beans) and nuts. Tea affiliation. Buddhists and Catholic is served with most meals and as embalm the bodies and have a refreshment. wake at home for a few days before

SRI LANKA the final burial/cremation. Buddhists VISITING wear white as it is a sombre colour Sri Lankans are very hospitable. within their culture. If refreshments are offered by Buddhist traditions in Sri Lanka the hosts, it is impolite to refuse include remaining with the corpse them. In some homes, it may in the home for 24 hours, and be appropriate to remove one’s this can include non-immediate shoes before entering. At Buddhist family members. Activities such as temples, shoes are removed. chatting, playing cards or carom is carried out to pass the time. Once CARE FOR THE ELDERLY the deceased is taken from the Traditionally elderly Sri Lankan home to the cemetery there are people have been supported by several religious proceedings. If the their extended family. However, this deceased is cremated, the ashes has reduced in recent times. may be collected to be scattered in Sri Lankan-born people are a river or buried somewhere, but is never brought back into the home.

184 BRIDGING CULTURES KEY EVENTS DID YOU KNOW? When Sri Lankans say ‘yes’, National Day ? they do not nod their heads up Buddhist New Year and down but rather shake it Vesak (Buddha Day) from side to side, so it looks as if they are saying ‘no’ instead. Poya Day Ploughing Festival Festival of the Tooth Deepabli Sinhala (Tamil New Year) Ramzan Festival SRI LANKA

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 185 TURKEY

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS a small number with educational or professional qualifications through The first Turkish immigration to the General Skilled Migration. Australia was recorded in the 19th century but the first significant The 2011 Census recorded 32,845 migration wave was not until 1967, Turkish-born people in Australia following a bilateral agreement with the major religious affiliation between the Turkish and Australian being Islam (25,311). governments which assisted migration. CUSTOMS TURKEY Turkish migrants were the first Islam is the main religion, major Muslim religious group to prescribing a way of life, which arrive in Australia post-World War includes a dress code and five II. The annual intake of assisted sessions of a prayer each day. settlers from Turkey remained For most Turks, Islam plays an consistently high until 1974, when important role in rites of passage. family reunion became the main These include naming shortly reason for migration. The Turkish after birth, circumcision for boys, migration to Australia was growing marriage, and funerals. rapidly until the early 1980s, when The Muslim month begins with there was a sharp decline. The each new moon. For this reason, growth resumed in the second half the Muslim year is 10 days shorter of 1980s due to high inflation and than the Western or European year. unemployment in Turkey. During This accounts for the changing this period, migrants from Turkey dates of Muslim festivities. There have been admitted mainly through are two major religious periods— the Family Migration program, with the first is Ramazan followed by

186 BRIDGING CULTURES TURKEY

Kurban. Ramazan involves a month Dolma is the generic name for of fasting, between dawn and dishes made of vegetables such dusk. At the end of the month as tomatoes and capsicums and Muslims rejoice by wearing new leaves such as grape, cabbage, and clothes and exchanging gifts, and eggplant that are stuffed with or each household prepares Turkish wrapped around rice or bulgur ,

desserts to serve their visiting ground meat and spices. In the TURKEY friends and relatives. Following winter, many Turks eat a breakfast Ramazan is the Feast of the of bread with hot soup. In the Sacrifice, Kurban. warmer seasons, they commonly eat bread and jam, hard- or soft- FOOD boiled eggs, a white cheese made from sheep’s milk, salty olives, and includes many warm milk, hot tea with milk or different stews of vegetables and Turkish coffee. Pork is forbidden to meat, primarily lamb and beef, Muslims. borek, kebab, and dolma dishes. Bread is eaten with almost every The Qur’an states that Muslims meal. Turks are especially fond of dress with modesty. For many eggplant. Borek is a pastry made Muslim women this is interpreted to of many thin layers of dough with mean covering themselves from the cheese, spinach, and/or ground head to foot except for their hands meat. Kebab is the common word and face. Men should be covered for meat roasted in pieces or slices from waist to knees. However, some on a skewer or as meatballs on modern Turks wear Western-style a grill. clothing.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 187 TURKEY

