00-T2408-FM 1/29/03 11:42 AM Page i The Rise of Cable Programming in the United States 00-T2408-FM 1/29/03 11:42 AM Page ii TEXAS FILM AND MEDIA STUDIES SERIES THOMAS SCHATZ, EDITOR 00-T2408-FM 1/29/03 11:42 AM Page iii THE RISE OF CABLE PROGRAMMING IN THE UNITED STATES REVOLUTION OR EVOLUTION? MEGAN MULLEN UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS PRESS, AUSTIN 00-T2408-FM 1/29/03 11:42 AM Page iv Copyright © 2003 by the University of Texas Press All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America First edition, 2003 Requests for permission to reproduce material from this work should be sent to Permissions, University of Texas Press, Box 7819, Austin, TX 78713-7819. ᭺ϱ The paper used in this book meets the minimum requirements of ANSI /NISO Z39.48-1992 (R1997) (Permanence of Paper). Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Mullen, Megan Gwynne, 1964 – The rise of cable programming in the United States: revolution or evolution? / Megan Gwynne Mullen. p. cm. — (Texas film and media studies series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-292-75272-5 (cloth) — ISBN 0-292-75273-3 (paper) 1. Cable television—United States. 2. Television programs—United States. I. Title. II. Series. HE8700.72.U6M85 2003 384.55Ј532Ј0973—dc21 2002011029 00-T2408-FM 1/29/03 11:42 AM Page v In memory of my grandmother, Sara Bailey Jones THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK 00-T2408-FM 1/29/03 11:42 AM Page vii Table of Contents ix I Preface 1 I 1. Cable History and Television Theory 29 I 2. Community Antenna Television, 1948–1968 64 I 3. New Directions for Cable, 1968–1975 94 I 4. The Rise of Satellite Cable, 1975–1980 128 I 5. Broadcast Television’s Resource-Starved Imitator, 1980 –1995: Part I 154 I 6. A Scheduling and Programming Innovator, 1980 –1995: Part II 185 I 7. Cable Television’s Past, Present, and Future 197 I Notes 213 I References 223 I Index THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK 00-T2408-FM 1/29/03 11:42 AM Page ix Preface I ix Between 1948 and 1995, cable television in the United States grew from a form of basic antenna service for isolated, rural communities into a nationwide entertainment and information medium, capable of provid- ing hundreds of diverse channels of programming. Cable changed in terms of the technology it uses, its regulatory status, its industrial struc- ture, people’s uses for it, and many other factors. This study focuses specifically on the history of cable programming, though it has become evident in the course of researching and analyzing this topic that the ac- tual program selections and program texts available on cable have been shaped by a broad range of cultural forces. Thus, the study examines various regulatory and economic constraints that the cable industry ex- perienced over the years, and considers the types of programming in- novation that took place under those conditions. It looks at the incen- tives and expectations that have been formulated for the cable industry at certain stages of its history. And it discusses the ways in which these have been negotiated and rearticulated by the parties concerned—the cable industry, policymakers, the public—to produce the standards and practices of modern, satellite-era cable programming. One goal of this study is to outline the history of cable program- ming—particularly its early years—chronologically. To date, few com- prehensive histories of cable television have been written, and none have dealt with programming specifically. A complementary goal is to develop a theory that uses historical developments in economics, policy, and technology to explain formal attributes of cable programming. A number of studies have examined modern cable’s narrowcast program services. Other research has looked at cable’s formal innovations, including the music video and home shopping formats. But few studies have consid- ered the importance of cable’s complex relationship with, and persistent 00-T2408-FM 1/29/03 11:42 AM Page x x I The Rise of Cable Programming in the United States reliance on, broadcast television—the historical imperative that drives modern cable programming practices. A wide and, perhaps, eclectic variety of primary sources contributed to the research in this book. Several trade publications were used. Broadcasting and Cable magazine (earlier called Broadcasting-Telecasting and Broadcasting) was used extensively. Although this publication his- torically has reflected the views and interests of the broadcast industries (radio and television), it is also true that it provides the most consistent coverage of the developing cable industry during the period covered by this book. Moreover, the centrality of information from Broadcasting, particularly in discussion of cable’s early years, supports a key premise of this book: that cable’s fortunes have been inextricably linked to broad- cast television and its programming. Information about the community antenna television (CATV)/cable industry specifically was also drawn