Contents Grande, El Paso TX 79902

IJFM (ISSN # 0743-2529) was estab- INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF lished in 1984 by the International Student Leaders Coalition for Frontier FRONTIER MISSIONS Missions. Published quarterly for $15.00 in Jan.- October-December 1996 March., April-June, July-Sept. and Oct.- Volume 13 Number 4 Dec., by the International Journal of Frontier Missions, 321 West Rio Contents Grande, El Paso TX 79902.

Editor: Hans M. Weerstra 161 Editorial: The Challenge of the Muslim Frontiers Associate Editors: Hans M. Weerstra Richard A. Cotton D. Bruce Graham Managing Editor: 163 The Apostle to Islam: The Legacy of Samuel Zwemer Judy L. Weerstra J. Christy Wilson, Jr. IJFM Secretary: Barbara R. Pitts 169 The Southern Shilha of Morocco Publisher: Bradley Gill Bethany World Prayer Center The IJFM promotes the investigation of frontier mission issues, including plans 171 Contextualization Among Muslims: Reusing Common Pillars and coordination for world evangeliza- J. Dudley Woodberry tion, measuring and monitoring its progress, defining, publishing and profiling unreached peoples, and the 189 Critical Contextualization and Muslim Conversion promotion of biblical mission theology. The Journal advocates completion of Warren F. Larson world evangelization by AD 2000. The IJFM also seeks to promote inter- 193 Power Encounter Among Folk Muslims generational dialogue between senior Rick Love and junior mission leaders, cultivate an international fraternity of thought in the development of frontier missiology. 197 A Muslim’s Journey to Salvation Address all editorial correspondence Sultan Muhammad Paul and manuscripts to IJFM, 321 West Rio Grande, El Paso Texas, 79902 USA. Phone: (915) 533-4975 Fax: (915) 532- 205 Resources for Sharing with Muslims 0990 E-mail address: Ernest Hahn [email protected] Subscription Information: One year (four issues) $15.00, two years (eight issues) $28.00, three years (twelve issues) $40.00. Single copies $5.00. Payment must be enclosed with orders. IJFM Editorial Committee Note: Subscriptions are automatically renewed and billed for year by year unless we receive other instructions. Gary R. Corwin, SIM/EMIS, USA When changing your address, please supply both old and new addresses. Paul Filidis, YWAM Research Center, USA Cover Photo: Photo of a Southern Shil- ha women, used with permission from Todd M. Johnson, World Evangelization Research Center, USA Bethany World Prayer Center.

Edison Queiroz, COMIBAM, Brazil PRINTED IN THE USA Editorial: The Challenge of the Muslim Frontiers

n the process of producing the last two of men to dwell on the face of the earth, must learn, and be willing to learn, (enter I special issues on Islam, I have and has determined their appointed humility) in order to reach the become thoroughly convinced of several times and the boundaries of their dwell- unreached Muslim world for Christ. Con- matters: 1) that missions to the Mus- ings, so that they should seek the textualizing the Gospel for Muslims lim peoples of the world is true frontier Lord, in the hope that they might grope is going to be radically different than missions, 2) that Muslim missions is for Him and find Him, though He is doing it for a Middle American very difficult, and 3) that the task, not far from each of us.” (Acts 17:26, 27) Native Indian groups in Mexico or Guate- although difficult, is not impossible. Although much has been done mala. How the church is planted in The difficulty lies in that churches in before, and none of it is wasted since all each instance, and how it needs to be most Muslim lands need to be planted of it will be useful, including our fail- planted, is radically different. The underground. This is because of the hos- ures, nevertheless, based on a spiritual sooner we see that and learn it deeply, the tile environment to anything Chris- intuition, I believe that the broad con- greater our success will be! tian. Muslim converts to Christ run the text orchestrated by our Sovereign Lord is All of this points to the need to learn, risk of angry mobs and severe perse- in place now as never before, the time to study, and to become prepared and cution resulting in loss of life and limb. In and season (the kairos moment) for Mus- skilled laborers of the Lord to the Muslim most Muslim lands it is illegal to lims to seek the Lord and know Him world. Frontier missions by definition evangelize or to change one’s faith or as Saviour is now! demands it. We dare not give less. Good religion for that matter. (See articles Add to that my conviction that enough won’t be good enough! in Islam II that address these stark reali- missions to Muslims is true genuine fron- Except for a handful of us who have gone ties.) tier missions. Our missions to Mus- before, we all need to get trained and On the other hand, although the work lims must be seen within that frontier retrained, including our support base. is difficult, I am also totally con- framework. The quicker we realize Both those who go, as well as those vinced that it is by no means impossible. this, the more successful we will be and of us who stay, need to know the basics of Reaching the Muslim world is a do- the fewer failures we will have. crossing the Christian-non-Christian able task, given the innate power of the Involved in reaching the Muslim world faith frontier in order to reach the Muslim Gospel, the power of the Spirit at means crossing the frontiers into world for Christ. work in the hearts of men and women, unknown and uncharted territory, i.e., These last two special issues of the and the willing and able hands and frontier missions. Journal, (Islam II and Islam III) as hearts of the Lord’s laborers. Also we By definition frontier missions essen- well as the first issue on Islam I (pub- might add, we know more now than tially means crossing and working on lished in April 1994), have been pre- in the past. . (See Dudley Woodberry’s the frontiers among peoples, tribes and pared to equip, to train, and to train us. article in Islam II “When Failure is nations where Christianity meets non- The International Journal of Frontier our Teacher: Lessons from Mission to Christianity for the first time. It’s like Missions recognizes the need to hear from Muslims.” crossing the line where civilization those who have been on the “fron- Here is perhaps the main reason for ends and the wild frontiers begin—truly tiers” in order to bring their first-hand the unreached status of the Muslim going into unexplored territory, with invaluable knowledge and insights to world: So few able and willing missionar- all its uncertainties, perils and excitement, bear on these very important mission chal- ies have in the past, and even pres- knowing that “it’s a jungle out there.” lenges. ently, shared the Gospel with our Muslim In most cases (among most unreached One who has been there before is the friends. Why is that? Although by no so called “apostle to Islam,” who has people groups) it means going where means designed to give us a rationale for been on the frontiers, who has buried his no one has gone before. our lack of involvement, I would like This is crucial to understand and loved ones there, who is a first rate to suggest that maybe, just maybe, the appreciate. We can’t rest on our past trailblazer for missions to Muslims. We broad context in the past was not yet experiences and training. For most of do ourselves a great disservice by not in place—the kairos moment for the evan- deeply appreciating the life and ministry us it means learning mission strategy all gelization of the Muslim world as a of Samuel Zwemer, and the legacy he over again and from a totally different whole had not yet come. Paul, the frontier left us concerning faithful and effective perspective. For instance, large parts of apostle, preaching his great mission apostolic work to Muslims. message to the Ahtenians reminds us that my personal experience and training God “has made from one every nation in reaching tribal groups in Mexico is not applicable to reaching Muslims. I (Continuation on page 216)

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS, VOL 13:4 OCT.-DEC. 1996 The Challenge of the Muslim Frontiers (Continuation from page 161)

A critical concern is knowing how to tians around the world. resource list compiled by Zwemer Insti- properly contextualize the Good This special issue ends with a tute. However, if any of our readers News to Muslims. Dudley Woodberry, very important article that is designed to are interested in that list contact Zwemer along with Warren Larson, lead us in lead us in further study and prepara- Institute in Pasadena California, or that direction. What can modern day apos- tion. It is by Ernest Hahn who lists the contact the editor.] tles to Islam use—what should they main resources that can help us in use—to critically and properly contextual- sharing the Gospel with our Muslim ize the Gospel for Muslims that leads friends. This literally is a gold mine Hans M. Weerstra, to their conversion? Answer: Use com- for resources concerning missions to Mus- IJFM Editor mon traditions, called “common pil- lims. [Note: Due to lack of space, we December, 1996 lars,” that Muslim’s use and identify with, were not able to include an additional El Paso, TX USA and Christians can relate to traditionally. Here’s a way whereby we can “speak their language” and reach their hearts so that they might hear the Gospel, call upon the Lord and be saved. We also need to learn how to minister in “power encounter.” Rick Love reminds us of the forces of darkness that need to be challenged by the forces of light that will be a major key to unlock the hearts of Folk Muslims who con- stitute by far the great majority of Mus- lims worldwide. Modern day missionary apostles need to know the spiritual realities of the Muslim world and in the name of Christ be able to route the enemy and display the power of the Gospel that leads to conversion. We all need to be able to say with the greatest frontier missionary, “my speech and my preaching were not with persua- sive words of human wisdom, but in demonstration of the Spirit and of power, that your faith should not be in the wisdom of men but in the power of God.” (I Cor. 2:4, 5) The bottom line of all this is salvation. All our efforts, all our prayers, all our training, all our sacrifices in reaching Muslims must focus on the all important journey that leads Muslims to salvation. Sultan Muhammad Paul, a former Muslim, recounts his own personal odyssey on this all important journey. Although this is an old story— written many decades ago—it still is fully relevant to what missions to Muslims is all about today! We must be able to lead them from where they are— based on who they are—and direct them to the Good News in Christ and salvation in Him alone. (Acts 4:12). May millions of Muslims soon find salvation in Him, through the efforts of thousands of trained skilled laborers of the Lord, who are supported by millions of Chris-

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS The Apostle to Islam: The Legacy of Samuel Zwemer

The challenge Samuel Zwemer sounded in his time must be heard again today. For today the number of lost Muslims is much greater than it was when Zwemer dedicated his life for their salvation. However, then as now the laborers are still pitiable few. by J. Christy Wilson, Jr.

n the judgment of historian Kenneth try was reinforced by this pledge to go tle. One time this caused a good deal of IScott Latourette, “No one through overseas as a missionary. On Septem- consternation. A patient returned all the centuries of Christian missions to ber 19, 1887, he entered the theological much perturbed, since he had read on the the Muslims has deserved better than seminary of the Reformed Church in bottle the Bible verse, “Prepare to Dr. Zwemer the designation of Apostle to New Brunswick, New Jersey. He also meet thy God”! 1 Islam.” served with the Throop Avenue Mis- Zwemer preached his first ser- Samuel Marinus Zwemer was born in sion of that city in evangelism and visita- mon on March 11, 1888, to a congrega- Vriesland, Michigan in 1867, the thir- tion of the poor, since he was vitally tion of black people in a small New teenth child in a Reformed Church minis- interested in social work, he did all that he Brunswick, New Jersey church. In this ter’s family. Many years later when could to help people in the slums out and his home visitation, Zwemer was he shared with his mother that he believed of their poverty and degradation. He getting early training in ethnic relations. God was calling him to the foreign urged those whom he visited to find a Throughout his life he was free from field, she told him that she had dedicated new outlook on life as committed Chris- racial bias or prejudice. him to the Lord’s service and placed tians, but regardless of their response, During the first year of his study him in the cradle with the prayer that he he helped them with such personal prob- at New Brunswick Seminary (1887-88), might grow up to be a missionary.2 lems from finding work to getting Zwemer had a talk with James Can- There was Bible reading at every meal needed medical attention. During the first tine, who as a middler was a year ahead of and the family went through the year of his theological course, him. Samuel said, “You know, we whole of the Scripture in this way Zwemer set aside the hour from twelve must get something definite under way. I together each year. With such a heri- noon to one o’clock as a special time propose that you and I offer ourselves tage, it is little wonder that Samuel felt he for prayer and devotions. He later devel- to go to some needy field and possibly had accepted Christ as his Lord and oped the habit in his quiet time of start a new work.” Cantine replied Savior as far back in his boyhood as he reading the Scriptures in a different lan- that he had been thinking along the same could remember. guage every day of the week to keep lines, so they shook hands and joined During Samuel Zwemer’s senior year up his knowledge of these languages. in prayer that they might be used in this at Hope College, Robert Wilder, a Zwemer also began to acquire a way. pioneer of the Student Volunteer Move- knowledge of medicine, which he hoped Professor John G. Lansing, who ment, visited the campus. While he would be a help in his missionary taught Hebrew at the seminary and was presenting the needs of missions, he career. He carefully read Gray’s Anat- who had spent a number of years in had a map of India on display with a omy, a manual of therapeutics, and Egypt, became their adviser and close metronome in front of it. It was set so that other medical texts. At a later period in friend in preparing for their missionary each time it ticked back and forth one his course of studies, he went on activity. As their plans took shape, person in the Indian subcontinent died weekends to New York and worked in a Zwemer and Cantine envisaged the possi- who had never heard the gospel of clinic with a young doctor who later ble opening of a new mission, and Jesus Christ. This so affected Samuel was knighted, Sir William Wanless, one they selected Arabia, the homeland of Zwemer that at the end of the mes- of the best-known missionary physi- Islam, as the most difficult field they sage he rushed forward and signed the cians and surgeons in India. Dr. Wanless could find. The Muslim religion was the decision card, which stated: “God gave him lessons in medicine, and only one that had met and conquered helping me, I purpose to be a foreign mis- Zwemer acted as assistant and pharmacist. Christianity on a large scale and thus was sionary.” His custom of the Bleecker Street the great rival of the Christian faith. Call and Preparation Mission Clinic in New York City was They adopted as the motto of their organi- The call of Zwemer to the minis- always to paste a Scripture verse zation the prayer of Abraham along with the label on each medicine bot- recorded in Genesis 17:18, “Oh that Ish- INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS, VOL 13:4 OCT.-DEC. 1996 164 The Apostle to Islam mael might live before Thee.” him to Europe to speed him on his way. Although Zwemer had been fearful that Cantine and Zwemer approached They went first to the Netherlands, direct preaching might lead to vio- different societies about being sent to Ara- and from there Samuel visited Scotland to lence, the patrons of the coffee shop lis- bia as missionaries, but none would make contact with the Scottish Pres- tened intently as Bishop French sponsor them, stating that it was foolish byterian Mission, the only society that expounded the Scriptures in high classic for them to want to go to such a fanat- then had work in Arabia. He also Arabic. ical people. Samuel’s subsequent com- wanted to meet the titled family of the The travelers reached Aden fifteen ment was, “If God calls you and no brilliant young Scotsman, Ian Keith days after leaving Suez. There they board will send you, bore a hole through Falconer, who had given his life as a mar- met Cantine, who had rented rooms for the board and go anyway.” He then tyr in the city of Aden of the Yemen them. With him was Kamil Abdul in 1887. While passing through London, visited churches to help raise Cantine’s Messiah, a convert from Islam who had Zwemer purchased the two-volume support while the latter went to other come from Syria to work with them work Travels in Arabia Deserts by congregations helping to get funds for and join in the search for a permanent Charles M. Doughty. These texts Zwemer’s support. Thus the Arabian location. In Aden they suffered became his constant companions until he Mission was born. attacks of malarial fever and their sold them years later to T.E. Law- Zwemer had grown to a height of finances were at an all-time low. rence—better known as “Lawrence of six feet. His 160 pounds were spread Long overdue salaries providentially Arabia.” evenly over his frame, so he appeared arrived in the nick of time, and they In Beirut, Zwemer and Cantine stud- somewhat thin in his loose-fitting but were able to go on with their plans. ied with national teachers and were carefully tended suits, usually of dark Bishop French decided to locate in privileged to sit at the feet of the prince of gray. His face caught attention, and his Muscat, while Cantine went up the Per- Arabic scholars, Dr. Cornelius Van eyes seemed always sparkling with sian Gulf to the east and north, and Dyck. He was the translator of the Bible fun. The prominent Dutch features would Zwemer took Kamil Abdul Messiah with into Arabic and cautioned the young break into a friendly smile at the him to visit the southern coast as far students, “The learning of Arabic is a slightest provocation. He thought deeply as Mukalla, the seaport for the interior seven-day-a-week job.” on theological questions and became provinces of Arabia. Before the close of 1890, Zwemer an evangelical, with a belief founded upon During June and July of 1891, the Bible as God’s written Word and and Cantine left Beirut for Cairo. Zwemer decided to try to visit the city the revelation of a divine Christ who gave There they met their old seminary friend of San’a, which had long been closed to His life in atonement on the cross and and instructor, Dr. Lansing. As the foreigners. He went by ship from rose again. He came to know the Scrip- three men pored over maps together (Ara- Aden to Hodeida and then six days on tures thoroughly. He often quoted bia is about the size of the United mule back. In the city of San’a, he them with unusual apt application and States east of the Mississippi River), Can- was given a good deal of freedom to wit- presented truth with a dash of his tine finally suggested, “Sam, you sur- ness. On the boat returning to Aden, marvelous sense of humor. vey the Red Sea side of this great penin- sula and possibly the southeast coast, there were several British officers who James Cantine graduated from and I will plan to examine the locations to were going to India. When Zwemer seminary in 1889, a year before Zwemer, the East and on the Persian Gulf.” described his journey to San’a, they at and went on to Beirut to study Ara- first did not believe that he had been bic. Before he left, the students presented After some months in Cairo, Cantine there. When they were finally convinced, him with a pair of binoculars, which took a direct steamer for Aden, while two of these officers nominated him Samuel said were appropriate, as he was Zwemer later boarded a coastal vessel to become a Fellow of the Royal Geo- going “to spy out the land.” Zwemer down the Red Sea, making stops at graphic Society. He was elected for completed his seminary work and gradu- several ports. Zwemer was privileged to life and thus after his name he could write ated with honors, receiving his B.D. have as a fellow passenger Anglican “F.R.G.S.”. degree and going on to be ordained in the Bishop T. Valpy French, of the Church In the meantime, Cantine made the Reformed Church of America on May Missionary Society, who had spent trip to the east of the Arabian penin- 29, 1890. many years working with Muslims in what is now Pakistan. Their first stop sula and up the Persian Gulf in search of a Scouting out the Land was in Jidda, the port of Mecca. At once location. On his arrival at Muscat, he Zwemer left America as a missionary Bishop French went to a coffee shop, learned that Bishop French had died there for Arabia in June 1890. His father and opening a large Arabic Bible, began and was buried in a sandy cove and his older brother Frederick sailed with to read to the men seated there. nearby. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS J. Christy Wilson, Jr. 165

Cantine went on from Muscat to the Arab custom. recruitment. Due to the fact, that even island of Bahrain and then across to The Arabian Mission after much prayer, he could not Bushire on the Iranian side of the Persian The Arabian Mission had now decide between the two calls, he accepted Gulf. From there he traveled to Basra. acquired its first woman member. both! He had not been there long before he was Samuel Zwemer took his wife to the Mission Conventions convinced that this would be an ideal island of Bahrain. She, as a trained place to begin their operations. He wrote A great part of Zwemer’s time nurse, began at once to help Samuel in his for Zwemer to come right away. for the next five years was spent speaking rudimentary medicine. The work was at conventions. He was largely Both men were made agents for the demanding, and among the hardships to responsible for the first General Confer- British and Foreign Bible Society and be endured were days and nights of ence of Missionaries to the World of were able to open a shop for the sale of fearful heat. When Zwemer wrote his first Islam, held in Cairo in April 1906. This Scriptures in the bazaar. It was not book in Bahrain, he wrapped a towel was sponsored by mission boards long, however, before opposition devel- around his hand to keep the perspiration with work in Muslim countries. His effec- oped. Zwemer wrote: “The mission from blotting the paper. The book, tiveness was never more evident than passed through a period of determined Arabia: The Cradle of Islam, went at the quadrennial conferences of the Stu- opposition and open hostility from the through four editions from 1900 to dent Volunteer Movement. Robert E. Turkish authorities. The Bible shop was 1912. The second book he wrote in Bah- Speer wrote, “Dr. Zwemer hung a great sealed up and a guard placed at the rain was Raymond Lull, First Mis- map of Islam before us and, with a door of the house occupied by the missionary to Moslems. This short biography sweep of his hand across all those dark- sion. Fortunately, the opposition was of the great missionary was translated ened areas, said: ‘Thou Oh Christ art short lived.” The new mission, however, and published in Arabic, Spanish, Ger- all I want and Thou Oh Christ art all they was to suffer something worse than man, Chinese, and Dutch. Other addi- government opposition. Kamil Abdul want. What Christ can do for any tions to the Arabian Mission were two 3 Messiah died after a short illness. He man, He can do for every man.’” Speer doctors supported by the University had been working with Muslims and most and Zwemer probably influenced of Michigan. likely was poisoned. more young men and women to go into In spite of better medical care, In 1892, Zwemer visited the island of missionary service than any two indi- Peter Zwemer, Samuel’s brother, died of Bahrain, halfway down the coast, and viduals in all of Christian history. illness late in 1898. Six years later, in was able to open a work there. Later in Zwemer was eager to get back to July 1904, two daughters of Samuel and the same year, Peter Zwemer, a the field in Arabia, but John R. Mott Amy Zwemer succumbed to dysen- younger brother of Samuel, joined the urged him to stay over for the 1910 tery in Bahrain. The sorrowing parents mission and opened a substation at Student Volunteer Convention in Roches- inscribed on the tomb that marks their Muscat. In 1894 the Arabian Mission was ter, New York. It was at this meeting graves on the island of Bahrain, adopted by the Reformed Church and that Zwemer, in a telling address, used the became one of their regular fields. WORTHY IS THE LAMB words that have often been quoted TO RECEIVE RICHES. Word came from the Church since: “His kingdom is without frontiers.” Missionary Society (CMS) asking Cantine They also had a son, whom they In 1910 the great World Missionary and Zwemer to meet two new women named Raymond after the great Spanish Conference also was held in Edinburgh, recruits coming from Australia and to missionary to North Africa, Raymond Scotland. Zwemer was on the Orga- assist them on their way. One of these Lull. Another daughter, Elizabeth, mar- nizing Committee on Occupation of the was Amy Wilkes, a charming young ried Dr. Claude Pickens, who served Field and took a leading part in the nurse with whom Samuel Zwemer as missionaries to Muslims in China. conference, which drew representatives fell in love. They were married at the Brit- After Samuel Zwemer and his from most of the world. During the ish Consulate in Baghdad on May 18, wife returned to the United States for a conference, a committee met to lay plans 1896. The Church Missionary Society, furlough in 1905, he received two for a quarterly publication called The however, did not surrender its prize calls to ministry at about the same time. Moslem World. The magazine was born easily. They required that Amy pay the The Reformed Board of Foreign Mis- with the January 1911 issue, with cost of her journey to the field. It was sions asked him to become their field sec- Zwemer as editor. His habit of darting necessary for Zwemer to meet this obliga- retary. The Student Volunteer Move- from the Persian Gulf to Egypt or tion, so it was said that he had pur- ment also called him to work for three some other part of the world made the dif- chased his wife in accordance with true years as traveling representative for ficulties of editing and publishing for-

VOL 13:4 OCT.-DEC. 1996 166 The Apostle to Islam midable. However, he managed to put out tions in England. It was there in 1915 that kesh followed by a visit to Tangier. this scholarly publication every quar- he had spoken with power on Peter’s The Dutch Reformed Church in ter for thirty-seven years without interrup- words in Luke 5:5: “Master, we have South Africa issued an invitation in 1925 tion. toiled all the night, and have taken to Zwemer to take part in a crusade Just as he had been the leader in orga- nothing: nevertheless at Thy word, I will with special reference to awakening the nizing the Cairo Conference in 1906 let down the net.” He related this to churches to their duty toward Mus- on work for Muslims, Zwemer became work in Muslim lands. Yet, he said by lims. By being able to preach in English the moving spirit behind a second faith as we obey our Lord’s commis- and Dutch to general congregations Christian consultation on work for Islam, sion, the time will come when Muslims and in Arabic to Muslims, he was provi- which was held in Lucknow, India, in will be brought to Christ in such num- dentially prepared for such leader- the latter part of January 1911. He had by bers that the boats (or churches) will not ship. Even at that time, the race question this time become known as a leading be able to hold them. The audience was a burning issue for the churches. authority on Christian work for Islam. It was so affected by the message that they Zwemer had to tread cautiously while at was therefore not surprising that a asked what they could do? Dr. the same time making clear his Chris- call came to him in 1912 to move to Zwemer said, “Pray.” From this was born tian position against discrimination and Cairo, the center of Islamic thought the Fellowship of Faith for Muslims,5 racism. After the crusade in Johannes- and in many ways the key city to Muslims which continues to this day as a prayer burg, Zwemer boarded the train to Pre- of Africa as well as of Egypt. Canon ministry in various countries. He toria to take part in the General Con- W.H.T. Gairdner of Cairo called Zwemer appeared time and time again at the ference of Students. For the first time in “a steam engine in breeches.” While Northfield mission conferences, the history of South Africa there were he was in America on a visit in 1914, which had been started by Dwight L. two black African leaders on the platform. Zwemer gave 151 addresses in 113 Moody in 1886. The subject of the meeting was days, ten of them at the Kansas City Stu- A missionary journey through North “Christianity a Universal Religion—No dent Volunteer Convention. “In this Africa was made by Zwemer in May Other Savior.” One student asked, century,” wrote Robert E. Speer, “not and June of 1922. Conferences were held “What can we do to work for the elimina- many men have lived who had the tal- in Algiers, Tunis, and Sousse. In tion of racial prejudice?” Zwemer ent and drive of Samuel Zwemer. During these consultations, Zwemer led the devo- replied, “You have already begun with his lifetime he exerted a tremendous tional services each day and also gave these black leaders and the declara- influence on the Christian mission to addresses on “Islam as a Missionary Prob- tion that no race can be excluded if Christ Islam, as well as the worldwide lem.” He recalled the church fathers is the universal Savior of all.” One of advance of the Church and the Gospel.”4 who had been there—Tertullian, Cyprian, the chief results of Zwemer’s visit was to Throughout Zwemer’s ministry Augustine—when North Africa was awaken churches of Europe and in Egypt from 1912 on he was always a one of the greatest centers of the Christian America to the extent of the Muslim pres- zealous distributor of tracts. Once in church. At that time, it had large ence in southern Africa. Al-Azhar University in Cairo—the lead- churches, libraries, and a Christian popu- Zwemer’s travels also took him to the ing theological school of the Islamic lation numbering in the millions. Netherlands East Indies (now Indone- world—he was asked for some leaflets Then came the tidal wave of the Muslim sia). The invitation for the visit had come and gave them to the students. Later a conquest in the seventh century. The to Zwemer from the Dutch Reformed fanatical professor got hold of the tracts libraries were burned and the churches churches in the Netherlands. The purpose and the matter was reported to offi- were either made into mosques or of the trip was to acquaint missions cials and taken to the British government, destroyed. Populations were blotted out ministering in Java and Sumatra with lit- which at that time was in control of and North Africa became “The Land erature for work among Muslims and Egypt. Zwemer was ordered to leave the of the Vanished Church.” to seek a greater comity and cooperation country. He took a steamer to Cyprus In Constantine, Algeria, Zwemer in work for Islam among the sixteen and returned to Egypt two weeks later on was entertained by Dr. Percy Smith of the societies serving there. the same boat. The matter ended American Methodist Mission who John R. Mott was chairman of a there, but one of the Muslim theological brought together some eighty Muslim gathering for Christian workers for Mus- students of Al-Azhar later became an converts from several cities to meet lims held in Jerusalem in 1924. Dr. earnest Christian. with him. Next Zwemer went to Morocco. and Mrs. Zwemer were asked by John He gave main addresses on sev- Meetings were held in Casablanca Mott to take the results of the confer- eral occasions at the Keswick Conven- and a more extended conference at Marra- ence to a meeting of missionaries from

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS J. Christy Wilson, Jr. 167

Arabia, Iraq and Iran, to be held in Bagh- Arabic and Islam. York City and at the Training Institute of dad later in 1924. When they reached As he traveled far and wide to the Christian and Missionary Alliance the Mande bridge over the Tigris at Bagh- contact Muslims wherever they could be in Nyack, New York. After Christmas in dad, they were delighted to find found, Zwemer continued to write 1946, he was a keynote speaker at the James Cantine, the co-founder with and publish books on Islam and Christian first Inter-Varsity Student Foreign Mis- Zwemer of the Arabian Mission, missions. The Glory of the Cross was sions Fellowship Convention, which waiting for them. The conference took published in London in 1928. This was was held at the University of Toronto in place at the Baghdad YMCA. The the author’s favorite book among Canada. In subsequent years this con- Zwemers then went to the station they had over fifty volumes that he wrote. It was vention was held on the campus of the founded in Bahrain. The people vied also his best-selling publication. After University of Illinois in Urbana and with one another to show honors to those his many journeys, he also published became the successor of the great Student who had gained a foothold for Chris- Across the World of Islam in 1929. Volunteer conventions. tian work there with such difficulty. Could the Zwemers ever forget Bah- Professor of Missions Journey’s End rain with the graves of their two little Zwemer accepted an invitation In 1949, his eighty-third year, the girls? from Princeton Theological Seminary late mission of which Zwemer was a founder observed its sixtieth anniversary at The Zwemers traveled on to Teheran in the 1920s to be professor of the the annual meeting in Kuwait on the Ara- in Iran. There a conference on litera- Chair of History of Religion and Christian ture was held. For “Exhibit A” Zwemer Missions. His travels continued, how- bian coast. Zwemer and his wife, who had gathered all the Christian publica- ever. He taught summer courses at had been invited to attend, sailed to Bei- tions produced in Iran over more than a Winona Lake, Indiana, and continued rut, went on to Iraq by car, and by generation. It made a rather small to take a leading part in the great Student plain flew to Bahrain. After a visit to the pile, and much of it was unattractive and Volunteer conventions held every graves of the missionaries and the out of date. The members of the con- four years. children, Zwemer said, “If we should hold ference were duly impressed and resolved However, on January 25, 1937, our peace, these very stones would to remedy this omission. The Chris- there was the sudden passing of his cry out for the evangelization of Arabia!” tian Literature Committee was soon pro- beloved wife, Amy Wilkes Zwemer, Margaret became ill soon after ducing many new items.6 who had been his constant inspiration and their return from Arabia and died in a The Zwemers then went on to India. co-worker for more than forty years. New York hospital on February 21, The Sultan of Muscat was on the After she was gone there was a poignant 1950. Two years later, on February 16, same ship so they gave him some Chris- loneliness. In spite of this, however, 1952, Zwemer was asked to give an tian Arabic literature. When they he kept his sense of humor and when he evening address at a meeting of the Inter- arrived in Bombay, conferences had been retired at seventy-one from his profes- Varsity Christian Fellowship in New planned over the length and breadth sorship at Princeton Seminary, he claimed York. As usual, he was there early, and of India. Zwemer gave a series of lectures it was in order to go into “active ser- since another scheduled speaker had on the Christian approach to Islam vice.” not arrived, Zwemer delivered an address and Mrs. Zwemer conducted meetings for In 1939, Zwemer moved to New in the afternoon also. The next day, at women. York City. His old colleague of the early midnight, he suffered a heart attack, and Zwemer also made very important days in Arabia, James Cantine, intro- was taken to Presbyterian Hospital. visits to China. Since there were Mus- duced him to a woman named Margaret As was always the case, he made lims in every Chinese province and over Clarke. Their friendship grew into friends immediately with doctors, forty million followers of the Arabian romance and they were married on March nurses, and patients and brought to many prophet in the entire country, Zwemer had 12, 1940. Margaret had worked as a of them a message of comfort and long awaited an opportunity to visit secretary and began at once to help in hope from the Great Physician. After sev- that great land to encourage evangelism Zwemer’s literary work. They lived eral weeks of recuperation, Zwemer for Muslims and the distribution of in an apartment on Fifth Avenue, which was deemed well enough to go to the Christian literature among them. He vis- they were able to rent at half price Harkness Convalescent Home at Port ited a number of the large Chinese cit- since it was on the thirteenth floor. Chester, New York. Then on Wednesday, ies where there were Muslim populations. In addition to his preaching and April 2, 1952, quietly and rather sud- He was even invited to speak in writing, Zwemer taught courses in mis- denly the tired compassionate heart mosques because of his knowledge of sions at Biblical Seminary in New ceased to beat.

