Handbook of Residual Stress and Deformation of Steel (#06700G)

Handbook of Residual Stress and Deformation of Steel

Edited by

G. Totten M. Howes T. Inoue

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First printing, March 2002

Great care is taken in the compilation and production of this book, but it should be made clear that NO WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, ARE GIVEN IN CONNECTION WITH THIS PUBLICATION. Although this information is believed to be accurate by ASM, ASM cannot guarantee that favorable results will be obtained from the use of this publication alone. This publication is intended for use by persons having technical skill, at their sole discretion and risk. Since the conditions of product or material use are outside of ASM’s control, ASM assumes no liability or obligation in connection with any use of this information. No claim of any kind, whether as to products or information in this publication, and whether or not based on negligence, shall be greater in amount than the purchase price of this product or publication in respect of which damages are claimed. THE REMEDY HEREBY PROVIDED SHALL BE THE EXCLUSIVE AND SOLE REMEDY OF BUYER, AND IN NO EVENT SHALL EITHER PARTY BE LIABLE FOR SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES WHETHER OR NOT CAUSED BY OR RESULTING FROM THE NEGLIGENCE OF SUCH PARTY. As with any material, evaluation of the material under end-use conditions prior to speciﬁcation is essential. Therefore, speciﬁc testing under actual conditions is recommended.

Nothing contained in this book shall be construed as a grant of any right of manufacture, sale, use, or reproduction, in connection with any method, process, apparatus, product, composition, or system, whether or not covered by letters patent, copyright, or trademark, and nothing contained in this book shall be construed as a defense against any alleged infringement of letters patent, copyright, or trademark, or as a defense against liability for such infringement.

Comments, criticisms, and suggestions are invited, and should be forwarded to ASM International.

Prepared under the direction of the ASM International Technical Book Committee (2000–2001), Sunniva R. Collins, Chair ASM International staff who worked on this project included Veronica Flint, Manager of Book Acquisitions; Bonnie Sanders, Manager of Production; Carol Terman, Production Project Manager; and Scott Henry, Assistant Director of Reference Publications.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Handbook of residual stress and deformation of steel/[edited by] G. Totten, M. Howes, T. Inoue. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Steel—Fatigue—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Residual stresses—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Totten, George E. II. Howes, Maurice A.H. III. Inoue, Tatsuo, 1939-

TA473 .H3215 2001 620.1’76—dc21 2001040042 ISBN: 0-87170-729-2 SAN: 204-7586 ASM International௡ Materials Park, OH 44073-0002 www.asminternational.org

Printed in the United States of America

Multiple copy reprints of individual articles are available from Technical Department, ASM International. © 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. www.asminternational.org Handbook of Residual Stress and Deformation of Steel (#06700G)