from such publications as NCTA Membership Bulletin, TV Communica- tions, Cablevision, and Multichannel News. While none of these publica- tions boasts the longevity of Broadcasting, they do provide more specific details about cable programming strategies. More general periodicals— including the New York Times, Variety, and TV Guide—supplied addi- tional information, particularly as relates to popular and critical re- sponses to the medium and its potential. Other primary material includes promotional materials provided directly by cable networks. Government publications, particularly FCC Record, were used for specific details about industry regulations. Furthermore, the transcribed hearings and testimony that preceded the enactment of those regula- tions shed light upon contentious issues that long since have been re- solved. They indicate— often in minute detail—what was at stake for the parties concerned. Various studies, commissioned by government bodies as well as private interests, also were consulted. In addition to providing well-researched historical background, they offer important insights into cable policy-making processes. The resources of the National Cable Television Center and Museum, Penn State University (most of which are now archived at the center’s new facility in Denver), were invaluable. The documents (primarily corporate records) from the Irving Kahn collection proved useful in tracking critical developments in the early years of satellite cable. Other documents and artifacts (including an early local origination time-and- temperature device)—whether or not they are mentioned specifically in the book— offered better understanding of the topics discussed. Most 00-T2408-FM 1/29/03 11:42 AM Page xi Preface I xi notably, the oral history transcripts from the Cable Pioneers collection provided critical insights about U.S. cable’s early development. Several are cited directly. The interviews used in writing this book include those conducted personally, as well as a number of oral history interviews archived at the National Cable Center. Personal interviews reflect both people involved with early cable and people currently involved in cable programming. The Cable Center maintains audiotapes and transcriptions of interviews with cable television’s founders, conducted by members of the Cable Pi- oneers association during the 1980s and 1990s. Both completed and in- complete oral histories were consulted. These interviews represent firsthand accounts of events—an ex- tremely valuable source of information. People working in the modern cable industry can offer insights about cable programming practices from within a corporate environment that is very unfamiliar to an aca- demic researcher. And the cable industry is young enough that many of its founders are still living and are eager to share their recollections, as well. Surely some of the most valuable and original resources informing this book were the various individuals who shared their personal recol- lections. It should be noted, of course, that much of this information cannot be verified either in other primary sources or in more compre- hensive secondary sources. But with no comprehensive histories of U.S. cable television to refer to, the people who helped me “piece together the puzzle” were indispensable. Textual analysis in this book is limited to cable programming of the early 1990s. Virtually no original cable programming remains from the early cable (CATV) era. To analyze cable’s predominant program source from those years—broadcast television—would merely overstate the point that cable was extremely dependent on its predecessor medium. Although local cable access programming from the 1970s is available at various facilities around the country, other researchers already have taken on the task of discussing this material.1 Many of the television programs discussed herein were running on cable during the research for this book, either as first-run episodes or as reruns. Indeed, a large portion of the text-based analysis in this study derives from many hours spent in front of the television. Videotapes of continuous cable programming also were analyzed to identify schedul- ing patterns. Programs and program schedules not currently available for viewing have been described in more general terms such as genre. Where 00-T2408-FM 1/29/03 11:42 AM Page xii xii I The Rise of Cable Programming in the United States necessary, television listings in regional newspapers and TV Guide were consulted. A large portion of the research for this project was done at the National Cable Television Center and Museum, Penn State University. I am ex- tremely indebted to the center’s director, E. Stratford Smith, for sharing invaluable recollections from his five-decade involvement with the ca- ble industry. In addition to spending many hours answering my ques- tions, Strat was extremely generous both in giving me access to his per- sonal research and in helping me find my way through the extensive holdings of the Cable Center.