VISITING other occasions. First-time visitors to a home may bring a small gift, Turkish people enjoy visiting friends such as sweets, fruit or flowers. and family, and hospitality is an integral part of the culture. Many CARE FOR THE ELDERLY Turks remove their shoes when entering a home and replace them Traditionally, the family undertakes with slippers. Guests are expected primary responsibility in caring for to do the same at homes where the elderly. They often consider this custom is followed. Visitors it a moral obligation to care for are expected to bring a pleasant their loved ones at home and can presence to the home; bad news or be reluctant to place them in a accounts of problems are saved for residential care facility. Personal

188 BRIDGING CULTURES care needs to be provided by a KEY EVENTS person of the same sex. National Sovereignty 23 April END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS and Children’s Day Labour Day 1 May The preferred place of treatment is at home, if possible. Staff should Youth and Sports 19 May give the diagnosis/prognosis to Day close family members first, since Victory Day 30 August some patients will not be able to cope with the news. The news Republic Day 29 October is given to close family but not Ramazan bayram Varies normally to friends. Some families would make decisions about how Kurban bayram Varies the patient should be receiving treatment. The family will usually DID YOU KNOW? provide support, if possible. Islam TURKEY encourages burial as soon as ? Istanbul is the only city in the possible, preferably on the day of world spanning two continents death. — Europe and Asia. Only 3% of The body should be handled as Turkey lies in Europe. little as possible, ideally only by members of the same sex, who are also Muslim. The body must be handed over to the Muslim community as soon as possible to allow burial and washing rituals to be performed. The body is wrapped in a shroud.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 189 UKRAINE

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS not list Ukraine as a birthplace, but the 1954 Census recorded 14,757 The first Ukrainian migrants settled Ukrainian born. in Australia in the 1860s. Up to 5,000 Ukrainians are believed to There was also limited migration have arrived in Australia prior to of Ukrainians from communities in World War I, along with a larger Poland and Yugoslavia. Migration group of Russians, who were from Ukraine increased following workers on the Chinese Eastern its independence from the former Railway, completed in 1902. Many Soviet Union in 1991. UKRAINE lived in Brisbane where they were The 2011 Census recorded 13,990 politically active. A large number Ukrainian-born people Australia, also returned to Ukraine at the with the major religious affiliations outset of the Russian revolution, being Eastern Orthodox (4,236), during which control of Ukraine was Judaism (3,353) and Catholic fought over by Germany, Austria (2,387). and Russia. Following World War II, in 1948, CUSTOMS the first Ukrainians arrived from Ukrainian Orthodox and Catholic Displaced Persons Camps in Churches share historic, ritual and Europe. They came to Australia on national heritage. Church is very assisted passages which included important to elderly Ukrainians and two-year work contracts with the regular attendance at Church and Australian Government. Among all traditional rituals are followed. the migrants were priests, lawyers, doctors and engineers, but the vast Services in Orthodox Church majority were people from a rural are usually sung and are quite background. The 1947 Census did solemn. Communion is performed

190 BRIDGING CULTURES UKRAINE

by sharing bread and wine. The Some Christian Ukrainians keep gesture of making the sign of the icons, for example, a devotional cross with three fingers three times painting of Christ or another holy is made during prayers. The priest figure, in a central location in the holds a position of great authority home. Though much of the icon’s within the older community and value is traditionally biblical, the many social activities are organised origins are firmly rooted in legends UKRAINE by Church. and folklore and unique in both its rich colour and floral design. Easter is celebrated on different days depending on whether the Traditional national dress is made person is Orthodox or Catholic. and worn at special occasions, such Traditional Pysanki or painted eggs as choirs and folk dance groups. are made, as are Kulichi which are special Easter cakes. Making FOOD these eggs can be a long process and they are proudly displayed at Food is an important aspect of the the centre of the table rather than Ukrainian culture. Special foods consumed. are eaten at Easter and Christmas. During Christmas celebrations Singing Christmas carols is a people prepare kutia, a mixture of popular tradition in Ukrainian cooked wheat groats, poppy seeds, communities and Christmas Eve honey, and special sweet breads. is the most important part of Christmas. Its main feature is the An average Ukrainian diet consists evening meal known as the Holy of fish, cheese, and a variety of Supper, which contains 12 dishes, sausages. Head cheese or brauwn symbolic of the 12 apostles who is also quite popular in Ukraine, as gathered at the Last Supper. well as kolbasa (a type of sausage).

