DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 037 343 SE 008 003

AUTHOR Bingman, Richard M.; Ed. TITLE Inquiry Objectives in the Teaching of . INSTITUTION Biological Curriculum Study, Foulder, Colo.; Mid-Continent Regional Education Lab., Inc., Kansas City, Mo. SPONS AGENCY Office of Education (DHEW), Washington, D.C. PUB DATE Sep 69 CONTRACT OEC-3-7-062876-3076 NOTE 153p.

EDRS PRICE EDRS Price MF-$0.75 HC-$7.75 DESCRIPTORS *Affective Objectives, Behavioral Objectives, *Biology, Cognitive Objectives, *Critical Thinking, *Educational Objectives, *Inquiry Training, Secondary School Scierce IDENTIFIERS Biological Sciences Curriculum Study

ABSTRACT Five perspectives are identified for viewing inquiry: "Guiding Principles:(for example the antecedent-consequent principle), Inquiry Factors or logical steps in inquiry, Behavioral Objectives, Affective or Attitudinal Qualities, and Inquiry into inquiry. Many components of these perspectives are enumerated, together with related student behaviors which would exemplify the components. Two examples of class discussion which illustrate inquiry into inquiry are given and analyzed in terms of strategy. The "interim summaries" of the Invitations to Enquiry from the BSCS "Biology Teachers Handbook" are printed as an appendix,as also is the paper (Mendel's "Experiments in Hybridization")on which the class discussions were based. An extensive annotated bibliography on behavioral objectives and inquiry teaching in biology is divided into five sections: Behavioral Objectives- Some Considerations, The Inquiry Process, Inquiry as a Teaching Strategy, Preparing the Teacher for Inquiry, and Evaluating the Inquiry Process. (EB) Inquiry Objectives FEB in the "9" U DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH EDUCATION & WELFARE THIS DOCI)MENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE OFFICE OF EDUCATION of POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS Biology Teaching PERSON 'JR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT POSITIONSTATED 00 OR NOT POLICY NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OffICE OF EDUCATION ct,O EL MID-CONTINENTEDUCATIONAL LABORATORY REGIONAL CURRICULUMBIOLOGICAL SCIENCES STUDY INQUIRY OBJECTIVES IN THE Developed Jointly By: TEACHING OF BIOLOGY Mid-continent Regional Educational Laboratory 104 East IndependenceKansas City, Avenue Missouri 64106 Biological Sciences Curriculum Study University of Colorado P. 0. Box 930 and Richard M.Boulder, Biiigman, Colorado Editor 80302 EL MID-CONTINENTEDUCATIONAL LABORATORY REGIONAL Position Paper, Volume 1, Number 1 CURRICULUMBIOLOGICAL SCIENCES STUDY g 4 Mh September 1969 4lit ' 11 This document was written to be used by administrators, supervisors, curriculum designers, teacher educators, evaluators and students for awide range of activities from revising currentinstructional objectives to developing evlauation instruments. Although the objectives were developed for usepri- marily at the high school level, they may be useful at theelementary and college levels. The document may be used in classroom situations inwhich students and teachers demonstrate varying degrees of inquiry skill andattitude development. Recently the document has served as a basis for a doctoral dissertation (Steiner, 156). The instruments developed in this study are being used to evaluate components of the Developing Inquiry Skills program atthe Mid- continent Regional Educational Laboratory. This document is viewed as a preliminary draft rather than a final state- ment of objectives. Feedback on the use ofthis document will be helpful. A questionnaire has been inserted for your comments and suggestions.

Published by Mid-continent Regional Educational Laboratory, a private non-profit corporation supported in part as a regional educationallaboratory by funds from the United States Office of Education, Department ofHealth, Education, and Welfare under contract number OEC-3-7-062876-3076. The opinions expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the position of policy of the Office of Education, and no official endorsementby the Office of Education should be inferred.

