F along which there has been displacement of the two sides relative to one another [6] fabric. The orientation in space of the parallel to the fracture . This elements composing a rock substance. displacement may be of a few centimeters or many kilometers. See also joint fault facet. See scallop. set; joint fault system.

facies. The lithologic appearance of a fault breccia. The assemblage of broken rock[16]. rock fragments frequently found along faults. The fragments may vary in size facies change. The change in appearance from inches to feet. that occurs when one lithologic unit ends and a new one is encountered. fault . A cave developed along a fault or fault zone[10]. failure. In rocks, failure means exceeding of the maximum strength of a rock or fault gouge. A clay-like material occurring exceeding the stress or strain requirement between the walls of a fault as a result of of a specific design. the movement along the fault surfaces.

fall. The gross slope of a river[16]. fault line. The intersection of a fault with the surface of the earth or any other plane [16] false floor. A remnant of a sheet of of reference . , originally deposited on clastic sediments that were subsequently washed fault plane. A plane on which dislocation [16] out from beneath. False floors may and relative movement has taken place . survive as a complete bridge between passage walls or just as projecting ledges. fault scarp. An elevation formed by They may be thin and easily broken or movement of blocks along a fault [16] thick and very strong[9]. plane . farangothes ipoyios thiavasis. See aisle. fault zone. A zone with numerous small parallel faults[16]. fathometer. A water depth measuring device[16]. feeding tube. In terrane, a more or less straight and waterbearing fault. 1. A fracture in the earth’s crust, underground gallery of regular cross- across which relative rock movement has section. Synonyms: (French.) tunnel; taken place, or continues to take place. (German.) Stro4mungsrohr, Karstgerinne; Fault planes commonly guide vertical or (Greek.) karstikos ypoyios agogos; sub-vertical shafts in , as well as (Spanish.) tubo; (Turkish.) akarsu guiding sub-horizontal or oblique mecras2; (Yugoslavian.) vodonosni rov. passages within the confines of the fault See also stream tube. plane[9]. 2. A fracture or fracture zone

73 feldspars. A very common group of rock peak density, in contrast to the Western forming minerals[16]. classification by hill shape. Fenglin is therefore almost the equivalent of tower fengcong; fengcong karst. (Chinese.) 1. A karst; its hills have very steep or vertical karst, conspicuous in China, that is walls, and may have a height/width ratio identified by its clustered limestone hills. greater than four. The limestone hills rise Fengcong (pronounced ‘fungston’), which above level, alluviated plains, and the translates as ‘peak cluster’, is a mature finest fenglin karst around Yangshuo, karst normally developed during long Guangxi, in southern China, is one of the uninterrupted periods of rapid dissolution world’s most dramatic landscapes. The in wet tropical environments with high classification by hill density means that levels of biogenic soil carbon dioxide. low residual cones scattered across a plain The Chinese classify karst by the hill or are also referred to as fenglin by the peak density, in contrast to the Western Chinese[9]. 2. Tower karst characterized classification by hill shape. Fencong is as peak forest because the individual almost the equivalent of cone karst; its towers appear as isolated groups on a closely packed hills are conical rather plain. Dry valley networks separate than hemispherical, with intervening individual towers[4]. See also fengcong; dolines and disjointed valleys. The major fungling; mogote; tower karst. occurrences are in Guizhou and Guangxi, in southern China. Some cones in ferghanite. A cave mineral — [11] Guangxi are so steep that they have been U3(VO4)2"6H2O . termed fengcong tower karst, but this [9] [16] concept is best avoided . 2. Tower karst ferric oxide. Rust; hematite (Fe2O3) . characterized as peak cluster because the individual karst towers appear to be ferrito zone. Zone of iron oxide grouped together in clusters. Closed accumulation in soil under humid climate depression among the peaks are conditions[16]. common[4]. See also fenglin; fungling; mogote; tower karst. Fickian diffusion. The spreading of solutes from regions of highest to regions of fenglin; fenglin karst. (Chinese.) 1. A lower concentrations caused by the karst, conspicuous in China, that is concentration gradient. In slow moving identified by its isolated limestone hills. ground water, this is the dominant mixing Fenglin (pronounced ‘funglin’) translates process[22]. from Chinese as ‘peak forest’, and is distinguished from fengcong. Both fissure. Any discontinuity within the rock fenglin and fengcong are mature karst mass that is either initially open or normally only developed by long capable of being opened by dissolution to uninterrupted periods of rapid dissolution provide a route for water movement. in wet tropical environments with high Fissures in this sense, applied generally in levels of biogenic soil carbon dioxide. karst, therefore include the primary The Chinese classify karst by the hill or sedimentary bedding planes as well as