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 191 Typically, bread is a core part of room. Men should take off their every meal and must be included when inside. for the meal to be complete. Ukrainians often toast to good CARE FOR THE ELDERLY health, linger over their meal and engage in lively conversation with Family relationships are very family and friends. They will often important in the ageing Ukrainian drink tea, coffee or wine afterwards community. Families are expected with a simple dessert, such as a fruit to care for the sick and elderly pastry. at home and it is considered part of the family’s duties. Health Popular foods in Ukraine include practitioners are highly respected salo, borscht, sarmale, chicken kiev, and appreciated. Families may pierogi, pilaf, vareniki, pączki, and be reluctant to question medical crêpe. authority or to express any complaints, difficulties or concerns VISITING that they may have with service providers. There is a strong tradition of hospitality in Ukraine and people

UKRAINE welcome both expected and END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS unexpected visitors. However, Close family assemble when people prefer to receive advance death is imminent. All requests notice when possible, even if this are attended to in a peaceful and means five minutes. When friends, quiet way and conversations are neighbours and relatives visit, subdued, for it is believed that a tea and coffee are always served silence broken makes dying more with some light refreshments. An difficult. abundance of food is served to the invited dinner guest and one is Preparing for death is considered expected to stay for a while after extremely important. A central the meal. Guests will bring flowers folk belief, which is supported (in odd numbers, avoiding even by Orthodox Christianity, is that numbers and yellow flowers), cake existence on Earth is but a transient or a bottle of liquor to the hosts. state. Humankind’s permanent Chocolate, sweets or toys may be abode is in the world beyond. given to children. It is etiquette to Some people believe that saying stand when a woman enters the goodbye to the dying is a way to

192 BRIDGING CULTURES acknowledge that the deceased is KEY EVENTS now in the place of truth, while the rest will remain guests in the world. New Year 1 January Ukrainians observe ancient funeral Christmas 25 December traditions in a faithful manner. A Easter Varies collective get-together follows funeral services and is repeated International 8 March on the 9th and 40th days and then Women’s Day again at 6 and 12 months. Independence Day 24 August An annual remembrance day called Provody on the Sunday following Easter sees families gathering DID YOU KNOW? at ancestral graves to again ? Ukrainians wear their wedding bear homage to the souls of the ring on the ring finger on their departed. Its right hand instead of their left UKRAINE represents Christ’s victory over hand. death. Its pre-Christian roots are attuned to the rebirth of nature in the spring and to an ancient ancestor’s cult.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 193 URUGUAY

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS CUSTOMS The first migrants from La República Uruguayans are quite traditional Oriental del Uruguay arrived in and do not welcome criticism Australia during the 1960s, when from foreigners. They also do not Uruguay was experiencing a appreciate being confused with period of economic deterioration Paraguayans or Argentineans. and increasing political instability. Otherwise, people are friendly The beginning of the Tupamaros and easy going. Although tactful, guerrilla campaign in 1967 people are frank and direct and URUGUAY exacerbated political tensions, maintain a close distance when which led to the introduction of speaking. Close acquaintances of new security laws that were later the opposite sex greet each other used to justify civil rights abuses. with one kiss on the cheek.

The 1970s saw rising Most Uruguayans are Catholic. unemployment and government There is a sharp separation repression of opponents. After the between church and state. Many military seized power in 1973, an religious holidays have even been estimated 400,000 people fled given secular names. Christmas, Uruguay, some of whom eventually for instance, is widely referred to settled in Australia. Even after as Family Day. Similarly, Easter Uruguay returned to democracy Week is known as Criollo Week. in 1984, the Uruguayan-born Perhaps the most celebrated community in Australia continued holiday in Uruguay is Carnival. This to grow, reaching its peak in 1991. is a week-long celebration that marks the beginning of Lent. Many of Uruguay’s festivals celebrate its cattle-raising heritage.