ii CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS

John R. Anderson Mid-continent Regional Educational Laboratory Richard M. Bingman Mid-continent Regional Educational Laboratory Jacob W. Blankenship Oklahoma State University Jack L. Carter Colorado College Thomas J. Cleaver Biological Sciences Curriculum Study Willard G. Jones Colorado State College Manert H. Kennedy Biological Sciences Curriculum Study Evelyn Klinckmann San Francisco College for Women Paul G. Koutnik Mid-continent Regional Educational Laboratory Addison E. Lee University of Texas at Austin Jimmy R. Stothart Northwestern State College of Louisiana

iii The pioneering efforts in 1967 of Willard Jones, at Mid-continent ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Regional Educational Laboratory, and Jack Carter, at Biological inSciences reviewing Curriculum the preliminary Study, editions: led to this document. In addition George Dawson,Paul DeHart Florida Hurd, State StanfordElba University 0. Carrier, University Harvard University to the principal contributors, the following persons were very helpful Ralph H. Ojemann, EducationalGlen Research E. Peterson, CouncilIngrith Biological D.of AmericaOlsen, SciencesUniversity Curriculum of Washington Study at Seattle Joseph J. Schwab,Frank University X. Sutman, of Chicago Temple University to their students who supplied the teacher-student interactionSpecialAppreciation acknowledgements material is also in expressed Chapter toSeven. Kenneth Bingman and William Humphries, teachers Stanley E. Williamson, Oregon State University at Shawnee Mission West high school, and material.Manning,Press for their who ideas prepared and materials.the bibliography, (See Appendices and to ConnieFinally, A and Le B, credit Elgan, is Virginiagiven to Virginia Alfandary and Jerrold Spady, who helped are given to Joseph J. Schwab, the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, and the Harvard University pp. 85, 107.) McBride, and Jean Pearson, who typed and organizedto edit the final document, Joan Bartel and Chiquita However,plifiedEducational by thiscontent. Laboratory. publication It is This presents effort representative has producedThis work is a product of an impossible task to delineate all the behaviorala cooperative objectives effortto be derivedbetween from the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study and a categorization of behavioral objectives, emphasizing inquiry FOREWORD the Mid-continentany Regionaleducational program. processes as exem- thatBiologicalbehavioralscience. sense They they Sciencesobjectives are are not pervasive Curriculum mandatoryby concerned outcomes Study, teachers. ofthey teaching While outcomes but rather behavioral guideposts to are, by their very nature, applicable to any modern thatexamples combine ofboth behaviors content involving andthe objectives both inquiry were originally derived in relation encourage further development ofprocess. a variety of specific processescourse inand the content biological in biological sciences. In to specific materials of the andforing amethodology.as wide an initial variety interim As of set of goals for modern TheBoth value teachers of cooperative and educators efforts of betweenteachers Biologicalwill find that a group ofpurposes. examples Theof behavioral objectives objectives, in this publication this publication serve both provides as biology teaching. delineation of objectives tends to sharpen teaching goals an introduction to construction and use of objectives entry into the selfleneration of objectives and focus teach- improvementtory is, in our of judgment,education. established by the development of this Sciences Curriculum Study and Mid-continent Regional publication, which should promote William V. Mayer, Director a goal shared by us all Educational Labora- the UniversityMid-continentRobertBiological J. ofStalcup,, Sciences Colorado 1?.,.gional Director Curriculum Educational Study Laboratory rti W CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE. RATIONALE The SubstantiveNature of Inquiry Knowledge and its PRINCIPLES OF INQUIRY of Biological ScienceRelation to the Organization and Use of this Document 5 I1 CHAPTER TWO. GUIDING Recognition and Differentiation II. I. TheThe Taxonomic Antecedent-Consequent Principle Principle 656 Skills in Carrying out PrinciplesTV.III. of V. TheTheThe Structure-Function Regulation Self-Regulatory and Homeostasis SystemPrinciple Inquiry Principle Principle 8768 III. II.I. TheActivitiesActivitiesThe student student Characteristic Characteristicwill will carry carry out outof ofactivities the activities thethe Taxonomic Structure-Function Antecedent-Consequent Mode characteristiccharacteristic of of the the taxonomic antecedent-consequent mode mode Mode Mode 10 989 IV. V. TheTheActivitiesActivities student student Characteristicwill Characteristicwill carry recognize out ofactivities of activitiesthe the Self-Regulatory Regulation-Homeostasis Mode characteristiccharacteristic of theof the structure-function regulation-homeostasis mode mode Mode 11101211 CHAPTER THREE. MAJOR FACTORS VI. I. ATheFormulating Biological