Seawater Intrusion in Coastal Aquifers

Concepts, Methods and Practices

Editors

J. Bear A. H.-D. Cheng S. Sorek D. Ouazar I. Herrera

Kluwer Academic Publishers

1999 Contents

Preface vii

List of Contributors ix

1 Introduction 1 1.1 FreshwaterResources...... 1 1.2 HistoricalDevelopment...... 2 1.3 OrganizationoftheBook...... 5

2 Geophysical Investigations 9 2.1 Introduction...... 9 2.2 SurfaceGeophysicalMethods...... 13 2.3 BoreholeMethods...... 42 2.4 IntegratedGeophysicalSurveys...... 47 2.5 Summary...... 50

3 Geochemical Investigations 51 3.1 Introduction...... 51 3.2 World-WidePhenomena...... 52 3.3 Chemical Modifications...... 57 3.4 Mixing...... 60 3.5 Water-RockInteraction...... 60 3.6 IntrusionofFossilSeawater...... 68 3.7 Criteria to Distinguish Saltwater Intrusions . . . . . 69

4 Exploitation, Restoration and Management 73 4.1 Introduction...... 73 4.2 Optimal Exploitation of Fresh Groundwater in Coastal AquiferSystems...... 81 ii Contents

4.3 Measures to Restore Disturbed Fresh Groundwater SystemsinCoastalAquifers...... 105 4.4 Groundwater Management ...... 117

5 Conceptual and Mathematical Modeling 127 5.1 Introduction...... 127 5.2 Three-Dimensional Sharp Interface Model (3DSIM) . 131 5.3 Two-Dimensional Sharp Interface Model (2DSIM) . . 145 5.4 TransitionZoneModel(3DTZM)...... 151 5.5 Conclusion...... 161

6 Analytical Solutions 163 6.1 Introduction...... 163 6.2 Ghyben-HerzbergSolution...... 164 6.3 GloverSolution...... 167 6.4 Fetter Oceanic Island Solution ...... 169 6.5 StrackPumpingWellSolution...... 170 6.6 SuperpositionSolution...... 177 6.7 Bear and Dagan Upconing Solution ...... 184 6.8 StochasticSolutions...... 187

7 Steady Interface in Stratified Aquifers of Random Permeabil- ity Distribution 193 7.1 Introduction...... 193 7.2 MathematicalFormulation...... 195 7.3 SolutionofPlanarProblem...... 199 7.4 Upconing of Interface Beneath a Pumping Well . . . 205 7.5 SummaryandConclusions...... 210

8 USGS SHARP Model 213 8.1 Introduction...... 213 8.2 Finite Difference Approximation of Freshwater and SaltwaterFlowEquations...... 218 8.3 GeneralModelFeaturesandUse...... 222 8.4 ModelEvaluation...... 225 8.5 Soquel-Aptos Basin, California, a Multilayered Coastal AquiferSystem...... 238 8.6 Conclusions...... 246

9 USGS SUTRA Code – History, Practical Use, and Applica- Contents iii

tion in Hawaii 249 9.1 Introduction...... 249 9.2 HistoryofSUTRA...... 250 9.3 UsesofSUTRA...... 253 9.4 SUTRAEquationsandAlgorithms...... 256 9.5 Application of SUTRA to Seawater Intrusion . . . . 262 9.6 Setting Up a Coastal Seawater Intrusion Simulation 270 9.7 Application of SUTRA to Major Coastal Aquifer of SouthernOahu,Hawaii...... 275

10 Three-Dimensional Model of Coupled Density-Dependent Flow and Miscible Salt Transport 315 10.1 Introduction...... 315 10.2 MathematicalModel...... 317 10.3 NumericalDiscretization...... 321 10.4 Linearization...... 329 10.5 ProjectionSolversforLinearSystems...... 341 10.6 Applications...... 344

11 Modified Eulerian Lagrangian Method for Density Dependent Miscible Transport 363 11.1 Introduction...... 363 11.2 MathematicalStatement...... 364 11.3 Formulation of Saltwater Intrusion Problem . . . . . 373 11.4 NumericalExamples...... 383 11.5 Conclusion...... 395

12 Survey of Computer Codes and Case Histories 399 12.1 General...... 399 12.2 3DFEMFAT/2DFEMFAT...... 401 12.3 CODESA-3D...... 404 12.4 DSTRAM...... 407 12.5 FAST-C(2D/3D)...... 408 12.6 FEFLOW...... 413 12.7 HST3D...... 419 12.8 MEL2DSLT...... 424 12.9 MLAEM/VD...... 428 12.10MOCDENSE...... 431 12.11MOC-DENSITY/MOCDENS3D...... 434 12.12SALTFRES...... 439 iv Contents

12.13SALTHERM/3D...... 443 12.14SHARPandSWIP...... 446 12.15T3DVAP.F/MOR3D.F...... 453 12.16TVD-2D/TVD-3D...... 456 12.17Summary...... 458

13 Seawater Intrusion in the United States 463 13.1 Introduction...... 463 13.2 EarlyHistory...... 464 13.3 CaseStudies...... 466 13.4 Alternative Modeling Approaches ...... 493 13.5 ClosingRemarks...... 505

14 Impact of Sea Level Rise in the Netherlands 507 14.1 Introduction...... 507 14.2 TheModel...... 509 14.3 Propagation of Sea Level Rise ...... 520 14.4 SaltwaterIntrusion...... 522 14.5 Freshwater Lenses in Sand-Dune Areas ...... 525 14.6 SeepageinLow-LyingPolders...... 527 14.7 CompensatingMeasures...... 528 14.8 Conclusions and Recommendations ...... 529