194 BRIDGING CULTURES URUGUAY

FOOD marina, which are mostly made of white flour. Many consume dairy Not surprisingly for a cattle- products, including the national producing country, the dessert, dulce de leche. Other consumption of beef is featured popular desserts are pastries, prominently in Uruguayan cuisine. milk and egg pudding, and rice

The national dish is the asado pudding. URUGUAY (barbecued meat) and churrasco (grilled steak). Also very popular Mate, a strong tea-like beverage, is are chivitos (hot steak sandwiches), made by infusing coarsely ground which are topped with bacon, eggs, leaves of Yerba mate with hot water cheese, lettuce, and tomatoes. in a gourd and sipped through a A unique snack is wedges of metal straw with a terminal filter or fainá, a chickpea flour pancake. bombilla. This favourite beverage The parrillada (beef and entrails) is consumed at home, at work, at features as a typical Uruguayan the beach, at soccer games and in dish. Pork sausage is usually served public places. as an appetiser. CARE FOR THE ELDERLY As a result of Italian immigration to Uruguay in the late 1800s and early Uruguayan culture is similar to 1900s, pasta is now a national food. other South American countries in Sunday is the preferred day for that it is commonplace for multiple eating pasta. Most home cooking generations to live under one roof, has a Spanish influence, and meals sharing a home and all the duties almost invariably include soup. that come with maintaining one. People consume large amounts of The oldest generation is often bread and ship biscuits or galleta relied upon to assist with caring for the youngest, while the middle

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 195 generations go to work. Therefore, END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS older family members remain thoroughly integrated well into their When a Uruguayan person dies, last days. relatives meet in the funeral home prior to the burial. Some of them The decisions and behaviours of escort the coffin to the cemetery. each individual in the extended Mourners may dress in black for at family are based largely on pleasing least the day of the funeral. After the family. Decisions are not to be a funeral ceremony, the deceased made by the individual without is buried in a cemetery or, more consulting the family first. Failure commonly, placed in an above- of the clinician to recognise the ground niche or mausoleum. extended family can potentially lead to conflicts, non-compliance, dissatisfaction with care, and poor KEY EVENTS continuity of care. New Year 1 January Sometimes there can be a delay in making important medical Labour Day/May Day 1 May decisions because extended Independence Day 25 August

URUGUAY family consultation can be time consuming. To gain the trust Christmas Day 25 December and confidence of the patient or elderly person, it is important to DID YOU KNOW? solicit opinions from other family Uruguay is the only country members who may be present and ? that keeps track of 100% of give ample time for the extended family to discuss important medical its cattle. decisions.

196 BRIDGING CULTURES URUGUAY

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 197 VIETNAM

BACKGROUND AND DEMOGRAPHICS homeland, struggling to rebuild lives and facing difficulties including Vietnam was part of French prejudice and discrimination. There Indochina from 1887 until its were also significant numbers of occupation by Japan in 1940 Vietnamese people who had no during World War II. In September family in Australia. 1945, following the end of World War II, Ho Chí Minh declared The Vietnamese now form one Vietnam’s independence. However, of the largest and most visible France reclaimed its control until migrant communities in NSW. VIETNAM local rebellion led to the French maintain Indochina War. strong links with Vietnam through family, culture, religion and business After the French were defeated ties. The 2011 Census recorded in 1954, and under the Geneva 185,039 Vietnamese-born people Accords, Vietnam was provisionally in Australia, with the major religious divided at the 17th parallel, with affiliations being Buddhism a communist government in the (104,066) and Catholic (39,895). north and an American-recognised government in the south. From CUSTOMS 1975, most Vietnamese migrants arrived in Australia as refugees or Most Vietnamese practice ancestor humanitarian entrants under the worship. Vietnamese people usually Family Reunion Scheme (around a have a small altar at home with quarter of the Vietnamese were of photos of the deceased. Each day, Chinese ancestry). It was a difficult incense is lit and prayers are held. experience for the Vietnamese Vietnamese Lunar New Year, known having to resettle in their new as Tết, is a significant festival.