VOL 13:4 OCT.-DEC. 1996 168 The Apostle to Islam

A memorial service was held in the remembers their visit, since he was then Moslem Seeker after God (Life of First Presbyterian Church in New a boy of six years of age. This was Al-Ghazali). New York: Flem- York City. President John Mackay of the beginning of a great friendship ing H. Revell. Princeton Theological Seminary, at between Dr. Zwemer and the 1923 The Law of Apostasy in Islam. writer’s father, which not only resulted this service, called him the “Prince among London: Marshall Brothers. in his succeeding Zwemer on the missionaries and an apostle to Mus- 1928 The Glory of the Cross. London: Princeton seminary Faculty in the area lims.” Dr. William Miller, speaking at the Marshall Brothers. Reprinted Grand of missions, but also in the writing Rapids, Mich.: Baker, 1982. Urbana Student Missionary Conven- of Zwemer’s biography, Apostle to 1929 Across the World of Islam. New tion in 1967, which was the centennial Islam. celebration of Samuel’s birth, said, York: Fleming H. Revell. 6. The Fellowship of Faith for Muslims, 1934 Thinking Missions with Christ. “Dr. Zwemer’s pleading voice thrilled P. O. Box 221, Station J, Toronto, Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zonder- multitudes of Christians in many Ontario, Canada M4J 4Y1. Days of van. lands, inspiring them to work and pray for prayer for Muslims are held in the Muslims of the world. Toronto, Philadelphia, Chicago and Los 1935 The Origin of Religion. Nash- ville, Tenn.: Cokesbury Press. The challenge he sounded then must Angeles. be heard again today. For today the 7. William Miller, A Man Sent from God 1939 Studies in Popular Islam. New York: Macmillan. Dynamic Chris- number of lost Muslims is much greater (Toronto, Ontario: Fellowship of tianity and the World Today. than it was when Zwemer dedicated Faith for Muslims, 1966). London: Inter-Varsity Fellowship of his life for their salvation, but the number Books by Samuel Zwemer Evangelical Unions. of Christians who are seeking to save 1900 Arabia: The Cradle of Islam. New 1940 The Art of Listening to God. Grand them is pitiably inadequate. The doors are York: Fleming H. Revell. Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan. open, but who will enter? The walls Reprinted New York: Gordon Press, 1941 The Cross above the Crescent. are falling, but who will occupy the city? 1980. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zonder- The fields are white unto harvest, but 1902 Raymond Lull: First Missionary to van. the laborers are few!”7 the Moslems. New York: Funk 1943 Into All the World. Grand Rap- and Wagnalls. End Notes ids, Mich.: Zondervan. 1905 The Moslem Doctrine of God. 1. Kenneth Scott Latourette, in the intro- 1944 Evangelism Today. New York: New York: American Tract Society. duction to Apostle to Islam,by J. Fleming H. Revell. Reprinted Fort Washington, Christy Wilson, Sr. (Grand Rapids, 1946 Heirs of the Prophets. Chicago: PA.: WEC Press, 1984. Mich.: Baker, 1953). Moody Press. A Factual Survey of 1906 The Mohammedan World 2. The following account has been taken the Moslem World. New York: Today. New York: Young Peoples mainly from the biographies of Fleming H. Revell. Missionary Movement. Samuel Zwemer written by the present 1947 The Glory of the Empty Tomb. 1907 Islam, a Challenge to Faith. New writer’s father, J. Christy Wilson, New York: Fleming H. Revell. York: Student Volunteer Move- Sr., entitled Apostle to Islam, and Flam- 1948 How Rich the Harvest. New ment. ing Prophet (New York: Friendship York: Fleming H. Revell. 1911 The Moslem World. 37 vols. Press, 1970). To keep the text from 1951 Sons of Adam. Grand Rapids, becoming overly cumbersome, (1911-47), a quarterly scholarly Mich.: Baker. quotation marks from the two sources periodical edited by Samuel M. have not been added. The present Zwemer. writer also includes incidents that came 1912 The Moslem Christ. London: J. Christy Wilson, Jr., is Emeritus from knowing him personally. Oliphant, Anderson, & Ferrier. Professor of World Evangelization 3. Quoted by J. Christy Wilson, sr., “The Reprinted Fort Washington, at Gordon-Conwell Theological Epic of Samuel Zwemer,” Muslim PA.: WEC Press, 1984. Seminary, South Hamilton, Mass. World 57, no. 2 (April 1967): 83. 1915 Mohammed or Christ. London: He served as a missionary in 4. Ibid., p. 79. Seeley Service and Company. Child- Afghanistan for 23 years. He and 5. On this occasion Dr. and Mrs. Zwemer hood in the Moslem World. New his wife reside in Duarte, CA. also visited Tabriz, the capital of York: Fleming H. Revell. Azerbaijan in northwestern Iran. It was 1916 The Disintegration of Islam here that the present writer’s par- New York: Fleming H. Revell. [Reprinted by permission from the ents served as Presbyterian missionaries 1921 The Influence of Animism on International Bulletin of from 1919 to 1939. He vividly Islam. New York: Macmillan. A Missionary Research, July, 1986.]

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS Contextualization Among Muslims Reusing Common Pillars

Despite the dangers, we are seeing God blessing the refurbishing and reusing of the five common pillars in our day as they bear the weight of new allegiances to God in Christ in the Muslim world. by J. Dudley Woodberry

s I stood recently in the great familiar to Muslims have arisen as Mus- Omani sheikh lamented: mosque in Qairawan in A lim converts have felt uncomfortable I have the Gospel, too. One of your present-day Tunisia, I looked at the colin existing churches and as evangelists missionaries gave me a copy twenty years ago. I frequently get it down lection of pillars from various sources have increasingly seen the variety of and try to read it but its Arabic is so that had been organized together into one forms in which allegiance to Christ can be strange that I understand nothing.4 harmonious whole. The early Muslim expressed. Such problems led to the recent builders had freely incorporated pillars This year I received a letter from a attempts to develop contextualized from previous Christian churches as West African country which materials. Attention focused on contextu- 1 was also done elsewhere in the Empire. described some converts who objected to alization in the Muslim World when The columns were modified and attending the local church for the fol- the School of World Mission at Fuller whitewashed so that they would blend lowing reasons: Theological Seminary devoted a year into their new home. Their customs are too different from to Islam. One of the early results was an These pillars illustrate what also took ours. They keep their shoes on, sit on article in 1977 by John Wilder of benches (and close to women at that), place in early Muslim religious obser- and they beat drums in church. We Pakistan entitled “Some Reflections on vance. What have come to be known as are used to worshipping God by tak- Possibilities for People Movements ing our shoes off, sitting and kneeling the “pillars” of Islam are all adapta- on mats, and chanting prayers in the among Muslims,” in which he advocated Arabic and ______languages. tions of previous Jewish and Christian Also we teach our women at home. If that the model of Messianic Judaism forms. If this fact were better under- we go to the ______church, we will be used in Muslim evangelism. Followers feel very uncomfortable. What’s stood, some of the current Muslim and more, our other Muslim friends will of Jesus from Islam could use their not join us. If we worship God the Christian reaction to contextualization way we are used to, other Muslims traditional forms of worship even as should be alleviated, for it would not will be interested. But we will pray in “completed Jews” used theirs.5 the name of Jesus and teach from the seem artificial. Arabic and ______Bible.2 In 1978 the North American Confer- The present study looks first at some Not only have the worship forms ence for Muslim Evangelization was current plans or blueprints that have been irrelevant or offensive to the held in Glen Eyrie, Colorado. A number been drawn up for using these pillars of person of Muslim background, but the of the foundation papers were faith and the reaction that they have Bibles used have often shrouded the devoted to contextualization and were elicited from both Muslims and Chris- Gospel in foreign terms. The traditional included in the compendium “The tians. Then an attempt will be made Urdu and Bengali Bibles, for exam- Gospel and Islam.”6 These included “The to add to this material in two ways. First ple, often used Hindu rather than Muslim Gospel and Culture” where Paul Hie- we shall look more closely at the pre- vocabulary. bert distinguished between the gospel and vious use of these pillars by Jews and Even the most commonly used Ara- culture, showed how culture is the Christians to see the extent to which bic translation of the Bible by Eli vehicle that carries the message of the we can re-utilize what was originally our Smith and Cornelius Van Dyck (first pub- gospel, and how the gospel in turn own. Secondly we shall evaluate a 7 lished in 1865) adopted some Syriac judges a culture. contemporary people movement to Christ religious and ecclesiastical terms not seen Donald N. Larson in “The Cross- among Muslims where the believers in Muslim Arabic. Likewise it uti- Cultural Communication of the Gospel to are adapting the pillars of their previous lized various Syriac names of Bible char- Muslims” developed the concept of faith to bear the weight of their new acters that are different from those “bi-passing” in which Muslims and nomi- faith in Christ. adopted by the Quran—for example, nal Christians of different cultural Need for Contextualization Yuhanna rather than Yahya for John backgrounds can move directly into a Present formulations of Christian and Yasu’ rather than Isa for Jesus. The “new humanity” (Eph. 2:15) without worship that utilize forms that are translators consciously avoided using either having to “pass” into the others’ the wording and style of the Quran.3 An culture and become culturally like INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS, VOL 13:4 OCT.-DEC. 1996 172 Contextualization Among Muslims them as a precondition of becoming a alization and gave two case studies. ing in an ossified contextualization with- Christian.8 Bashir Abdol Massih in One of the questions that arises out moving on to maturity. The paral- “The Incarnational Witness to the Muslim for converts is the extent to which they lel dangers are obvious for Muslim con- Heart” illustrates the effectiveness of may (and should) continue in the verts who continue to use Muslim such a ministry by a case study of a priest Muslim community. Phil Parshall forms in Muslim society.20 9 from an ancient Eastern church. addressed this five years later in Space does not permit the discus- Harvie M. Conn in “The Muslim Beyond the Mosque: Christians in Muslim sion of monographs on specific topics— Convert and His Culture” argues that Community.14 He concludes that con- for example, bridging concepts like the sociological barriers to conversion by verts should remain in their society but, divine blessing21 and honor,22 explana- Muslims are greater than the theologi- following a transitional period, will tions of the doctrines of God and cal and then dealt with barriers to their ultimately need to leave mosque worship Christ in a Muslim context,23 the use of conversion. He sees these as misun- because of theological incompatibil- the Quran in Christian witness,24 and derstanding conversion as a one-step deci- ity.15 the use of Islamic theological terminology sion rather than as a progress to Questions of contextualization in Bible translation.25 Christ, as an individual decision rather were again raised at an international con- Contextualized materials have been than a multi-personal decision in ference of the Muslim Track of the available for some time. A book for many cultures, and as a purely “spiritual” Lausanne Committee for World Evangeli- Sufi mystics, “The Way of the Sevenfold decision rather than involving all of zation in Zeist, Holland, in 1987. Secret,” has been published in Arabic, 10 life. Charles Kraft introduced a linguis- Most of the papers, other than area stud- English, Persian, and French since it tic model in his “Dynamic Equiva- ies, are collected in Muslims and appeared in 1926.26 It focuses on 16 lence Churches in Muslim Society.” He Christians on the Emmaus Road. Con- seven biblical themes that are of concern argues that our goal should be to fos- siderable suspicion of contextualiza- to Sufis, such as illumination and ter groups of God’s people in “Muslim” tion was found to exist among Christians abiding in God. Wide evangelistic use has cultures that function in their own in various parts of the Muslim World, been made of Fouad Accad’s “Seven culture in ways equivalent in their dynam- and Phil Parshall in his assigned paper on Muslim Christian Principles” which fol- ics to biblically recommended exam- “Lessons Learned in Doing Contextu- lows steps leading to salvation by 11 17 ples. alization” was not able to show much quoting from the books that Muslims rec- Finally, Charles R. Tabor showed progress from case studies since the ognize—the Torah, Zabur (Psalms), how the term “contextualization” goes publication of The Gospel and Islam in Injil (Gospel), and Quran.27 1979 and his own New Paths in Mus- beyond “indigenization” in “Contex- Scripture portions have been tualization: Indigenization and/or Trans- lim Evangelism in 1980. Hence this attractively presented in Muslim dress. formation.” Unlike “indigenization,” present study will seek to evaluate a For example, “The Pillars of Religion “contextualization” does not focus exclu- contemporary case situation. in the Light of the Tawrat Zabur & sively on the cultural dimension but Rafique Uddin, a Muslim con- Injil.”28 Bible correspondence courses also on social, political, and economic vert, reported in “Contextualized Witness have also been put into contextualized questions. It does not treat culture as and Worship” on Muslim forms that form. Sobhi W. Malek’s “Allah-u static but recognizes that cultures are in he and other converts were finding mean- Akbar Bible Lessons,” for example, use process of change. It recognizes that ingful in expressing their new alle- Muslim terms and forms of expres- all cultures, including the missionary’s, giance to God in Christ.18 Florence Anta- sion wherever possible.29 Of special note have elements of the demonic as well blin in “Islamic and Christian is an Arabic” Life of Christ” (Sirat al- as the divine. Thus Christian missions Architecture” showed another area of Masih), based on a harmony of the Synop- must take into account these dimen- mutual borrowing where similar tic Gospels but using quranic idiom sions of the Muslim contexts.12 styles have been able to express and frame and style.30 For the most part, it has been the worship of both communities.19 Since there was understandable well received by Muslims. overlapping of ideas in these articles, it Denis Green in “Guidelines from was helpful for Phil Parshall to come Hebrews for Contextualization” did Christian and Muslim Reactions out with a more comprehensive study in raise some cautions. The recipients of Despite the need for contextuali- 1980, “New Paths in Muslim Evan- Hebrews appear to have been a group zation that has been seen, Christian com- gelism: Evangelical Approaches to Con- of Christians who retained their old munities in the Muslim world have textualization.”13 Here he dealt with Hebrew worship forms like a sect of often opposed it. The opposition echoes a the principles and application of contextu- Judaism. They were in danger of remain- comparable tension in the early INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS J. Dudley Woodberry 173

of Isa.” The church is no longer a church between the Hebrew Christians “church,” but a “Masjid isa.” Mis- nificant that the Muslim community felt who used Jewish forms and the new sionaries avoid calling Jesus the “Son these words and exclamations were of God” to Muslims, who no matter Gentile Christians who felt free to use how ignorant will be alarmed by the exclusively their own. Their opposition to other forms. Gabriel Habib, the Greek term. He is called to them “Ruhullah” such contextualization as well as the (the Spirit of God).34 Orthodox director of the Middle East similar opposition of many Christians Christian Council, in a letter to many The Malaysian New Straits Times might be alleviated if it were shown evangelical leaders in North America, (March 24, 1988) reported on a govern- how many of the religious terms and wor- asserted: ment white paper on Christian ship forms are the common heritage attempts at contextualization in which the Unfortunately, we have all too fre- of both communities. quently attempted to “contextualize” church “would emulate the Muslim our sharing of the gospel–at the risk Previous Use of the Pillars of diminishing the value of the practice of reading the Quran when read- churches’ spiritual heritage. The loss ing the Bible, sitting on the floor, Islam may be viewed as originally a of such a precious spiritual heritage in our efforts to communicate the mes- using the rehal (wooden stand) to prop up contextualization for the Arabs of the 36 sage of Christ diminishes the real the Bible” and wearing clothing tradi- monotheism inherited directly from potential of accumulated spiritual 37 38 experience.31 tionally worn by Muslims. Such practices Jews and Christians or indirectly through Arab monotheists.39 This inter- In a questionnaire for Arab Christians are seen as deceptive, confusing and pretation of the earlier preaching in Jordan and Bahrain, Bruce Heck- causing “suspicion between Malays and would be supported by references to the man asked, “How do you feel about Mus- Christians.” Quran as an Arabic Book confirming lim believers using Islamic styles of Considerable debate was caused in the earlier revelation (e.g., sura 46:12 worship when they meet together?” The Malaysia when The Star (April 5, Egyptian ed./11 Fluegel ed.).40 Later, negative answers included, “The use 1988) reported on a bill passed by the of course, Islam was given a more univer- of Islamic styles of worship is wrong. We Selangor state government forbidding sal mission. All that is necessary for cannot accept expressions of worship non-Islamic religions to use the following our purposes, however, is to show that the that relate to idolatry or strange rituals.” words: Allah (God), Rasul (Apostle), pillars of faith along with their vocab- Another affirmed, “I personally Fatwa (legal opinion), Wahyu (from ulary were largely the previous posses- believe Islamic worship is devised by the Wahy–revelation), Iman (faith), Imam sions of Jews and Christians. Any devil. The worship structure of Mus- (leader of mosque prayer or the Muslim reusing of them then is but the reposses- lim believers should therefore be different community), Ulama (religious schol- sion of what originally belonged to and not attached to the past.”32 ars), Dakwah (from Da’wa–lit. “call,” these communities of faith. Bruce Heckman then asked, “What mission), Nabi (prophet), Hadith The earliest Muslim exegetes could be the effects of using Islamic (Prophetic tradition), Syariah (from showed no hesitation to recognize the styles of worship?” The negative answers Shari’a—religious law), Injil (Gos- Jewish and Christian origin of many included, “Those using Islamic style pel), Ibadah (religious duties such as religious terms in the Quran even though of worship would deviate from true Chris- prayer), Qiblat (direction of prayer), later the orthodox doctrine was elabo- tianity.” Another believed, “Using old Salat (ritual prayer), Kaabah (cubical rated that the Quran was a unique produc- forms of worship would take them back to building in Meccan Mosque), Haj tion of the Arabic language.41 Arthur the life from which they were deliv- (from Hajj–pilgrimage), Kadi (religious Jeffery argued that Syriac was the major ered.” Still another affirmed, “Continuity judge), and Mufti (giver of legal opin- source of borrowed vocabulary.42 with the past will tie the Muslim ions; today sometimes the religious This borrowing is of special interest believer to darkness.”33 leader). because a number of the words Not only resident Christians but To these prohibited words were banned to non-Muslims in parts of Malay- Muslims too have objected to Christian added such exclamations as Subha- sia can be shown to have been used contextualization. Arabia: Islamic nallah (Praise be to God!), Alhamdulillah by Jews or Christians before the advent of World Review (July, 1987) charged: (Praise be to God!), Lailahaillallah Muhammad (570-732). They are Christian missionaries are now adopt- (There is no god but God!), and Allahu treated here because of the relevance of a ing a new, underhanded style in their outreach to Muslims. Known as the Akbar (God is greater!). A similar bill number of them to the “pillars” of Contextualized Approach, it means was passed in Malacca (The Star, April 7, Muslim faith and practice. they now speak in the context of the people and the culture of the country 1988) as had previously been done in “Allah,” for example, is of Chris- where they are operating, and are less Kelantan, Trengganu, Negri, Sembilan, honest in their dealings with simple, tian Syriac origin and was in use long often illiterate, peasants. They no and Penang.35 before Muhammad’s time.43 Wahy longer call themselves openly Chris- tians in a Muslim area, but “Followers Whatever the final outcome, it is sig- (revelation) is at least etymologically VOL 13:4 OCT.-DEC. 1996 174 Contextualization Among Muslims related to Jewish-Aramaic and Christian Herschfeld50 indicates, is apparently assent. The shahada is prefaced by “I bear Ethiopic words and is used by the based on the shema’ in Deuteronomy witness” and the shema’ is introduced pre-Islamic poets.44 Nabi (prophet) is 6:4 (“Hear O Israel, the Lord our God is by “Hear O Israel”: both require confes- probably from Jewish Aramaic rather One [ahad] Lord”). Both emphasize sion. This is more than James speaks than Syriac and was apparently known to the same word ahad. The Talmud of Jeru- of in 2:19: “You believe that God is one; the Arabs long before Muhammad.45 salem cites certain rabbis as counsel- you do well. Even the demons Injil (Gospel) obviously is based on the ing the faithful to put emphasis on this believe, and shudder.” Greek euaggelion and probably came word.51 As it involves rejection of pol- through the Ethiopic of Christian Abyssi- Not only is the form of the shahada ytheism, it also involves the rejection of 46 nia. The Qibla (direction of prayer) similar to the shema’ and apparently intermediaries and associates with obviously predates Muhammad. We find is based on it, but the functions of the two God in popular beliefs. In Sufi mysticism allusion to it in 1 Kings 8:44 and are the same. They not only introduce it involves the rejection of all earthly clear reference to it in Daniel 6:10. Syriac every formal service of worship but are gods like wealth. It means seeing His Christians faced the east; and Jews the basic confessions for both faiths. signs in all things. “Wherever you faced Jerusalem—the direction from It was those confessions which separated turn, there is the face of God” (Sura which it was changed in sura 2:142/ the Hebrews and the Muslims from 2:115/109).53 136-152/147. One tradition, reported by the surrounding polytheists. Both also Many traditions mention only the Tabari, even ascribes the change to linked the affirmation of who God is uniqueness or unity of God as the remarks by Jews concerning Muham- with the obligations due Him. The essential article of belief.54 The traditional mad’s dependence on Judaism.47 shema’, especially in its longer form confession goes on, however, to Salat (ritual prayer) may be from Jewish in Numbers 15:37-41, introduces com- declare, “Muhammad is the Apostle of Aramaic but is more probably from mandments. The relationship is God” based on quranic passages like Syriac and was familiar in pre-Islamic pointed out in Mishna Berakhoth 2:213 sura 4:1346/135. We shall not deal with times.48 Haj (pilgrimage) is from the where it says that one takes on “the this part extensively here because it is Hebrew haj, meaning “sacrifice,” in Exo- yoke of the kingdom of heaven” by recit- obviously an addition to Jewish and dus 23:18 and Psalm 81:4 (vs. 3 in the ing the first sentence and “the yoke of Christian faith. We must, however, English). the commandments” by reciting the sub- consider it because it is one of the ques- Similar Jewish or Christian pre- sequent part.52 Furthermore, that tions that converts are having to deal Islamic usage can be found for banned which is affirmed in the first sentence of with in the case study we shall be consid- exclamations as well—for example, the shema’—the unity of God—forms ering. Subhanallah (Praise be to God!). “Allah” the basis for the first commandment of the The confession first says something has already been traced to the Syriac Decalogue: “Thou shalt have no other about Muhammad’s function—a before Muhammad, as can subhan.49 gods before Me.” The same relationship revealer of God’s will. Thus it declares Likewise, the Semitic scholar E. Mitt- between confession and obligation is that God has something to say to woch finds Allahu Akbar (God is greater!) seen in the shahada, for this first pillar humans who must now respond. Since similar to the benedictions of the Jew- affirming what God is is followed by what is said is understood to be ish tefillah prayers performed three times four pillars concerning obligations to declared in the Quran, we must form an a day. There were, of course, altera- Him. The same linkage is found in attitude toward the Quran—which tions of meaning as words and practices the Quran 20:14: “In truth, I am God. contains much that is affirmed by the moved from Jewish and Christian sys- There is no god but I; therefore serve Bible along with some statements tems of thought to a Muslim one; but, as Me, and perform the prayer of My contrary to the Bible. To what extent may will be seen, the systems were similar remembrance.” the Quran be used in Christian wit- enough that the core meanings remained. That which has been said about the ness to Muslims?55 Although the Bible Pillar I: Faith Confession (shahada) shema’ in the Old Testament can also does not have a parallel use of non- The first part of the Muslim confes- be said about it in the New, for Jesus Judaic materials for evangelistic purposes, sion of faith (shahada—“I bear wit- gives it as the most important com- biblical writers under the guidance of ness that there is no god but God”) is mandment in Mark 12:29-30. In looking the Spirit of God did feel free to incorpo- based on verses like suras 37:35/34 for the meaning of these confessions rate materials from their neighbors.56 (“There is no god but God”) and 112:1-2 to the devotees, we must note their sim- Jesus adapted materials of the rabbis in (“Say, ’He [is] God, One [ahad]. God plicity and clarity. Both shahada and his teaching.57 Paul quoted from non- the Alone”). The wording, as Hartwig shema’ require more than intellectual Christian sources.58 Likewise, many, like INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS J. Dudley Woodberry 175