Contributors

I. Alexandru T. Inoue M. Narazaki Faculty of Materials Department of Energy Conversion Science Utsunomiya University Technical University of Iasi Graduate School of Energy Science Tochigi, Japan Romania Kyoto University, Japan J. Pan H. Bhadeshia D.-Y. Ju School of Materials Science and Engineering Department of Materials Science and Saitama Institute of Technology Shanghai Jiao Tong University Metallurgy Saitama, Japan Shanghai, P.R. China University of Cambridge, UK N.I. Kobasko P. Ramakrishnan V. Bulancea Ukraine National Academy of Science Department of Metallurgical Engineering and Faculty of Materials Institute of Engineering Thermophysics Materials Science Technical University of Iasi Kiev, Ukraine Indian Institute of Technology Romania Bombay, India Z. Kolozsva´ry V.V. Dobrivecher S.C. Plasmaterm S.A. I.A. Razumovsky Ukraine National Academy of Science Tg-Mures, Romania Leading Research Scientist Institute of Engineering Thermophysics Institute Russian Academy of Sciences A.I. Kovalev Kiev, Ukraine Moscow, Russia Surface Phenomena Research Group T. Ericsson CNIICHERMET T. Re´ti Linko¨pings Tekniska Ho¨gskola IKP Moscow, Russia Ba´nki Dona´t Polytechnic Linko¨ping, Sweden Budapest, Hungary J. Kritzler F.D. Fischer Metal Improvement Company, Inc. C. Ruud Vorstand des Institutes fu¨r Mechanik Unna, Germany Pennsylvania State University Montanuniversita¨t Loeben University Park, PA USA Loeben, Germany K.-H. Lang Institut fu¨f Werkstoffkunde 1 G. Schleinzer A.V. Fomin Universita¨t Karlsruhe (TH), Germany Vorstand des Institutes fu¨r Mechanik Leading Research Scientist Montanuniversita¨t Leoben R.W. Lewis Institute Russian Academy of Sciences Leoben, Germany Moscow, Russia Department of Mechanical Engineering University College of Swansea, UK B. Scholtes K. Funatani Institut fu¨r Werkstofftechnik Nihon Parkerizing Co. Ltd. D. Lo¨he Universita¨t Kassel, Germany Nagoya, Japan Institut fu¨f Werkstoffkunde 1 Bo Gong Universita¨t Karlsruhe (TH), Germany K.N. Seetharamu School of Mechanical Engineering Department of Metallurgy & Materials Science J. Lu Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malayasia University of Toronto, Canada Universite de Technologie de Troyes J. Grum Trayes Cedex, France G.E. Totten G.E. Totten & Associates Inc. Faculty of Mechanical Engineering T. Lu¨bben Stony Point, NY USA University of Ljubljana, Slovenia ITW Bremen A.Y. Hassan Bremen, Germany O.Vo¨hringer Institut fu¨f Werkstoffkunde 1 Director/Dean, School of Mechanical M.V. Medvedev Universita¨t Karlsruhe (TH), Germany Engineering Research Scientist Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia Institute Russian Academy of Sciences D.L. Wainstein K. Heess Moscow, Russia Surface Phenomena Research Group CNIICHERMET Karl Heess GmbH V.P. Mishina Moscow, Russia Lampertheim, Germany Surface Phenomena Research Group F.T. Hoffmann CNIICHERMET H.W. Walton ITW Bremen Moscow, Russia Consultant Forest City, NC USA Bremen, Germany V.S. Morganyuk R. Hoffmann Ukraine National Academy of Science Z. Wang ITW Bremen Institute of Engineering Thermophysics Department of Metallurgy & Materials Science Bremen, Germany Kiev, Ukraine University of Toronto, Canada iii © 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. www.asminternational.org Handbook of Residual Stress and Deformation of Steel (#06700G)

G.M. Webster V.V. Zabilsky W. Zinn Union Carbide Corporation Physical Technical Institute, Ural Branch of Institut fu¨r Werkstofftechnik Tarrytown, NY USA RAS Universita¨t Kassel, Germany Ijevsk, Russia W. Wu¨bbenhorst Metal Improvement Company, Inc. Unna, Germany

Contents

Preface ...... vi Residual Stress During Hardening Processes

Effect of Materials and Processing Residual Stresses in Carburized, Carbonitrided, and Case-Hardened Components ...... 189 T. Re´ti Material Factors ...... 3 H.K.D.H. Bhadeshia Residual Stresses in Nitriding...... 209 Z. Kolozsva´ry Prestress Engineering of Structural Material: A Global Design Approach to the Residual Stress Problem ...... 11 Induction Hardening...... 220 J. Lu J. Grum

Residual Stresses and Fatigue Behavior...... 27 Hardening by Reheating and Quenching ...... 248 D. Lo¨he, K.-H. Lang, and O. Vo¨hringer M. Narazaki, G.E. Totten, and G.M. Webster

Stability of Residual Stresses ...... 54 Metallo-Thermo-Mechanics–Application to Quenching...... 296 D. Lo¨he and O. Vo¨hringer T. Inoue