15 Movement of Brackish Groundwater Near a Deep-Well Infil- tration System in the Netherlands 531 15.1 Introduction...... 531 15.2 Design of the Deep-Well Infiltration System . . . . . 532 15.3 Measurements of Movement of Brackish Groundwa- terDuringOperation...... 536 15.4 Conclusions and Recommendations ...... 540

16 A Semi-Empirical Approach to Intrusion Monitoring in Israeli Coastal Aquifer 543 16.1 Introduction...... 543 16.2 Hydrogeological Background and Saltwater Moni- toringofStudyArea...... 545 16.3 Semi-Empirical Procedure to Assess Saltwater In- trusion...... 550 16.4 Actual Implementation to Israel Coastal Aquifer . . 556 16.5 Conclusions...... 557 Contents v

17 Nile Delta Aquifer in Egypt 559 17.1 Introduction...... 559 17.2 NileDeltaAquifer...... 560 17.3 OriginofBrackishWater...... 568 17.4 Intrusion Mechanism and Boundary Conditions . . . 570 17.5 Modeling Seawater Intrusion in Nile Delta Aquifer . 573 17.6 EffectofPumping...... 579 17.7 EffectofClimateChange...... 583 17.8 ConcludingRemarks...... 590

Bibliography 591 List of Contributors

Prof. Jacob Bear Department of Civil Engineering, Technion–Israel Institute of Tech- nology, Haifa 32000, Israel. Dr. Viacheslav Borisov Water Resources Research Center, J. Blaustein Institute for Desert Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Sde Boker Campus 84990, Israel. Prof. Alexander H.-D. Cheng Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, USA. Prof. Gedeon Dagan Department of Fluid Mechanics and Heat Transfer, Faculty of Engi- neering, Tel-Aviv University, P.O. Box 39040, Ramat-Aviv, Tel-Aviv 69978, Israel. Dr. Hedeff Essaid Water Resources Division, U.S. Geological Survey, 345 Middlefield Rd., Menlo Park, California 94025, USA. Prof. Giuseppe Gambolati Dipartimento di Metodi e Modelli Matematici per le Scienze Appli- cate (DMMMSA), Universit´a degli Studi di Padova, Via Belzoni 7, 35131 Padova, Italy. Dr. Blair F. Jones Water Resources Division, U.S. Geological Survey, 431 National Cen- ter, Reston, Virginia 20192, USA. Dr. Leonard F. Konikow Water Resources Division, U.S. Geological Survey, 431 National Cen- ter, Reston, Virginia 20192, USA. x Contributors

Dr. Abraham J. Melloul Hydrological Service, Ministry of Agriculture, Water Commission, P.O. Box 6381, Jerusalem 91063, Israel. Prof. Driss Ouazar Laboratoire d’Analyse de Syst´emees Hydrauliques, Ecole Mohamma- dia d’Ing´enieurs, Universit´e Mohammed V, B.P. 765, Agdal Rabat, Morocco. Dr.Ir. Gualbert H.P. Oude Essink Department of Geophysics, Faculty of Earth Sciences, University of Utrecht, P.O. Box 80021, 3508 TA Utrecht, The Netherlands. Formerly, Department of Water Management, Environmental and Sanitary Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Delft University of Technology, P.O. Box 5048, 2600 GA Delft, The Netherlands. Dr. Claudio Paniconi Environment Group, Center for Advanced Studies, Research and De- velopment in Sardinia (CRS4), Via Nazario Sauro 10, 09123 Cagliari, Italy. Prof. George F. Pinder College of Engineering and Mathematics, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont 05405, USA. Dr. Mario Putti Dipartimento di Metodi e Modelli Matematici per le Scienze Appli- cate (DMMMSA), Universit´a degli Studi di Padova, Via Belzoni 7, 35131 Padova, Italy. Dr. Eliyahu Rosenthal Research Division, Hydrological Service of Israel, P.O. Box 6381, Jerusalem 91063, Israel. Dr.MohsenM.Sherif Hydrology Department, Water Resources Division, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, P.O. Box. 24885, Safat 13109, Kuwait. On leave from Irrigation and Hydraulics Department, Faculty of Engi- neering, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt. Prof. Shaul Sorek Water Resources Research Center, J. Blaustein Institute for Desert Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Sde Boker Campus 84990, Israel. Contributors xi

Ir. Bert Stakelbeek n.v. PWN Water Supply Company of North-Holland, Postbus 5, 2060 Bloemendaal, the Netherlands. Prof. Mark Stewart Department of Geology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620-5200, USA. Prof.Dr.Ir. Jan C. van Dam van der Horstlaan 9, 2641 RT Pijnacker, The Netherlands. Dr. Avner Vengosh Research Division, Hydrological Service of Israel, P.O. Box 6381, Jerusalem 91063, Israel. Dr. Clifford I. Voss National Research Program, U.S. Geological Survey, 431 National Center, Reston, VA 20192, USA. Dr. Alex Yakirevich Water Resources Research Center, J. Blaustein Institute for Desert Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Sde Boker Campus 84990, Israel. Dr. Yoseph Yechieli Geological Survey of Israel, 30 Malkei Israel St., Jerusalem 95501, Israel. Dr. David G. Zeitoun Consultant Hydrology and Water Resources, 9/4 Kosovsky St., Jerusalem 96304, Israel.