student will Problem a Problemrecognize Stated activities in Terms of IN INQUIRY characteristic of the self-regulatory mode the Five Guiding Principles 131214 III.IV.II.V. FormulatingInterpretingDesigningExecuting a Hypotheses Studythe PlanData of or Investigation Findings 1517161817 VI. Synthesizing Knowledge Gained from the Investigation ix CHAPTER FOUR. TOWARDS THE USE OF BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES TO Additional Specificity for Inquiry Factors (Antecedent-ConsequentI. INSTRUCTION Mode) AND DEVELOP EVALUATIONProblem Formulation INSTRUMENTS DESIGN 2020 III.IV. II.V. InterpretingDesigningFormulatingExecuting a Study theHypotheses PlanData ofor InvestigationFindings 24282725 Samples of Instructional StrategiesVII. VI. to Bring I. SynthesizingFormulatingDifferentiation Knowledge a Problem of the Various Gained Principles from of Inquiry About Desired Behaviors the Investigation 323129 III.IV. II.V. InterpretingExecutingDesigningFormulating athe Study theHypotheses Plan Data of or the Findings Investigation 3233 CHAPTER FIVE. AFFECTIVE OR ATTITUDINAL QUALITIES OF INQUIRY BEHAVIORS VII.VI. I. SynthesizingCuriosityDifferentiating Knowledge the Various Gained Principles from of Inquirythe Investigation 343334 IV.III.VI.II.V. RealityOpennessPrecisionObjectivityRisk-taking Orientation 353635 VIII. VII.IX. X. PerseveranceConfidenceRespectSatisfaction for Theoretical Structures 3636 CHAPTER SIX. INQUIRY INTO INQUIRY XII. XI. I. ResponsibilityAnalyzingConsensus Researchand Collaboration for its Basic Parts 373837 III. II. AnalyzingEvaluating Relationships a Research ReportAmong Basic Parts 4039 CHAPTER SEVEN. CLASSROOM DISCUSSIONS: INQUIRY Descriptions of Categories Used inIV. the AnnotationsV. of the Discussions ComparingApplying ScientificSkills Gained Papers from Analyzing Scientific Papers to Other Reports INTO INQUIRY 42444345 Examples of Classroom DiscussionIII. II. I. TasksGuidingManagerial of QuestionsInquiry Questions into and Inquiryand Statements Statements 4645 APPENDICES A. II. I.Interim Summaries of Invitations to Enquiry fromSecondFirst the BSCS Discussion Discussion Biology of of"Experiments "Experiments in inPlant Plant Hybridisation" Hybridisation" (pp. (pp 1 .-13) byTeachers' Gregor1-13) HandbookMendel by Gregor Mendel .. 614685 BIBLIOGRAPHY B. Copy of "Experiments in Plant Hybridisation" TableAcknowledgements of Contents (pp.1-13) by Gregor Mendel 1071158586 The Substantive Knowledge of Biological CHAPTER ONERATIONALE findingsinquiries.on the inquiryof While inquiry processes; it is(content) true that have they been arc inseparableheavily emphasizedThe and current probably to substantive the are body of biological knowledge includes the however, many biology teachers are not familiar with them. For these reasons, it deal of attention. This attention should not exclude or foreshadow the importance of exclusion of inquiry processes.equally Recently important, emphasis for has many been yearsplaced in educationalknowledge practice ofthe inquiry processes and the findings of these is appropriate thvst inquiry teaching theprocessesTheprocess. findings Nature now of of shouldscientific Inquiry be and inquiries.given its aRelation great As a matterto the Organizationof fact,Inquiry, teaching as and defined inquiryUse in processesthis document, is a set of activities directed towards of this Document solving an open number ofdemands related problems the teaching in which of content inseparable from Thethisthebehaviors student reportbiologist to has in prescribe in theas conducting hisorder principal a listed.definite biological focusIt order is also a ofproductive research, understoodinquiry skills orenterpriseSuccess thethat and student at behaviorsinthe leading any beginning in particular carrying to for any of inquiryout a course involves some, but probably not all, possible increased understanding and application. inquiry activity or for any timeinquiry during processes a biology incourse. the inquiryclassroom, behaviors may the notand student exhibit skil will possess certain information, cog- .. There is no attempt in 4 1* nitive skills, and attitudes that are. necessary in inquiryThe activities. nature of These inquiry will is complex; inquiry engages the skills, interests, and rationally cope with it. Inquiry activitiesbe appliedmay vary and in built form upon and throughout the inquiry activities.attitudes of the person in an interaction with the sub- withsequencestantiveinquiry the andattainment forfrom analysis.cognitive one problemof Each ademands solution perspective to ofto a problemproblem, is the result asnor he It isof makes isthe efforts difficult solution efforts to viewto necessarily tointerpret inquriy a with essentialconcept a of inquiry so broadly conceived. Therefore, another and from one person to another person. Successful inquiry need not necessarily particular emphasis. The five perspectivesthe Committee are:for inquiry identified to be five deemed "perspectives" successful. of be terminated 1.2. InquirytogivenGuiding an observed phenomenon. factors. principles. phenomenon. These TheseAs can an example:representbe considered Aa rangescientist as componentsof pointsusing theof viewantecedent-consequentresulting or perceptions from a logical by principlewhich would a seekanalysis a orcause student of andinquiry mightan effect as viewa problem-solving a e activity. Examples are: "Designing a Study" and "Formulating Hypotheses." 