198 BRIDGING CULTURES VIETNAM

It is held on the first day of the first FOOD month of the lunar calendar. When celebrating Tết, family members Vietnamese people enjoy a wide gather to pray before the ancestral variety of raw and fresh vegetables, altar and share a banquet in fresh herbs and fruits. Vietnamese memory of the deceased. They also people eat less meat and seafood visit relatives and friends and offer and often have three meals a day VIETNAM each other formal Tết greetings. with rice eaten at almost every A usual custom is to give Lì Xì or meal. Buddhists do not eat meat lucky money to children. Relatives or seafood on certain days of the will fill red envelopes with small bills month. and give them to children in the A typical meal for the average family the day of Tết as a sign of Vietnamese family includes good luck. Children are supposed steamed long-grain white rice, fish/ to display their respect for their seafood, meat, tofu (grilled, boiled, elders before receiving the money. steamed, stewed or stir-fried) with Tết sweets and Tết cakes (sticky rice vegetables and canh (a clear broth cakes), known as Bánh Tét or Bánh with vegetables and often meat or Chưng, are customary at this time. seafood) or other soup.

Vu Lan, or Vietnamese Mother’s Dipping sauces and condiments Day, is an important festival— depend on the main dishes and second only to the Tết celebration. include pure fish sauce, ginger fish It falls on the fifteenth day of sauce, tamarind fish sauce, soy the seventh month of the lunar sauce, salt and pepper with lime calendar. Important symbols juice or chilli and salt. Small dish of in Vietnamese culture include relishes, such as salted eggplant, dragons, turtles, lotuses and pickled white cabbage, pickled bamboo.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 199 papaya, pickled garlic or pickled for transport, communication bean sprouts are also served. and social support services. Desserts, such as chè, or fresh fruit Many elderly people live alone are common. and they are very reluctant to use mainstream services or enter All dishes, except individual bowls nursing homes. of rice, are communal and are to be shared in the middle of the table. It is also customary for the younger END-OF-LIFE CONSIDERATIONS to ask/wait for the elders to eat Traditionally, Vietnamese people first and the women sit right next prefer to die at home. It is to the rice pot to serve rice for important for relatives and friends other people. to see the face of their loved one in the last minutes of life. VISITING Organ donation may be seen as meritorious in future lives, creating In Vietnam, because the majority good karma. of people do not have telephones, people drop in on one another all It is important to discuss end-of- the time. The Vietnamese have a life care with both the patient and

VIETNAM very strong sense of hospitality, the family. Occasionally reference but do not like to be visited by to the word ‘death’ is avoided ‘outsiders’ unexpectedly because as it is thought it may hasten the they do not like their private event. Hospitalisation is generally life to be exposed. On special accepted by the Vietnamese elderly occasions such as New Year’s days, but home is strongly preferred. death anniversaries, weddings, or When a death is about to occur, celebrations, gifts are an expected family and close friends will gather part of courtesy. Flowers are around in silence and pray. As many welcome on some occasions, but Vietnamese Buddhists believe incense is only appropriate for in reincarnation, the body of the deaths, anniversaries and temples. deceased should not be touched or moved for eight hours. It is CARE FOR THE ELDERLY important for the ‘soul’ to leave the body ‘contented’ so that it may There is an expectation that the have a favourable rebirth. family will care for their sick or elderly parents. Older people have The family should be offered to rely heavily on their children the opportunity to have a priest

200 BRIDGING CULTURES present to administer Communion KEY EVENTS and the Last Rites, or a Monk to perform Buddhist rituals. Prayer Vietnamese Lunar January–February or consultation with monks will New Year be commonly sought. Many Trung Moon Vietnamese Buddhists prefer Festival Lunar August cremation, storing the ashes in a calendar temple along with a photo of the deceased. Vu Lan Buddhists 15 July pray for deceased Labour Day 1 May DID YOU KNOW? ? The has National 2 September six different tones. A change Independence Day in tone changes the meaning Christmas Day 25 December of the word. This makes the language fairly challenging VIETNAM to learn.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 201 CONTRIBUTORS