74 tectonic faults and joints. More out to become wells or vertical shafts[10]. specifically, the term has been used to See also vertical shaft. describe voids with average dimensions from 10 to 100mm[9]. See also conduit; Flachkarren. (German.) See clint. fracture. flank. A limb of a fold[16]. field capacity; field moisture capacity. See specific retention. flash flood. A relatively short but very intense flood[16]. field survey. Measurements taken in the field[16]. flattener. A cave passage, which though wide, is so low that movement is only field test. A test run in the field under possible in a prone position[10]. See also normal field conditions[16]. crawl. field velocity of ground water. Actual flexure. A bend in a stratum with one flank interstitial velocity of ground water[16]. or limb only[16]. fill terrace. An elevated valley surface flint. A concretionary form of silica, similar formed by aggregation[16]. to chert, that occurs in chalk as tabular sheets and layers of irregularly shaped fine gravel. Rock aggregates of 1–2 mm nodules. Being very hard and relatively diameter[16]. insoluble, flint tends to stand out from chalk cliffs. Flint-rich horizons may also fine sand. A silicon dioxide material with a influencer the inception of bedding- grain diameter of 0.1– 0.25 mm[16]. related dissoluational conduits in chalk[9]. finite difference method. A numerical float gage. A device that indicates or method used to approximate the solution records water levels with a float[16]. of partial differential equations[16]. floating pan. An evaporation pan floating finite element method. A numerical in a water body with drum floats[16]. method used to approximate the solution of partial differential equations. floe calcite. Very thin film of pure calcium carbonate floating on the surface of a firn. Compacted granular snow[16]. subterranean pool of very calm water[10]. firstkarren. (Austrian.) See Rillenkarren. flood. A high river flow overtopping banks. fissure. An open joint or crack in rocks[16]. flood crest. The peak of a flood wave[16]. fissure cave. A narrow vertical cave or cave flooding method. A recharge method by passage along a fissure. Fissures widen flooding a recharge area[16].

75 floodmarks. The marks left on fixed flow-mass curve. 1. A mass curve with objects by flood waters[16]. runoff discharge as a hydrologic quantity[16]. 2. The integral of the curve flood plain. The surface or strip of of a hydrograph[16]. relatively smooth land adjacent to a river channel, constructed by the present river flow line. The general path that a particle of and covered with water when the river water follows under laminar flow overflows its banks. It is built of conditions[22]. Flow lines are usually alluvium carried by the river during drawn perpendicular to equipotential floods and deposited in the sluggish water lines. See also equipotential lines. beyond the influence of the swiftest current[6]. flow net. 1. A graphical representation of flow lines and equipotential lines for flood profile. A continuous line two-dimensional, steady-state representing the water surface for a given ground-water flow[22]. 2. A net of rate of flow[16]. orthogonal streamlines and equipotential lines applied in the graphical solution of flood water. Water that has overflowed its Laplace’s equation[16]. confines; the water of a flood[1]. flow path. The subsurface course a water flood-water zone. See epiphreas. molecule or solute would follow in a given ground-water velocity field. flood wave. A rise in the stage of a stream that culminates in a crest before flow rate. Volumetric rate of flow[16]. receding[1]. flow, steady. A characteristic of a flow floor pocket. See pocket. system where the magnitude and direction of specific discharge are constant in time flow, base. See base flow. at any point[22]. See also flow, unsteady.

flow, creep. Flow with a creeping motion flow, uniform. A characteristic of a flow where inertial terms have been system where specific discharge has the dropped[16]. same magnitude and direction at any point[22]. flow, critical. See critical flow. flow, unsteady. A characteristic of a flow flow duration curve. A curve of system where the magnitude and/or cumulative streamflow versus the direction of the specific discharge corresponding per cent of time[16]. changes with time. Synonymous with nonsteady flow. See also flow, steady. flow gage. A gage used to measure flow rate[16]. See also gage. flow velocity. See specific discharge.