3. Behavioral objectives. These are specific inquiry objectives that include statements of behaviors to be demonstrated under 5.4. Affectiveaccompany,specified or conditions attitudinal and shape at qualities. inquiryacceptable behaviors. These levels of criterion performance. arc expressions of attitudes that arc inferred from observable behaviors that pervade, The relation of these principles to the overall natureinsightInquiry of inquiry into into isthe inquiry. shown nature inThis of the scientific represents figure below: inquiry. a critique of scientific research to discover the variety of logical FIVE PERSPECTIVES FOR VIEWING INQUIRY patterns and to gain ponents of this model and their interrelationshipsIt areis equally shown importantbelow. to see how the perspectives fit into an overall instructional system with its focus on the student. The com- COMPONENTS OF INQUIRY IN AN INSTRUCTIONAL. Student SYSTEM StrategiesTeaching 4 Behavioral for Instruction Objectives Y Evaluation I. asBehavioral both providing objectives a perspective are shown BiologicalInquiry Interdependent Biological2Content-..- ,...... /. gies.inquirytranslatingon inquiry into anandinstructional understanding as a means strate- of Guiding Factors in Behaviorall Inquiry into Affective systemtobeenessentialBiology follow. emphasized even content though inis theitof has course not an part of lite instructional chapters Principles Inquiry Objectives Inquiry 3 Qualities presentedprincipleguiding principles providesin Chapter presenteda frameworkThree. Inin Chapter within FourTwowhich representsample theThe scientist classesinteracting the five or of studentprinciplesbehaviors components formulates presentlyfrom in each the problems known twoof the foregoing ininquiry and biological carries factorsfigures inquiryout and are, six guiding forother(Schwab, the inquiry principlesmost 137). part, factors Each aretreated in separate, chapters in this report. The pervadesituationsbiologypresented coursesthe inas otherwhich they for inquirymight studentsteachers appearcomponents mightand iftheir achieveused students.presented to aprovide given Following prior criterionIn the Chapters to framework and these performance. following TWO behaviors for through settingthis Chapter arc chapter. Five teachingcriterion Fiveemphasis includesstrategies performances is largely affective as they placed in might andpre-service onattitudinal be the written student's and qualiiies toin-service describeuse ofthat the guiding principles and inquiry factors as he inChapterothersactively developing (scientific Seven.investigates various papers, biological sections. etc.). Examples Appendixproblems. of BIn classroom consistsChapterThe ofSix discussions texta reproducedemphasis of the document whichis portionplaced illustrate isonof followed athe scientific some student's bydesired papertwo abilitv appendices.behaviors used to critiquefor the. of Appendix students discussionsthe scientific, A contains in workChapter reproducedof textual materials referred to are included in or used losingSeven.the objectives. the overall totality of the inquiring enterprise.ItFinally, is the theintent document of the Committee includes a bibliographythat the document of sources that followswhich can aid be the used reader to develop to view and inquiry evaluate from program; each perspective designed towithout attain Recognition and Differentiation GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF INQUIRY CHAPTER TWO rangedetermineto recognize of viewpoints which and differentiateprinciple from which is appropriate amonga biologist these orfor variousstudentAlthough mightprinciples view new that aprinciples given guide phenomenon scientific may emerge studies, (see in Appendixthe including future, A).1 five his The principles student of should inquiry be haveable been identified a study. The student should also be able to describe how the study would differ if a 'dif- (Schwab, 137) representingown. He a should be able to 1.ferent principle of inquiry were used. The taxonomic principle. This principle is based Principles on The student measures and compares the length of lima Examples foraboutquestions.acollecting, basisclassification the for nature Theorganizing,formulating implicittypical of biological and modein and the classifying answering of followingphenomena: inquiry data assumptionsisresearchable the to developscheme thesomeThelengthbean student student, seeds thatof second do formulates and by not collectinglatergeneration fit patterns. develops a problem. and seed. Fromclassifying this discrepant bird calls, eventfinds a problem regarding the 1The principles in this chapter B.A. servable"Things"There are characteristics. candifferent be differentiated kinds of "things." in terms of ob- Chapter 4, as follows: Antecedent-consequent principle: Invitations,Invitations, Group Group 1, III,II,Numbers Numbers Numbers 1-16A 17-2526-31 (includes Interim Summaries 1 and 2) arc exemplified in the Invitations to Enquiry and the Interim Summaries presented in the BSCS Biology Teachers' Handbook, RegulationStructure-function and homeostasis principle: principle: InterimInterimInvitations, Summary Summary Group 3 4IV, Numbers 32-37 Self-regulatoryThe Taxonomic system principle principle: is not explicitly exemplified in eitherInterimInvitations, the Invitations Summary Group 5 V, Numbers 38-44 - 5 - or Interim Summaries. II. onTheintypical independent theantecedent-consequent following mode of chains inquiry assumptions of iscause principle.the controlledaboutand effect Thisthe nature experimentrelationships.principle of biological is implicitbased The Principles ratorythyroidInteristics a series rate,gland are of placidity, experimentsnoted:is removed lower and and with temperature, obesity. the proper following The controls, lower student charac- respi- the Examples phenomena:B.A. The whole organism consists of many parts. shortness.Geneshouldto the/1 interpret removal Garden that ofpeas the these having gland. characteristics .1.1 or are due determines tallness; a determines will III. interrelationshipsThe structure; function of cause principle. and effect This chains principle that contribute isentity.Each based part to of an organism operates as an independent on Thedentandbe regulatorytall, gene might as a. there determine process is no theisinteraction essential role of the tobetween life.thyroid The gene gland. stu- A.inquiry(Harvey'sthe organism's related study to of havingthis blood principle.) a circulation certain stable illustrates charactcr theThere ormode nature. are of interrelationships of chains of causes and studentareBlood organized determines circulation to accomplish how is vital the heart to body body and activities. activities.blood vessels The IV. The13. regulation and homeostasis principle. This principlecharacterTheeffects "wholeness" that is or contribute nature. of an to organismwholeness. has a certain stable The sugar level in blood remains in equilibrium changesamongbasedthanWined onkind. changes inby the external structural(The flexibility of thermostat partsconditions. and/or of(organs, organs functionalmodel Dynamic tissues, to fits maintain changes this equilibrium etc.) guiding inin responsedegree principle.) is main- rather to an equilibrium balancesugardespite content eventhe fact when in thatblood excessive no remains sugars arein equilibriumdigested. The or sugar is digested. B.A. maintained.AOrgansternal dynamic changes.are equilibriumflexible and among can change changes in ofresponse to organs can be ex- Theallconcentrationspending otherstudent chemicals, onshould the which condition be physical aware are right factors,andthat activity forthere and the structures). bodyof (de- are several many or C. A dynamic equilibrium among changes will not result in Principles Examples V. flexibilityonThe the self-regulatory flexibility of the parts, of systemthe to organism maintain principle. asequilibrium aThis whole, principle as of wellchangesstructuraltransmitting is asbased the to changes membrane or major becoming functional secretory. changes, e.g., a Whencapacitatedmay partincorporate of part.the brain some is destroyed,or all functions adjacent of theparts in- A.partsemphasizesexternal to make or environmental functional a new integrated or structuralchanges. whole. However, changes inthis kindThe principle inorganism, the as well as its parts, is flexible and will C.B. AchangestructuralA dynamic dynamic in response changesequilibrium equilibrium to or external major amongamong functional changes. changes changes changes. can be maintained. may result in Skillssary infor Carrying him to carry Out Principlesout the inquiry. of Inquiry These activities(a)Depending are: on which of the five principles of inquiryAsking the student initial questionsuses, there ("What will be do differences I want to findin certain out about basic the activities subject neces-or phenomena of interest?"); students begin to gain some understanding of theseThe(c)(b) different principles modes. of inquiry The student become should modes be ofable inquiry to stateOrganizingMaking when a biological used observations observationsas problemmethods ("What inin ("What termscarrying data should should out inquiry.I Ido look with for It the is to desirabledata help to answer get that the that biologyclearest question?"); answer to my question?"). I.of each principle of inquiry and describe the appropriateA.The He experimentaltaxonomicwill ask questions. mode. design The for student each mode will carryof inquiry. out activities characteristic of the taxonomic mode: B. He will make observations nec- C. He will handle data in appro- What arc the similarities and Examples: essarySec hair-like to answer structures questions. on the Examples: servedpriateMake ways. characteristics. comparisons between oh- Examples: ismsdifferences found inamong this pond the organ-water? water.organisms.Seeorganisms internal found structures in the of pond the ences.servedGroup similaritiesdata according and differ-to ob- foundWhat inare Prairie the kinds State of Park? flowerSee differences parts. in leafstructure shapes. of study.schemesUse existing for organisms classification under 8 II. A.The He antecedent-consequentwill ask questions. mode. The student will B. He will make observationsessary nee- to answer questions. carry out activities characteristic of the antecedent-consequent mode: C. He will handle data inpriate appro.