Control of Residual Stress Formation and Steel Deformation Effect of Residual Stress on Hydrogen Embrittlement during Rapid Heating and Cooling...... 312 and Stress Corrosion Cracking...... 70 N.I. Kobasko, V.S. Morganyuk and V.V. Dobrivecher A.I. Kovalev, V.P. Mishina, D.L. Wainstein, and V.V. Zabilsky Effect of Cryogenic Cooling on Residual Stresses, Structure, Measurement and Prediction of Residual Stress and Distortion and Substructure ...... 331 Ioan Alexandru and Vasile Bulancea Deﬂection Methods to Estimate Residual Stress ...... 89 H. Walton Inducing Compressive Stresses through Controlled Shot Peening ....345 J. Kritzler and W. Wu¨bbenhorst Measurement of Residual Stresses ...... 99 C. Ruud Residual Stress Formation During Manufacturing Processes

Residual Stress Formation during Casting ...... 361 Stress Determination in Coatings...... 118 R.W. Lewis, K.N. Seetharamu and A.Y. Hassan J.Albert Sue and Gary S. Schajer Residual Stress Formation during Casting: Methods for Determination of Inhomogeneous Residual Continuous and Centrifugal Casting Processes...... 372 Stress Fields ...... 125 D.-Y. Ju I.A. Razumovsky, M.V. Medvedev, and A.V. Fomin Residual Stress Formation Processes during Welding and Joining....391 Residual Stress Formation in the Shaping of Materials W. Zinn and B. Scholtes

Residual Stress in the Forming of Materials...... 141 Residual Stresses in Powder-Metal Processing...... 397 Z. Wang and B. Gong P. Ramakrishnan Residual Stress Formation and Distortion of Rail Steel...... 424 The Effect of Final Shaping Prior to Heat Treatment ...... 150 F.D. Fischer and G. Schleinzer T. Ericsson Residual Stresses during Gear Manufacture ...... 437 Factors Affecting Final Part Shaping ...... 159 K. Funatani P. Jiansheng Metric Conversion Guide...... 459 Effects of Process Equipment Design...... 183 F.T. Hoffmann, T. Lu¨bben, R. Hoffmann, and K. Heeß Index ...... 465 v © 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. www.asminternational.org Handbook of Residual Stress and Deformation of Steel (#06700G)