76 flower. A cave flower is a group of crystals, fluorescein. A reddish-yellow crystalline commonly of gypsum or mirabilite, that compound that imparts a brilliant green grow by accretion at their bases on a cave fluorescent color to water in very dilute wall. As the crystals grow, curve and solutions; used to label underground splay, their form mimics that of a water for identification of an flower[9]. emergence[10]. Also commonly known as uranine. Dye type: Xanthene. flowing artesian well. A well with its potentiometric surface above the ground fluorescent dyes. Material used in surface[16]. environmental tracing studies that may be detected and measured in small flowmeter. An instrument for measuring concentrations (.10–12 mg/L), are volumetric flowrate[16]. inexpensive, relatively nontoxic, and are relatively miscible with the water being flowstone. Deposits of calcium carbonate, traced. gypsum, and other mineral matter which have accumulated on the walls or floors fluorometer, filter fluorometer. A highly of caves at places where water trickles or sensitive instrument used for measuring flows over the rock[10]. Layered deposits the fluorescence of water. It is commonly of calcium carbonate precipitated on used in water tracing and tracer gaging. rocks from water trickling over them[20]. Selected filters are used to control the (French.) coulée stalagmitique; excitation and emission ranges for (German.) Sinterfall, Sinter; (Greek.) specific fluorescent dyes of interest. See asvestolithikon epiphlioma; (Italian.) also scanning spectrofluorophotometer. colata stalagmitica, deposito, concrezione, ; (Russian.) flushed zone. In geophysical well logging, nateki; (Spanish.) colada estalagmítica; the zone around the well bore completely (Turkish.) akmataÕ2; (Yugoslavian.) invaded by the mud filtrate[16]. kaskade. See also dripstone. flute. See scallop. fluid potential. The mechanical energy per unit mass of a fluid at any given point in fluviokarst. 1. A karst landscape where the space and time with regard to an arbitrary dominant landforms are valleys cut by state and datum[22]. surface rivers. Such original surface flow may relate either to low initial fluorapatite. A cave mineral — permeability before caves (and hence [11] Ca5(PO4)3F . underground drains) had developed, or to reduced permeability due to ground [11] fluorite. A cave mineral — CaF2 . freezing in a periglacial environment. In both cases the valleys become dry as karst flume. A channel supported on or above development improves underground ground[16]. drainage[9]. 2. Mixed terranes characterized by both shallow karst and

77 erosional landscape[20]. 3. A food web. An interlocking system of food predominantly karst landscape in which chains. Since few animals rely on a there is much evidence of past or present single food source and since no food fluvial activity[10]. Synonyms: (French.) source is consumed exclusively by a fluviokarst; (German.) Fluviokarst; single species of animal, the separate food (Greek.) fluviokarst; (Italian.) chains in any natural community interlock fluviocarsimo; (Spanish.) fluviokarst; and form a web[23]. (Turkish.) akarsu karst2; (Yugoslavian.) fluviokrš, fluviokras, fluviokarst. forestry compass. A lightweight, compact instrument to be mounted on a tripod, flux. See specific discharge. which functions as a compass and a clinometer, and has a telescopic sight. foaming agent. See surfactant. Some types facilitate measurement of horizontal angles as well as bearings[25]. . (Italian.) 1. A deep wide vertical cavity or the swallow point of a river at formation. The fundamental unit in the beginning of its underground course. rock-stratigraphic classification, 2. A natural vertical shaft in soluble rock, consisting of a distinctive mappable body tending toward cylindrical shape; it may of rock[10]. See also cave formation; or may not reach the surface. A dome . pit[10]. formation temperature. The prevailing fold. A bend in a geologic stratum with two temperature in a given subsurface flanks, often in anticlinal and synclinal formation[16]. sequence. formation stabilizer. A sand or gravel food chain. A series of plants and animals placed in the annulus of the well between linked by their food relationships; the the borehole wall and the well screen to passage of energy and materials from provide temporary or long-term support producer through a succession of for the borehole[6]. consumers. Green plants, plant- eating insects, and an insect-eating bat would form factor. A factor indicating the shape form a simple food chain[23]. See also and form of mineral aggregates food web. influencing their hydrodynamic properties[16]. food pyramid. The normally diminishing number of individuals and amount of fossil. Any remains or traces of animals or organic material produced at each plants that lived in the prehistoric past, successive level along a food chain. The whether bone, cast, track, imprint, pollen, declining productivity at each level or any other evidence of their results from the constant loss of energy in existence[23]. metabolism as the energy passes along the chain[23]. See also trophic level.