Fouad Accad59 and converts in the case they were seen praying publicly that they of the priests before they entered the pres- study that will be evaluated, have were finally accepted as godly. ence of the Lord (Ex. 30:17-21; found the Quran to be a useful bridge for One of the first definitions of a Mus- 40:30-32), and others too were to conse- interpretation even when they do not lim was one who “pronounces the crate themselves when coming into ascribe personal authority to it. The Isawa name of the Lord and prays” (sura 87:15). His presence (1 Sam. 16:5). Muslims fol- of Nigeria became followers of Jesus Yet the term chosen (verb salla—“to low the same order in their ablutions from reading about him in the Quran. bow”; noun salat) had long been used for as the Jews do—the face, then the hands, Another West African who taught institutionalized prayer in synagogues then the feet. The name of God is pro- Islam in a Muslim college started a pil- and churches. ’Aqama ’l-salat (to perform nounced, and the right side is done before grimage that led to faith in Christ the prayer) was apparently borrowed the left. Each part is washed three 67 about a year ago when he read the from the Syrian church while Muhammad times. accounts of Jesus in the Quran. was still in Mecca, but the roots of the “Major” ritual impurity (janaba The second part of the confession prayer service are also seen in Judaism as or major hadath) requires washing of the also says something about Muham- will be shown in the terminology, total body (ghusl) before prayer. This mad’s status—that is, that he is a prophet postures, and content.63 is necessitated by such occurrences as like the biblical ones and is in fact the 68 Although the Old Testament seminal discharge or menstruation. final one, their seal. This raises the ques- mentions morning and evening prayer It is also common practice before Friday tion of the Christian’s attitude toward (Ex. 29:39; Num. 28:4), Judaism noon prayers and the two major Muhammad.60 Viewed in his context of a developed three prayers a day on the pat- annual feast days of Id al-Fitr and Id al- polytheism that was similar to that Adha. The quranic distinction is tern of Psalm 55:17 (cf. Dan. 6:11) as among Israel’s Old Testament neighbors, based on sura 5:6/8-9 which adds to a is seen in the Talmud of Jerusalem.64 his message had a similar prophetic prior description of the minor ablu- Christian monks prayed seven times a tone—“Turn to the One Creator God.” He day on the pattern of Psalm 119:164. The tions (wudu’) “if you are in a state of pol- might be viewed as an apostle to the lution, purify yourself.” Quran does not mention the five Arabs of polytheistic Arabia. However, he prayers but gives a variety of prayer times Again similar details are found in comes chronologically after Christ (suras 2:238/239; 17:78/80; 20:130; Judaism where occurrences such as but denies such basic Christian affirma- 24:58/57). The traditions, however, seminal discharge and menstruation tions as the incarnation. Therefore, clearly list five;65 so Islam took a require bathing the body (Lev. 12:1- the Christian cannot affirm that he is “the middle position.66 Of significance for 5; 14:8; 15; 17:15; Num. 19:19). The Fri- Apostle of God.” Muslim converts is the fact that the day bath in Islam corresponds with When Christians look for a substitute early Jewish Christians maintained their the Sabbath bath in Judaism. Likewise, affirmation, it is noteworthy that former institutionalized prayer times the bathing of the convert to Islam Islam’s most celebrated theologian Abu and places (Acts 3:1; 10:9; 16:13). corresponds with proselyte baptism in Hamid al-Ghazali (d. 1111) twice Judaism, which, of course, was the The removal of sandals in places gives the confession in a form that both precursor of Christian baptism.69 In the of prayer (sura 20:12) follows the Hebrew Muslims and Christians can accept— light of the fact that both Christian pattern (Ex. 3:5) also practiced by the shahada with the name of Jesus sub- baptism and Muslim proselyte ghusl are many Eastern churches. stituted for Muhammad: “There is no reinterpretations of Jewish proselyte god but God and Jesus is the Apostle of Preparations baptism, it might be possible to perform God.”61 The Christian might substi- The ablutions also reflect the earlier Christian baptism as proselyte ghusl tute one of the early Christian confessions faiths. The minor ritual ablution without causing the furor that arose earlier reflected in the New Testament, such from the suggestion of a possible 62 (wudu’) is used to get rid of “minor” ritual as “Jesus is Lord” (Romans 10:9). 70 impurity (hadath). The Jewish influ- alternate initiation rite for baptism. Pillar II: Ritual Prayer (salat) ence here is evident by the latter part of Another parallel is rubbing the In the Asian case study we shall be Muhammad’s life: “You, who hands and face with sand (tayammum) if analyzing below, Muslims watched believe, when you prepare for the prayer, water cannot be found, which is per- Christian relief workers come and self- wash your faces and your hands up to mitted by both the Quran (suras 4:43/46 lessly serve them. They said that they the elbows and rub your heads and your and 5:6/9-9) and the Talmud.71 Chris- should be called angels because they were feet up to the ankles” (5:6/8; cf. 4:43/ tian baptism too has been performed in 72 so good, kind and honest, “but they 46). The Old Testament Tabernacle had a the desert with sand. do not say their prayers.” It was not until basin for washing the hands and feet The function of the ablutions is purity VOL 13:4 OCT.-DEC. 1996 176 Contextualization Among Muslims from defilement (4:43/46; 5:6/8-9; 87:14- with healing (4:2). Thus Christians in the nal act to the heart condition (Mt. 5:17- 15), and water from heaven is also “to early centuries prayed toward the 28). put away... the defilement of Satan” east,74 even though Jesus had made plain Praying Postures (8:11). The intention is inward purity to the woman of Samaria that places which is seen as both an act of God (5:6/ and orientation were not important in the The Muslim postures of prayers 9; 24:21) and of the worshippers worship of God (Jn. 4:19-24). also replicate those of Jews and Chris- tians. First there is the posture of themselves (9:108/109) resulting in Para- The Jews prayed toward Jerusalem (1 standing (qiyam; sura 22:26/27). In the dise (20:76/78). Therefore, the purifi- Kgs. 8:33; Dan. 6:10), a practice reg- Old and New Testaments, worship- cation obviously involves the forgiveness ulated in the Talmud.75 Muslims for a pers stood to pray (1 Kgs. 8:14,22; Neh. of sin. time prayed toward Jerusalem (16 or 9:2; Mk. 11:25). The Jewish tefilla The Bible likewise associated ablu- 17 months according to al-Bukhari).76 prayers were called ’amida (standing), tions with purity of heart (Ps. 24:3-4; It remained a center of devotion indicating the posture when they were Isa. 1:16-18; Ezek. 36:25-26; Jn. 3:4-5; because of the Temple area (now the performed.81 The second posture is bow- Heb. 10:22). Jesus went further in Dome of the Rock and the Aqsa ing (ruku; sura 22:26/27. 77/76), shifting the emphasis from the ablutions Mosque) where Muhammad is reported to which is the equivalent of the Jewish to purity of heart (Mt. 15:1-20; Mk. have gone in his night journey (sura keri’a82 and communicates the sense 7:1-23; Lk. 37:44). The writer of the Epis- 17). The direction of prayer, however, of humble servitude that the genuflection tle to the Hebrews makes ablutions was changed to Mecca in sura 2:142/ does in the Roman Catholic mass. merely a foreshadowing of inner purity 136-152/147. As Jerusalem had been the provided through Christ (Heb. 6:1-2; center of the world for Jews (Ezek. The third posture is prostration with 9:10-14). Church fathers like Tertullian 5:5), Mecca became the center of the the forehead on the ground (sujud; and Chrysostom emphasized that world for Muslims.77 Mosques came sura 22:26/27. 77/76). Again this form is such rituals were deprived of value unless to include a mihrab (a niche indicating the found in both the Old and New Testa- accompanied by purity of heart.73 direction of Mecca) as some syna- ments (Gen. 22:5; Num. 16:22; 1 Sam. Christ and the church, however, made gogues had a mizrah (indicating the direc- 24:9; Neh. 8:6; Mt. 26:39). The sujud the ablution of proselyte baptism tion of Jerusalem).78 is the equivalent of the Jewish hishtahaw- aya and a similar Eastern Christian more prominent than the other two faiths In noting the prescribed direction of form.83 On Yom Kippur rabbis and can- and emphasized the symbolism of prayer, the Quran (sura 2:115/109), being dead to sin and buried with Christ like the Talmud, recognized that God was tors still prostrate themselves in this way, and I have observed Coptic Ortho- and being resurrected with him to everywhere.79 The Quran, however, dox monks and worshippers do this in newness of life. The other two faiths, as notes that true piety consists not in the has been seen, practiced a proselyte direction you face but is to believe in worship. Prostration with the body fully baptism or ghusl; but circumcision has God, the Last Day, the angels, the Book, extended is practiced in Roman Cath- been a more central confession of and the Prophets, to give of one’s olic ordination and consecration and on faith for Judaism, as has the shahada for substance to the needy, to perform the Good Friday and Saturday. Islam. prayer and pay alms, to fulfill one’s The fourth posture is half kneeling Along with ablutions, another prelim- covenant, and endure adversity (2:177/ and half sitting (julus). Kneeling is a inary essential in Muslim prayer is 172). biblical form (2 Chr. 6:13; 1 Kgs. 8:54; the proper orientation (qibla). It comes The worshippers also must pro- Ps. 95:6; Acts 20:36; 21:5). Some- from ’aqbala ’ala (direction toward a nounce their intention (niya) to per- times the hands are lifted up as in biblical point) and, as has been noted, has ancient form the salat, specifying the length. times (Ps. 28:2; 134:2; 1 Tim. 2:8). roots. The Garden of Eden was Although the term does not appear in The content of the prayers also have toward the east (Gen. 2:8). The door of the Quran, it probably developed under stylistic agreement with Jewish and the Tabernacle was toward the east Jewish influence to become analo- Christian prayers.84 The repetition of (Ex. 27:13), as was that of the Temple in gous to the Hebrew kawwana and the “God is greater” (Allahu akbar) corre- Ezekiel’s vision (47:1), the direction Latin Christian intentio. The value of sponds with benedictions like “God is from which the glory of God came (48:2). any religious duty depends on the inten- blessed” in the Jewish tefilla.85 The Zechariah compared Christ to the tion of the devotee.80 As thus devel- recitation of the Fatiha, the first chapter rising sun (Lk. 1:78), thereby associating oped, the meaning approaches that of of the Quran, includes materials that him with Malachi’s prophecy of the Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount would be common in Jewish and Chris- sun of righteousness that would come where he moves the focus from the exter- tian prayers. In fact, the missionary INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS J. Dudley Woodberry 177 statesman Samuel Zwemer recited it in a in 17:79/81) reflects the Syriac Christian orthodox/orthoprax meanings and func- public gathering in Calcutta in 1928 ascetic practice of keeping awake tions rather than those of the mystical and then concluded with the words “in (shahra).93 Its function included merit Sufis and folk Muslims.100 Jesus’ name, Amen.” “Praise be to (especially during Ramadan, the The concept of acquiring merit God” (al-hamdu li-llah) in the beginning month of fasting, and before the two through prayer is strong in Islamic of the Fatiha holds a similar position major annual festivals),94 and it loos- thought—both in the Traditions101 in chapters and passages of the Quran and ens one of the knots that Satan ties in the and in contemporary practice. Recently a 95 corresponds to a similar blessing in hair of a sleeper. nine-month pregnant Syrian woman Syriac literature.86 The imam who leads the prayers cor- explained, “In my condition the merit is After blessings upon Muhammad responds to the sheliah has-sibbur of multiplied 70 times.”102 which, of course, would be an addition to Jewish worship. Both can be done by any Judaism developed a strong legalism Jewish and Christian worship, the qualified person in the community.96 (e.g., Tobit 12:9)103 as did the post- prayer concludes with the worshipper apostolic church, which led to Alexander Meaning and Function turning to the left and the right and of Hales (d. 1245) advancing the doc- When we turn to the meaning saying, “Peace be upon you.” This form trine of the Treasury of Merit. Protestants, and function of prayer in Islam to see how also concludes the main Jewish however, although seeing the rewards adaptable aspects of it are for Chris- prayer87 as the “passing of the peace” is of prayer (Mt 6:5-6) and that good can tian worship, we encounter formidable often included in the celebration of lead to life and divine acceptance misunderstandings between the two the Christian eucharist. (Rom. 2:6,7; Acts 10:35), do not see it as communities. Constance E. Padwick, who The Friday prayer is mentioned merit but the fruit of faith. Salvation has done so much to lead us into the in sura 62:9 where the day is called “the is not seen as a result of merit (Tit 3:5); heart of Muslim prayer,97 said of several day of Assembly” (yawm al-Jum’a), therefore, Protestants would want to excellent books on Christian prayer in the same meaning as the Hebrew name eliminate this function of prayer. Arabic: yom hak-kenisa for the Sabbath.88 Muslims have viewed the salat as The development of these prayers during when put into the hands of Moslems 104 (unless those educated in Christian a duty; yet it is more. Muhammad is the Umayyad Period (661-750 A.D.) schools) these books have proved to reported to have said, “the salat is the be nearly unintelligible. Not only are may have been under Christian influ- the fundamental thoughts of Moslem comfort of my eyes.”105 Likewise he is ence.89 The choice of a day each readers about God and about prayer quoted as saying, “If one of you per- very different from those of the Chris- week was a result of Jewish and Christian tian writers, but through the centuries forms the salat, he is in confidential con- the Church has developed her own 106 contacts according to a Tradition: Arabic Christian vocabulary, and versation with God.” It functions “The Jews have every seventh day a day even when she uses the same word as to intensify belief: “between man and pol- the Moslem, she may read into it a when they get together [for prayer], Christian meaning of which he knows ytheism and unbelief lies the neglect and so do the Christians; therefore, let us nothing. The first and most obvious 107 example of this is the very word of salat. ” 90 do the same.” ’salat,’ which for the Moslem means The prayer has been described as the prescribed prayers of the five Goitein argues that Friday was cho- hours, and for the Christian is full of providing cleansing: “the salat is like a 98 sen because it was a market day in many rich and delicate meanings. stream of sweat water which flows Medina when people could more readily We have, however, seen sufficient past the door of each one of you; into it he come to prayer.91 Unlike the Jewish overlapping of forms and shall see an plunges five times a day; do you think Sabbath and the Christian Sunday it was overlapping of meanings and functions; that anything remains of his uncleanness not a day of rest. Sura 62:9 suggests so there can be understanding and after that?”108 Likewise we read, “an they leave their trafficking to come to adaptation of prayers between the two obligatory salat is a cleansing for the sins prayers. Unlike the biblical account communities. which are committed between it and of creation where God rested the seventh First it is necessary to make the dis- the following one.”109 Since the salat day and the children of Israel were to tinction between corporate liturgical proper does not include penitence, the do likewise (Gen. 2:2-3; Ex. 20:8), the worship (salat) and personal invocation anticipated forgiveness is apparently Quran makes a point of noting that (du’a)99—a distinction found in both based on human merit and divine God was not tired after the six days of traditions (e.g., sura 14:40/42; Mt. 6:6-13; mercy. However, it is common practice to creation (sura 50:38-37)—a topic also Acts 4:24-31). Islam and liturgical insert before the final pronouncement raised by Jewish scholars.92 Christians focus on the former, and non- of peace: “O God, forgive me my former The supererogatory night vigil liturgical Protestants emphasize the and my latter [sins], my open and my (salat al-lail; tahajjud meaning “waking” latter. Here we shall direct our attention to secret [sins] and my extravagances and VOL 13:4 OCT.-DEC. 1996 178 Contextualization Among Muslims what Thou dost know.”110 Furthermore, the emphasis on Muhammad and, for synagogues and churches or chapels, for as has been seen, the ablutions Protestants, prayer for the dead. This they are mentioned in the Quran (sura include a sense of inner cleansing. has been evident in the study of the salat 20:40/41). As Islam spread, various The ritual prayer includes many with its inclusion of the Fatiha.113 arrangements with Christian and Jew- themes that Christians share: Muslim prayer cannot include quite ish sanctuaries developed. In Damascus, tradition says that the Church of St. 1. Witness (“I bear witness that as much of Christian prayer because there is no god but God” in the call to of the references to God as Father, Jesus John was divided, half for Muslims and prayer which, however, also wit- as Lord, the Trinity, and the crucifix- half for Christians. The two centers of worship were beside each other until the nesses to Muhammad’s apostleship; cf. ion of Christ. Although Muslims may mosque incorporated the church. Deut. 6:4). misunderstand parts of the Lord’s In Hims in Syria and Dabil in Arme- 2. God’s mercy (“In the name of Prayer, its themes resonate in Muslim devotion;114 and a Tradition even nia, Muslims and Christians shared God, the Compassionate, the Merci- the same buildings. Umar, the second ful” in the Fatiha; cf. Ps. 86:5 and pre- says that Muhammad proposed a prayer caliph, built a mosque on the site of Islamic use of these introductory which is obviously a free rendering of the Temple in Jerusalem where later the words in south and central Arabia and in the Lord’s Prayer without the initial words “Our Father.”115 Dome of the Rock was built. Many early Arabic manuscripts of the Bible 111 churches and synagogues were trans- after Muhammad). The Mosque formed into mosques. Muslims were 3. Praise to God (“Praise be to Some Muslim followers of Christ told, “Perform your salat in them God” in the Fatiha; cf. Heb. Halelou Yah stay for at least a time in the mosque as [churches and synagogues]; it will not and Latin, Christian Alleluia). the early Jewish followers of Christ harm you.” The transfer of buildings was 4. God’s sovereignty (“Lord of the remained in the Temple and synagogue. further facilitated whenever they were worlds” in the Fatiha; cf. Talmudic Where whole villages have turned to associated with biblical people who were Melek ha ’olam, king of the universe.) Christ, they have re-utilized the mosque also recognized by Islam. On the 5. Judgment (“King of the Day of for a church. Others have continued other hand, Umar is reported to have Reckoning” in the Fatiha; cf. Rom 2:2-3; mosque-like worship. To evaluate the declined to perform the salat in the Jn. 5:22; Mt. 25:34; 1 Cor. 15 :24). appropriateness of these approaches, Church of the Holy Sepulcher to guard 6. Worship (“Thee do we worship” in we shall seek to determine the extent to against its being made into a the Fatiha; cf. Ex 24:1. The Heb. which the mosque has been influ- mosque.118 shaha and Greek proskyneo indicate pros- enced by synagogues and churches and The mosque performed many tration.) what its meanings and functions are. functions. It was primarily for worship 7. Refuge (“To Thee we cry for help” The word for a mosque masjid is but also was a place for public politi- in the Fatiha; cf. Ps 46:1). from the Aramaic and has the root cal assembly or even for strangers who meaning to worship or prostrate oneself, 8. Guidance (“Guide us in the right needed a place to sleep and eat. Wor- found also in the Ethiopic mesgad path” in the Fatiha; Ps 31:3; 119:1). ship included not only prayer but might used of a temple or church.116 In the include the repetition of the names 9. God’s glory (“Glory to my Lord” Quran it is a general word that is used and praises of God, a practice cultivated in the ruku; the nominal form of sab- not only of Muslim sanctuaries but also of by the Sufis.119 baha is used, borrowed from the Hebrew the Christian sanctuary associated Mosque worship also included the and Aramaic shabeah of Jewish wor- with the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus (sura ship). recitation of the Quran. Here the 18:21/20) and the Jewish Temple in influence of the previous monotheistic 10. God’s greatness (“the Great” Jerusalem (if we adopt the traditional faiths is evident. Quran is from the in the ruku; cf. Ps. 48:1). interpretation of sura 17:1). Ibn Khal- Syriac qeryana used to denote the “read- 11. God’s exaltation (“the Most dun (d. 1406) still used the word in a gen- ing” or “reciting” of the scripture les- High” in the sujud; cf. Ps. 83:18). eral sense to include the temple of son by Christians,120 as the Muslim qira’a 117 12. Petition and intercession Solomon. The underlying meaning of (“the recitation” itself) is the equiva- (possible in the du’a; cf. 1 Tim. 2:1). “synagogue” and “church” (ekklesia) lent of Qeri’a of the synagogue.121 Ser- Obviously there is considerable was “gathering” as was jami’, a word mons too were included, especially at overlapping of the themes of Muslim and which increasingly came to be used Friday noon. Evidence of Jewish and Christian prayer.112 Christian prayer for mosques. Christian influence would seem to can include most of Muslim prayer except Muhammad certainly knew about include the requirement of two sermons INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS J. Dudley Woodberry 179 with the preacher standing but pausing to inside to indicate the mihrab. A Roman larly broad function, administering “jus- sit down in between. This would cor- Catholic orphanage in Kabul, Afghan- tice among the people” and the salat. respond with the practice of the rabbi sit- istan, supervised by the Islamicist S. de The mosque also served as a court of jus- ting in between the reading of the Beaurecueil, had two orientations so tice. Some early qadis (judges) sat in Torah and the Prophets while the Law that Christians and Muslims could wor- judgment beside the minbar or in the was rolled up.122 ship in the same room. square beside the mosque—practices The earliest mosques were open The minbar is probably a loan word that were also associated with 127 spaces with an arbor or booths (zulla), from Ethiopic and means “seat, churches. but they soon developed under Christian chair.” Traditions indicate that the origi- To determine the extent to which influence. Pillars and other materials nal maker was a Byzantine or Coptic Muslim followers of Christ may still were taken from churches and the booths Christian. ’Amr, the companion of worship in a mosque or mosque-like con- replaced with pillared halls. The Muhammad who conquered Egypt, text, we need to determine the func- caliph Abd al-Malik (646-705) had Byz- had one made in his mosque, and it was tion of both mosques and churches. Con- antine builders erect the Dome of the said to be of Christian origin. Obvi- temporary mosques are more like Rock in Jerusalem, consciously copying ously it was analogous to a Christian pul- Christian chapels (where people only wor- the dome of the Church of the Holy pit. ship) than local churches (where peo- Sepulcher. His son al-Waled (d. 715) not A platform (dakka) from which the ple are also members), although many only had Byzantine architects trans- mu’adhdhin gives the call to prayer is mosques in the United States have form the basilica of St. John the Baptist in found in larger mosques. There is also a also assumed the latter function. The early Damascus into the Umayyad Mosque, kursi (a wooden stand with a seat and Christian community applied them- but used Christian architects to direct the a desk to hold a Quran). The seat is for the selves to teaching, fellowship, breaking of bread, prayer, performing signs and building of the mosques of Mecca reader (qari, qass). Water for ablu- miracles, sharing, and praising God. They and Medina. When he was inspecting the tions is often provided in a basin (fisqiya continued to go regularly to the Tem- work in Medina, an old man said, or piscina, which in the Mishna and “We used to build in the style of mosques; Syriac is piskin). Unlike in Christian ple but broke bread in their homes (Acts you build in the style of churches.”123 churches, pictures and images are 2:42-47). Here we at least have a precedent for continuing the incomplete The minaret may have been influ- banned. The use of carpets is traced back worship even as the new believers enced in a number of ways. It was not to Muhammad, who used a mat remembered Christ’s death (the comple- part of the earliest mosques, but was woven of palm leaves.125 tion of the worship) in their home. included when churches such as the Of interest here is that Rabbi Paul continued to go to the synagogue and basilica of St. John in Damascus became Abraham, who inherited the position of Temple until put out (e.g., Acts 19:8- mosques. It had a watchtower—the “leader of the Jews” upon the death of 9; 21:26-29). James too still worshipped meaning of manara, its common name. It his father Maimonides in 1237, demanded in the synagogue or a place called a may also have been influenced by the that pillows be removed from syna- synagogue (James 2:2). dwelling-towers of Christian ascetics in gogues and carpets and prayer mats be North Africa where it had the name used. He believed that Islam (and Pillar III: Almsgiving (zakat) sawma’a (a saint’s cell) and was used as especially the Sufis) had preserved many Zakat is obligatory almsgiving of a such in Egypt and Syria. practices of the former Jewish sages, prescribed percentage of different The mihrab (a “niche” indicating the such as the use of these along with pros- kinds of property (2 1/2% for most) and direction of prayer) was not in the tration and kneeling, ritual immer- distributed to the needy. The Quran earliest mosques. In churches it was a sions, and nightly prayers.126 specifies the recipients of various kinds of principal niche that might contain the Since Islam expresses a total way alms as parents, relatives, orphans, bishop’s throne or an image or picture of of life and traditionally “religion” and the poor, the needy, travelers, those who a saint. Muslim literature attests that “politics” were not separated, the work on [collecting] them, those it was taken over from churches. It was functions of the mosque were, and to a whose hearts are to be conciliated, slaves, even opposed because it was inherited lesser extent still are, broader than debtors, and for God’s purposes from churches and was compared with most churches today. Originally the caliph (2:115/211; 9:60). altars as the holiest place. It is the was appointed the leader of the salat Zakat is an Aramaic loan word place where the imam stands.124 Churches and the preacher (khatib) for the commu- which originally was a general term for that became mosques, such as the nity and was installed on the minbar. virtue but came to be used by the rab- Sophia in Istanbul, often had to alter the In the provinces governors served a simi- bis for charitable gifts, an understandable VOL 13:4 OCT.-DEC. 1996 180 Contextualization Among Muslims shift when almsgiving was considered as 6:1-4). In the Quran does, however, public whosoever forgoes it [legal retribu- particularly virtuous. The same shift giving is all right: “Say to my ser- tion] as a freewill offering (sadaqa), that shall be to him an expiation (kaf- in meaning can also be traced in the vants who believe, that they . . . expend of fara) [for his own sins]... the expia- Quran from virtue in general (suras that We have provided them, secretly tion [for breaking oaths] is to feed ten poor persons... or to clothe them, or to 87:14; 92:18) to almsgiving (sura 7:156/ and in public” (sura 14:31/36). It says, “If set free a slave... expiation [for slay- 129 ing game during pilgrimage is] food 155; 21:73). you publish your freewill offering, it for poor persons (Sura 5:45/49, 89/91, Sadaqa is another quranic word for is good; but, if you conceal them and give 95/96). almsgiving. It too is a loan word from to the poor, that is better” (sura 2:271/ The Roman Catholic canon in the the Hebrew tsedaqa or tsedeq, meaning 273). Al-Ghazali (d. 1111) even argued in apocrypha has a similar teaching: “honesty” or “righteousness” but was his major work the Ihya that much “almsgiving atones for sin” (Ecclus. used by the rabbis of “almsgiving.” The can be said for both open and secret alms, 3:30), and “almsgiving delivers from relationship between upright actions depending on the circumstances and death and saves people from passing (tsedeq) and caring for the poor is seen in the motive.132 down to darkness” (Tobit 4:7). Daniel 4:24/27. The word sadaqa is Another parallel between the Some of the church fathers also asso- used in two ways in the Quran and the Quran and the Bible has to do with the ciated almsgiving with the forgive- Traditions. First, it is a synonym of attitude and conduct that accompanies ness of sins. The second epistle attributed zakat (obligatory alms) in the Quran (sura almsgiving. Sura 2:262/263 says, “Those to Clement of Rome claims: “Alms- 9:58-60, 103/104-104/105) and the who expend their wealth in the way giving is excellent as penitence for sin; Traditions (where al-Bukhari talks about of God then follow not up what they have fasting is better than prayer, but alms- sadaqa in sections on zakat). Sec- expended with reproach and injury, giving is better than either . . . almsgiving ondly, sadaqa is used of voluntary alms- their wage is with their Lord.” Paul alleviates sin” (16:4). Cyprian, Atha- giving (e.g., 2:263/265-264/266), speaks of the importance of attitude nasius, Jerome, and Augustine also asso- sometimes called sadaqat al-tatawwu’ in 2 Corinthians 9:7: “Each man should ciated almsgiving with the forgive- 130 (alms of spontaneity). give...not reluctantly or under com- ness of sins.133 ’Ushr is a tithe on produce levied for pulsion, for God loves a cheerful giver.” Much more could be said on the public assistance. It was similar to the Still another parallel between the function of zakat in contemporary Muslim tithes on the land of the Mosaic Law two Scriptures has to do with God’s rec- economics.134 But, from a Christian (Lev. 27:30-33; Num. 18:21-26). In ompense. Although the Quran warns perspective, we need to note that Jesus places half went to the poor and half went not to give in order to gain more (74:6), expected it to be a regular part of the 131 to the ruler. rewards are promised: “What you believer’s practice (Mt. 6:3), and James Almsgiving had great importance in give in alms desiring God’s face—those classified attention to orphans and all three monotheistic faiths. The they receive recompense manifold” widows in their affliction to be part of Quran makes a clear distinction between (sura 30:39/38). The reward is compared religion that is pure and undefiled believers, who give alms (suras 8:2-4; to the multiplication of corn when it before God (1:27). Yet underlying all 23:1-4), and disbelievers, who do not is planted (sura 2:261/263). Christian giving should be the (sura 41:7/6). There is considerable Proverbs 19:17 likewise prom- response of gratitude for God’s “inex- concern that alms be given to the poor ises, “He who is kind to the poor lends to pressible gift” (2 Cor. 9:11-15). (sura 9:60) as there is in the Old Tes- the Lord, and He will repay him for tament (Deut. 15:11; Prov. 19:17) and the his deeds.” Jesus also said, “Give and it Pillar IV: Fasting (sawm) N.T (Mt. 6:1-4; 25:35-46). will be given you” (Lk. 6:38). The Fasting is listed as a characteris- There are numbers of parallels rich young ruler whose focus on wealth tic of those who submit to God—that is, between the Quran and the Bible. One kept him from following Jesus was true Muslims (sura 33:35). Many has to do with not giving to be seen by told, “Go, sell your possessions and give Christians, however, believe it is wrong, people. The Quran indicates that God to the poor, and you will have treas- or at least unwise, to keep the fast of 135 does not love those who dispense their ure in heaven. Then come, follow me” Ramadan. To evaluate this, as with the goods ostensibly to be seen by people (Mt. 19:21). Jesus knew “Wherever other pillars, we need to look at the (sura 4:38/42) in a context that suggests your treasure is, there will your heart be roots, meaning, and function of Muslim almsgiving. Likewise Jesus said, also” (Mt. 9:21). There is an area in and Christian fasting. “When you give alms, sound no trumpet which alms accomplish a function with The words which Muslims use, sawm before you as the hypocrites do . . . which Protestants would take issue. and siyam, originally had a different that they may be praised by men” (Mt. The Quran affirms: meaning in Arabic, “to be at rest.” In INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS J. Dudley Woodberry 181