- ways. Ifpensmoved to fromtheir physicalmice, what charac- hap- the thyroid gland is Examples: re- Measurebefore and respiratorytemperature after treatment. of mice Examples: differencesand/orOrganize graphs data in physical which into showchar- Examples: tables teristics? trols.ProvideMeasuremice. weightfor appropriate of mice. con- rate of thyroid.andacteristics after of removal the mice ofbefore the frombothWhatcreas themice? will and islet occur the tissue pituitary if weof theremove glandpan- theMake firstabove. andobservations last example similar shown to larOrganize to example data inshown ways above. simi- Ifdominant-recessiveexpectgenotypes I cross results fruitflies for toeye-color, showwith pattern? knowna simple can I colorDistinguish in Fi and differences F2 generation. in eye- Organizeandportion F2 generations. ofdata eye-colors to show inpro- F1 III. A.The He structure-function will ask questions. mode. The student will carry out activities characteristic 13. He will identify observationsto make in order to answer of the structure-function mode: C. He will identify wayshandle to data. When bacteria invade a local Examples: Identifyskin cells observations near wound. on changes inquestions. Examples: Findlationships, ways of or showing lack of them,re- Examples: puncturearea,servecessesorganism? such toarc wound,protectas set in motion what pro- by a scratch or the invaded which IdentifyIdentifybloodblood vessels observations cells. observations near wound. on on changes changes in in among observations made. speciesIschanges thethese migrating oforgan in birdvarious changes behaviorinitiated organs? triggered of by Are x IdentifyIdentifyorgans.the environment, observations observations suchon on changes as factors day-light in in Findbetweentionships, ways of observations showingor lack of rela- made.them, byWhat changes is thein environment? function of the orthose temperature,Identify organs. observations on changes in which may affect Findlationships, ways of or showing lack of them,re- themammal's total organism? heart in relation to theIdentifyon action.neighboringstructure, the various observations location, organsparts followingof and changes action heart in of the heart. regardingtionsand action made. structure, between location, observa- IV. A.The He regulation-homeostasis will recognize questions. mode. The student will recognize activities characteristic of B. He will recognize typestonervations answerof ob- questions. that must be made C. Hethe willregulation-homeostasis recognize waysquestions.must data bemode: handled to answer theninHow progressively running, does daily a rapidlessmile feeling walking,result of Examples: ingRecognize and circulation. observations on chemical Examples: on breath- musclechangesFind ways activity, found of inrelating etc. breathing, to each the Examples: larstress action? in breathing and muscu- ofRecognizeactivity.and stress other related changes observations to each during factor on muscular feelings shown icaloffeelingsother tables, analyses, and of graphs, stress,to and reduction mathemat-inferences. by means in tuallyfoodWhy intake doesresult inthe in the noreduction human feelings even- of level,ofRecognizeabove. food etc. in inobservations stomach, relation bloodto hunger on presence sugar conditiontoFind each ways other of of relating the and total tofactors theor- destroyedYearshunger afteror fatigue? most a forest of the fire trees, that inareaRecognizepangs plant over and and many fatigue. observationsanimal years. in that on changes inFindganism. species ways andof relating environmental changes inwhy that is place? there a similar forest toinspecies.Recognize environmental observations conditions related changes in plant and animal on changes toconditionsantes the restorationbetween to each them. other of bal- and V. A.The He self-regulatorywill recognize mode.the types The of student will recognize activities characteristic of the self-regulatory 'mode: B. He will recognize types of data C. He will recognize ways of viewquestionsWill of destroying the that problem. stem a puetion from ofthis the Example: Recognize data on the repertoryneeded to of answer questions. Examples: handlingFindanswers ways tothe the of data questions.relating to find the Example: relearnimpossiblelarbraincovery learned associated the from behaviorbehaviorfor surgery? thewith animal a after makeparticu- re- to it tionRecognizestroyed.differentbehaviors and possible that data might on changes changes be learned in in struc-func- with parts of the brain de- tegratedandwholc,changesbetweendata