ACT Chinese Australian Indonesian Welfare Association Association Baulkham Hills NSW 2153 Canberra ACT 2601 www.indonesianwelfare.org.au Phone: 02 6248 5929 www.facebook.com/actcaa Greek Welfare Centre of NSW Newtown NSW 2042 Australian Korean Welfare Phone Sydney: 02 9516 2188/ Association Phone Wollongong: 02 4228 1609 Campsie NSW 2194 Phone: 02 8094 9188 ITSOWEL www.koreanwelfare.org.au (Italian Social Welfare Organisation of Wollongong) Australian Nursing Home Wollongong NSW 2500 Foundation Phone: 02 4228 8222 Burwood NSW 2134 www.itsowel.com.au Phone: 02 8741 0218 www.anhf.org.au Macarthur Diversity Services Initiative Cambodian Australian Welfare Campbelltown NSW 2560 Council of NSW Inc Phone: 02 4627 1188 Bonnyrigg NSW 2177 www.mdsi.org.au Phone: 02 8786 2581 www.cambodianwelfare.org.au Macedonian Australian Welfare Association of Sydney Co.As.It Italian Association of Rockdale NSW 2216 Assistance Phone: 02 9597 5455 Leichhardt NSW 2040 www.mawasydney.org.au Phone: 02 9564 0744 www.coasit.org.au Multicultural Communities Council of Illawarra Federation of Ethnic Communities Wollongong NSW 2500 Councils of Australia Phone: 02 4229 7566 Deakin ACT 2600 www.mcci.org.au Phone: 02 6282 5755 www.fecca.org.au

202 BRIDGING CULTURES PICAC NSW & ACT Wollongong NSW 2500 Phone: 02 4227 4222 www.picacnsw.org.au

NSW Spanish and Latin American Association for Social Assistance Bonnyrigg NSW 2177 Phone: 02 9610 0288 www.nswslasa.com.au

Polish-Australian Welfare Association Ashfield NSW 2131 Phone: 02 9716 0036 www.polishwelfare.org.au

Queanbeyan Multilingual Centre Queanbeyan NSW 2620 Phone: 02 6297 6110 www.qmlc.org.au

Sri Om Foundation Blacktown NSW 2148 www.sriomcare.org.au

Sydney Multicultural Communities Services Daceyville NSW 2032 Phone: 02 9663 3922 www.sydneymcs.org.au

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 203 SOURCE LIST

www.abs.gov.au www.health.qld.gov.au www.academicexchange.wordpress.com www.health.vic.gov.au www.aihw.gov.au www.immi.gov.au www.alzheimer-europe.org www.ics.org www.ames.net.au www.internations.org www.annonc.oxfordjournals.org www.mac.org.au www.australia.com www.oxfordburmaalliance.org www.australian-information-stories.com www.mfa.gov.cy www.australianstogether.org.au www.miceastmelb.com.au www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au www.migrationheritage.nsw.gov.au www.buddhism.about.com www.migrationpolicy.org www.carersaustralia.com.au www.multiculturalaustralia.edu.au www.continence.org.au www.museumvictoria.com.au www.culturaldiversity.com.au www.naa.gov.au www.dbmas.org.au www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov www.dfat.gov.au www.nhmrc.gov.au www.dictionaryofsydney.org www.profileid.com.au www.dimensionsofculture.com www.palliativecare.org.au www.diversicare.com.au www.pallcare.asn.au www.dss.gov.au www.aph.gov.au www.ehospice.com www.pcvlibrary.asn.au www.eupedia.com www.racismnoway.com.au www.everyculture.com www.searo.who.int www.facts.randomhistory.com www.smrc.org.au www.fightdementia.org.au www.thezaurus.com/community www.finland.org.au www.10-facts-about.com www.funeral.com.my www.health.gov.au

204 BRIDGING CULTURES A GUIDE TO WORKING WITH INTERPRETERS

How do you identify which Make sure to: language the person speaks before • speak directly to the client in the requesting an interpreter? first person Sometimes the language needed • use short sentences is conveyed to you in advance or the patient/client brings a card • allow the interpreter time to naming the language required. clarify However, you may need to seek this • avoid private conversations with information from the person or via the interpreter an accompanying relative. If you decide an interpreter is Professional interpreting is a required, you will need to arrange specialised skill requiring extensive one after consulting with the training. Be aware that relatives or patient/client, their carer and/or bilingual people may: family. Remember the interpreter is there to enable you to do your • edit and interpret information job competently, not only for the subjectively patient/client. • be unfamiliar with medical terminology Before an interview Arrange a place where the interview • be unaware of the importance of can be conducted in private and confidentiality. allow for extra time.