Preface

Control of steel deformation is one of the most steels, influence of residual stresses on cyclic determination in Coatings” provides a guide for common concerns within the metals processing formation behavior, influence of residual stresses measuring residual macrostress in coatings, Spe- industry. Numerous surveys have been con- on crack initiation and propagation, and effect of cific topics include origin of residual stresses in ducted by various organizations in recent years residual stresses on S-N curves; an overview of coatings and residual stress measurement meth- to assess the critical needs of the industry. In modeling of the effect of residual stresses on fa- ods including the deflection method, x-ray dif- nearly every survey that has been conducted, dis- tigue behavior is provided. fraction, and hole-drilling. A comparison of tortion is either the greatest or second greatest The next article provides an overview of the these methods is provided. concern among the steel heat treating commu- stability and relaxation behavior of macro and The last article in this section provides a de- nity. Steel distortion control will exhibit tremen- micro residual stresses in steel due to thermal tailed review of methods used to measure and dous effects on the profitability of the commer- and mechanical treatments. This discussion in- subsequent data analysis of inhomogeneous re- cial enterprise. Therefore, it is not surprising that cludes relaxation of residual stresses by anneal- sidual stress fields. This discussion includes re- the ability to understand the overall distortion ing, residual stress relaxation by uniaxial defor- sidual stress as an inverse problem of experi- process and to be able to design solutions to this mation, and relaxation by cyclic deformation. mental mechanics, indicator crack method of problem typically rank very high on these same Hydrogen embrittlement of metals, as well as measuring residual stress, arbitrary cut-out in- surveys. other types of brittle fracture, result from nucle- dicator method, and experimental methods and In view of the enormous visibility and impor- ation and development of micro-cracks caused equipment including photoelastic coating tance of steel deformation problems, the editors by internal stresses. The last article in this sec- method, and optical interferometry. Although decided to put together an engineering handbook tion provides an overview of the effect of resid- this is a relatively rigorous numerical discussion, on steel deformation. To address this subject ual stress on hydrogen embrittlement and stress practical examples also are provided. properly, contributing factors to overall steel de- corrosion cracking (SCC) of steel. This discus- Residual Stress Formation in the Shaping of formation problems, including material effects, sion includes the effect of hydrogen on structure Materials contains four articles. The first article machining, heating and cooling, must be exam- and transformation of steel, types of hydrogen covers residual stress in the steel forming pro- ined. embrittlement, delayed fracture in steel, crack cesses. The steel forming processes included are This handbook contains 27 articles, divided initiation and growth, SCC of low alloy steels, cold forming such as wire drawing, and hot into five sections: Effect of Materials and Pro- crack initiation and growth mechanism of SCC forming such as extrusion, rolling, and forging. cessing, Measurement and Prediction of Resid- processes, methods of estimating sensitivity to The effects of residual stresses involved in these ual Stress and Distortion, Residual Stress For- SCC, effect of alloying elements on resistance processes are reviewed, and specific topics in- mation in the Shaping of Materials, Residual to SCC, and the role of structure and thermal clude residual stress in cold metal forming such Stress During Hardening Processes, and Resid- processing in SCC. as bending of sheet, drawing of wire, rod, and ual Stress Formation During Manufacturing Pro- In the section Measurement and Prediction of tube, and residual stresses in deep drawn cup, cesses. Residual Stress and Distortion, the first article sunk tubes, and radial forging products. There are five articles in the section Effect of describes a number of simple, inexpensive de- The effect of final shaping prior to heat treat- Materials and Processing. “Material Factors” flection (dissection) methods used to estimate re- ment on residual stress formation is discussed in discusses the effects of various material proper- sidual stress of various types of components. The the next article. The effects of shaping processes ties such as thermal properties and the interac- methods include Almen strip; Navy C-Ring; including grinding, milling, turning, shot peen- tions of residual stresses on the transformation plate or bar slitting and deflection; tube slitting ing, and straightening on residual stress are dis- products formed and steel deformation during and opening; and bending of bars, H-beams, and cussed. Also discussed is distortion after final fabrication. Transformation plasticity is dis- channels. part shaping and experimental and computa- cussed in some detail along with the use of mod- The next article provides an overview of re- tional studies of these processes. eling to better understand these processes. sidual stress measurement methods. Topics in- The next article provides a practical overview “Prestress Engineering of Structural Material” clude residual stresses arising from various of the factors affecting residual stress and dis- provides a global design approach to understand- manufacturing processes, measurement methods tortion during final part shaping. Included are ing the effects of residual stress generated during including strain measuring technique, post-stress discussions of influence of component shape on surface engineering manufacturing processes relaxation measurement, sectioning and material heat treatment