Judeo-Aramaic usage, however, they When we look at the meanings and irreligious. God asked the Israelites, “Was already meant “fasting,” which sug- functions of Muslim and Christian it really for me that you fasted?” gests this was the source of Muslim fasting, we see many parallels and some (Zech. 7:5). We need to ask ourselves the usage. This connection is supported differences. For the Muslim, fasting is same question. by the Quran which makes the prescrip- above all an act of obedience, for it is pre- Pillar V: Pilgrimage (Hajj) tion to fast a continuation of the prescribed for them (sura 2:183/179). scription to those before them (sura 2:183/ Secondly, it is an act of commemoration Not too much attention will be 179). The Traditions are even more of the “descent” of the first verses of given to the Pilgrimage since it was an specific: the Quran on the 27th of Ramadan (sura adoption and reinterpretation of pagan rituals. The Traditions make this The Prophet came to Medina and saw 44:1-5/4). the Jews fasting on the day of clear. Muhammad’s wife Aisha, for ’Ashura. He asked them, “What is Thirdly, in the Traditions it has devel- example, told how the pagans used to this?” They told him, “This is the day oped the meaning of contrition and on which God rescued the children of enter a consecrated state (ihram) in Israel from their enemy. So Moses forgiveness that is more prominent in the fasted this day.” The Prophet said, the name of the idol Manat. Out of honor “We have more claim to Moses than Judeo-Christian tradition. One says, for that idol, they did not perform the you.” So the Prophet fasted on that “All sins are forgiven to one who keeps day and ordered Muslims to fast on pilgrimage ritual between the hills of al- it.136 Ramadan out of sincere faith and hop- Safa and al-Marwa at the Kaaba until During the first year in Medina the ing for a reward from God.” Another the Quran explained that they were now fast was “a few days,” apparently the affirms, “When the month of Rama- symbols of God (sura 2:158/153).142 ten days of penance leading up to the Jew- dan starts, the gates of heaven are open Despite its pagan origin, many of its ish Day of Atonement—’Ashura (the and the gates of hell closed.” The ref- elements were those that God adopted “tenth” in Hebrew-Aramaic), the word erence to the gates of heaven being open for use in the schoolhouse of His children Muslims use. It was also a time of seems to be based on the old Jewish Israel. The word hajj is the Hebrew seclusion for the pious in the place of practice of praying when the Temple haj used in Psalm 81:4 (vs. 3 in English) worship—a practice that later was gates were open since that was a pro- 140 incorporated by Muslims into the last ten pitious time. This same sense of pardon for a sacrifice when the Israelites days of Ramadan and called i’tikaf, is found in the fasts for expiation were gathered in Jerusalem. Likewise the when that month was made the required (suras 2:196/192; 15:89/90, 95/96). word qurban, frequently used to fast. The concept is very prominent in describe the Festival of Sacrifice during the pilgrimage, is used for “offering” Other practices are also similar to the biblical examples (Deut. 9:25-29; Ex. or “consecrated” in Leviticus and Num- Judaism. Abstaining from eating and 32:30; Neh. 1:4-6; 9:1-2; Mt. 12:41), 141 bers. drinking in the day but not at night was as it is in the Torah. Likewise the Jewish.137 Even in biblical times this Roman Catholic Church has used the Muslims are required to perform the was sometimes practiced (Jdg. 20:26; 2 fast as penitence and preparation before pilgrimage once in their lifetime if Sam. 1:12;3:35). Likewise the Quran the Mass and leading into Holy possible as the Israelites were to go to says, “Eat and drink until the white thread Week. Jerusalem three times a year. One of becomes distinct to you from the The nights of Ramadan are times these, the Feast of Tabernacles, has a black thread at dawn” (sura 2:187/183). of joy and celebration, and decorations are number of similarities to the Haj—for The source is the Jewish Mishnah.138 often put in the streets during the example, going seven times around the Fasting has played a significant role month. Although fasting was used to sanctuary (Ps. 26:6) as Muslims do in Judaism and Christianity— express sorrow in biblical times (e.g., around the Kaaba and standing before including those of extended periods like 2 Sam. 1:11-12), it can also be a time of God as an act of worship. the month of Ramadan. Moses, Eli- joy (Zech. 8:18). The concept of the Mosque of Mecca jah, and Jesus all fasted 40 days and Christians are given warnings against being haram (a sacred place restricted nights (Deut. 9:9, 18; 1 Kgs. 19:8; Lk. the misuse of fasting (Mt. 6:116-18; to Muslims—sura 9:28) has its counter- 4:1-2). Jesus expected people to fast (Mt. Lk. 18:10, 12), but Jesus expected his dis- part in the Court of the Gentiles for 6:16-18), and Paul fasted frequently ciples to fast (Mk. 2:18-20). It is Gentiles, who could not enter the Temple. (Acts 13:2; 2 Cor. 6:5; 11:27). Fasting interesting that Paul includes his going Mecca is seen as the place of the Last was emphasized by the Church hungry as one of the deprivations he Judgment, as Jerusalem is. Abraham is Fathers, and the forty-day fast or self- endured so that he would “put no obstacle associated with the Kaaba as Jews denial of Lent is even mentioned at in any one’s way” (2 Cor. 6:3). Lack associate him with Mt. Moria under the the Council of Nicea in 325.139 of fasting is seen by Muslims as being Temple area. The Kaaba has a cover- VOL 13:4 OCT.-DEC. 1996 182 Contextualization Among Muslims ing (kiswa) replaced every year like that prayers (salat). Even when God answered according to sura 6:92: “This is the Book of the Tabernacle. The direction of their prayers miraculously, their that we have revealed, a blessing and prayer for Muslims and Jews has been neighbors did not follow Christ until the a confirmation to those who were before toward their respective sanctuaries. Christians were seen to perform ritual it, and that the Mother of Cities As the Temple had a place for ablutions, prayers. [Mecca] may be warned and those who the Meccan mosque has zam zam Less than three years ago a more are around her.” Sometimes other water, later supplemented. As Muslim pil- contextual approach was adopted with verses were used to show that it was for grims put on white clothing when in a help from some who had studied with Mecca144 and the Arabs.145 When consecrated state, so the High Priest put Fuller School of World Mission person- they were asked about their attitude on holy garments (Lev. 16:4). Like- nel. Only Muslim converts were towards Muhammad, they said that he wise the hair is not cut when one is in a employed in the villages, and many thou- was a prophet to the Arabs according to consecrated state as was the case with sands have since responded. God has the same verse and others.146 Histori- the biblical Nazarite vow (Num. 6:5). used a number of factors along with the cally this is a valid interpretation of the If all these elements were used contextualization approach. The New Quran, but ultimately Muhammad by God in His schoolhouse for His people Testament had been translated using Mus- seems to have seen his mission as univer- Israel, can they not serve again for lim vocabulary rather than words sal (sura 34:28/27).147 lessons as He gathers a new people for from the other religion, and copies have Although the old practice of debating Himself? The lessons will no longer been sold throughout the villages. has normally been viewed as counter- be in Mecca. As Jesus told the woman of Natural catastrophes had occurred which productive today, in at least one union of Samaria, worship will not be were interpreted as divine judgment, villages the chairman called on the restricted to specific locations (Jn. 4:20- and the Christian couples had responded followers of Jesus to defend their position 24). God, however, used pilgrimages with a wholistic ministry. These against four religious teachers to teach the people lessons including His Christians had prayed for the sick, natural (’ulama). A Muslim spokesperson started, holiness and their unity as a people. catastrophes and personal relation- “We the people of this area are Mus- We shall need to find ways to do the ships, and God had answered with amaz- lims... We heard that you came here to same. ing power. Muslims who opposed the make us Christians, which is a foreign Reusing the Pillars conversions were even stricken with ail- religion, a religion of infidels.” Here ments. The case study we are consider- “Christian” is being defined as “for- ing is in a Muslim country that has had An important factor was that some of eign” and “disbelieve”; so the convert missionaries and churches for many the Christian leaders knew the Quran refused to be called one and said that years but had seen very few conversions well. The Muslims believed that Muham- he had nothing to do with the Christians from the Muslim community. Almost mad would be an intercessor on the in the country (who originally were 143 all the Christians were from another relig- Last Day. The Christians challenged from a different religious community). ious group. this, for Muhammad, they said, is not The follower of Jesus claimed to Five years ago the church responded mentioned by name in the Quran as an be a “Muslim.” This led to a discussion to a natural catastrophe by sending intercessor. They pointed out that between “brothers” of what a Muslim twenty Christian couples to serve, only only one whom God approves may inter- was. The follower of Jesus said that one from a Muslim background. cede (suras 19:87/90; 20:109/108; according to the Quran it was one Their work was appreciated, but their 53:26/27). The Injil (Gospel), which the “who has completely surrendered himself Muslim neighbors would not eat the Quran affirms, says that God to the will of Allah.” He could point food they gave them. It was assumed that approved of Jesus (Mt. 3:17; Mk. 1:11; to this meaning of the term in the Quran the Christians were “unclean” when Lk. 3:22) and states that he is the only (2:112/106; 3:64/57), where it is also they prepared it because they did not mediator between God and humanity (1 used to describe Jesus’ disciples bathe (ghusl) in the morning when Tim. 2:5). This would fit in with the (5:111,112). Thus he was technically they may have had sexual relations the common interpretation of sura 43:61 as right in the sense that he had completed night before. When they changed designating that the return of Jesus his submission to God through Christ. their bathing habits, their Muslim neigh- will be a sign of the Last Hour. The followers of Jesus have come to be bors ate their food. The Christians When asked about their attitude called “believers”—a term more in were called angels because of their ser- toward the Quran, the Christians keeping with the original followers of vice but were still considered “irrelig- answered that it was meant for the “the Way” before they were called ious” because they did not perform ritual people of Mecca and neighboring villages “Christians” in Antioch. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS J. Dudley Woodberry 183

After being assured that the follower The Lord’s Prayer is recited in the topple them and what they support. One is of Jesus believed in the final judg- second rak’a plus another passage if the problem of training leadership for ment, the Muslim spokesperson asked, desired. After two rak’a, the worshipper such a creative and rapidly growing “Do you believe that Muhammad is adds to the thanksgiving, “Please give movement. A second is how to build the mediator on the day of final judg- me favor to worship you this way until bridges to other segments of the church ment?” The follower of Jesus your [Christ’s] second coming.” Then without inhibiting growth. The responded, “Does the Quran say so?” the regular greeting and blessing are given demise of the Nestorian Church gives When the four ’ulama could not show to the ones on the right and left of the mute witness to the results of being a verse that clearly did, the news spread, worshipper. A time for du’a (spontaneous isolated. and many decided to follow Jesus. prayer) is suggested for intercession A third problem is how to reuse Decisions are normally made in and petition. The Ikamat is altered to: Muslim forms without retaining Muslim groups. The chairman announced that God is love. God is love. meanings such as merit. A fourth is another meeting would be held the follow- And praises belong to God. how to avoid an ossified contextualization Present. Present before God. ing month. If the ’ulama won, the fol- Present. Present in the name of that inhibits maturity—an apparent lowers of Jesus should return to Islam. On Jesus Christ. problem of the Jewish believers to whom the other hand, if they lost, he and his The remaining four daily prayers plus the Epistle to the Hebrews was writ- relatives would follow Jesus. In another any additional rak’a at these times ten. Despite the dangers, we are seeing situation a Sufi mystic leader learned follow the same pattern with different God blessing the refurbishing of these in a Good Friday message that the veil of scripture passages indicated for pillars in our day as they bear the weight the Holy of Holies was torn from top each.148 After the night prayer a special of new allegiances to God in Christ. to bottom. He cried, “Why should I bother prayer of three rak’a is suggested. In What is happening can be visualized with the Law any more if Jesus has the first John 1:12 is recited with the in the Hagia Sophia, a fourth-century opened up the Holy of Holies?” He is prayer: church that was close to its Jewish and leading his disciples to follow Jesus. O Almighty God, the experience that Eastern foundations. Its pillars held Attempts are made to keep social units you have given me to be your child through placing my faith in Jesus up a dome on which was painted the face together by only baptizing people if Christ and accepting him as my per- of Christ. Muslims made the church sonal Savior, give the same experi- the head of the family is also being bap- ence to the lives of the ______into a mosque—altering the direction of tized. million Muslims of ______. prayer, adding the names of Muslim Conversions are following the web In the second rak’a John 3:16 is heroes, and painting over some of the pattern along family, friendship, and recited with the prayer: Christian mosaics. Over the face of occupational lines. When whole villages O God, the experience that you have Christ in the dome they painted the come, the mosque remains the center given to me to have eternal life quranic words “God is the Light of through your gift of grace in the Lord of worship. Teachers of their new faith Jesus Christ, I claim the same experi- the heavens and earth” (sura 24:35). The ence in the name of Jesus Christ for are supported locally in the pattern of the lives of ______million same pillars continued to hold up this the imams of the mosque. Muslims of ______Please witness. Should the artisans painstakingly acknowledge this. Muslim convert couples devel- remove its paint as they have from Psalm 117:1-2 is recited in the oped a prayer ritual which follows the some of the other Christian pictures, they final rak’a. At the conclusion, time is Muslim pattern but expresses their could once again see “the light of the spent in intercession for the country, new allegiance to God through Jesus. knowledge of the glory of God in the face government officials, believers and their Morning prayer starts with the normal of Christ” (2 Cor. 4:6). And the same leaders, neighbors, relatives, and one- “intention” (niya) to pray but adds “in the pillars would continue to hold it up. self. name of my Lord and Savior Jesus End Notes Conclusion Christ” before the traditional exclamation 1. J. Pedersen, “Masdjid,” Shorter Ency- “God is greater” (Allahu akbar). In We have seen that the so-called “pil- clopaedia of Islam (Leiden: E. J. the first rak’a (the basic ritual which is lars of Islam” had for the most part Brill, 1961), 339B-340A. 2. Letter dated March 1, 1987. repeated) Psalm 23 or any other bibli- been used before by Jews and Christians 3. For a broader discussion of the anti- cal passage is recited. The rest of the and with some adjustments are being Quranic bias of Arabic Bible trans- rak’a follows the traditional postures used again. Their forms, meanings, and lation, see Samuel P. Schlorff, “The and praises to God, although “All praise functions have been sufficiently simi- Missionary Use of the Quran: An Historical and Theological Study of to Jesus Christ” may be substituted lar to allow this to happen. Yet there are the Contextualization of the Gos- for the first. many factors that could weaken or pel” (unpublished Th.M. thesis; Phila- VOL 13:4 OCT.-DEC. 1996 184 Contextualization Among Muslims

delphia: Westminster Theological 1987). For a comparison of this style Harvard Theological Review LX Seminary, 1984), 61-71. with existing Arabic Bible trans- (1962), 269-280; J. Fueck, “The 4. Paul W. Harrison, “The Arabs of lations, see: David Owen, “A Classifi- Originality of the Arabian Prophet,” Oman,” The Moslem World XXIV cation System for Styles of Ara- Studies on Islam, trans. and ed. (1934), 269. bic Bible Translations,” Seedbed Merlin Swartz (New York: Oxford 5. Missiology V (1977), 301-320. (P.O. Box 96, Upper Darby, PA University Press, 1981), 86-98; 19082) III (1988), No. 1, 8-10. For Watt, Muhammad at Mecca (Oxford: 6. Ed. Don M. McCurry. Monrovia, CA: reactions to it, see Schlorff, Clarendon Press, 1960), 158-161. MARC, 1979. “Feedback on Project Sunrise (Sira): 40. Cf. Watt’s view, based partly on sura 7. Ibid., 58-70. A Look at ’Dynamic Equiva- 19:16-33/34. that Muhammad 8. Ibid., 71-84. lence’ in an Islamic Context,” ibid., originally thought that the monothe- 9. Ibid., 85-96. no. 2, 22-32. ism he preached was identical to 10. Ibid., 97-113. 31. Dated July 3, 1987. that of the Jews and Christians (Medina, 315 and n.). 11. Ibid., 114-128. 32. “Arab Christian Reaction to Con- textualization in the Middle East” 41. Arthur Jeffery, The Foreign Vocabu- 12. Ibid., 129-154. (Unpublished M.A. thesis; Pasa- lary of the Quran (Baroda: Orien- 13. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book dena, CA: Fuller Theological Semi- tal Institute, 1938), vii-viii. House. nary, 1988), 73-75. 42. Ibid., 19. 14. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book 33. Ibid., 80-81. 43. Ibid., 66, and Bell, Origin of Islam, House, 1985. 34. “Islam and Missions: Mohammad 54. 15. Page 183. or Christ?,” 1. 44. A. J. Wensinck, “Wahy,” Shorter 16. Ed. J. Dudley Woodberry. Monro- 35. Berita NECF: A Bimonthly Publi- Encyclopaedia of Islam, ed. H. A. via, CA: MARC, 1989. cation of the National Evangelical R. Gibb and J. H. Kramers (Leiden: E. 17. Ibid., 277-292. Christian Fellowship of Malaysia J. Brill, 1961), 622A. 18. Ibid., 293-298. (Petaling Jaya, Selangor), I, no. 1 45. Jeffery, 276. 19. Ibid., 299-314. (April/May, 1988), 5. 46. Ibid., 71-72. 20. Ibid., 255-276. 36. Suggested by sura 16:103/105. 47. A. J. Wensinck, “Kibla” in Encyclo- 21. Larry G. Lenning, Blessing in 37. See, e.g., Abraham Geiger, Juda- paedia of Islam (New Ed.), ed. H. Mosque and Mission. Pasadena, CA: ism and Islam, trans. F. M. Young A. R. Gibb et al. (Leiden: E. J. Brill, William Carey Library, 1980. (New York: KTAV Publ. House, 1986 ——), V, 82; Mahmoud M. 1970; orig. publ. as Was hat 22. Evertt W. Huffard, Thematic Disso- Ayoub, The Qur’an and Its Interpret- Mohammed aus dem Judentum ers, I (Albany, NY: State Univer- nance in the Muslim-Christian aufgenommen? 1898); Charles Tor- Encounter: A Contextualized Theol- sity of New York Press, 1984), 167- rey, The Jewish Foundation of 175; Abu-l ’Abbas al-Baladhuri, ogy of Honor. Unpublished Ph.D. Islam (New York: Jewish Institute of dissertation. Pasadena, CA: Fuller Kitab Futuh al-Buldan, p. 2, trans. Religion Press, 1933); Alfred Philip K. Hitti as The Origins of Theological Seminary, 1985 and Guillaume, “The Influence of Judaism the Islamic State, I (New York: “Culturally Relevant Themes about on Islam,” The Legacy of Israel, Christ” in Muslims and Christians Columbia University, 1916), 15. ed. Edwyn R. Bevan and Charles 48. Jeffery, 198-199; A. J. Wensinck, on the Emmaus Road, ed. Woodberry, Singer (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 177-192. “Salat,” in Shorter Encyclopaedia 1928), 129-171; W. Montgomery of Islam, 491B. 23. Michael Nazir-Ali, Frontiers in Mus- Watt, Muhammad at Medina lim-Christian Encounter (Oxford: (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1956), 49. Jeffery, 161-162. Regnum Books, 1987), 15-37. 192-220. On the possible influ- 50. New Researches into the Composition 24. Schlorff, “The Missionary Use of ence of unorthodox variants affected and Exegesis of the Qoran (Lon- the Quran.” by Christian monastic piety, see don: Royal Asiatic Society, 1902), 35. 25. Fritz Goerling, “The Use of S. D. Goitein, Jews and Arabs: Their 51. The Talmud of Jerusalem, Eng. Islamic Theological Terminology in Contact through the Ages (3rd trans. Moses Schwab (London: Wil- Bible Translation and Evangelism rev. ed.; New York: Schocken Books, liams and Norgate, 1886), I, chap. among the Jula in Cote d’Ivoire.” 1974), 57-58. On the possible 2, no. 3 (34-35); D. Masson, Le Coran Unpublished Th.M. thesis. Pasa- influence of a late offshoot of the et la revelation judeo-chretienne dena, CA: Fuller Theological Semi- Qumran community, see Chaim (Paris: Adrien-Maisonneuve, 1958), I, nary, 1989. Rabin, Qumran Studies (London: 32. Oxford University Press, 1957), 26. Lilias Trotter. Cairo: Nile Mission 52. Torrey, 133-134. On the shema’ as a 112-130. Press. confession of faith, see Mishna 38. See, e.g., Tor Andrae, Les Ori- Berakoth 2:2 in The Mishna, trans. 27. Ar-Rabitah, P.O. Box 1433, Limassol, gines de l’Islam et le Christianisme, Herbert Danby (London: Oxford Cyprus. trans. Jules Roch (Paris: Adrien- University Press, 1949), 3; George 28. Beirut: The Bible Society, 1984. Maisonneuve, 1955); Richard Bell, Foot Moore, Judaism in the First 29. For their rationale, see Sobhi W. The Origin of Islam in its Chris- Centuries of the Christian Era (Cam- Malek, “Allah-u Akbar Bible Les- tian Environment (London: Macmil- bridge, MA: Harvard University sons: Aspects of Their Effective- lan and Co., 1926); J. Spencer Press, 1950), I, 465; Vernon H. Neu- ness in Evangelizing Muslims.” Trimingham, Christianity among the feld, The Earliest Christian Con- Unpublished D.Miss. dissertation; Arabs in Pre-Islamic Times (Lon- fessions (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Pasadena, CA: Fuller Theological don: Longman, 1979); Watt, Medina, Eerdmans, 1963), 34-41. Seminary, 1986. 315-320. 53. For the meaning of the shahada see: 30. Sirat al-Masih bi-Lisan Arabi Fasih 39. See, e.g., Hamilton A. R. Gibb, “Pre- Wensinck, The Muslim Creed (Larnaca, Cyprus: Izdihar Ltd., Islamic Monotheism in Arabia,” (Cambridge: University Press, 1932), INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS J. Dudley Woodberry 185

17-35; Wilfred Cantwell Smith, The Abhandlungen der preussen Akade- 85. Mittwoch, 16; Guillaume, 156. Faith of Other Men, 51-62. For mie der Wissenschaften (Berlin, 86. Goitein, 75 and n. the meaning of God’s unity to a Sufi 1913) philosophy-history Kl., no. 2. 87. Yoma, 53B, in The Babylonian Tal- mystic, see Seyyed Hossein Nasr, 64. I (Berakhoth) 4: 1 (73). mud: Seder Mo’ed, v. 2/5, ed. I. ed., Islamic Spirituality (New York: 65. Sahih al-Bukhari (Arabic-English), Epstein, trans. Leo Jung (London: Crossroad, 1987), 312-315. trans. M. Muhsin Khan (9 vols.; The Soncino Press, 1938), 250. 54. See Wensinck, A Handbook of Early Beirut: Dar al-Arabia, n.d.), vol. I, Bk. 88. Goitein, Studies, 117-118. Muhammadan Tradition (Leiden: 8 (Salat), chap. 1 (213-214). E. J. Brill, 1960), s.v. “unity.” 89. C. H. Becker, “Zur Geschichte 66. For the argument that Islam chose a des Islamischen Kultus,” Der Islam, 55. For an extensive discussion see middle position as noted in a III (1912), 374-419; Hava Laz- Schlorff, “The Missionary Use of the slightly different context in sura arus-Yafeh, Some Religious Aspects Quran.” 2:143/137, see S. D. Goitein, of Islam (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 56. E.g., Psalm 104 reflects the hymn of Studies in Islamic History and Institu- 1981), 40. praise of Akhnaton to the sun. tions (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1968), 84-85. 90. Al-Qastallani II, 176 in Goitein, 57. E.g., the parable of the judge and the Studies, 112. widow (Lk. 18:2-5) adapts Ben 67. Guillaume, 162-163. 91. Studies, 113-114. Sirach 35:15-19. 68. Al-Bukhari, I, Bk. 5 (Ghusl) (156- 176); G. H. Bousquet, “Ghusl,” 92. See the 2nd century A.D. Midrash 58. Paul in Acts 26:14 quotes Euri- Haggadah entitled Mekhilta on pides Bacchus 795. These and other Encyclopaedia of Islam (New Ed.), Exodus 20:11 in Lazarus-Yafeh,143, illustrations are found in an s.v. n.8. unpublished report by George Hous- 69. Guillaume, 162. 93. Bell, 143; Wensinck, “Salat,” 495A. ney of a Beirut Study Group 70. On the controversy, see Parshall, involving Emmett Barnes, Kenneth “Lessons Learned in Contextualiza- 94. Ibn Maja, Siyam, bab. 68 in Bailey, and Colin Chapman. tion,” 279. Wensinck, “Tahadjdjud,” Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam, 559. 59. See footnote 27 above. 71. The Talmud of Babylonia, I: Tractate 60. For an extensive discussion, see Berakhot, trans. Jacob Neusner 95. Abu Da’ud, Tatawwu’, bab. 18 in Kenneth Cragg, Muhammad and the (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1984), ibid. Christian: A Question of fol. 15A (chap. 2, sec. 22, 116); 96. Mittwoch, 22; Becker, “Islamischen Response. London: Darton, Longman A. J. Wensinck, “Tayammum,” Kultus,” 386; Wensinck, and Todd/Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam, “Salat,” 496A. Books, 1984. 589A. 97. Muslim Devotions: A Study of 61. Al-Qustas al-Mustaqim, ed. V. 72. Cedrenus, Annales, ed. Hylander Prayer Manuels in Common Use Chelhot, 68, in Chelhot, “La Balance (Basle, 1566), 206 in ibid. (London: SPCK, 1961), and Juste,” Bulletin d’Etudes Orien- 73. Masson, 470. “The Language of Muslim Devo- tales, XV (1958), 62; al-Munqidh min 74. Ibid., 531. tion,” The Muslim World, al-dalal (The Deliverer from XLVII (1957), 5-21, 98-110, 194- Error), ed. Jamil Saliba and Kamal 75. The Talmud of Jerusalem, Eng. 209. ’Ayyad (3rd ed.; Damascus, trans. Schwab, I (Berakhoth), chap. 4, nos. 6-7 (91-93). 98. Quoted in Samuel M. Zwemer, Stud- 1358/1939), 101; trans. in W. Mont- ies in Popular Islam (London: gomery Watt, The Faith and Prac- 76. Sahih al-Bukhari, vol. IV, Bk. 60, Sheldon Press, 1939), 15. chap. 20 (18). tice of al-Ghazali (London: George 99. See Louis Gardet, “Du’a,” Ency- Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1953), 39. 77. Masson, 507-508. clopaedia of Islam (New Ed.), 617- 62. Other early biblical confessions are: 78. Ibid., 511. 618. “Jesus is the Son of God” (Jn. 79. Baba Bathra, fol. 25A, in The Babylo- 100. For these see, e.g., Nasr, 111-118; 4:15); “You are the Christ, the Son of nian Talmud: Seder Nezikin, ed. Louis Massignon, Essai sur les the Living God” (Mt. 16:15); and I. Epstein, trans. Maurice Simon and origines du lexique technique de la longer formulations in Phil. 2:6-11; 1 Israel A. Slotki (London: The mystique musulmane (Paris: Cor. 15:3-7; Rom. 1:1-4; 1 Tim. Soncino Press, 1935), 124-125. Vrin, 1968), 259; Wensinck, “Salat,” 3:16. On the earliest Christian confes- 80. Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, Ihya 498B-499A; Bill Musk, “Popu- sions see: Paul Feine, Gestalt des Ulum-id-Din, trans. Fazal-ul-Karim lar Islam: The Hunger of the Heart,” apostolischen Glaubensbekenntnisses (Lahore: Islamic Book Founda- The Gospel and Islam, ed. in der Zeit des Neuen Testament tion, 1981), Bk. IV, chap. 7 ( 389- McCurry, 218. (Leipzig: Verlag Doerffling & Franke, 407); Guillaume, 156; Wensinck, 1925); Vernon H. Neufeld, The 101. E.g.,prayer in the mosque is con- “Niya,” Shorter Encyclopaedia of sidered 25 times more meritorious Earliest Christian Confessions (Grand Islam, s.v. Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, than elsewhere: al-Bukhari, 1963); Oscar Cullmann, The Earliest 81. Mittwoch, p. 16; Wensinck, “Salat,” Sahih, I, Bk. 8 (Salat), chap. 87 (p. Christian Confessions, trans. J. K. 493B. 277). S. Reid (London: Lutterworth Press, 82. Mittwoch, p. 17; Wensinck, “Salat,” 102. Yvonne Haddad, “The Impact of the 1949); J. N. D. Kelley, Early 493B. Islamic Period in Iran on the Christian Creeds (2nd ed.; London: 83. Mittwoch, p. 17; Wensinck, Syrian Muslims of Montreal,” The Longmans, 1960); O. Sydney Mohammed en de Joden te Muslim Community of North Barr, From the Apostles’ Faith to the Medina (2nd ed., 1928), 104 in his America (Edmonton, Alberta: Uni- Apostles’ Creed (New York: “Salat,” 494A. versity of Alberta Press, 1983), Oxford University Press, 1964). 84. For Christian parallels, see A. Baum- 175-176. 63. See the classic study by E. Mitt- stark, “Juedischer und Christ- 103. “Good is almsgiving, which woch, Zur Entstebungsgeschichte des licher Gebetstypus im Koran,” Der delivers from death and purges away islamischen Gebets und Kultus in Islam, XVI (1927), 229. all sin” (The Book of Tobit, VOL 13:4 OCT.-DEC. 1996 186 Contextualization Among Muslims