Check for understanding by: Arrange the seating to allow for • using open-ended questions easy communication and brief the interpreter prior to the interview • clarifying questions or statements where possible. • asking questions clearly Ask the interpreter for any cultural • avoiding jargon and slang. factors that may affect the interview but remember that interpreters do not consider themselves to be cultural experts.

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 205 CULTURAL ASSESSMENT CHECKLIST

VERBAL COMMUNICATION When, where and by whom can physical contact with the individual What language does the individual occur? prefer? Would the person prefer an interpreter?

Are there certain facial expressions or body gestures that have specific What language does the individual meanings? prefer to receive in writing?

CARERS AND FAMILY Are there any topics regarded as forbidden, unsavoury or taboo? Who is considered family?

NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION What impact does the person’s care needs have on the family? Is eye contact considered polite or rude? What personal space is acceptable?

206 BRIDGING CULTURES Who is considered the head of the Does the individual and family hold family? the elderly in positions of authority?

Who in the family should you How does the individual and family discuss the individual’s care needs view disability or dementia? with? Who should you NOT discuss certain topics with?

How are the elderly cared for within this family and this culture? Does the word ‘carer’ translate into the individual’s preferred language?

How does this family and this culture care for a person with a CARE FOR THE ELDERLY OR disability? PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES

Does the individual and family treat the elderly with greater respect?

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 207

ACTIVITIES OF DAILY LIVING DECISIONS

Are there special routines or rituals How are decisions made in this associated with personal hygiene? family?

Are there any restrictions on who Is there an individual orientation can help with daily activities based or a group orientation to decision on their gender, age or class? making? Who is consulted on decisions and on what topics?

How important is protecting one’s modesty? How is modesty shown? USE OF RESOURCES

How are resources distributed or used within the family?

Are there any rituals or practices that must be observed?

Is there an individual orientation or a group orientation to the ownership of resources?

208 BRIDGING CULTURES

Are certain resources owned by RELIGION AND SPIRITUAL PRACTICES the family and others, or by the individual? Are there any religious or spiritual practices our service can help the individual to maintain, such as worship and prayer times?

ETIQUETTE AND SOCIAL CUSTOMS

How would you like to be addressed? (the individual, carer Are there any religious items the and family members) individual likes to keep close at hand?

What behaviour is expected of guests? MIGRATION HISTORY

Why did they come to Australia? What was the journey like?

Is it polite to engage in small talk before getting into a purposeful conversation? Should discussions to be direct, subtle or indirect? What were their experiences when they arrived? Did they have any family members here?

A GUIDE TO DIVERSE CULTURES IN AUSTRALIA 209 Migrants often grieve for the loss of FOOD PREFERENCES their homeland, family and identity. Was this grief exacerbated due to What is eaten and when? political instability and/or trauma?

Are any special utensils preferred? DEGREE OF ACCULTURATION (WHERE RELEVANT)

When did the individual arrive in Australia? LIFE RITUALS

What events are celebrated and how?

How closely does the individual keep to the customs of their culture or country of birth?

What rituals are practiced around ageing or death and disability?

In what ways do the individual and the family express their culture?

210 BRIDGING CULTURES PICACNSW • ACT Bridging Cultures is a resource developed by Partners in Culturally Appropriate Care (PICAC) NSW & ACT to enhance the understanding of culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) ageing populations in Australia.

This revised 2016 edition includes cultural insights into the unique needs of over 30 communities requiring aged care services in Australia. The cultural considerations in this guide include:

• The role of the carer in the CALD context • Cultural attitudes towards dementia, palliative care and continence • History of CALD migration to Australia and demographics • Customs and food • Visiting and caring for the elderly • End-of-life considerations • Key events and cultural facts

PICACNSW • ACT