distortion, the effect of cross- such as PVD and CVD on the material properties removal methods. In addition, strain measure- section size and asymmetry, effect of heat treat- obtained. Some of the topics discussed in this ment methods such as x-ray and neutron diffrac- ing procedure and machining process on final chapter include developments in the measure- tion, ultrasonic, birefringent and laser, optical component shape, effect of sequence of heat ments of residual stresses, advanced mechanical gages, brittle coatings, Barkhausen noise, and treating and machining, influence of machining surface treatments, and modeling of fatigue be- chemical coatings are discussed. Semidestruc- allowance and stress relieving procedure, influ- havior taking residual stresses into considera- tive methods such as blind hole drilling and ring ence of residual stresses caused by cutting, meth- tion. coring are discussed. ods of manufacturing blanks and effect of origi- The effect of residual stresses on fatigue be- Measurement of residual stresses in coatings nal structure, hot-rolled steels or forgings and havior is discussed in detail in the next article. and thin films is important because their influ- effect of banded segregation and carbide segre- Examples of topics discussed include stability of ence on mechanical and physical properties af- gation, influence of heat treating methods, the residual stresses, some aspects of fatigue in fect component service performance. “Stress De- effect of heating including the rules of heating, vi © 2002 ASM International. 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quenching and system design, tempering, and metallo-thermo-mechanics and numerical simu- first part describes manufacturing of ferrous P/ equipment and racking. lation methodology with practical examples. M parts including powder characteristics, com- A more focused, but practical, discussion on In the article on the control of residual stress paction in rigid dies, isostatic compaction, sin- the effect of process equipment design on dis- formation and steel deformation during rapid tering, heat treatment of P/M parts, hot pressing, tortion follows. Subjects that are covered include heating and cooling, a particular emphasis is on roll compaction, powder forging, metal injection distortion generating process equipment, meth- intensive quenching. This is the first detailed, molding, spray forming, warm compaction, and ods that may be used to minimize equipment- article-length discussion of this old, but little- rapid prototyping. The second part discusses re- related distortion, quench system design, and known technology in the western world. Topics sidual stresses in P/M processing including press quenching. include mathematical model for calculation of powder production, compaction of metal pow- Residual Stress During Hardening Processes thermal and stress-strain state, computation of ders, sintering of metal powders, pressure sin- contains eight articles. The first article provides stress-strain state, possibility of predicting hard- tering and hot isostatic pressing, heat treatment a detailed discussion on the residual stresses in ening cracks, predicting the deformation of bear- of P/M parts, and microstructural development carburized, carbonitrided, and case-hardened ing rings during hardening, thermal stresses and properties. components. Topics include process considera- formed in carburized steel products due to ex- “Residual Stress Formation and Distortion of tions for carburized and carbonitrided compo- cessive cooling rates, generalization of compu- Rail Steel” covers the cooling process including nents, transformations and stress evolution in tational and experimental results for heating and the cooling boundary conditions and heat trans- carburized and case-hardened components, ef- cooling of parts with different geometries and fer, residual stress state analysis, weight and fric- fect of heat treating operations on residual stress thermal and physical fundamentals of processing tion—the rail end problem, experimental results; distribution, relationship between residual of high-strength materials. roller straightening including residual stresses in stresses and properties of carburized parts and An often contradictory subject is the cryo- unused roller-straightened rails, behavior of rail modeling and prediction of residual stress field. genic processing of steels, and the detailed over- steel under plastic deformation, simulation of The article on residual stresses in steel nitrid- view of the effect of cryogenic cooling on resid- roller straightening; and rails in service including includes a discussion of nitrided layer struc- ual stress is presented here. Specific topics ing residual stresses due to welding and residual ture as a function of nitriding process, residual include role of residual stresses within marten- stress formation in rolling contact. stresses in nitrided layers, influence of residual sitic transformation at cryogenic temperatures, The last article provides a detailed description stresses on fatigue behavior of nitrided steel evaluation of residual stresses after cryogenic of residual stress formation during hypoid gear components, and modeling and prediction of re- cooling, influence of cryogenic cooling on resid- manufacture. It includes an overview of residual sidual stresses in nitrided steel components. ual stresses and dimensional stability of steels, stress formation in carburized and hardened The article on residual stress formation in in- and influence of cryogenic cooling on the struc- work, profiles and peak magnitudes of residual duction hardening processes include an over- ture and substructure of steels. stresses, measurement methods including the view of the induction hardening process and The practical use of controlled shot peening Sach’s hole-drilling method, x-ray and neutron steels used for this process, magnetic flux con- to induce compressive residual stresses is