trans. and ed. Frank Zimmerman 119. Gardet, “Dhikr,” Encyclopaedia of (Berakhoth), chap. 1, par. 5 (p. 15). [New York: Harper & Bros., Islam (New ed.), s.v. 139. See Masson, 573-574. 1958], 111). 120. J. Horovitz, “Quran,” Der Islam, XIII 140. Al-Bukhari, III, Bk. 3 (sawm), chaps, 104. Al-Bukhari, I, Bk. 8 (Salat), (1923), 66-69. 5-6 (pp. 69-70); Goitein, Stud- chap. 1 (p. 211). 121. Guillaume, 156; Theodor Noeldeke, ies, 100. 105. Ahmad b. Hanbal, III, 128, 285 Geschichte des Qorans (2nd ed.; 141. The Torah, A New Translation in Wensinck, “Salat,” 498A. Leipzig, 1909), III, 116-248; R. of the Holy Scriptures (Philadelphia: 106. Al-Bukhari, I, Bk. 8 (Salat), Paret, “Kira’a,” Encyclopaedia Jewish Publication Society, chap. 38 (p. 244). of Islam (New ed.), s.v. 1902), 212. 107. Muslim, Sahih Muslim, trans. 122. Mittwoch, no. 2; Becker, “Isla- 142. Al-Bukhari, VI, Bk. 60 (tafsir), Abdul Hamid Saddiqi (Lahore: Ash- mischen Kultus,” 374-419, and “Die chap. 284 (pp. 362-363). Kanzel im Kultus des alten raf, n.d.), I (Iman), trad. 146 (p. 143. This could be based on 20:109/ 48). Islam,” Orientalische Studien Theo- dor Noeldeke zum siebzigsten 108; 34:23/22 and 43:86, but 108. Malek, Qasr al-salat fi ’l-safar, Muhammad is not mentioned by trad. 91 in Wensinck, “Salat,” 498A. Geburtstag, ed. Carl Bezold (2 vols.; Giessen, 1906), 331ff.; al- name. 109. Malek, Qasr, II, 229 in ibid. Bukhari, II (Jum’a), chap. 28 (p. 24); 144. 42:7/5 and 43:44/43 (which say 110. Tradition from Muslim, Adhkaru ’n- Wensinck, “Khutba,” Encyclo- this clearly) and 27:91/93; 28:85; Nawawi, 33 in Padwick, Muslim paedia of Islam (New ed.), s.v. 37:149 and 43:31/30 (which Devotions, 173. 123. F. Wuestenfeld, Geschichte der refer, or may refer, to Mecca but are 111. Regis Blachere, Introduction au Stadt Medina (Goettingen, 1860), p. not as clear). Coran (2nd ed.;Paris: C-Gt.-P. Mai- 74 in Pedersen, 339B-340A. 145. 12:2; 13:37; 16:103/105; 20:113/ sonneuve, 1959), 142-144; Y. 124. Pedersen, 340-343. 112; 26:195; 39:28/29; 41:3/2, Moubarac, “Les etudes d’epigraphie 125. Ibid., 343. 44; 42:7/5; 43:3/2; 44:58 and 46:12/ sud-semitique et la naissance de 11. The Christians also pointed l’Islam,” Revue des Etudes Isla- 126. Ibid., 343-346; al-Bukhari, I, Bk. 8 out that the Quran was for a people mique, 1957, 58-61; B. Carra de (Salat), chaps. 20-21, 54 (pp. who had not had a previous war- Vaux and L. Gardet, “Basmala,” 231-232, 254-255). ner (32:3/2; 34:44/43; 36:6/5) nor a Encyclopaedia of Islam (New 127. Lazarus-Yafeh, 88-89. previous Book (34:44/43; 43:21/ Ed.), 1084-1085; Mt. Sinai Arabic 128. Al-Bukhari, IX, Bk. 89 (Ahkan), 20). Codex 151, ed. Harvie Stahl, 2 chaps. 18-19 (pp. 209-211); 146. To the pagans or Gentiles (62:2) vols. (Leuven: Peepers, 1985). Pedersen, 347-348; Adam Mez, The and to one or “my people” (13:30/29; 112. See, e.g., Padwick above n.97; Renaissance of Islam, trans. S. 25:30/32; 38:4/3 and 43:44/43). Kenneth Cragg, ed., Alive Unto God: Khuda Bakhsh and D. S. Margoli- 147. Suras 4:79/81 and 7:158/157 may Muslim and Christian Prayer outh (London: Luzac, 1937), also be taken in a universal sense (London: Oxford University Press, 233. but do n’t have to be. 1970); Marston Speight, “Mus- 129. Jeffery, 153; J. Schacht, “Zakat,” 148. Ps. 24:1-6; 25:1-7, 8-14, 15-22; lim and Christian Prayer,” Newslet- Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam, 654. ter of the Task Force on Muslim 26:1-8; 34:1-8; 91:1-7; 92:1-8; 130. II, Bk. 24 (Zakat), chap. 41 (p. Christian Relations (Hartford, CT: 134:1-3; 136:1-9; 139:1-6; 310); T. H. Weir, “Sadaka,” Shorter National Council of Churches 141:1-5; 145:1-5; Isa. 61:1-3; Mt. and Duncan Black Macdonald Cen- Encyclopaedia of Islam, s.v. 5:3-12; Jn. 1:1-5; 2 Cor. 5:18- ter), no. 12 (Mar. 1980), 1-3. 131. A. Grohmann, “Ushr,” Shorter Ency- 19; Gal. 3:26-29; Eph. 1:3-8, 11-14; clopaedia of Islam, s.v. 113. See Cragg, “A Study in the Fatiha,” Phil. 2:5-11; Col. 1:15-20; Tit. Operation Reach([Beirut and 132. Bk. I, chap. 5, sect. 4 (pp. 219-221). 2:11-14; Heb. 2:1-4, 10-12; 2 Pet. Jerusalem]: Near East Christian 133. Masson, 608 and n.3. 1:5-9 and Rev. 5:9-10, 12-13. Council, Sept.-Oct., 1957), 9-18. 134. See, e.g., John Thomas Cummings, 114. Masson, 521-524. For comparisons Hossein Askari, and Ahmad of the Lord’s Prayer and the Mustafa, “Islam and Modern Eco- Fatiha, see Cragg, Alive Unto God, nomic Change,” Islam and 18-19; Colin Chapman, “Biblical Development: Religion and Sociopo- Dr. Dudley Woodberry is dean and Foundations of Praying for Mus- litical Change, ed. John L. Espo- professor of Islamic Studies at the lims,” Emmaus Road, ed. Wood- sito (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse Uni- berry, 334-342. versity Press, 1980), 25-47. School of World Mission of Fuller 115. Ignaz Goldziher, Muhammeda- 135. Donald R. Richards, “A Great Mis- Theological Seminary located in Pasa- nische Studien, 2 vols. (Halle: Max siological Error of Our Time: dena, California. Niemeyer, 1889-1990), II, 386; Keeping the Fast of Ramadan—Why trans. S. M. Stern, Muslim Studies We Shouldn’t, ” Seedbed III (London: George Allen & (1988), 38-45. [Editor’s Note: This article is a Unwin, 1971), 350. revised reprint of chapter 14 in the 136. Bukhari, III, Bk. 31 (sawm), book edited by Dean Gilliland, The 116. Jeffery, 263-264; Pedersen, chap. 70 (p. 124). 330A. Word Among Us: Contextualization for 137. W. O. E. Oesterly and G. H. Mission Today. With permission 117. The Muqaddimah, trans. Franz Box, The Religion and Worship of from the editor] Rosenthal (3 vols.; New York: the Synagogue (London: Pitman Pantheon Books, 1958), II, 249. and Sons, 1907), 326, 404. 118. Pedersen, 330-337. 138. The Talmud of Jerusalem, I

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS Ad here by Baker Bookhouse Critical Contextualization and Muslim Conversion

The author advocates a “new Christian apologetic” in Muslim evangelism that makes much of the nature of God and his relationship to creation. Christian witness in dialogue must “gently unmask” Muslim rebellion against God and focus on the centrality of the cross. by Warren F. Larson

or those who minister the gospel to Islamic religious forms and vocabulary. 18:10). The hajj was adopted and reinter- F Muslims certain questions keep However, would-be contextualiz- preted into Muslim practice from reoccurring: How much does one have to ers usually face stiff resistance from both pagan rituals, Jewish males went up to understand and believe to be a Chris- the Muslim and the local Christian Jerusalem three times a year. Mus- tian? What must a convert conclude about community. Muslims tend to own their lims perform their pilgrimage once in a Muhammad, and, at what stage of the Islamic forms and words as the per- lifetime.6 process? Can the Qur’an have a place in sonal property of Islam, and therefore Fundamental Issues the life of a convert? Can a convert consider expressions like “followers Despite commonalties, funda- retain some forms of Islamic worship? of Isa,” and “Masjid Isa” as deceitful.4 1 mental differences do exist between Islam When should a convert be baptized? Malaysia goes even further and for- and Christianity. Islam considers As the Christian worker soon learns, bids non-Muslim use of Islamic terms like defilement more important than depravity. there are also many practical prob- Allah, rasul, ratwas, wayhu, nabi, So, adjudging ritual impurity and fail- lems to be considered: Who will befriend dakway and hadith, failing to realize their ure to bathe ceremonially after sexual the convert? Where can the convert distinct Syriac derivation predates intercourse a serious offense, most find work? And, perhaps more impor- Muhammad.5 For their part, Christians Muslims do not seem to be desperate for a tantly, who will marry–and bury–the take exception to the use of most 2 Savior to deliver them from the “little convert? Islamic terms in their worship, because 7 These are painful realities, for on they believe such Islamic “forms” are sins” of lying, stealing and cheating. account of the Islamic tightly knit social Satanic in origin. It is this deep concern over fabric, converts are often doomed to a Yet what Muslims and Christians defilement that places folk Muslims in a life of loneliness and isolation. This brief fail to recognize is that Islam itself has state of insecurity and fear. They point their feet in a certain direction when article suggests that in answer to contextualized the monotheism it these questions, the goal is to be culturally inherited from Jews and Christians (Surah they sleep, go to the bathroom and sensitive, yet remain faithful to the 34:28; 46:12). Even the five Islamic say their prayers. They utter the word bis- truth. Contextualization must strive to pillars are rooted in Judaism and Chris- millah (in the name of God) when- accommodate without compromise. tianity. Shahada (confession) is simi- ever they begin a task, embark on a journey, blow their nose and go to the Basis for Contextualization lar to the Jewish shema in both function and form (Deuteronomy 6:4). Salat bathroom.8 It is therefore imperative that J. Dudley Woodberry suggests Christian workers understand the that most Muslim converts and inquirers “to bow” (ritual prayer) was used in syna- defilement issue and have a firm grasp of find Christian forms of worship gogues and churches long before Scripture on this issue. The Bible strange and offensive: Men and women Muhammad. It was borrowed from the clearly addresses the issue of shame (Gen- are in close proximity in church; peo- Syrian church while the Prophet was esis 2:25; 3:21; Exodus 30:17-21), ple sit on chairs or benches; they beat in Mecca. Judaism had three prayers a day but it also brings the good news that drums; and, worst of all they do not (Psalm 55:7; Daniel 6:10). The Christ’s redemptive work clears up even remove their shoes! Then converts removal of sandals and other rituals for both shame and defilement (Mark 7:20- find out that the foreign terms used in impurities were Jewish preparations 23).9 This combination opens up new Bible translations and liturgies are more for prayer (Exodus 3:5). Zakat (alms- avenues of ministry, enabling Christians Hindu than Muslim.3 For this reason, giving to the poor) has scriptural to present the gospel at the point of most missiologists and expatriate mission- roots (Deuteronomy 15:11; Proverbs need, where shame is more important than aries are ready to abandon forms of 19:17; Matthew 6:1-4; 25:35). Sawm 10 worship that are strange and offensive to (fast) describes those who submit to God guilt. converts and inquirers; and, to retain (Surah 33:35) and is often practiced Thus, in dialogue with Muslims, in the Bible (Matthew 6:16-18; Luke Christian witness will emphasize that INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS, VOL 13:4 OCT.-DEC. 1996 190 Critical Contextualization and Muslim Conversion

God is concerned with the sin of impurity them. They do not understand why we past who combined sensitivity to Muslims on the “inside” (Psalm 51), and that refuse to grant Muhammad the respect they with a sincere desire for their conver- themselves grant to the person of Jesus.12 the blood of Jesus Christ “purifies us from sion. St. Francis of Assisi beautifully This is indeed a touchy issue, and every sin” (Heb.9:13-14; I Jn. 1:7). exemplified this love and commit- with a new emphasis on Blasphemy Laws And, that we forgive our enemies and do ment for the truth in attempting to convert in some Muslim countries, it is not seek revenge on those who harm, the Sultan of Egypt during the Cru- increasingly important for Christians to insult and disgrace us (Rom. 12:19). sades. He, the most powerful Muslim use caution and respect whenever leader of his time, was renowned for Commitment to Truth they refer to the Prophet. However, Tem- his ruthless hatred of Christians. Yet Fran- ple Gairdner, the eminent missionary A discussion of contextualization cis walked directly through the battle- from Glasgow, spoke to this issue nearly must also emphasize the need to field to him and boldly “proclaimed the eight decades ago. He called for hon- approach Islam as committed Christians. Triune God and Jesus Christ the Sav- esty and a commitment to truth: That is, dialogue with Muslims will ior of all.” Though not converted, the Sul- ultimately result in a full disclosure of the if admirers of Mohammad are content to tan offered him hospitality, requested person and work of Christ. Christians regard him historically as a great Arabian, prayer and even permitted the friar to who had a real and strange sense of pro- must willingly discuss the distinctives of 14 phetical call, and through this and his preach the gospel in his house. their faith, and, at the appropriate immense natural genius, singular gifts, and Gilliland goes on to list two other his- time, help Muslims evaluate their own many virtues, accomplished a stupendous torical figures who witnessed lov- Prophet. Ultimately, Christians must life-work, then we join with the admirers...The worst enemies of Mohammad are ingly, albeit purposefully. From the time unashamedly invite Muslims to conver- not his opponents, but his friends, who will of the Crusades Fra Ricaldo de Monte sion and faith in the Lord Jesus have it that the character of this Arabian Croce tried to win Muslims to Christ. He Christ. This must never be taken to mean giant is the very type of perfected human- set out for Baghdad in AD 1288 that Christians have nothing to learn ity;....that no great wrong can be attributed to him; that his moral splendor throws that determined to live with Muslims so they from Muslims. Through dialogue, Chris- of Jesus completely in the shade; and that might be converted. He criticized the tians can better understand and his example and precept make the best Islamic faith but advocated a warm rela- express their own beliefs, especially in foundation not only for codes of conduct but for national and international law!...All tionship with Muslims.15 regards to doctrines like the Trinitar- we know is that these men one and all, are Raymon Lull is another example of ian concept of God and the essence of sal- doing a disservice both to truth and to their 13 one who loved Muslims and grieved vation.11 idol. over the Crusades. He tried to convince The danger is that in dialogue with The Goal of Dialogue: Conversion Christians that conversion of the Sara- Muslims Christians may be tempted Thus, true dialogue suggests that cens could not come through war. With an to avoid controversial matters. For Christians invite their Muslim friends “unquenchable and all-consuming instance, though the qur’anic Allah to faith. Such intent does not imply a zeal” Lull used every possible means at and Old Testament names for God have “hidden agenda”whereby the Chris- his disposal to win Muslims. He etymological connections, Christians tian secretly plans for a Muslim to “con- wrote profusely, pled with popes, and must be careful to emphasize conceptual vert.” Rather, it is an open and forth- started missionary preparation and qualitative differences. Christian right goal of dialogue. Christians must schools. Lull was stoned to death by an workers should make much of the charac- understandably approach Muslims in angry Algerian mob in AD 1315, but ter of God and Jesus Christ as God a spirit of friendship and goodwill. They he managed to turn the eyes of the world Incarnate—not just “Isa the Prophet.” must demonstrate sympathy toward toward Muslims.16 They must emphasize that there is no Islamic beliefs but stay committed to Similarly, Cragg describes Gairdner’s salvation outside of Christ and that the evangelism. They must not regard total commitment to act as “an apolo- cross is central to the gospel (I Cor. evangelism as secondary to good relations gist for God in Christ via the cross.” 1:17, 18; 2:2). or conversion as peripheral to dia- Gairdner emphasized holiness As to Muhammad, Kenneth logue. They must see themselves in part- through the channel of grace in the lives Cragg explains how desperately Muslims nership with the Holy Spirit and of his hearers and personal conver- want Christians to recognize him as a invite Muslims to conversion (II Cor. sion. He was leery of anything that com- true prophet: 5:20; (Acts 18: 5, 9; 23:11; 24:24, 25; promised Christianity in respect to Muslims are disturbed about the silence 26:28, 29; 28:23, 24, 30; II Cor. 5:20). other religions. His concept of salvation and reserve of Christians regarding In the spirit of the Apostle Paul through faith dealt radically with sin Muhammad. He is for Muslims the last and greatest of the prophets. Christian reticence who boldly called others to faith, Dean and redemption through the finished work on this subject surprises and scandalizes Gilliland writes of individuals in the of Christ. For Gairdner, the purpose INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS Warren F. Larson 191 of dialogue was not only to discuss, but to relationship to creation. Christian witness than Yahya for John and Yisu rather than Isa for Jesus. The same thing save.17 in dialogue must “gently unmask” was done in the Urdu Bible in Paki- But Samuel Marinus Zwemer (1867- Muslim rebellion against God and focus stan. 1952) probably did more to help on the centrality of the cross. It must 4. In 1988 the Malaysian Government Christians understand the spiritual needs be clear that Jesus Christ alone can purify ruled that non-Muslims not read the Bible as one reads the Qur’an, that and make us acceptable to God! of Muslims than anyone in this cen- is, they were not to sit on the floor, tury. He never articulated this goal more But respect for the truth must be held use the rehal (wooden stand) to hold clear ly than when he hung a large in tension with sensitivity and deep the Bible and wear clothing traditionally worn by Muslims. Moreover, map on the wall at a Student Volunteer love for Muslims. Conversion must it prohibited non-Islamic religions Movement conference. As he swept always be the ultimate aim of dia- from using “Muslim words.” Simi- his hand across the vast areas of Islam he logue—never an end in itself. Christians larly, Sunnis in Pakistan resent it that Ahmadis use Muslim names and do not primarily enter dialogue with declared, “Thou O Christ art all I conduct worship, as if they are want and Thou O Christ art all they want. Muslims to enrich each other’s faith— Muslim. What Christ can do for any man, He they want Muslims to be converted! 5. Woodberry, “Contextualization can do for every man.”18 It is clear that Muslims must over- Among Muslims,” 286-287. 6. Ibid., 287-303. come numerous obstacles when con- Care of Converts 7. Bruce Thomas, “The Gospel for sidering conversion. Such hurdles Shame Cultures: Have We Failed Finally, it must be underscored that lengthen the entire process as Mus- to Reach Muslims at Their Point of because of the special circumstances, lims contemplate the high cost of commit- Deepest Insecurity?” Evangelical Missions Quarterly 30, no. 3 (July Muslim converts need particular love and ment. The paper stressed that the need 1994): 284-285. Thomas has nurture. Since conversion is often a for friendship, employment, marriage, and found the same thing true of Muslims long journey that takes several years it is a place of burial must not be over- in Southeast Asia. necessary they receive this care looked. It is the duty of the “new brother- 8. Ibid. throughout the entire process. hood” to take full responsibility for 9. Ibid., 286-289. And, in the strong likelihood that care and growth of the new disciples of 10. Ibid. 11. Arne Rudvin, “The Gospel and converts will be alienated from family and Christ. Islam: What Sort of Dialogue is Possi- friends–and may even fear for their End Notes ble?” Al-Mushir 21 (1979): 122- lives, it is suggested they be “taken in” by 123. 1. I personally feel we should not 12. Kenneth Cragg, Muhammad and a Christian family to help provide the forego baptism for converts, but this the Christian (New York: Orbis, needed nurture. In practical terms, this does not mean that it should not be 1984), 1. means that with the help of other delayed under certain circumstances. See Cragg, Call of the Minaret, 13. Vander Werff, Christian Mission to believers, the family would be responsible 349-350. Also, two publications by the Muslims: The Record, citing Tem- for the convert’s education, employ- same author: Phil Parshall, New ple Gairdner, “Mohammed Without Camouflage. Ecce Homo Aribicus, ment, and need for a spouse. Paths in Muslim Evangelism (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1980), The Moslem World, 9 no. 4:56f. Conclusion 195 and “Lessons Learned in Contex- 14. Dean S. Gilliland, “Encounters in tualization,” ed. Woodberry, 253. History,” Theology, News and Notes Contextualization of the gospel A comparison reveals a switch on this (December 1988): 10. among Muslims is a critical issue and issue. In the first book he recom- 15. Ibid., 11. mends a functional substitute, but nine easy answers are not forthcoming. On the 16. Ibid. years later recanted. one hand, there is the danger of mon- 17. Kenneth Cragg, “Temple Gairdnerís 2. Martin Goldsmith, “Community and Legacy,” International Bulletin of oculturalism that sees only the evil and Controversy: Key Causes of Mus- Missionary Research, 5, no. 4 (Octo- demonic in Islam. However, there lim Resistance,” Missiology 4 (July ber 1981): 164_167. 1976): 318. also is the danger of compromise and a 18. J. Christy Wilson, Jr. “The Legacy of 3. J. Dudley Woodberry, “Contextualiza- tendency to steer around key issues. Samuel M. Zwemer,” Interna- tion Among Muslims: Reusing tional Bulletin of Missionary This suggests that though Christians Common Pillars,” in The Word Among Research, 10, no. 1 (July 1986): have much to learn from Muslims, Us: Contextualizing Theology For 119. Mission Today, ed. Dean S. Gilliland certain distinctives, such as the nature of (Dallas, TX: Word Publishing, Dr. Warren Larson is the director God, must come to the fore. The 1989), 283. The author says that the of Muslim Studies at Columbia author advocates a “new Christian apolo- traditional Arabic Bible adopted International University. He has Syriac names for Bible characters that getic” in Muslim evangelism that are different than those used in the served as a missionary in Pakistan for makes mush of the nature of God and his Qur’an. For example, Yuhanna rather 23 years.

VOL 13:4 OCT.-DEC. 1996 Power Encounter Among Folk Muslims: An Essential Key of the Kingdom

Power encounter is not the only key to reaching the hearts of Muslims, but it needs to be an essential factor to effectively evangelize Folk Muslims and to plant the Church of Jesus Christ in their midst. by Rick Love

reg Livingstone, General Director car for protection from the forces of dark- involved in reaching Folk Muslims. Gof Frontiers, a mission agency ness. When a new house is built, they Demons and magicians are no respec- focused exclusively on the Muslim world, also sacrifice a lamb and its blood is tors of theological heritage! For example, likes to tell a humorous story of the applied to the door frames. one non-charismatic missionary with early days of Frontiers. Greg asked one of Morocco actually has “occultic fairs” Frontiers in Central Asia (a Baptist by his Pentecostal missionaries how he called moussem which draw as many denomination and a Campus Crusader was planning to reach Muslims. The mis- as 20,000 people! During these “satanic by training) led a Muslim shaman to sionary replied, “I’m going to raise signs and wonders conferences”, peo- Christ. Even though this Muslim con- the dead!” Shaking his head, Greg quer- ple gather in small groups all over the vert wanted to serve Christ, he was still ied, “Do you have a plan b”? countryside to witness supernatural drawn to shamanistic practices. Truth People usually laugh at this story. But feats, to offer blood sacrifices, and to encounter alone was not enough! the majority of missionaries working receive baraka (blessing). One friend When some non-charismatic among Folk Muslims wrestle with the told me of people, who possessed by spir- Frontiers leaders came to encourage and supernatural issues that confront its, would slash themselves with coach this missionary, they were them. knives with no cuts or bleeding.Others questioned about spirit realm issues and More than three-fourths of the would dance in trances, take bites of signs and wonders. Since they had not Muslim world, of approximately 800 mil- bread and then throw the bread out so the dealt with this before, they encouraged lion people, are folk Muslims, who crowd could receive the baraka. Two him to contact other Frontiers mis- are doctrinally Muslim but in practice are other veteran workers described certain sionaries who had experience. He sent out animists. Folk Muslims confess people possessed by animal spirits an email to a number of our mission- (like a lion or tiger spirit), who would Allah, but worship spirits. They are more aries and within twenty fours hours actually kill and devour a live animal concerned with magic then they are received counsel from five other team (like a cow) with their bare hands. about Muhammad. leaders. This missionary to Central Asia Frontiers missionaries have But there is a lighter side to Folk told me recently that every time their shared accounts with me of Folk Islam in Islam. A love potion in Morocco is used Muslim convert church meets they have a every region where we serve: North to keep men faithful to their wives. healing service! Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, This magical potion is served in tea and A Presbyterian missionary in Central South Asia and Southeast Asia. I have includes the wife’s urine. With a Asia describes his experiences of interviewed workers in other missions as hearty laugh, an Arab worker told me that power encounter in one of his prayer let- well who gave further confirmation of “every man in Morocco has drunk his ters as follows: these phenomena. wife’s urine, from the king down to the You may find it interesting to know For example, there is a wide- poorest peasant!” that we have seen more cases of spread fear of curses among Folk Mus- After interviewing one worker from “demonization” here than anywhere lims. Tunisians are afraid that some- Egypt about various types of magical we have ever been before [he has one will find their fingernail trimmings practices among Folk Muslims, including served in two other Muslim countries]. We see cases weekly in cell weekly all-night exorcism ceremo- and use that to curse them. In Yemen, meetings and on Sunday. The stories I they prefer using a person’s hair to curse nies, he exclaimed, “Dallas Theological could tell you would really shock someone (both cases illustrate what is Seminary didn’t prepare me for this!” some of you. But this is reality here. known as contagious magic). In Jordan, To be fair,however, most seminaries We are making in roads into a people group where the Gospel has never one worker talks about “blood bless- don’t. existed before... Have you ever seen a ings” as a frequent practice. If someone Regardless of seminary background demonized person scream and yell, buys a car, they will sacrifice a lamb or denominational heritage, the issues because the written Word of God was being read or spoken? We have! and place the blood on the bumper of the of signs and wonders challenge everyone INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS, VOL 13:4 OCT.-DEC. 1996 194 Power Encounter Among Folk Muslims

Although once the exclusive domain I was preparing to go to America and coworkers in Southeast Asia have had of Pentecostal and Charismatic Chris- my instructor (Mr. Agus, the founder similar experiences. They had often of Manderaga) was giving me a per- tianity, the issue of power encounter is prayed for the sick. Some were healed, sonal lesson. He started teaching me now a major concern of the broader breathing exercises that were linked some weren’t. But even when there evangelical world. It is an important to a shoving-type motion. In between were manifestations of power, people exercises, he was telling me stories aspect of reaching Folk Muslims. didn’t repent. Nevertheless, this about the power to knock people over Power encounter—the demonstration of [from a distance without touching couple has persevered and within the last God’s power over Satan (primarily in them, known as tanaga dalam–inner couple of years they have seen break- healing and exorcism)— plays an essen- power]...as well as the power to heal. throughs because of signs and wonders. In He said he himself had often experi- tial role in reaching Folk Muslims. enced these things. So, I asked him if one case, a national couple serving Power encounter certainly is not the key he would give an example, since I had with them, cast numerous demons out of a to the Kingdom (as some from signs heard many stories, but had never Muslim, who then repented along experienced it. and wonders backgrounds seem to with his family. The man delivered from He told me to get into a certain stance assume), but nevertheless is an essen- and then he started to give me the demons has become the bridge into tial key to unlock doors to reaching Folk tanaga dalam shove (from a dis- the community! But I’ll let them tell their Muslims (as those from a more tradi- tance). As he did this, I was praying own story (from personal correspon- tional evangelical background often fail to against the powers of darkness in the name of Jesus. When nothing hap- dence). realize). pened, he asked me to get in another Samson, [a local shaman] unable to It would seem that signs of the king- stance. Again, the same shove, the sleep due to the occult forces in his same prayers and the same results. dom (power encounter) should lead to life made the rounds from shaman to After trying this for a number of shaman seeking to be delivered of his the exalting of the King. This is often not times, he asked me if I wanted to try. powers. However, none were able to the case, however, since Folk Mus- Since I had never done this before, I free him...One evening some time lims want healing and usually do not care copied the tanaga dalam shove that I later, Samson went on a rampage, where it comes from. In other words, had seen. He stood about five feet in tearing his house apart and shouting front of me. I gave him the shove, wildly. Priscilla and Aquila [the people seeking power do not necessarily simultaneously praying in the name of national couple working with our col- seek the Savior. God has used many Jesus. To my shock, he went flying leagues] ran to his home (200 yards people in Frontiers in a ministry of signs backwards as if Mike Tyson had hit away) and began to cast out demons him. I hadn’t touched him at all, and in the name of “The Lord Isa Al and wonders. But few of those healed yet a power surged from me that Masih”. Not experienced in this, they came to Christ! (We do believe they are knocked him backwards. This hap- were amazed to observe many differ- much more receptive to Christ how- pened a few more times. Finally he ent entities” leave him, each with its ever). A co-worker of mine estimates that stopped, shock his head, prayed, and own name and voice. That night all of with a pale, flustered look on his face, his amulets and weapons were burned one out of ten who are healed are fol- he said meekly, ‘Let’s continue our and buried. Beginning the next day, lowing Christ. He compares this with the exercise.’ (Taken from my field this shaman, who was once feared by healing of the ten lepers, when only notes). all the neighbors and who had in the past committed hideous sins, was now one healed leper returns to give thanks to This encounter did not lead Mr. asking forgiveness of neighbors and Jesus. Agus to Christ. Because of my experience witnessing to his family. Several One reason for this lack of conver- I take great comfort in 2 Cor 12-. 12. months later, in September of 1993, Samson and his wife, his daughter sions is the Folk Muslim’s world- “The signs of a true apostle were per- and son-in-law, and one of Aquila’s formed among you with all persever- view. Because they live in a world of nieces who now lived with him, were magic and miracles, they are not ance, by signs and wonders and miracles.” baptized. [They]... have become the always awestruck by demonstrations of The great pioneer church planter nucleus of a small...fellowship. God’s power. On the other hand, if describes his ministry in terms of power The issue of power encounter or we demonstrate no power they are even encounter. His ministry was charac- signs and wonders is not just necessary less impressed! terized by the supernatural. It was also for evangelistic breakthroughs. It is When I first went to the field I was characterized by “all perseverance.” also a crucial part of the building up of the looking for that dramatic power Many reject our message from the church. Two things frequently happen encounter that would lead to a major start. Even those who are healed often in a Folk Islamic context that make power breakthrough among the Sundanese. I reject Christ. But with power and “all per- encounter a central part of the pasto- had the encounter but without the break- severance” we will see churches ral process. through! It happened during martial established among Folk Muslims. First of all, I believe “deliver- arts training (known as pencak silat). Some of my closest friends and ance” needs to be a part of the rite of