78 fossil cave. A fossil cave is an underground fracturing. A formation of breaks in a rock cavity that formed when a carbonate due to folding or faulting[16]. succession was undegoing karstification but subsequently buried. Most fossil francoanellite. A cave mineral — [11] caves have been infilled by younger H6K3Al5(PO4)8"13H2O . sediments. See neptunian deposits, palaeokarst, and relict cave. free pitch. Where a rope or ladder hangs vertically and free of the walls[25]. fossil karst. See paleokarst. free-surface stream. In a cave, a stream fossile karst. (French.) See buried karst. that does not completely fill its passage[10]. fouling. The process in which undesirable foreign matter accumulates in a bed of free water. See gravitational water. filter media or ion exchanger, clogging pores and coating surfaces and thus free-water elevation. See water table. inhibiting or retarding the proper operation of the bed[6]. freezing point. The point at which a liquid solidifies[16]. fountain. A free-flowing well or [16]. See also artesian well; spring, artesian. fresco. A half-section of a on the wall of a cave. fracture. 1. A break or secondary discontinuity in the rock mass, whether or fresh water. Water that contains less than not there has been relative movement 1,000 milligrams per liter (mg/L) of across it. Faults, thrusts, and joints are all dissolved solids; generally more than 500 fractures, but bedding planes, which are mg/L is undesirable for drinking and primary features, are not. In a more many industrial uses[22]. strictly hydrogeological context the term has been used to classify voids in the size freshwater lens. 1. Body of fresh ground range 0.1 to 10mm[9]. 2. Breakage of rock water found typically beneath permeable strata[16]. 3. The general term for any limestone islands or peninsular land mechanical discontinuity in the rock; it is, masses in the tropics. The lens-shaped therefore, the collective term for joints, water body is bounded above by a water faults, cracks, etc. See also conduit; table and below by a mixing zone fissure. between fresh and saline ground water along the halocline. In the center of the fracture pattern. The spacial arrangement lens freshwater extends below sea-level, of a group of fracture surfaces. and another set of springs exists where dissolutional conduits associated with the fracture spring. See spring, fracture. lower limit of the lens intersect the rock surface below sea-level[9]. 2. A lenticular

79 form of a freshwater body under oceanic funicular regime. The distribution of coasts[16]. continuous liquid phase along pore walls with gaseous phase at the pore center[16]. friction head. Head loss due to energy dissipation by friction[16]. friend. A mechanical camming device used for anchors[25].

Froude number. A dimensionless numerical quantity used as an index to characterize the type of flow in a hydraulic structure that has the force of gravity (as the only force producing motion) in conjunction with the resisting force of inertia. It is the ratio of inertia forces to gravity forces, and is equal to the square of a characteristic velocity (mean, surface, or maximum velocity) of the system divided by the product of a characteristic linear dimension (e.g. diameter or depth) and the gravity constant, acceleration due to gravity, all of which are expressed in consistent units in order that the combinations will be dimensionless. The number is used in open-channel flow studies or where the free surface plays an essential role in influencing motion[1] such as in karst conduits that are not necessarily flowing at pipe-full conditions. See also Chézy equation; Manning equation; Reynolds number. fullflow spring. See spring, fullflow. fungling; fungling karst. (Chinese.) Isolated limestone hill in alluvial plain, probably similar to mogote[10]. See also fencong; fenglin; mogote; tower karst.