de- diffraction, influence of steel properties on resid- centrators, conditions in induction heating and scribed in detail next. This discussion includes a ual stresses, influence of carburizing process pa- quenching of machine parts, residual stress sur- historic overview of shot peening, elementary rameters on residual stress formation, benefits of face profiles after induction surface hardening, processes of shot peening, workpiece and ma- residual stresses on fatigue strength, and the ef- stress profiles in the machine part in the loaded terial process parameters, process monitoring, fects of hardness, case depth, intergranular oxi- state, workpiece distortion in induction surface process optimization, x-ray diffraction, and in- dation, influence of shot peening, change of re- hardening, induction surface hardening of gear dustrial examples. sidual stresses during fatigue, and distortion of wheels, fatigue strength of materials, and resid- In Residual Stress Formation During Manu- carburized and hardened steels. ual stresses after induction surface hardening and facturing Processes, the first article includes an The preparation of a text of this scope was a finish grinding. extensive discussion of residual stress and de- tremendous task. The editors are deeply indebted The next article provides an overview of re- formation problems arising from the casting pro- to many colleagues for their patience, support, sidual stresses and distortion resulting from re- cess, and modeling of residual stress formation and assistance; without them this text would not heating and quenching. Topics include phase during casting. Discussion includes finite ele- have been possible. Special thanks go to the transformation during heat treating including ment analysis of heat flow during casting, for- ASM staff who often labor in the background steel transformations, TTT and CCT diagrams, mulation of the elasto-viscoplastic stress model, but who are vital members of the team. Particu- metallurgical crystal structure, estimation of vol- and deformation of a solidifying material. larly, thanks go to Veronica Flint and Carol Ter- umetric change due to steel transformation upon The next article describes residual stress for- man of ASM International for their help and en- quenching, cooling of steel with and without mation during the casting process, and it in- couragement. metallurgical transformation, tempering, basic cludes continuous and centrifugal casting. Top- Very special thanks go to our families for their distortion mechanism, relief of residual stresses, ics discussed include inelastic behavior and seemingly unending support. Without their un- material movement due to thermal gradients dur- unified constitutive theory of metallic material derstanding and encouragement, this project ing heating and cooling, material, component in solidification, analytical method of the would never have been completed. and process effects, retained austenite, quench thermal-mechanical problem for the casting pro- George E. Totten, Ph.D., FASM severity and uniformity and process design ef- cess, residual stress formation during semicon- Editor fects on distortion, quench distortion and crack- tinuous casting, residual stress formation during G.E. Totten & Associates Inc. ing, quenchant selection, measurement and eval- centrifugal casting, and residual stress formation Stony Point, NY USA uation of quenching power, estimation of heat during strip casting by the twin-roll method. transfer coefficient, wetting behavior and non- The origin and assessment of residual stresses Prof. Maurice A.H. Howes, Ph.D. (Retired) uniform quenching, surface conditions, and during welding or brazing is discussed next. Editor quench process modeling and simulation of re- Welding residual stresses are discussed includ- Worcestershire, England sidual stress and distortion after quenching. ing residual stresses due to shrinkage, quench- Prof. Tatsuo Inoue, Ph.D., FASM A detailed approach to modeling and simula- ing, and phase transformations. Characteristic Editor tion of residual stress and distortion applied to residual stress distributions in brazed compo- Department of Energy Conversion Science quench processing follows. This discussion is nents is also discussed. Faculty of Energy Science based on a metallo-thermo-mechanics approach, The article “Residual Stresses in Powder Kyoto University and topics discussed include an overview of Metal Processing” is divided into two parts. The Kyoto, Japan vii ASM International is the society for materials engineers and scientists, a worldwide network dedicated to advancing industry, technology, and applications of metals and materials.

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No warranties, express or implied, including, without limitation, warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose, are given in connection with this publication. Although this information is believed to be accurate by ASM, ASM cannot guarantee that favorable results will be obtained from the use of this publication alone. This publication is intended for use by persons having technical skill, at their sole discretion and risk. Since the conditions of product or material use are outside of ASM's control, ASM assumes no liability or obligation in connection with any use of this information. As with any material, evaluation of the material under end-use conditions prior to specification is essential. Therefore, specific testing under actual conditions is recommended.

Nothing contained in this publication shall be construed as a grant of any right of manufacture, sale, use, or reproduction, in connection with any method, process, apparatus, product, composition, or system, whether or not covered by letters patent, copyright, or trademark, and nothing contained in this publication shall be construed as a defense against any alleged infringement of letters patent, copyright, or trademark, or as a defense against liability for such infringement.