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS Rick Love 195 baptism. People who come out of Folk deliverance, he confessed his sin in this just struggling with sin. I turned to pas- Islam are immersed in spirit powers, area and was also prayed for. sages in the New Testament about the charms and amulets.We cannot simply A close friend of mine who has flesh and the spirit and explained those to ask them to repent in a general way served more than eight years in him. Pono just shook his head. All of and believe that this is sufficient. I find it Southeast Asia among Folk Muslims has a sudden it dawned on me. This was not more than just an interesting histori- seen much fruit. But he has also expe- an issue of truth encounter. It was an cal fact that exorcism was a part of baptis- rienced his share of suffering and set- issue of power encounter. mal preparation in the early church. backs. His Navigator training and I told him that I was going to lay In April of 1995,1 had the privilege Baptist heritage have not prepared him for hands on him and pray that the Holy of participating in a baptism of a Folk the spiritual warfare he has encoun- Spirit would come upon him and fill Muslim convert that included deliverance. tered. He said that the powers of darkness him. As I laid my hands on Pono and The baptism ceremony began with a are the hardest things he has had to prayed the Holy Spirit came upon prayer of renunciation prior to the actual face in his ministry. He believes that most him. The power and presence of God baptism. Everyone being baptized of the young converts he works with filled the room. Pono met God that made a public renunciation of any type of still suffer from various levels of demoni- day and he has never been the same (see magic. They publicly declared, “I zation. Because of this, he now sets Acts 19:16 for a similar experience). renounce every act of seeking power for aside time at the end of almost every pub- Pono had a power encounter. After this myself through magic, charms or lic meeting for repentance and experience, I patiently (and some- amulets of any kind”. prayers of deliverance. times impatiently!) discipled him. Pono Then the pastor asked each bap- Repentance in a Folk Islamic has became the pastor of a Muslim tismal candidate if they had been involved context must involve both renunciation of convert church.Signs and wonders. with in magic of any kind. Only one man occultic practices and deliverance all perseverance! admitted that he had. (In this particular from these forces. The texts that have Folk Muslims believe they are at the baptism many of the candidates were been most helpful tome in this regard mercy of spirits, demons, evil eye teenagers who had not been involved in are Deut 18:9-15 and Acts 19:18-20. In curses and sorcery. Because of this, they magic.) Next, the leaders of the Deuteronomy, spiritism of any kind is are more preoccupied with magic church took the man into a different room described as detestable and forcefully than they are with Muhammad. Folk Mus- and had a special deliverance for him. denounced. Instead of going to a sha- lims push the issue of power encoun- The pastor challenged him to say “Jesus is man, Moses call the people of God to lis- ter to the forefront. The sick need healing. Lord of my life”. At first he couldn’t. ten to the coming prophet-the prophet Will they get healed by magic or So we prayed against the forces of dark- Jesus (Nabi Isa)! Acts 19 deals with these Christ? The demonized need deliverance. ness and continued to tell the man issues in a complementary fashion by Will the shaman or the missionary do being prayed for to submit himself fully illustrating the nature of repentance for it? The fearful need protection. Will it to the Lord. He then confessed Jesus Folk Muslims. There needs to be pub- come through a charm or through as Lord, along with renouncing every lic confession of occult practices along Him who came to destroy the works of form of occultic practices. Finally, he with the destruction of every charm the devil (I John 3:8)? Power encoun- convulsed, the spirits left and he was set and amulet (regardless of their monetary ter is not the only key to reaching the free. value). hearts of Folk Muslims, but it needs This leads to a second point about But there are other more positive to be an essential factor to effectively power ministry among converts from types of power encounters as well. In evangelize Folk Muslims and plant Folk Islam. It is very typical for those my early days on the field I met a Muslim the Church of Jesus Christ in their midst. converted from Folk Islam to revert named Pono who had heard the gos- and go to a shaman in times of crises. pel and told me he wanted to be saved. Another man in this same congrega- With great enthusiasm I shared the tion had gone to a shaman just prior to the gospel with him. But he wasn’t Dr. Rick Love is the U.S. Director baptismal service described above. impressed. He said he understood but of Frontiers, a mission agency devoted When the man who had gone to a shaman he wanted to be sure of his salvation. So I to reaching unreached Muslim heard the prayer of renunciation and suggested the possibility that Pono peoples. He and his wife Fran live in heard the testimony of the other man’s had already accepted Christ but he was Mesa, Arizona

VOL 13:4 OCT.-DEC. 1996 A Muslim’s Journey to Salvation

The effects of sin have so corrupted men’s hearts that, in spite of awareness of sin, men enjoy it freely and indulge in it. It was this fundamental problem and the search for freedom from sin’s bondage that confronted this Muslim many years ago in his by Sultan Muhammad Paul epic journey toward salvation.

y native land is Afghanistan. My Later I went to Delhi and entered the had to meet a Christian in argument. On M late father was a resident of Madrasa-i-Fatehpuri to perfect myself that very day there was born in me an the capital of Logar, which is situated in the study of Arabic. At that time the indescribable eagerness to argue with about fifty miles south of the city of head mawlavi of the school was Christians, an eagerness derived from Kabul. My father, Payssna Khan, held the Mawlana Abdul Jalil, a pure Pathan of the a deeply rooted fervor and concern for rank of colonel in the Afghan army District of Naushera; and the second things sacred. Consequently, as far as with the tide of “Bahadur Khan”. He was mawlavi was Pateh Muhammad Khan of lay within my power, I began to collect known throughout the country as Qandahar. By the special kindness of the notable books in refutation of “Colonel Bahadur Khan”. My father had these two gentlemen I soon completed my Christianity. I made a careful study of two wives. The first was from among study of logic and turned to that of many books, and on appointed days I his near relatives. She bore him three the traditions and commentaries. During began to go to the Fountain and carry on daughters but no sons. Therefore, lest the day I studied with my classmates. discussions with Christians. the family should die out, he married the In the evenings I received a special One day the English clergyman, who daughter of Sayyid Mahmud Aqa, instruction from Abdul Jalil. Thus, by used to come with the preachers, gave who was a member of one of the noblest the grace of God, I mastered these sub- me his visiting card and invited me to his and most famous families of Afghani- jects also. house. He was kind enough to say stan. My younger brother, Taj Muham- that I might bring my friends with me. mad Khan, and I were the fruit of this First Encounter with Christians Accordingly, in company with two or marriage. One day, when I was returning three friends, I went to his residence. The with some of my friends from a walk to Shortly after the late Amir, clergyman was very friendly and the Chandni Chowk, we saw a large Abdur Rahams Khan, came from Russia courteous. While we drank our tea, we crowd gathered at a short distance from to the throne of Kabal,he captured six began an interesting discussion on our school. Arriving at the scene, we of the notable pillars of the country and matters of religion. He turned to me and noticed that an argument concerning the sent them away to some unknown asked: “Do you read the Bible?” doctrine of the Trinity was going on destination. Later these people were put to “Why should I read the Bible?”I said, between a Christian preacher and one of death. Among these six was my “Who would read such an altered the students of our school. The former father. Then a second calamity befell us. book which you people change every For political reasons my two maternal was finding support for the doctrine in the year?” At my reply a pitying look uncles were captured, sent to the state following verse from the Qur’an: appeared on the face of the clergyman, prison in Kabul, and later banished to “And we are nearer to him than his jugu- and he said with a faint smile: “Do India. Shortly afterwards, my third uncle lar vein.” (Qur’an 50:16)1 you consider that all we Christians are together with his mother and servants He was saying that here nahnu, the dishonest? Do you think we fear God came to India by the permission of the first person plural, is used, and that if so little that we should keep deceiving the Amir, while the rest of my nearest rel- the unity of God were absolute, the first world by making changes in the Holy atives remained in Kabul. person singular, ana, would have Scriptures? When Muslims say that Chris- On coming to India they settled been used. Since the student was giving tians keep altering the text of the in Hasan Abdal. Because of further politi- an answer that was not to the point, Tawrat and the Injil (the Torah and the cal difficulties our whole family left my friends urged me to answer the argu- Gospel), they suggest that all Chris- Kabul and came to Hasan Abdal. After a ment of the preacher. Accordingly, I tians are dishonest and that they are few months my mother passed away. stepped forward and said that the first per- deceivers of the people. Now this is a Eventually, after a reconciliation between son plural of the pronoun is used serious and unwarranted indictment. my family and the late Amir, Abdur- according to Arabic idiomatic usage as an Christians believe in the Bible as the Rahman Khan, all my family except my honorific and not as an indication of Word of God as Muslims do in the three uncles and myself returned to plurality. Qur’an. Thus, if no Muslim can our native land. This was the first opportunity I change the text of the Qur’an, how is it

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS, VOL 13:4 OCT.-DEC. 1996 198 A Muslim’s Journey to Salvation that a Christian can change the text of the to use his splendid library. I therefore for lack of time. News of our encounter Book of the all wise God—the Holy began this study under his guidance. soon spread among the students of the Bible? If a mischievous Muslim were to As the Mawlavi had spent most of his life school. They, too,were fired with zeal for be so foolish as to change the text of in Constantinople, Egypt, and Arabia, engaging in controversy. We went any verse of the Qur’an, would not all he truly was an expert in the subject. The regularly twice a week to meet the Chris- Muslims consider him outside the fact that he gave me instruction in tians in debate. Eventually two pale of Islam and publish the facts about Persian, which was the mother tongue of C.M.S. missionaries invited us to their him? In the same way, if some mis- us both, made all work much easier. home through Mr. Joseph Bihari Lal, chievous Christian were to change the text At this time another fine scholar, an their head catechist. While we were there, of any verse of Scripture, would not expert in logic and philosophy, came they suggested to us that the Dhobi all other true Christians consider him out- from Egypt and was appointed to a pro- Talab was too far for us to reach conven- side the pale of their religion and fessorship in the Madrasa-i- iently, and offered, if we really make public, the facts about him? Of Zakariyya. This was Mawlavi Abdul wanted to find out the truth about Chris- course they would! From this you Ahad, who also belonged to Jalalabad tianity, to open a reading room near will see that the contention of Muslims District of Afghanistan. When I heard of our school, where we might carry on our that the text of God’s Word has been his fame, I entered the Madrasa-i- investigation once a week to our altered is absolutely without foundation Zaknriyya and began a study of the final hearts’ content. I gratefully accepted this and futile. I believe that this conten- books on logic and philosophy. The offer. When they opened the reading tion is held by Muslims who are generally Mawlavi treated me as a son and gave me room, we met them there according to a quite ignorant of the Bible and of the a room next to his own so that I might fixed schedule. faith and doctrines of Christians.” be able to call on him for help at any time. When I perceived that the students in Then the clergyman gave me two the school and my other friends knew Controversies with Christians Bibles, one in Persian and the other in nothing of the Christian religion and were One day during the course of a walk Arabic and urged me to read them. inexperienced in debate, I rented some of us students from our school We thanked him and departed. To the another house on the advice of Mawlavi arrived at the Dhobi Talab. There we objection of the clergyman, who gave Abbas Khan Sahib. There we formed found some Christian preachers me the Bibles, I paid no attention. My a society called “Nadwatul Mutakalli- speaking to the people. Immediately my own object in reading the Bible was min”. The aim of this society was to old enmity was aroused as I recalled to pick flaws in it, to prove from it the prepare controversialists against all non- my previous experience in Delhi. I was on truth of Islam, and to silence Chris- Islamic religions, with special refer- the point of advancing towards the tians in argument. I did not even read ence to Christianity. preachers when a fellow student through the Bible from beginning to When my instructor saw that I restrained me, saying: “Mawlavi end, but only those passages which Mus- was always involved in controversy and Sahib, never mind these people. It is a lim controversialists quote in their that I had no other interest in life, he waste of time to argue with them. writings. In short, as long as I remained in came into my room one day after evening These poor fellows neither know how to Delhi, I made it my business to carry prayers. Just at that time I was read- carry on a discussion, nor are they on controversies with Christians. ing the Injil (Gospel).He asked me what I familiar with the rules of debate. They are was reading. I replied that it was the Further Studies paid to do this work and are fulfilling Injil. He responded angrily: “I fear lest At this time I made up my mind to go their duty, so there is absolutely no use in you become a Christian.” I was very to Bombay. There I had the good for- arguing with them.” “I know all about much provoked at his reply and, though I tune to meet Mawlavi Hidayat Ullah, who these people,” I replied. “They may not did not wish to seem disrespectful, I was highly respected in that region as know the art and rules of debate, but could not help saying: “Why should I a man of authority and great learning. His they certainly know how to lead people become a Christian? Does the mere home was in Kabul, and he was well astray. It is the duty of every true reading of the Injil make one a Christian? acquainted with my family. As soon as we Muslim to rescue his thoughtless Muslim I am reading it in order to destroy came to know each other in Bombay, brethren from their plotting and Christianity root and branch, not that I he gladly promised to give me instruction. deception.” I stepped forward and began myself may become a Christian. You He thought that my regular course of raising a host of objections to what should encourage me in this matter studies was nearly complete and advised they had said. They countered with a instead of finding fault with me.” He me to give more attention to the study flurry of objections to my objections. replied: “I said this because I have heard of literature. He also gave me permission The discussion was finally cut short that he who reads the Injil becomes a INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS Sultan Muhammad Paul 199

Christian. Have you not heard what a cer- used to come regularly to speak for the after I should not read the Bible as I had tain poet has said: “When he reads the Christians. Others came to speak on been reading it. I would read it so that Injil, the heart of the faithful turns away behalf of the Arya Samaj. I, a miserable sinner, might discover in it from Islam’?” “This information is One day Munshi Mansur Masih the way of salvation. inaccurate,” I replied. After giving me fur- addressed us very convincingly that there My Quest for Salvation ther counsel, the Mawlavi returned to is no salvation in Islam. The members Accordingly, from that day his own room. of our society asked me to answer him. onward I changed my attitude and, as a To the best of my ability I tried to Journey to Arabia genuine seeker after truth, began prove that there is perfect and certain sal- This interesting religious conflict reading and comparing the Bible with the vation in Islam. The audience appre- Qur’an. For my further peace of mind went on for some years, when sud- ciated my address. Yet I knew very well I borrowed a copy of the Avesta from a denly I became possessed of the desire to that my own argument left me uncon- make the pilgrimage to Mecca. Imme- vinced in my innermost being. In fact, as I Parsi friend and bought a copy of the diately I made the necessary arrange- spoke, I was compelled to admit the Satyarth Prakash. Then I began to com- ments, boarded the steamship, Shah-i- weakness of my position. Though I was pare all these books. After reading the Nur, for Jeddah, and thence went to making much more noise than my Avesta carefully and talking with Parsi Mecca. From Mecca I carried on a antagonist, his voice was thundering in scholars, I became still more dejected correspondence with the late Mawlavi my soul with an indescribable power! regarding the way of salvation, for there is Hassamud Din, editor of the Kashful no reasonable method of salvation set It was nearly 11 PM when this dis- forth in this religion. Haqaiq. On the day of pilgrimage I put on cussion ended. I returned home and the pilgrim dress and proceeded to sat down to think carefully of what Mun- I turned next to the study of the Arafat. On that day I saw a wonderful shi Mansur Masih had said. The more Satyarth Prakash written by Swami Daya- sight: the rich and the poor, the high I thought, the more evident it became to nand Sarasvati, which may be consid- and the low, all clad in the same white me that salvation is the vital breath of ered to be the most authoritative work in garment. It looked as if all the dead, religion and its necessary foundation. setting forth the doctrines of the Arya clad in their shrouds, had emerged from Without it a religion is not a religion Samaj. I read it with the hope that I might their graves to render their accounts. at all. find in it that for which I was search- The sight brought tears to my eyes. But at Furthermore, I considered that all ing. But instead, I found strange doctrines the same time the thought struck me: men agree that man, as his name indi- which made my hair stand on end. I “If Islam is not the true religion, what will cates, is a bundle of forgetfulness, learned from it that God cannot forgive my condition be on the Day of Resur- disobedience, and transgression. His life sins. I was amazed at this and con- rection?” Then and there I prayed to God: never remains so pure as to be abso- cluded that it was absolutely useless for “0 God, show me the true religion lutely free from the stain of sin. Sin has anyone to join the Arya Samaj in the and Thy true way. If Islam is the true become man’s second nature. It is a hope of gaining salvation. According to religion, keep me steadfast in it, and true saying that “to err is human”. The the Arya Samaj God could not for- grant me grace to silence the opponents of question is how can one escape give a man’s sins, whether committed Islam. If Christianity is the true relig- accountability and punishment? How is before or after his becoming an Arya ion, then reveal its truth to me. Amen.” one to be saved? What does Islam Samajist, and punishment is inescapable. After a brief visit to Medina I have to say about it? What is the message Furthermore I discovered that the returned to Bombay. During my absence of Christianity? It is my duty to inves- Arya Samaj does not consider salvation to our society the “Nadwatul Mutakalli- tigate this important matter honestly and be eternal. It became clear to me that min” had disbanded. Immediately upon without prejudice. Should I find that there is no salvation with the Arya Samaj my return I organized another in its salvation is certainly to be had through and that, even if salvation were place. I myself became president of this Islam, then I should thank God. How obtained, it would not be eternal. Conse- society, and Abdur Rauf was its sec- bright my eyes would be and how glad quently, since salvation is temporal, retary. At his house our organization held my heart! Otherwise I shall seek that would not one continually fear that further its meetings. One of our rules was religion which presents a satisfying plan happiness might be refused to him at that once a week a non-Muslim be invited of salvation. any time? When I reached this point and to address us and that one of our When I came to this decision. I fall saw that there was no salvation here members should answer the arguments of on my knees in prayer before God for a sinner like myself, I discontinued my our guest. Munshi Mansur Masih and wept bitterly, covenanting that there- study of the Satyarth Prakash.

VOL 13:4 OCT.-DEC. 1996 200 A Muslim’s Journey to Salvation

Salvation in the Qur’an The moral philosophers of Arabia Apostle of God said: ‘When the life of Adam was completed except forty have claimed that there are four facul- The most weighty task that still years, the angel of death came to him. confronted me was that of the examina- ties in man which give rise to all his And Adam said: “Are there not yet tion of the Qur’an and the most relia- actions. Of these four, three powerful forty years of my life remaining?” He replied: “Didst thou not give them to ble of the Traditions. Before beginning faculties are working against the spiritual thy son David?” Then Adam denied, interest of man. There is only one, the my search for the doctrine of salva- and his descendants have denied, and tion in these works, I raised my hands to angelic faculty, which impales man Adam forgot and ate of the tree, and God in prayer: “0 God, Thou knowest towards God, or helps him to obey his descendants have forgotten, and God’s commands. But its effects are hid- Adam sinned and his descendants that I am and was born a Muslim, and that have sinned.’” (Tirmidhi) generation after generation of my den from man’s sight. On the other From this tradition it is clear that all ancestors were born into this religion and hand, there is the combined strength of the children of Adam are assuredly have died in it in it. I, too, have the other three faculties, together with sinners, because Adam’s sin has entered received my education, and in it I have the fact that their effects are such that man into all. Accordingly, famous saints been brought up. Therefore, now, is at once delighted and motivated by and religious leaders have confessed their remove every obstacle that would prevent them. Therefore, as the mind of man sees sins. Thus Adam, the first of the me from discovering Thy true way, only what is on the surface and cares prophets, and mother Eve say: and show me the way of Thy salvation only for the present, he pays more atten- that, when I leave this transitory tion to worldly things and becomes They said: “Our Lord! We have careless of the things of the Spirit and of wronged ourselves. If Thou forgive us world, I may not be displeasing to Thee. not and have not mercy on us, surely God. A distinguished Muslim has Amen.” we are of the lost!” (Qur’an 7:23). stated the matter thus: What I now found out through the The Prophet Abraham likewise study of the Qur’an was only what I I am entrapped in four things, the says: ascendency of which is the cause of had known before: that attaining salvation my misery and suffering. These four Our Lord! Forgive me and my parents is dependent upon doing good works. things are Satan, the world, lust, and and believers on the day when the I found many verses which declare this greed. How may I be free from these account is cast. (Qur’an 14:41) when all of them are my enemies? The prophet of Islam himself makes doctrine, but shall note only two of Evil desires allure me and throw me them here: into the dark abyss of sensuality and this prayer: pleasure. But as for those who believe and do 0 God, wash my iniquities with snow- good works, for them are the Gardens The three faculties gained mastery water. (Bukhari) of Retreat a welcome (in reward) for over the angelic faculty, and Adam Abu Bakr, the first Khalifah of the what they used to do. And as for did the thing which God had forbidden those, who do evil, their retreat is the Prophet of Islam, says in his famous Fire. Whenever they desire to issue him to do. The result has been mani- poem: forth from thence, they are brought festly inherited by his descendants down 0 God, how shall I be saved, for there back thither. Unto them it is said: to the present time. According to a is no goodness in me? I am over Taste the torments of the Fire which tradition: whelmed with iniquities, but am ye used to deny.” (Qur’an 32:19, 20) wanting in goodness. And whoso doeth good an atom’s It is related from Abu Huraira that the weight will see it then, And whoso Apostle of God said: “When God In addition to all these evidences doeth ill an atom’s weight will see it created Adam he stroked his back, the Qur’an itself holds that all men are then. (Qur’an 99:7, 8) and there fell from his back all the sinners: men whom He was creating from his At first glance these verses are descendants until the Day of Resur- Lo! man is an ingrate unto his Lord very beautiful and consoling, but in my rection. And He placed before the And lo! he is a witness unto that. mind they raised a question: “Is it eyes of each man of them a flash of (Qur’an 100:6,7) light. Afterwards He brought them to possible for us to do only good and no In this connection the following Adam. Adam said: “0 my Lord, who evil? Does man possess such power?” are these?” He replied: “They are thy thoughts confronted me: the Prophet Jesus When I considered this carefully, and at descendants.” And he saw a man also is a man. The Qur’an refers to amongst them whose flash of light the same time reckoned with the the sin of the other prophets. But why between his eyes astonished him. He faculties and passions of man, it became said: “0 my Lord, who is this? He does the Qur’an record no sin of clear to me that it is impossible for replied: “David.” Then he said: “0 my Jesus? As I found that the Qur’an man to remain sinless. Nor has he the Lord, how long hast Thou fixed his recorded only the sinlessness of life?” He replied: “Sixty years.” power continually to do good and Adam said: “My Lord increase it Jesus, I therefore turned to the Injil. Here only good. from my life by forty years.”’ The I found the following verses:

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS Sultan Muhammad Paul 201

Which of you convicts me of sin? ter. After a long search, I found the fol- Despite these difficulties I carried my (John 8:46) lowing tradition in the Mishkat: work to completion with God’s help. For our sake he made him to be sin Ibn Masud said that the Prophet of The Traditions who knew no sin, so that in him we Islam said: “All people shall enter might become the righteousness of hell. Then they,will come out of it According to the Traditions there God. (2 Corinthians 5:21) according to their works.Those who are three ways of salvation. First, there is For we have not a high priest who is will come out first will do so like a absolutely no connection between unable to sympathize with our weak- flash of lightning, the next like a gale ness, but one who in every respect has of wind, then like a horse at full works and salvation. The very worst sin- been tempted as we are, yet without speed, afterwards like a swift rider, ner, who has spent his whole life in sinning. (Hebrews 4:15) then like a man springing, and finally, breaking God’s laws, may enter paradise. He committed no sin: no guile was like the walk of a man.” (Tirmidhi found on his lips. (1 Peter 2:22) and Darimi) The best kind of man, having spent his life in good deeds, may enter hell. The You know that he appeared to take The meaning of the previous away sins, and in him there is no sin. following Traditions speak for them- verse was now clear. It is inevitable that (1 John 3:5) selves: every person should once enter hell Thus there was solid evidence to and then emerge according to his works. Hazrat Anas relates that the Prophet prove that, with the exception of the of Islam was riding followed by Though the meaning of the Qur’an Prophet Jesus, all mankind are sinful. Maadh. When the Prophet of Islam thrice repeated “Anyone who hon- Under these circumstances, who was was plain and was supported by the statement of the Prophet of Islam himself, estly believes and repeats ‘There is I that I should claim to be able to gain sal- but one God, and Muhammad is his and though, had I wished, I might have vation by good works, when many prophet,’ shall never be doomed to ended my search at this point, yet I religious leaders and philosophers and the fire of hell.” Maadh said “O thought it best to seek its interpretation in Prophet of God, shall I not proclaim saints had failed to run this impossi- these tidings?” The Prophet ble course? the Qur’an itself. Accordingly, after a answered: “In that case they will long search I came upon this verse: believe in nothing else but this.” Again I turned to the Qur’an to (Mishkat) examine its teachings about the doctrine And if thy Lord had willed, He verily would have made mankind one On this subject there is a tradition of salvation by works. I quote two nation, yet they cease not differing, handed down by Abu Dharr, the verses only which make it clear that no save him on whom thy Lord hash words of which force the conclusion that human being, no matter what his mercy; and for that He did create salvation by works is meaningless, status be, can escape perdition: them. And the Word of thy Lord hath been fulfilled: Verily I shall fill hell for even the adulterer and thief obtain sal- There is not one of you but shall with the jinn and mankind together. vation by the mere repetition of the approach it.2 That is a fixed ordi- (Qur’an 11:118, 119) words of the Muslim creed. The tradition nance of thy Lord. Then we shall res- I was so stricken at reading this verse cue those who kept from evil, and runs thus: leave the evil-doers crouching there. that I slowly closed the Qur’an and It is related from Abu Dharr that he (Qur’an 19:71,72) became absorbed in anxious thought. said: “I came to the Prophet, and he No one but myself knows with Even in sleep I found no rest, for my had a white cloth over him and was what terror, dismay, and disappointment I waking thoughts, taking form in the realm sleeping. Later on I came to him after he had awakened. Then he said: Any read these words. I, a spiritually sick of dreams, made me uneasy. It was servant of God who says ‘There is no man, was reading the Qur’an as I would unspeakably hard for me to forsake the God but Allah,’ and afterwards dies consult a physician, that it might offer faith of my fathers; I should have relying on that, will enter heaven.” I said: “Although he commit adultery me the remedy for my sinfulness. But, been more willing to forsake life itself. or steal?” He replied: “Although he instead of giving me the remedy, it For some time I kept trying to think has committed adultery and theft” I said to me: “Everyone of you will go to of some method of evading the problem said: “Although he commit adultery perdition, for this is the absolute duty or some way of escape, so that I and theft?” He replied: “Although he commit adultery and theft, and in of thy Lord,” might not have to leave Islam. With this spite of Abu Dharr. (Muslim, Buk- But my natural love and attach- intent I began to search for help in the hari) ment for the faith of Islam forbade me to Traditions, I found another tradition, as comfort- make haste in making my personal This was no easy matter, for the ing as a basket of sugar to a child, decision. I though it fitting to seek a com- Traditions are contained in six thick vol- which promises that, whether a man does mentary on this verse in the Tradi- umes. Moreover, it is a most difficult good or evil by means of the repeti- tions, that I might see what the Prophet of task to apply the principles of the science tion of a few words he can obtain para- Islam himself has to say on this mat- of the Traditions to each Tradition. dise. It is as follows:

VOL 13:4 OCT.-DEC. 1996 202 A Muslim’s Journey to Salvation

It is related from Ubadah bin Samit an evasion of His justice would indicate a heavy laden, and I will give you rest. (Matthew 11:28) that the Apostle of God said: defect in the being of God. Certainly ‘Whoever bears witness that there is such an act would be unworthy of the I cannot say how I happened to alight no God but Allah alone, and that He upon this passage in the Gospel. I did has no partner, and that Muhammad is glory of God.” not intentionally seek it. On the other His servant and His Apostle, and that The third thing that became clear to Jesus is the servant of God and His hand, it was not a chance occurrence; apostle and the son of His hand maid me from the Traditions was that even it was the God-given answer to my hard and His word which He cast into the Prophet of Islam cannot save anyone, Mary and a spirit from Him, and that not even his daughter Fatimah or his labor and sincere investigation of the heaven and hell are true, God will relations. Hence, the idea that the Prophet truth. For a sinner like me it was indeed take him into paradise, in spite of the supreme proclamation of good what his works may, have, been!’ would intercede for the faithful, (Muslim, Bukhari)3 which I thought would surely prove cor- news. This life-giving verse had a tremendous effect upon me. It brought me When I read these Traditions, the rect, was proved wrong. One tradition peace, comfort, and joy and immediately question came into my mind whether runs thus: banished all uneasiness and uncer- it is just, that one who spent his life in Abu Huraira related that when the doing evil and never thought of good, verse, “Cause thy near relatives to tainty from my heart. The Messiah fear,” was revealed to the Prophet of claims: “I will give you rest.” He should enter into paradise at death, while Islam: the Prophet arose and began to shows how salvation depends on Him. He another who has spent his life in the proclaim: “Oh people of the Quraysh, fear of God, continence, and good works and you sons of Abdul Manaf, and does not merely point to a path which should be cast into hell at death. you Abbas, son of Abdul Muttalib, is above or beyond Him, but He says: “I and you, Safiyyah my aunt, I cannot am the way, and the truth, and the Secondly, it is shown in the Tradi- save you from the punishment of the life; no one comes to the Father but by tions that salvation is dependent upon Day of Resurrection. Take care of yourself, 0 my daughter Fatimah; you me.” the mercy of God, so much so that the may use my property, but I cannot Yet the question came to my mind: Prophet of Islam himself is a needy save you from God. Take care of beggar of' this mercy. Unless God have yourself.” (Bukhari) “Can one have confidence in this mercy upon him, the Prophet himself So, after an extended and pene- extraordinary claim of Christ?” I con- cannot obtain salvation through works. trating study of the Traditions, there cluded that one could rest upon it, for One tradition is as follows: remained nothing more for further in the first place Christ is accepted by Muslims as sinless, glorious in this Abu Huraira reported that the Prophet research. In sheer fear and desperation I of Islam said: “No one of you will closed the books of the Traditions world and the next, the Word of God, and enter Paradise through his good also and thus prayed to God: “0 God, my the Spirit of God. These and other works.” They said: “Not even you, 0 such descriptives applied to Jesus indicate Apostle of God” “Not even I” he Creator and my Lord, who knowest replied, “unless God cover me with the secrets of my heart better than I know perfection. Secondly, according to His grace and mercy. Therefore be them, Thou knowest how long I have Christians He is perfect God and perfect strong and morning and evening, nay, been seeking Thy true religion, I have car- man, free from all base passion and every moment, try to do good.” worldly ambitions. Hence it is impossible (Mishkat) ried my investigation as far as I have been able. Now, therefore, open to me the that Christ, who, according to both Compare also the following Tradi- door of Thy knowledge and Thy sal- Muslims and Christians, possesses the tion: vation. Grant that I may enter into the highest qualities, would sin or do any- Jabir reported that the Prophet of company of Thy people who are well- thing unworthy of Himself. Islam said: “No good works of yours can ever secure heaven for you, nor pleasing unto Thee so that, when I enter Then I began to ponder how can they save you from hell not even Thy glorious presence, I may be Christ promises to give me salvation. To me, without the grace of God.” exulted and content. Amen.” set my mind at rest, I began to search From the above Traditions I gath- through the Holy Injil and came upon this The Holy Injil ered that no one can obtain salvation verse: unless God’s mercy rests on him. In this desperate and depressed state Even as the Son of Man came not to of mind I again began to read the This comforted me a little, but at the same be served but to serve, and to give his time I began to think: “If God is mer- Holy Injil with the idea of correcting any life as a ransom for many .(Matthew ciful, He is likewise just. If God should possible defects in my investigations. 20:28) for-give by the exercise of His mercy As I opened the Holy Injil this time, my On reading this verse, I discovered alone. He would be evading the demands eyes fell on these words: how God offers salvation. Christ gave of His justice and righteousness. Such Come to me, all who labor and are His life for us sinners. This is a marvelous