evidences to show whole. factors relationships infor the new, of whole, the in- . forgionsRecognizeture relearning. of of undamaged undamaged data on partsamount brain of necessary brain. and re- VI. A.A biological situation. The student when givenStateinquiry. a problem in terms of each of the a biological situationprinciples such of as a pond will: B. toDescribe each type the of experimentalproblem. design appropriate (1) ispond?What its distribution? organisms What is the (populations) size of each population? What Examples: are present in the (1) samplingIdentify techniques to determine size the populations present.Examples: Use (2) factorsWhatdistribution effect such asdoes of 02 a particularlight intensity population (or othcr in the abiotic pond? , heat, etc.) have on the size and (2) relatetionMeasureandfactors) distributionofthese the light at findingsspecified various intensity of eachto depthspopulation. size (orpopulation. and otherand distribu- locations: abiotie (3) crease,andfoodWhat in webare abioticor the decrease,of thisroles factors pond? of in thethe occur What variousvarious when changes populationspopulations? there in isthe in web the an in- (3) ber,IntroduceMakepopulationscific and observations population, determine additional and in toor changes abiotic determine membersdecrease factors. in food theirtheof otherweb. a spe-num- (4) balancepopulationschangesWhen sewage in occur the and food isin in introducedthe web the size established?abiotic and into distribution factors? the pond, Is of what the a new (4) ships.andIntroducethe observe populations, measured changes and amounts in their abiotie interrelation- of factors, sewage . (5) isfactors,How a change much i.c., in sewage before the original amay "new be foodpond" introduced web is established? and before abiotic there (5) web(4)Extrapolate to and predict abiotic from ehange(s) factors. results inof originalinvestigation food tifying and solving biological problems. These Sixfactors inquiry arc commonfactors1 have to all been of the identified modes of that inquiry. include However, a wide array some of activities that and students carry out MAJOR FACTORS IN INQUIRY CHAPTER THREE of the related be- while iden- exhausthaviorsAlso,though inallare the actual of stated inquiry the practice, possibilities in behaviorsthe terms the inquiryfor areof each the presented behaviors context inquiry in offactor. area the logicalSuccess closely antecedent-consequent order, relatedin any no particular andattempt may hasoccur inquirymode. been simultaneously The madeactivity related to maybind behaviors rather requirethem thanto someaincluded definitestep but by notstep.sequence all of theor behaviors presented on the following pages. Al- probably do not time. I. Formulating a problem. Inquiry Factors (Biologists formulate problems TheA. student will: Identify one or more discrepant events: Related Behaviors within identifiable contexts of the discipline.) B. Select2.1. (carve out) a problem for study accord- InIn a structuredan open or situation. less structured situation. ing1. to the following criteria: (teacher,selectUtilizationin the a case text,problem. of of researchfindings research lie will, fromreports, reports:2 forother example, etc.) sources to a.C.b. IdentifyAnalyzeDescribe sources parts it generally. and of information.relationships. Handbook,21 ForI'he particularsfactors Chapter included see 4, asChapter follows:in this Six, chapter Invitations, "Inquiry arc exemplifiedinto Croup Inquiry," I, Numbers in page the Invitations1-16A;38. Interim to Enquiry Summaries and 1the andInterim 2. Summaries, presented in the BSCS Iliology Teachers' d. Evaluate the report on criteria. Inquiry Factors Related Behaviors 2. Judgmenta.He will: Of feasibility of the problem. Recognize there are problems that b. withSelectledge,cannot skill,abe problem solved and technology. within that can man's he solvedknow- his present knowledge and c. observations.andwithSelectskills. availability considerations a problem of that time, of can limitations tools,be solved and 3. Selectionb.a.to him, usingof a problem criteria suchwhich as: is important HisHis interest recognition in the thatproblem. solution of the e. Identificationingproblempertinentterest. other provides problemsto his of needs.the a means ofproblem(s) greater for solv- in- as II. Formulatingtigated.tentative Not answers hypotheses.all investigations to problems (Hypotheses necessarily or questions are haveherein that stated, can defined be or inves- even as A.TheC. student will: IdentifyhypothesesState the the problem elementscould bein based.ofresearchable a problem terms. on which implied,studies conductedhypotheses. in theThis taxonomic is most likely mode.) to be the case in C.B. ClarifyGenerate1.ments thein hypothesesthe statement situation. of about hypotheses: the critical ele- Eliminate, duplication. Inquiry Factors Related Behaviors III. Designing a study. (A.1-A.3 are stated in terms of the When appropriate, the student will: 2.3. Determinethe.Determine problem. if relevancethe hypothesis of the is hypothesis testable. to antecedent-consequent