80 REFERENCES Series Number 6. British Cave Research Association. London, Britain. 41 pp.

1. Bates, R. L. and J. A. Jackson. 1980. 10. Monroe, W. H. (Compiler). 1970. A Glossary of Geology. American Glossary of Karst Terminology. Geological Institute. Falls Church, Va. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 751 pp. 1899-K. U.S. Geological Survey. U.S. Government Printing Office. Washington, 2. Bear, J. 1979. Hydraulics of Groundwater. D.C. 26 pp. McGraw-Hill Inc. New York, NY. 569 pp. 11. Moore, G. W. and G. N. Sullivan. 1978. : The Study of Caves. Cave 3. Bögli, A. 1980. Karst Hydrology and Books. 2nd Edition. St. Louis, Missouri. Physical Speleology. Springer-Verlag. 150 pp. Berlin, West Germany. 284 pp. 12. Mylroie, J. E. 1984. Hydrologic 4. Daoxian, Y. 1985. New Observations on classification of caves and karst. Tower Karst. Paper presented at the 1st Groundwater as a Geomorphic Agent. R. International Conference on G. LaFleur, Editor. Allen & Unwin. Inc. Geomorphology (Manchester, England). Boston, Mass. pp. 157–172. 14 pp. 13. NSS. 1982. Glossary of terms 5. Dreybrodt, W. 1988. Processes in Karst used in this manual. Caving Basics. J. Systems: Physics, Chemistry, and Hassemer, Editor. National Speleological Geology. Springer-Verlag. New York, Society. Huntsville, Ala. pp. 124–125. N.Y. 288 pp. 14. Palmer, A. N. 1972. Dynamics of a 6. Driscoll, F. G. 1986. Groundwater and sinking stream system: Onesquethaw Wells. Johnson Division. St. Paul, Minn. Cave, New York. National Speleological 1089 pp. Society Bulletin. 34. pp. 89–110.

7. Ford, D. C. and P. W. Williams. 1989. 15. Palmer, A. N. 1981. A Geological Guide Karst Geomorphology and Hydrology. to Mammoth Cave National Park. Unwin Hyman Inc. Lakeland, Fla. 601 pp. Zephyrus Press. Teaneck, N.J. 196 pp.

8. Jennings, J. N. 1985. Karst 16. Pfannkuch, H. O. 1971. Elsevier’s Geomorphology. Basil Blackwell Inc. Dictionary of Hydrogeology. American New York, N.Y. 293 pp. Elsevier Publishing Company. Inc. New York, N.Y. 168 pp. 9. Lowe, D. and T. Waltham. 1995. A Dictionary of Karst and Caves: A Brief 17. Quinlan, J. F. 1978. Types of Karst with Guide to the Terminology and Concepts Emphasis on Cover Beds in their of Cave and Karst Science. Cave Studies Classification and Development.

213 Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. The Group. Ground-Water Subcommittee. University of Texas at Austin. 323 pp. Interagency Advisory Committee on Water Data. Dept. of the Interior. U.S. 18. Quinlan, J. F., P. L. Smart, G. M. Geological Survey. Office of Water Data Schindel, E. C. Alexander, A. J. Edwards, Coordination. 38 pp. and A. Richard Smith. 1991. Recommended administrative/regulatory 23. William R. Elliott, Ph.D. of the Natural definition of karst aquifer, principles for History Division of the Missouri classification of carbonate aquifers, Department of Conservation. The list of practical evaluation of vulnerability of definitions were obtained directly from karst aquifers, and determination of the web site: optimum sampling frequency at springs. Hydrology. Ecology. Monitoring. and www.utexas.edu/depts/tnhc/.www/biospel Management of Ground Water in Karst eology Terranes Conference (3rd. Nashville. Tenn. 1991). J. F. Quinlan and A. which is based on The Life of the Cave by Stanley, Editors. National Ground Water Charles E. Mohr and Thomas L. Poulson Association. Dublin, Ohio. pp. 573–635. (1966, McGraw-Hill) with additions from Dr. Elliott. 19. Sweeting, M. M. 1973. Karst Landforms. Selected Glossary. Compiled 24. Clark, I. and P. Fritz. 1997. by K. Addison. Columbia University Environmental Isotopes in Hydrology. Press. New York, N.Y. 362 pp. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, Fla. p. 174. 20. UNESCO. 1972. Glossary and Multilingual Equivalents of Karst Terms. 25. Australian Speleological Federation. United Nations Educational. Scientific. 1996. Cave and Karst Terminology. The and Cultural Organization. Paris, France. list of definitions were obtained directly 72 pp. from the Western Australia Speleology web site: 21. UNESCO. 1984. Guidebook to Studies of Land Subsidence due to Ground-Water http://wasg.iinet.net.au/terminol.html withdrawal. Prepared for the International Hydrological Programme. Working which contains a listing of terminology Group 8.4. J. F. Poland, Editor. United commonly used in Australia. Nations Education. Scientific and Cultural Organization. Paris, France. 305 pp. (plus appendices).

22. USGS. (date ?). Federal Glossary of Selected Terms: Subsurface-Water Flow and Solute Transport. Prepared by the Subsurface-Water Glossary Working

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