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS Sultan Muhammad Paul 203 way to which the world can show no God through saith in Jesus Christ for bling, I compared with one another the all who believe. For there is no dis- counterpart. Scores of men have Avesta, Satyarth Prakash, the Bible, tinction; since all have sinned and fall founded religions in this world, but not short of the glory of God, they are jus- and the Qur’an. I came to the conclusion one of them claimed that his death tified by his grace as a gift, through that salvation is to be found in Christ will serve for the forgiveness of sins. the redemption which is in Christ alone. That is all I have to say. If there is Jesus, whom God put forward as an Christ alone not only made this claim expiation by his blood, to be received any defect in my investigation, I shall but fulfilled it. by faith. This was to show God’s be grateful if any of you gentlemen will righteousness, because in his divine point it out. On the other hand, if you The Atonement forbearance he had passed over for- yourselves wish me to make the rebuttal mer sins. (Romans 3 : 19-25) At this thought I fell into a state of to these arguments, I tell you frankly ecstasy. The picture of Christ and His The Night of Decision that I cannot answer them. Nor is there love for men made an indelible impres- Accordingly, after completing hope of an answer from anyone else.” sion on my heart. But while I was the investigations which I have here I left the meeting, as it was not pru- absorbed in this ecstasy, another question described, I came to the conclusion dent for me to remain there longer, came to my mind: “What was the that I would become a Christian. Under Munshi Mansur Masih immediately fol- need of Christ’s sacrifice, and atonement? these circumstances it appeared to me lowed me. When he overtook me, he Could He not have given salvation to be honorable to present the whole mat- threw his arms around my neck and began without giving His life?” After a little fur- ter before the society, that they might to shed tears of joy, saying in a trem- ther thought I found the answer to this consider it and that I might be free from bling voice: “You must come home with also: God is both merciful and just. If any charge of pursuing my investiga- me tonight. It is not safe for you to Christ had promised salvation without tion in secret. spend the night alone in your room.” I giving His life, the demands of mercy I went to the meeting as usual. It replied that the officers of my organi- would certainly have bean fulfilled. was again the turn of Munshi Mansur zation were educated gentlemen, and that In order to satisfy the demands of justice Masih to speak. Before he began to I need fear nothing from them. “Of also, Christ paid the ransom, which speak, I interrupted by stating that on this course,” I added, “there are others which was His precious blood. In this way God occasion I myself would speak one must fear. I shall come to your has manifested His love for us. against Islam. Then I proceeded to house before daybreak. If I am not there In this is love, not that we loved God describe the results of my many years by that time, you may kindly come to but that he loved us and sent his Son my lodging.” to be the expiation for our sins. of research, The officers of the society (I John 4:10) were amazed at my words but took After making this arrangement, we separated. I went to my room, bolted In short, I continued my investigation comfort in the hope that I would make the the door from the inside, and extin- in the New Testament, and read it rebuttal to my own address. When I guished the light. I sat down, immersed in several times from beginning to end. In finished and took my seat, the vice- president said: “We hope that the thought. I shall never forget the fear- the course of this reading I found hun- president himself will make his own ful fancies and the spiritual struggle, of dreds of verses and scores of parables that night. It was a night of decision, which proved to me beyond a shadow rebuttal to his unfavorable address.” a night, of most desperate testing. At of a doubt that salvation (which is the Again I arose and said: “Listen to me, my times the thought confronted me that, very heart and purpose of religion) is friends. What I have explained to you if I should become a Christian, I should available only through faith in the Lord is not something which is superficial and lose my country, my inheritance, my Jesus Christ. I quote here only one fabricated. It is a matter which is cer- rights, my family, my friends, in short passage: tain and decisive, based on years of investigation. To be more specific, it began everything. I was also bothered by the Now we know that what ever the law idea that becoming a Christian would says it speaks to those who are under on that day when Munshi Mansur Masih the law, so that every mouth may be addressed us on the subject of salva- mean entering a world where manners stopped, and the whole world may be tion. At that time I promised God that and all else would be different from that held accountable to God. For no hence forth I would read the Holy to which I had been accustomed. human being will be justified in his sight by works of the law, since Bible, not as I had read it previously but Sleep was impossible that night. through the law comes knowledge of as a seeker after truth, so that, the Finally I said to myself: “Sultan, sin. But now the righteousness of God way of truth and righteousness might be consider that you are the child of an hour has been manifested apart from law, although the law and the prophets revealed to me. Accordingly, setting and the world is fleeting. When you bear witness to it, the righteousness of aside prejudice and philosophical quib- die, your country and your inheritance

VOL 13:4 OCT.-DEC. 1996 204 A Muslim’s Journey to Salvation will be of no benefit to you; nor will your not to stay among Muslims. Upon his May God, the Creator of heaven and family and friends be of help to you. invitation to stay either with himself earth, the Searcher of hearts, turn the All these belong to this world alone. or with Munshi Mansur Masih, I decided hearts of my Muslim brethren, as He Nothing but your faith can go beyond to accept the second alternative. turned mine, and give them vision, so the grave. Therefore, it is not wise to for- When Sunday came, the whole that they too, remembering the Day of sake eternal life and spiritual happi- church was filled with Muslims. See- Judgement, may realize their deep ness for the sake of this transitory life.” ing the danger, Mr. Ledgeard postponed spiritual need and come into the fold of Then I bowed my knees before God my baptism. Finally, by the grace and the Lord Jesus Christ, Amen. and offered this prayer: “0 omnipotent, mercy of God, I was baptized later in St. I am, my dear Muslim brothers, your eternal God, Searcher of hearts, I Paul’s Church, Bombay. My baptism spiritual well-wisher: Sultan Muham- yield myself to Thee. Accept this offering took place in the presence of the follow- mad Paul. and protect me from all the snares of ing persons: Rev. Canon Ledgeard, End Notes the devil and from spiritual dangers. who baptized me, Munshi Mansur Masih, Remove from my heart the world and and two other gentlemen, whose 1 All English references from the Qur’an its desires. Grant me courage and strength names I cannot recall. Immediately after are taken from Mohammad Marma- that I may be able to confess Thine the ceremony I was sent to Kanpur, duke Pickthall, The meaning of the glo- only Son Jesus Christ publicly before all since it was too dangerous for me to rious Koran, New York, 1954. men. Hear and accept my prayer for remain in Bombay. 2 Another translation reads: “There is not the sake of Jesus Christ. Amen.” When I became a Christian, a won- one of you who shall not pass After I had finished this prayer, I derful change took place in my life. though the confines of Hell...” (N.J. felt some what drowsy and slept for a My speech, actions, and whole manner of Dawood, The Koran, Penguin short time. When I awoke, I felt alto- life were so transformed that a year Books Ltd., Middlesex, 1959). Still gether happy and cheerful. No shadow of later, when I visited Bombay for a short another translation reads: “No one the former worry and uneasiness time, my Muslim friends wondered at is there of you who shall not so down bothered me. The day was breaking. I it. They marvelled at my mild manners, unto it...”(J. M. Rodwell, The quickly washed and left for the home for they knew how easily I used to Koran, Dent and Sons London, 1950). of Munshi Mansur Masih. When I arrived lose my temper. 3 The reader may kindly bear in mind there, I found he had been very much Before I came a Christian, I rec- that Christians do not deny the neces- worried because I had not come. He knew ognized sin to be sin. But I did not realize, sity for doing good works. Chris- that I was accustomed to tea at that as I do now, how dangerous and tians realize that they are to be always hour and already prepared some for me. destructive it is. Although I am still engaged in good works: However After I finished tea, we talked things merely a weak man and a handful of their salvation does not depend upon over for a short time and then engaged in dust, yet, when I have sinned, I cannot their works, for no person can do prayer. After prayer we went to the describe the shame and sorrow with more than is required of him. Thus no home of Padre Ledgeard. which I am filled. Immediately I fall on one can do excess works which The padre was surprised at our my face and with tears I repent and might serve as an atonement for his evil early arrival, Munshi Mansur Masih pro- beg for forgiveness. This attitude can be works. (See Luke 17:7-10.) ceeded to tell him that I had come to acquired only by the recognition of be baptized. At first he thought we were the atoning sacrifice of the Lord Jesus [Sultan Muhammad Paul wrote this not in earnest. But when he heard Christ. Sin cannot be removed by testimony more than half a century ago, what had taken place on the proceeding repentance alone. It must be cleansed by prepared originally as his brief night, he immediately rose and the sacred blood of our Savior. For autobiography called“Why I became a embracing me, said: “I knew that if you this very reason the world, which makes Christian”. This booklet appeared would read the Bible seriously you light of sin, is daily approaching first in Urdu. The first English edition would surely become a Christian. Thank nearer to destruction. was produced in 1927. It has also God that you have been convinced.” Though Satan war against me appeared in Tamil and Malayalam. He then promised to baptize me three with all the power at his disposal, I am not May this testimony prove to be a days later and advised me during the in the least disturbed, because I source of guidance and blessing from interval to memorize the Ten. Command- believe that Christ has crushed his head. the Living God for all who ponder ments, the Apostles’ Creed, and the Satan cannot harm Christ’s faithful its contents and follow the quest toward Lord’s Prayer. He further counselled me servants, nor can he prevail against them. salvation in Christ from sin.] INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS Mission Resources for Sharing with Muslims

It cannot be debated that greater knowledge of Islam is needed in the church, as well as an awareness of resources for Christian sharing with Muslims. Over the years literature has played a particularly effective role in this mission. The writer lists helpful resources for learning about Muslims, as well as useful material that will assist Muslims to appreciate the intent of the Gospel.

by Ernest Hahn to know and those who can inform. iterature has played an important The main beliefs in our world, such as tians are God’s ambassadors to them (2 role in Christian-Muslim rela- Judaism, Christianity, Buddhism, and Cor 5:16-21). Ironically, however, L Hinduism, should be studied thor- tions since the beginning of Islam. The oughly in their origins and develop- Christians committed to this belief often Qur’an, the primary source of Islam, ment from their own sources. Mis- fail to implement it among Muslims. sionary activities should he monitored frequently refers to Jews and Christians as and studied.. (“Towards a Better Pres- In her autobiography the Pakistani Begam entation of Islam”...(Islamic World the People of the Book. It recognizes Review [July, 1987] 33, 34) Bilquis Sheikh relates how, after she their scriptures as divinely inspired and had become a Christian, many of her To spread correct information about specifically designates them as the Western friends expressed their Islam and Muslims, and to understand Tawrut (Torah) of Musa, the Zabur delight about her conversion, adding that them from their own sources, are surely (Psalms) of Dawud, and Injil (evan- they too were Christians! Baffled, the objectives which Christians will want gel) of ‘Isa (Jesus). For Muslims the Begam replied: “If you area Christian, to emulate and which, we trust, this Qur’an is God’s final revelation of his why did you keep it like a military resource list will encourage. Given word. Islam is preeminently the religion secret?–meaning, “Why did you a Chris- the 1400-year Christian-Muslim legacy of of the book whether the Book as the tian, not share your Christian faith Qur’an, or books such as the collections an almost unbroken sequence of mis- with me when I was still a Muslim?” understanding and misrepresentation, the of canonical traditions or codes of There is a need for Christians to task of simply being honest with each Islamic law. evaluate their own attitudes in light of other and about each other’s faith is itself Both the Bible and the Qur’an Begam’s story. This bibliography is a monumental challenge. emphasize the universality of their respec- particularly related to that concern. Its pri- tive messages. Succeeding genera- An immense amount of literature on mary objective is to help equip Chris- tions of Muslim and Christian writers con- Christian-Muslim relations exists tian–spiritually, intellectually, and emo- tributed their own commentar, based today. Our bibliography resource is obvi- tionally–to share the gospel with on the Qur’an and the Bible, on the simi- ously selective, in no way exhaustive, Muslims in ways more intelligible and larities and differences between the but hopefully representative of a broad meaningful to the Muslim mind and two religions as well as on Christian- spectrum of Christian and Muslim heart, and thereby to enable Christians to Muslim relations. In the past much of thought and passion relevant to Christian discharge their portion of the the literature, often politically motivated, missions. It focuses on the concerns church’s total debt owed to Muslims eve- tended to be polemical, propagandis- of body and head as well as mind. It tries rywhere (Rom 1:14). tic, and perhaps even blasphemous to to provide helpful materials for any The material presented here is orga- those of the other faith. Yet examples Christian who in our North American nized in the following categories: of a healthier debate and dialogue also society today so often shares neigh- Reference Works; Introduction to Islam exist. borhood, mall, office, school, dormitory, and Muslims; Muhammad; The In more recent times many Muslims library, hospital, playground, and jail Qur’an and the Hadith; Theology, Law, and Christians have encouraged a less with a Muslim neighbor. There is also and Piety; Society and Women; Islam confrontational and more rational and material for those Christians going in Modern Times; Islam in North Amer- irenic approach in their mutual rela- abroad to work, in whatever capacity, in ica; Journals; Muslim and Christian: tionships. Fathi Osman, editor of Islamic Muslim lands as missionaries. Friendship, Under-standing; and Faith World Review, begins an article: Finally, this bibliography assumes the Sharing; Enquirers; Converts; Refu- Spreading the right information about faith that God, who in the Messiah gees; Audio-Visual Aids; Further Infor- Islam and the Muslim peoples is increasingly becoming a wider and reconciled the world to himself, recon- mation. deeper concern among those who like ciled Muslims also, and that Chris-

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS, VOL 13:4 OCT-DEC. 1996 206 Mission Resources for Sharing with Muslims

Reference Works bridge University, 1969. Pp. 750. This probably Islam’s most influential 20th- The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New volume is on Islam, including century revivalist. Edition. Leiden: Brill, 1954-(8 of 10 some minority groups within Islam, Miller, Roland E. Muslim Friends: Their vols. completed). The best refer- growing out of it. Faith and Feeling. St. Louis: Con- ence work. Arnold, Sir Thomas, and Guillaume, cordia, 1996. A new introduction to Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam, eds. Alfred, eds. The Legacy of Islam. Muslim faith and emotion, H. A. R. Gibb and J. H. Kramers. London: Humphrey Milford, 1931. Pp. intended for the general public, reflect- Ithaca: Cornell University, 1953. 416. The second edition (London: ing the author’s lifetime experi- Pp. 671. It “includes all the articles in Oxford, 1974) has different articles, ence with Muslims. the first edition and Supplement of also very useful. It is edited by J. Momen, Moojan. An Introduction to the Encyclopaedia of Islam which Schacht and C. Bosworth. Pp. 530. Shi’i Islam: The History and Doctrines relate particularly to the religion Brice, W. C., ed. An Historical Atlas of Twelver Shi’ism. New Haven: and law of Islam” (Introductory State- of Islam. Leiden: Brill, 1981. Yale University, 1985. Pp. 397. “Both ment). Recommended and still in Denny, Frederick. Islam. San Fran- modern critical research on print! cisco: Harper, 1987. Pp. 137. A stan- Shi’ism and also the traditional way Ede, David. Guide to Islam. Boston: dard introduction. that Shi’is see themselves” (Pref- G. K. Hall, 1983. An excellent source Essentials of Islam: Basic Beliefs. Bloom- ace, p. xiv). for books and articles on Islam up ington: Islamic Circle of Indiana Musk, Bill. The Unseen Face of to 1979. University, edited by Muslim Student Islam. Eastbourne: Marc, Monroe Pub- Esposito, John L., ed. The Oxford Association appointed editors. A lications, 1989. Pp. 315. Folk Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic simple introduction to some of the Islam as “the mysterious colorful World, 4 vols. New York: Oxford basics of Islam. world of jinn and the evil eye, University, 1995. The most up-to-date Esposito, John. Islam, the Straight Path. saints and festivals.” source for contemporary develop- New York: Oxford University; Rahman, Fazlur. Islam. Chicago: Uni- ments in Islam. second edition, 1988. Pp. 251. A stan- versity of Chicago, second edition, Geddes, Charles L. An Analytic Guide dard introduction emphasizing 1979. Pp. 285. “The Muslim to the Bibliographies on Islam, contemporary Islam. should learn to look more objectively Muhammad and the Qur’an. Den- Gibb, H. A. R. Muhammadanism. at his religious history...and the ver: American Institute of Islamic London: Oxford University, 1970. Pp. non-Muslim should learn to know Studies, 1973. 144. Though dated, it is still an something of what Islam does to a Muslim from the inside” (Preface, p. Haddad, Y. Y., Voll, J. 0., and Esposito, J. eminently useful introduction to Islam. xiii). By an outstanding 20th- L. The Contemporary Islamic Farah, Caesar E. Islam, Beliefs and Revival: A Critical Survey and Bibli- Observances. New York: Barrons; century Muslim scholar, this work assumes understanding of some of ography. New York: Greenwood, fifth edition, 1994. Pp. 434. A full, the Western scholarly response to 1991. Pp. 230. up-to-date introduction with extensive Islam. Holt, P. M., Lambton, A. K., and glossary and bibliography. Smith, Huston. “Islam,” Pp. 193-224 in Lewis, B., eds. The Cambridge History Hodgson, M. G. S. The Venture of Islam, The Religions of Man. New York: of Islam, 4 vols. Cambridge: The 3 vols. Chicago: University of University Press, 1978. Chicago, 1974. For advanced students. Harper and Brothers, 1958. A simple, lucid, and sensitive presentation; a Kassis, H. E. A Concordance of the Hourani, Albert. A History of the westerner telling it in a way many Qur’an. Berkeley: University of Cali- Arab Peoples. Cambridge, MA: Har- Muslims would approve. fornia, 1983. Based on Arberry’s vard University, 1991. Pp. 551. A Speight, Marston. God is One: The Way translation of the Qur’an. “This Con- major scholar writes a beautiful history of Islam. New York: Friendship cordance...satisfies a paramount for general readers that includes Press, 1989. Pp. 139. A basic book, need of those–and there are millions of Islamic history. written by a missionary scholar them–who have no command of Mawdudi, Abu’l A’la. Toward who emphasizes the area of Christian- the Arabic Language and yet desire to Understanding Islam, translated and Muslim relations and draws on understand the Qur’an...”(Fore- edited by Kurshid Ahmad. India- North American examples. word by Fazlur Rahman, p. ix). napolis: Islamic Teaching Center, 1977. Pp. 134. The first book Weekes, Richard V., ed. Muslim Peo- Introduction To Islam (after the Qur’an) that Muslims fre- ples: A World Ethnographic Survey, Arberry, A. J., ed. Religion in the Middle quently offer to Christians visiting second edition, 2 vols. Westport, East, volume 2. London: Cam- mosques and bookstores. Mawdudi is Connecticut: Greenwood, 1984. Pp. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS Ernest Hahn 207

953. “Based upon the division of the the Qur’an by a distinguished Iranian and several appendices, some reflect- world’s people into ethnic groups Muslim who was a theologian, ing traditional Muslim apologetic and the identification of those with journalist, and political leader, and for Christian (Western) readers. Try populations which are wholly or later suffered severely after the your local mosque for a free copy; partly Muslim. Some 300 have been so Iranian Revolution began in 1979. or your Muslim friend for a Qur’an– identified” (Introduction). Gillaume, Alfred, translator and anno- Bible exchange! Williams, John A., ed. and trans. The tator. The Life of Muhammad, A Trans- Arberry, A. J. The Koran Interpreted. Word of Islam. Austin: University lation of Ishaq’s Sirat Rasul Allah. London: Oxford University, 1964. of Texas, 1994. Pp. 230. The latest of London: Oxford University, 1955. Pp. “...the best available translation to date many helpful compilations of 815. A translation of Ibn Hisham’s of the Qur’an” (Kassis, A Concor- Muslim writings on basic Islamic edited text of Sirat Rasul Allah, one of dance of the Qur’an, Acknowledg- beliefs and practices. the earliest biographies of Muham- ments, p. xi). mad by Ibn Ishaq. Very helpful for Blachere, Regis. Introduction au Coran. Two Brochures revealing and understanding the Paris: G.-p. Maissonneuve et “Introducing Islam.” The Institute of origins of Islam, its conflict with the Larosse, 1977. Islamic Information and Education, P. Arab society of that time, and the Dawood, N. J. The Koran. Middlesex, 0. Box 41129, Chicago, Illinois early growth of the Muslim commu- England: Penguin, 1959. Contempo- 60641-0129. A Muslim presentation nity. rary English. Abandons the tradi- that is very helpful. One page. Haykal, M. H. Life of Muhammad, trans. tional arrangement of the Qur’an in “Our Muslim Neighbors.” The ELCA, by A. Wessels. Indianapolis: favor of a chronological arrange- Division for Global Mission, 8765 North American Trust Publications, ment. Helpful especially as an initial West Higgins Road, Chicago, Illinois 1976. Pp. 640. An important biog- reading of the Qur’an. The transla- 60631. An objective description in raphy of Muhammad by a well-known tor is not a Muslim. one page available from Augsburg contemporary Muslim author. Gaelje, Helmut. The Qur’an and Its Fortress. Rodinson, Maxime. Mohammed. Trans. Exegesis: Selected Texts with Classical Anne Carter. New York: Vintage, Muhammad and Modern Muslim Interpreta- 1974. Pp. 361. Full of information. Andrae, Tor. Muhammad: The Man tions, trans. and ed. A. T. Welch. Rodinson is a Marxist scholar. and His Faith. New York: Harper & Berkeley: University of California, Schimmel, Annemanie. And Muhammad Row, 1960. Pp. 196. Emphasizes 1976. is His Messenger. Chapel Hill: both the relationship of Islam with the Gilchrist, John. Jam’al-Qur’an, The University of North Carolina, 1985. A piety of the Syrian churches and Codification of the Qur’an Text. sympathetic and insightful account the originality of Muhammad. Benoni, S. Africa: Jesus to the that includes popular views. Cragg; Kenneth. Muhammad and the Muslims, 1989. Pp. 154. A response to Watt, W. M. Muhammad, Prophet Christian. London: Darton, Longman the Muslim claim that the text of and Statesman. London: Oxford Uni- and Todd, 1984. Pp. 180. “What the Qur’an has been preserved without versity, 1961. Pp. 250. A handy do you think of Muhammad?” is the alteration from the time of abridgement of Watt’s more detailed question Muslims’ often ask Muhammad. Muhammad at Mecca and Christians. According to the Preface: Goldziher, Ignaz. Muslim Studies, vol Muhammad at Medina. “Muslims them-selves... have been 2. London: Alien and Unwin, 1967- involved in long and deep issues about The Qur’an and the Hadith 1971. A classic Western exposi- tion on the Hadith. the Prophet’s status in a divine Ali, A. Yusuf. The Holy Qur’an. India- economy.” The author reckons in a napolis: American Trust Publica- Jeffery, Arthur. The Qur’an as Scrip- positive manner with the Muslim tions, 1977. Pp. 1862. The favorite ture. New York: Russell Moore, 1952. community’s various views of translation of many Muslims. Pp. 103. Jeffery was one of the fin- Muhammad and responds in terms Included in the translator’s original est non-Muslim Qur’an scholars of this of Christian criteria. Preface (1934): “What I wish to century. The final chapter of this Dashti, Ali. Twenty-Three Years: A present to you is an English Interpreta- book, “The Textual History of the Study of the Prophetic Career of tion, side by side with the Arabic Qur’an,” compares the version of Mohammad, translated by E. R. C. Text....I want to make English itself an Islamic orthodoxy with “the history of Bagley. London: Allen and Unwin, Islamic language....And I must the text as modern scholarship 1985. Pp. 228. An historical- give all the accessory aid which I can.” reads it” (p. 91). critical approach to Muhammad and He does this through copious notes Khan, M. M., trans. The Translation

VOL 13:4 OCT.-DEC. 1996 208 Mission Resources for Sharing with Muslims

of the Meanings of Sahih al-Bukhuri, 9 Guidance. Saudi Arabia: King Fahd Ghazali, Imam. Ihya Ulum-id-Din (Revi- vols. Chicago: Kazi Publications, Holy Qur’an Printing Complex. val of the Religious Sciences), 1979. The Hadith (Muslim canonical Essentially a revised and corrected edi- trans. Maulana Fazlul Karim, 4 vols. tradition) is the second source of tion of the A. Yusuf Ali’s transla- New Delhi: Kitab Bhavan, 1982. Islam, and BuIhari’s collection the tion. “Imam Abu-Hamidal-Ghazali is most important of all tradition col- Von Denffer, Ahmad. ‘Ulum al- unquestionably the greatest theolo- lections. Qur’an, An Introduction to the Sci- gian of Islam and one of its noblest Pickthall, M. M., trans. The Meaning ences of the Qur’an. Leicester: and most original thinkers” of the Glorious Koran. (New York: Islamic Foundation, 1985. Pp. 189. (cover). New American Library. Pickthall, This work deals with traditional Goldziher, Ignaz. Introduction to an Englishman and a convert to Islam, Muslim studies about revelation and Islamic Theology and Law, trans. served under the Nizam of Hyder- the Qur’an, such as the circum- Andras and Ruth Hamori. Prince- abad in the early part of this century. stances of its various revelations, their ton: Princeton University, 1981. pp. Many Muslims recommend this arrangement and collection into a 302. A Western classic on the sub- translation. It contains relatively brief final text, abrogating and abrogated ject. but useful notes. revelations, clear and unclear reve- Parrinder, Geoffrey. Jesus in the Robson, James, trans. Mishkat al- lations. The book is aimed at “young Qur’an. London: Sheldon Press, 1982. Masabih, 2 vols. Lahore: Ashraf, educated Muslims with little or no Pp. 187. A standard text. access to the original sources on the 1975. An excellent compendium of the Padwick, Constance. Muslim Devotions. subject” (p. 9). main Hadith collections. London: S.P.C.K., 1961. pp. 313. Watt, W. M. Bell’s Introduction to the Sherif, Faruq. A Guide to the Contents of “...an appreciation of the heights of Qur’an. Edinburgh: Edinburgh the Qur’an. London: Ithaca, 1985. devotion to which the Muslim can University, 1970. Pp. 258. A useful pp. 165. The contents include: (1) The attain.” Muslim prayer beyond the five non-Muslim understanding of the Creator and His Creatures, (2) The times daily Islamic ritual prayer. Qur’an. Prophet and the Qur’an, (3) The Previ- Very helpful for understanding dimen- ous Bearers of the Divine Mes- Theology, Law, and Piety sions of Muslim piety. sage, (4) Some Historical Events, (5) Arberry, A. J. Sufism, An Account of the Rahman, Fazlur. Major Themes of the Faith and Religion, (6) The Other Mystics of Islam. New York: Qur’an. Chicago: Bibliotheca World, and (7) Commandments. A Harper & Row, 1970. pp. 141. “ Islamica, 1980. pp. 180. An unusual very helpful book. [Sufism’s] mark lies ineradicably and useful systematization, by a Siddiqui, A. H., trans. Sahih Muslim, 4 athwart the pages of Muslim literature” Muslim author, of major Islamic vols. Indianapolis: M. S. A. (p. 133). themes such as God, humankind, Islamic Book Service. “Hadith is the Bailey, Kenneth. God Is.... Dialogues on evil, prophet, revelation, and eschatol- most important religious literature the Nature of God for Young Peo- ogy, with special reference to after the Holy Qur’an!” (cover of the ple. Monroeville, PA: Youth Club Pro- piety. Lahore edition). Sahih Muslim (a gramme Inc., 1976. “A series of Robinson, Neal. Christ in Islam and collection of Muslim canonical tradi- 20 dialogues which were originally Christianity. London: Macmillan, tions by Muslim) is second in written to make the Gospel mean- 1991. Pp.235. importance only to Bukhari’s collec- ingful to the Middle-Eastern Christian” Schacht, Joseph. An Introduction to tion. (Preface). It can be useful for just Islamic Law. Oxford: Clarendon, Tisdall, W. St. Clair. The Sources of about any Christian–and any Muslim, 1964. Pp. 304. Islam, trans. Sir William Muir. too. Sections: (1) God is Great; (2) Sweetman, J. W. Islam and Christian Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, republished God is Light; (3) God is Three in One; Theology: A Study of Theological by The Message for Muslims (4) God is Holy Love. Ideas in the Two Religions. Lon- Trust, n.d. Pp. 102. The author’s objec- Coulson, N.J. A History of Islamic Law. don: Lutterworth, 1947-1967. 4 vols. tive is to show how the content of Edinburgh: Edinburgh University, The author’s main objective is to the Qur’an strongly depends on out- 1964. Pp. 264. enlist the support of theologians to fur- side sources. Faldiry, Majid. A History of Islamic ther the cause of sharing the gos- The Holy Qur’an, English Translation of Philosophy, second edition. New pel with Muslims. His work contains a Meanings and Commentary, York: Columbia University, 1983. mine of information on the theolo- revised and edited by the Presidency of Pp. 394. Includes theology and mysti- gies of Christianity and Islam and on Islamic Researches, Ifta Call and cism as well as philosophy. Muslim-Christian relations.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS Ernest Hahn 209

Watt, W. Montgomery. Islamic Philoso- acknowledge it.” Still very helpful. prospects of the modernist movement” phy and Theology. Edinburgh: Mernissi, Fatima. The Veil and the (cover). Still a valuable work. University Press, 1962. Pp. 196. An Male Elite: A Feminist Interpretation Haddad, Y. Y. Contemporary Islam and excellent survey of the field. of Women’s Rights in Islam. the Challenge of History. Albany: Wensinck, A. J. The Muslim Creed: Its Trans. M. J. Lakeland. USA: Addison- SUNY, 1982. Pp. 259. It deals with Genesis and Historical Develop- Wesley, 1991. It argues that the Arab Muslims. ment. London: CASS, 1962. Pp.304. subordination of women is the product Jansen, G. H. Militant Islam. London: of later popular traditions in Islam. Pan, 1979. Pp. 224. He places this Society and Women Stacey, Vivienne. Women in Islam. Lon- issue in the context of Western misun- Hammttdali ‘Abd al-‘Ati. The Family don: Interserve, 1995. Pp. 72. A derstandings of Islam and the Structure in Islam. Indianapolis: simple and useful introduction to Mus- Muslim desire to remodel their lives Islamic Book Service, 1977. Pp. 360. lim women with a Christian and institutions in the light of fun- A conservative Muslim view. response. damental precepts. Alirned, Leila. Women and Gender in Mortimer, Edward. Faith and Power: Islam in Modern Times Islam: Historical Roots of a Mod- The Politics of Islam. New York: Vin- ern Debate. New Haven: Yale Univer- Ahmed, Akbar S. Postmodernism and tage, 1982. Pp. 432. There is no sity, 1992. A historical study of Islam: Predicament and Promise. better study of this issue. the role of women and gender in Islam, London: Rout- ledge, 1992. Pp. 293. A Smith, Wilfrid C. Islam in Modern especially in the Middle East. Cambridge Muslim anthropologist History. Princeton: Oxford University, Beck, Lois and Keddie, Nikki, eds. writes about the Muslim encounter 1957. Pp. 317. An unusually pene- Women in the Muslim World. with modernism. trating analysis of contemporary Islam, Cambridge: Harvard University, 1982. Akhtar, Shabbir. A Faith for All Seasons: though obviously dated. Pp. 698. Islam and Western Modernity. A Brochure: But I Love Him. A TMFMT publication, London: Bellew, 1990. He is also the WEC press. Pp. 6. A brief intro- author of Be Careful with Muham- “The Question of Palestine.” The duction for a Christian woman enter- mad! The Salman Rushdie Affair Council of Muslim Communities of taining the possibility of marriage (1989). Canada, P. 0. Box 2605, Station with a Muslim. Boulares, Habib. Islam, the Fear and the “D”, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1P- 5W7. A fine one-page summary of Esposito, John L., ed. Islam and Poli- Hope. London: Zed, 1990. The the Muslim view of the problem of tics. Third edition. Syracuse: Syracuse best Muslim treatment of the phenom- Palestine. University, 1991. enon of fundamentalism, which he Esposito, John L. Women in Muslim Fam- calls Islamism. Islam in North America ily Law. Syracuse: Syracuse Uni- Chacour, Elias. Blood Brothers. Haddad, Y. Y. A Century of Islam in versity, 1982. Grand Rapids, 1984. Pp. 224. The America. Washington: The American Lamb, Christopher. Mixed Faith Mar- author, a Palestinian, a graduate of Institute of Islamic Affairs, 1986. riage. British Council of Churches, Hebrew University in Jerusalem, and a Pp. 13. A fine introduction to the topic. priest of the Melite Church, strug- 1982. Pp. 12. Haddad, Y. Y. and Lummis, A. T. gles for reconciliation between ene- Lemu, B. Aisha and Heeren, Fatima. Islamic Values in the United States. Woman in Islam. Leicester: The mies. New York: Oxford University, Islamic Foundation, 1992. Pp. 51. This Chapman, Colin. Whose Promised Land? 1987. pp. 196. work incorporates the addresses of Herts, England: Lions, 1992. Pp. Haddad Y. Y. The Muslims in Amer- two Muslim women of Western back- 287. The claims and counterclaims ica. New York: Oxford University, ground presented at the Interna- regarding the “Palestinian prob- 1991. Pp. 249. “.. ten unpublished tional Islamic Conference in London, lem” by an evangelical Anglican who essays about the history, organization, 1976. has lived in the Near East. challenges, responses, outstanding Levy, Reuben. The Social Structure of Cragg; Kenneth. The Arab Christian. thinkers, and future prospects of the Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge Louisville: Westminster/John Muslim community in the U.S. University, 1962. Pp. 536. “The pur- Knox, 1991. Pp. 336. and Canada” (cover). pose of this book is an endeavour Gibb, H. A. R. Modern Trends in Lincoln, C. E. The Black Muslims in to investigate the effects of the relig- Islam. Chicago: Chicago University, America. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, ious system of Islam on the life 1947. Pp. 141. “Explores the back- 1994. Pp.287. “Unsurpassed as a and organization of the societies which ground, the causes, the nature and the sociological study of the sources of

VOL 13:4 OCT.-DEC. 1996 210 Mission Resources for Sharing with Muslims

Black Muslim belief and practice” 89, Rome, Italy 00153. It supports press, 1990. Pp. 280. Part I: Islam (from the New York Times Book encounters based on genuine root- Today; Part II: The Christian Review). edness in one’s own tradition, and the Response: The Incarnation; the Cross; Malcolm X, The Autobiography of, as view that real dialogue takes place the Resurrection. “The author is a told to Alex Haley. New York: Ballan- between persons, not systems. The Christian and distinguished Islamic tine, 1964. Pp. 460. A near-classic. 1994 edition is on the law of apos- scholar” (cover). McCloud, Aminah B. African American tasy. Bormarms, Maurice. Guidelines for Dia- Islam. New York: Routledge, The Link, Americans for Middle East logue between Christians and 1995. It updates the work of Eric Lin- Understanding; Room 570, 474 River- Muslims, trans. Marston Speight. Mah- coln. side Dr., New York 10115-0241. wah, NJ: Paulist, 1990. Pp. 132. Good also for books, videos, and other Richardson, E. Allen. Islamic Cultures in An informative Roman Catholic state- resource materials for various edu- North America. New York: Pil- ment containing “Discussions and cational levels. grim, 1981. Pp. 60. A brief survey. suggestions for Christians concerning The Muslim Journal. Published from the multiple dimensions of their Waugh, Earle; Abu Laban, Baha; and Chicago, it represents the main body present-day dialogue with Muslims” Qureishi, Regula. The Muslim Commu- of African American Muslims led (Introduction, p. 10). nities in North America. Edmon- by Warith Deen Mohammed, and ton: University of Alberta, 1983. A Brown, S. F. Meeting in Faith. Geneva: brings news of the activities of helpful set of essays on the sub- World Christian Council, 1989. that body through out the U.S.A. ject. Pp. 181. “This book. ..is both a docu- Muslim World: A Journal Devoted to mentary record of Christian- Journals the Study of Islam and of Christian- Muslim dialogue sponsored by the Al-Mushir, the publication of the Chris- Muslim Relationships in Past and W.C.C. and a corpus of texts for tian Study Centre, 126-B Murree Present. Hartford: Hartford Seminary further exploration of the social, diaco- Road, P, O Box 529, Rawalpindi Foundation, 1911- It was begun in nal and theological frontiers of Cantt, Pakistan. the interest of Christian mission dialogue” (Introduction). among Muslims, an intention The Bulletin, the publication of the Henry Bucaille, Maurice. The Bible, the clearly reflected until about the 1960s. Martyn Institute of Islamic Stud- Qur’an, and Science. Indianapolis: A rich resource! Address: 77 Sher- ies, Box 153, Hyderabad, A.P., India American Trust Publications, man St., Hartford, CT 06105. 500001. The Institute also pub- 1978. Pp. 253. Bucaille, a French sur- lishes a newsletter, Interaction. Friendship, Understanding, and geon, seeks to demonstrate basic Islam and Christian-Muslim Rela- Faith Sharing contrasts between the Bible and the tions. Birmingham: Centre for the Abdul-Ahad, Selim and Gairdner, W. Qur’an; to show textually, theolog- Study of Islam and Christian- H. T. The Gospel of Barnabas, an ically, and scientifically the deficien- Muslim Relations. It is published in Essay and Enquiry. Hyderabad: cies of the former vs. the perfec- cooperation with the Center for Henry Martyn Institute of Islamic tion of the latter. When viewed Muslim-Christian Understanding; Studies, 1985. Pp. 39.This spuri- objectively, he says, the Qur’an Georgetown University. Subscrip- ous gospel account conflicts with the alone is in “complete agreement with tion inquiries go to Carfax Publishing Bible and, at points, even with the modern scientific data” (p. 251). Co., P. 0. Box 25, Abing- Qur’an. Muslims have widely distributed this don,Oxfordshire, UK–OXl43UE Adelphi, G. and Hahn, E. The Integ- volume in its original French, Eng- Islamic Horizons. Published by the rity of the Bible According to Qur’an lish and other languages, throughout Islamic Society of North America in and the Hadith. Mississauga: Hos- much of the world. Plainfield, Indiana, it functions as pitality, 1994. Pp. 53. Muslims nor- Burness, Margaret. What Would You Say the major voice of many conservative mally assume the corruption or If.... Africa Mission Press, 1980. Muslims in North America, con- abrogation of the Bible. This brief Pp. 44. “We hope that these little plays tains news and information about work assembles considerable evi- will help...women’s groups in our Islamic traditions, and analyzes dence from the Qur’an and the Hadith churches in their witness for Christ issues from the Islamic perspective. in support of the textual preserva- among the Muslim women whom Immigrant-Muslim oriented. tion and integrity of the Bible. God has given them as neighbours” Islamochristiana, a publication of the Anderson, Sir Norman J. D. Islam in (Introduction, p. v.). Pontifical Institute of Arabic and the Modern World, A Christian Per- Campbell, William. The Qur’an and the Islamic Studies, Viale di Trastevere, spective. England: Inter Varsity Bible in the Light of History and

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS Ernest Hahn 211

Science. Middle East Resources, n.d. perspectives to the people of the Series. For these and other Gilchrist Pp. 343. A helpful response to Qur’an” (Preface). publications, contact “Jesus to the Bucaille’s The Bible, the Qur’an, and Cragg; Kenneth. The Call of the Minaret. Muslims,” Box 1804, Benoni 1500, Science by a Christian medical New York: Orbis, 1992. Pp. 358. R.S.A. Some of his works effec- missionary who had lengthy service “The Call of the Minaret...is unrivalled tively respond to Ahmed Deedat’s among Muslims, especially in in the field....The Call of the Mina- publications. North Africa. ret marks a water-shed in Christian- Hahn, Ernest. Understanding Some Mus- Chapman, Colin. ‘You Go and Do the Muslim relations....This is Chris- lim Misunderslandings. Toronto: Same’' C.M.S., 1983. Pp. 92. “...loving tian apologetics at its most compel- Fellowship of Faith for Muslims and our neighbour involves putting ling” (Lamin Sanneh, Harvard Mississauga: Hospitality, n.d. Pp. aside our prejudices, and doing some- University). 15. A simple statement of the major thing practical to overcome the Cragg; Kenneth. Sandals at the Muslim difficulties with Christian ...barriers which separate us from Mus- Mosque. London: SCM Press, 1959. faith and initial Christian responses to lims” (backcover). See also his Pp. 166. An invitation to Chris- these difficulties. new work Cross and Crescent: tians to approach Muslims and their Hahn, Ernest. How to Respond to Mus- Responding to the Challenge of religion with humility. lims. St. Louis: Concordia, 1995. Islam, 1995. Pp. 346. Deedat, Ahmed. Is the Bible God’s Word? Pp. 63. Emphasizes also reaching Mus- Christian Witness Among Muslims. Durban: Islamic Propagation Cen- lims in the U.S.A. and Canada. Mississauga: The Voice of the Mar- tre, 1980. Deedat’s publications and Haqq, Akbar Abdul. Sharing Your Faith tyrs, 1995. Pp. 128. Originally videos, many of them anti- with a Muslim. Minneapolis: appeared in Africa, later in an Indian Christian polemic, are spread through- Bethany, 1980. Pp. 189. The author is edition in English, and in other out Africa, Asia, and the West and an evangelist with the Billy Gra- editions in various Indian languages. available in mosques and local Muslim ham Association. His father, Abdul Copious biblical references incul- retail stores. Many Muslims Haqq, was a well-known convert cate a healthy Christian attitude toward applaud him, while some other Mus- from Islam in India. Muslims and Islam. A good starter lims are embarrassed by him. Hooker, Roger and Lamb, Christo- for anyone from higher elementary Daniel, Norman. Islam and the West: The pher. Love the Stranger. London: school level upwards. Making of an Image. Edinburgh: S.P.C.K., 1986. Pp. 161. Chal- Christians Meeting Muslims: WCC Edinburgh University, 1960. Pp. 443. lenges Christians living in multifaith Papers on 10 Years of Christian- Department of Da’uxih. Manual of contexts to relate to their neigh- Muslim Dialogue. Geneva: World Da’wah for Islamic Workers. Mon- bors of other religions, just as the Council of Churches, 1977. treal: Islamic Circle of North church is supposed to do! Hooker Christensen, Jens. The Practical America, 1989. Pp. 88. “Da’wah– and Lamb served in India and Pakistan Approach to Muslims. Mrs. Chris- dissemination of the message of respectively before ministering to tensen and the North Africa Mission, Islam–is a collective responsibility of Asians (Muslims and Hindus) in Eng- 1977. Pp. 644. “As few others Muslims” (Preface). land. Appendix D is entitled: [Christensen] was committed to the Dretke, James. A Christian Approach to “Mixed-Faith Marriage: A Case for Church of Christ and to the apos- Muslims: Reflections from West Care.” tolate to Islam” (Pref- Africa. Pasadena, CA: William Carey Jomier, Jacques. How to Understand ace).Theologically thought- Library, 1979. Pp. 261. Islam, trans. John Bowden. Lon- provoking. Geisler, Norman and Salib, Abdul. don: SCM, 1989. Pp. 168. “The best Color the Muslim World with Jesus’ Answering Islam. Grand Rapids: approach [to different religions] is love. Center for Ministry to Muslims, Baker, 1994. Pp. 336. “Since both to consider each religion, to try to 1315 Portland Ave. South, Minne- orthodox Islam and Christianity understand it, to try patiently to apolis, MN 55404. Introduces children claim to be the true religion, it is explain it to oneself, avoiding useless to the Muslim world. incumbent upon thinking persons attacks, in the awareness that God Cragg; Kenneth. Jesus and the Muslim. to examine carefully the evidence has ways which are not ours” (Intro- London: Allen and Unwin, 1985. offered by both and to make their duction, p. 3). Jomier is a member Pp. 315. “Our duty here is to consider own decision in view of the evidence” of the Dominican order and a fine the ‘Isa of Islamic faith from (Introduction, p. 10). scholar of Islam with long resi- within the perspectives of the New Gilchrist, John. Qur’an and Bible Series, dence in Egypt. Testament and to interpret these 1979, and Christianity and Islam Kateregga, B. D. and Shenk, D. W.

VOL 13:4 OCT.-DEC. 1996 212 Mission Resources for Sharing with Muslims

Islam and Christianity. Nairobi: McDowell for those contending with Muslim Dialogue. Hatfield, PA: Inter- Uzema Press Ltd., 1980. Pp. 182. Deedat’s polemic. This debate disciplinary Biblical Research A simple and friendly faith exchange alone is available from Fellowship of Institute, 1993. Pp. 776. “A collection between a Muslim and a Christian Faith for Muslims (see below in of documents from the first three in Kenya. pamphlet form and on audio cassette). Islamic centuries (632-900 A.D.): Kimball, Charles. Striving Together: Miller, Roland. “The Muslim Doc- Translations with Commentary.” A Way Forward in Christian-Muslim trine of Salvation,” Al-Basheer, The Parshall, Phil. New Paths in Muslim Evan- Relations. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, Bulletin of the Christian Institutes gelism. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1990. A short, handy introduction to of Islamic Studies 5 (January- 1980. Pp. 280. A concern for “the prin- this topic. December, 1982) 152-196. The ciples and practices of contextuali- Madany, Bassam M. The Bible and Islam: main article available on this topic. zation to advance the evangelical Sharing God’s Word with a Mus- Miller, William. A Christian’s Church among Muslim communi- lim. Palos Heights, Illinois: The Back Response to Islam. Nutley, NJ: Presby- ties.” to God Hour, 1987. Pp. 113. This terian and Reformed Publishing Pfander, C. G. Mizan-ul-Haqq work is the fruit of a long Arabic radio Co., 1976. Pp. 178. “This brief book (Balanee of Truth), revised and ministry. Emphasizes “man’s sin- flows out of the heart of an evan- enlarged by W. St. Clair Tisdall. fulness and the redemptive character of gelist deeply in love with Jesus Christ Villach, Austria: Light of Life, 1986. the Bible” (back cover). and with his Muslim neighbours” Pp. 370. This work, originally published in Persian in 1885, has been Marsh, Charles R. Share Your Faith with (back cover). viewed as perhaps the most signif- a Muslim. Chicago: Moody, 1975. Miller, William. Tales of Persia: A icant Christian contribution of the 19th Pp. 96. This volume, popular among Book for Children. Philadelphia: Tor- century to the Christian-Muslim evangelicals, reflects a long and rence, 1979. Pp. 145. The author, a controversy. Pfander was originally dedicated ministry of the author in missionary in Iran for over forty years, affiliated with the Basle Mission- North Africa and his use of Mus- narrates true stories about the ary Society and later served with the lim articles of faith and practice as spread of the gospel in Iran. Church Missionary Society in points of contact for sharing the Miller, William. Your Muslim Guest. India. gospel. Toronto: Fellowship of Faith for Mus- Poston, Larry. Islamic Da’wah in the Martinson, P. V., ed. Islam, An Intro- lims, 1983. Pp. 14. A simple and West. Oxford: Oxford University, duction for Christians. Minneapolis: useful statement on being hospitable to 1992. Pp. 220. The Parts: (1) Augsburg; 1994. Pp. 264. “Chris- Muslims. Order for your congrega- Da’wah in Islam: From East to West; tians of all denominations will find tion in bulk! (2) Toward an Islamic Pietism; (3) reliable and up-to-date information Murad, Khurram. Da’wah among The Institutionalization of Da’wah in on Islam and its relationship to Chris- Non-Muslims in the West: Some Con- Western Societies; and (4) The tianity” (back cover).The editor is ceptual and Methodological Dynamics of Conversion to Islam. A a professor of Christian Mission and Aspects. London: The Islamic Founda- valuable work on how Muslims in tion, 1986. Pp. 24. Pro claiming World Religions at Luther Semi- North America (apart from American nary. Islam in the west. Islamic Mission) invite other McCurry, Don, ed. The Gospel and Nazir-Ali, Michael. Frontiers in Mus- North Americans to convert to Islam. lim-Christian Encounter. Oxford: Reg- Islam: A 1978 Compendium. Monro- Ragg; Lonsdale and Laura, trans. The num Books, 1987. Pp. 191. Bishop via: Marc, 1979. Pp. 638. Founda- Gospel of Barnabas. Oxford, 1907. Pp. Michael Nazir-Ali, formerly a bishop tion papers by 43 Christians on a Ixxv, 500. The 1907 publication in Pakistan, is assistant to the variety of relevant topics for the contains the (original?) Italian text and Archbishop of Canterbury. “...the North American Conference for Mus- the English translation side by lim Evangelization sponsored by reader is drawn into the meaning side. Subsequent Muslim editions, of Christ for those living within a Mus- the Lausanne Committee for World abbreviated, have appeared, such Evangelization and World Vision lim environment” (Aus-tralian as The Gospel of Barnabas. Cedar at Glen Eyrie in 1978. Archbishop David penman, Foreword, Rapids: Unity publishing Co., McDowell, Josh and Gilchrist, John. p. 8). 1986. Pp. 273. Any current edition The Islam Debate. San Bernardino, Nazir-Ali, Michael. Islam: A Christian should be compared with the 1907 CA: Campus Crusade for Christ, Perspective. Exeter, U.K.: Pater- edition. Many Muslims consider The 1983. Pp. 199. Includes a useful debate noster, 1984. Pp. 185. Gospel of Barnabas to be the orig- between Ahmed Deedat and Newman, N. A. The Early Christian- inal gospel account. Muslims have

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FRONTIER MISSIONS Ernest Hahn 213

translated this work into several other evangelist with long ministry in Paki- includes an account of the conversion languages. For a Christian stan and other countries, focuses of a lady which began when two response see Abdul-Ahad, above. her studies on these topics: The Lord Armenian girls gave her a little picture Schimmel, A. and Falaturi, A. We Jesus Christ; The Life of Peter; of St. Mary with the Holy Infant. Believe in One God. New York: Sea- The Teaching of Paul; God Is Great. For references to a long list of the testimo- bury, 1979. Pp. 180. Converts nies of converts to Islam, see Pos- ton, L. Islamic Da’wah in the West. Thomsen, Mark. God and Jesus: Theolog- Accounts of converts should be viewed Oxford: Oxford University, 1992, ical Reflections for Christian- and used with discrimination. Are 209-211. Muslim Dialog Minneapolis: Ameri- the contents true? Do they cater simply can Lutheran Church, 1986. to the sensational, the dramatic? Refugee Ministry VanderWerff, Lyle L. Christian Mission Are they used only to put down the Muslims form a substantial segment of to Muslims: The Record. Pasa- Muslim and Islam? Do they glo- the growing number of world refu- dena: William Carey, 1977. Pp. 366. rify God or the convert? Generally gees. In some Muslim countries Chris- Examines Anglican and Reformed they are best given to someone tians, especially those who are approaches to Muslims in India and familiar with the fundamentals of the converts from Islam and those commit- the Near East from 1800 to 1938 Bible. ted to sharing Christ with Mus- as a response to the question: “What Alavi, K. K. In Search of Assurance. Pp. lims, are prone to human rights abuses constitutes a Christian approach or 33. The author writes that, like a and even persecution. approaches to Muslims?” (introduc- magnet, the love of Jesus attracted For more information on refugees in gen- tion, p. 3). him. But this love cost him dearly, eral see Refugees, published by Woodberry, D.ed. Muslims and Chris- including much physical suffering. In UNHCR. For a helpful description of tians on the Eminaus Road. chains, he wondered whether he the why and how of a Christian MARC Publications, 1989. Pp. 392. was simply mocking himself in recall- ministry among refugees in North primarily a collection of papers on ing the words of Jesus in John America see Mummert, J. R., with Islamic-Christian themes pre-pared for 14:1 and 8:32. He continues to perse- Bach, Jeff. Refugee Ministry in the the Lausanne Conference on vere in his South India ministry of Local Congregation. Scottsdale, World Evangelization in the Nether- sharing the gospel with other Muslims. PA: Herald, 1992. Pp. 125. lands in 1987. Translated into many languages. Amnesty International, launched by a Ambrie, Hamran. God Has Chosen for Muslim Enquirers Quaker, a Roman Catholic, and a Prot- Me Everlasting Life. Pp. 96. This estant on Trinity Sunday, May 28, Good resource materials are available Indonesian convert writes that in 1962 1961 is an invaluable aid in under- for Muslims enquiring about Christian he pondered and prayed about the standing human rights abuses faith and for Christians assisting following Quranic verse as an initial throughout the world. them. These include, of course, Bibles step towards faith in Jesus as Sav- and portions of Scripture in many ior and Lord: “Say, O People of the Other Christian ministries now focus- languages, as well as simple and more Book [Jews and Christians]! You ing on the abuse and persecution of sophisticated tracts, booklets, cor- will be nothing unless you uphold the Christians in the Muslim world: respondence courses, and other materi- Torah and the Gospel, and all that Open Doors (Brother Andrew); Voice als, all prepared for Muslims in is revealed to you from your Lord” of the Martyrs (Richard Wurm- various languages. See below (p. 237): (5:68). brandt, a Jew and a Lutheran Pastor); “Bible Society” and “Fellowship Deshmukh, Ibrahim O. In Quest of Truth. Iranian Christians International, of Faith for Muslims.” Pp.48. The author, now a medical which specializes in helping many ref- Miller, William. Beliefs and Practices doctor, met Christians during medical ugees, particularly persecuted of Christians. FL Washington: WEC school in Bombay, which initiated Christian converts, among the large International, 1989. Pp. 40. The his interest in thinking about other Iranian diaspora throughout the author, a missionary in Iran for over religions besides Islam. He writes: world. forty years, describes the funda- “In my case I felt the Qur’an leading Audio-Visual Resources mental Christian beliefs and practices me naturally into the previous Islam, 60 minutes, produced by the Smith- in a letter to a Muslim friend. scriptures [the Bible].” sonian Institute. PBS Video, 1320 Available in several languages. Miller, William. Ten Muslims Meet Braddock Place, Alexandria, VA Stacey, Vivienne. Bible Studies. Christ. Pp. 147. Ten Iranians find 22314-1698. Filmed in Egypt. Paphos, 1994. Pp. 80. The author, an Jesus to be more than a prophet. It Excellent.

VOL 13:4 OCT.-DEC. 1996 214 Mission Resources for Sharing with Muslims

Islam, 60 minutes, produced by the Cana- A Tale of Two Mosques. Some of the first raphy, the art of the garden, music, car- dian Broadcasting Corporation, Muslims in Canada and how their pets, and ceramics. Available from Ottawa, Canada, just prior to the fall of community has developed for more Films for the Humanities and Sciences. the Shah. Excellent, especially on than a half-century around the con- An audio cassette featuring the chant- the pilgrimage. struction of two mosques in Edmon- ing of the Qur’an, and entitled Islam, is Islam in America, 52 minutes, pro- ton, Alberta. available from Audio-Forum, 96 duced by the Christian Science Moni- Living Islam, six parts, BBC. The chief Broad St., Guilford, CT 06437. It is tor, P. 0 Box 1875, Boston, MA consultant and narrator is Akbar recorded in Israel, Iran, Morocco, 02177. By far the best on this topic. Ahmed, anthropology professor at Syria, and Turkey. Sympathetic to Islam. Cambridge University. The series Many Muslim-prepared videos and Islamic Conversations, a series of six 30- deals with what it means to be a Mus- audio cassettes on many major topics minute presentations by Muslims lim in today’s world. are available from Kazi Publica- on the topics: Islam and pluralism, Muslims in Canada. A Celebration of Eid tions, Inc., 3023-27W. Belmont Ave., Islam and Christianity, Islam and ul-Fitr Thanksgiving, 30 minutes. Chicago, IL 60618. War, The Islamic State, Authority and The Five Pillars of Islam, 30 minutes, Change, Women and Islam. The World of Islam Series. speakers are authorities. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, P. 0. Islam: The Faith and the People. 22 min- Box 253, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053. utes, a good introduction. Availa- Very good. ble from Insight Media (see above). Ernest Hahn has had life-long Islamic Mysticism: The Sufi Way. An The Koran: The Holy Book of Islam, relationships with Muslims, especially older video, featuring commentary 16 minutes, a good introduction. in his long service as a missionary Available from Insight Media. by Huston Smith, and Mevlana der- in India. He continues his active vishes. Very good. Insight Media, Seyyed Hossein Nasr: The Islamic Mind, literature work and has authored 2162 Broadway, New York, NY 30 minutes. The well-known 10024.30 minutes. scholar is interviewed by Bill Moyers, Jesus in Islam, A Christian View Mosque. Available at Insight Media (see and discusses the roots of Muslim (Hyderabad: Henry Martyn above). 29 minutes. It is really an attitudes. Available from Films for the Institute, 1975). introduction to Islamic faith, especially Humanities and Sciences. the worship of God. Sensitively Islamic Art, 30 minutes. Islamic civiliza- done by Maryknoll fathers. tion is great in architecture, callig- Editorial Continuation here plus half page ad on book called More To Be Desired Than Gold