mode.) A. Plan3.2.1. to test hypotheses. IdentifySelect aall variable of the variables to be studied. possible. B. Plan2.1. for: SystematicEstablishReplication. proper controls. observation of descriptive C. Plan2.1. procedures to yield wanted data. Select,Selectdata. the as needed,simplest the technique appropriate: to get. data. b.a. InstrumentsSample.pHdures indicators, such asand gauges,etc. chemical microscopes, proce- c.d. sity,determinationIdentificationMathematical or weight. keys.of proceduresarea; volume, such den- as 3. c.Identify sources of errors such as measure- Mathematicaltion,addition, or division. subtraction, multiplica- operations such as - 1 6 ments,ment, computations,or operator. tools and instru- Inquiry Factors 4. Distinguish between random and Related Behaviors s\ stem- 5. atica.systematicPlan error. procedures error suchto minimize as: random and Measuring consistflitly. D. readyPlanI. a for system interpretation. for processing data to make it b.Select appropriate techniques such as e.g.,Practicing counting a yeast laborator> celk. technique, 2. range,suchSelectdata.graphs, as standardappropriate charts,determination deviation,or figures statistical of orfor mean, Chi-square. proceduresorganizing mode, IV. Executing the plan of investigation. A.The student will: Follow3. the plan for collecting, organizing, and shipsRecord in written findings and or oral significant reports. relation- C.B. analyzingRecordUsefindings. the toolsdata the accurately. properly.data, and for(Degree presenting of accuracy the V. interpreting the data or findings. TheE.D. student will: ReviseReviewdetermined proceduresthe toolsby the and naturewhen procedures indicatedof the problem.)used. by results. - 1 7 - B.A. UseIdentifydata results or assumptionsfindings. of other hestudies has used to interpret in the study. the (Interpreting the data or findings, cont.) Inquiry Factors C. EmployI. reasoning skills; plicationDeductive from a generalization (general Related Behaviors arriving at a particular im- 2. (specificInductivetoterpretationfrom specific). the to evidence,general). by reasoning or arriving from evidenceat an in- arriving at a generalization E.D. ExaminebringatevanceUse hand outvarious andtodifferentcollected both to means other the features. data problemofproblems. presentingto determine and hypotheses the its data rel- to G.Fl.F. IdentifyAvoidDraw tentative overgoneralizingconflicts conclusions. or discrepancies the results: in the data. 2.1. WithholdtheRestrictis available. hypotheses interpretationsjudgment being until tested. tosufficient limitations data of 4.3. assumptions.availableRestrict interpretationsevidence. to limitations of VI. Synthesizing knowledge gained from the investigation. TheA. studentB. will: CollateRelateto the findings findingsworld at to andlarge. varied make personal interpretations interests from and 11111111111111111111111111Milmummimmoimmimismismommiginiogimum...... ____ - 1 8 - several experiments. Inquiry Factors C. (ApplicationsApplyassumptions knowledge and arc conditions.) madegained in to light new ofsituations. limiting Related Behaviors 3.2.1. searchSpeculatePredictMake problems. additional predictions about potential applications. that suggestapplications. new re- D. 4.Recognize new problems. currentshipDetermineIdentify between theories. additionalthe tentative validity research conclusions of the problems.relation- and 2.L3. gatingDesignvalidity the modifiedofnew samescientific investigations problem. procedures models. to for investi- test the E.F. elsUseknowledge. theoryRecognizeas theories, a means may theoretical thatbeof relatinginconclusive. evidence constructs, and for organizing or against and mod- newa given G.H. RecognizeeachRecognizetestable one at making that thethat timea several theory a uniqueof formulation. theories may contribution. or maymay be not useful, 1w CHAPTER FOUR with additional specificity. It is to be pointed out Thethat basicthe examples purpose presentedof this chapter in this is document to demonstrate are exemplary, how samples not prescriptive.of behavioral objectives for biology can be written and used DESIGN INSTRUCTION AND DEVELOP EVALUATION INSTRUMENTSTOWARDS THE USE OF BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES TO appearownthis levelclassroom if they can are provide situations. to be usedthe framework by teachers within or supervisors whichThe Theteachers tofirst second specify section can section classesset provides terminal providesof acceptable samples criterion samples of studentperformances how of the instructional performance. objectives for specific instrategics The "Major objectivessubject Factorsplanned matter written in to Inquiry"in bring their at about and "Guidingthe desired Principles behaviors of inInquiry" students, might plus Additionalexamples of Specificity the specific for behavior Inquiry Factorswithin the (Antecedent-Consequent context (Symbolsof the strategy. in parentheses Mode) and refer Guiding to the Principles objective ofin ChaptersInquiry Two and Three from which these were derived.) Inquiry Factors Acceptable Student Performance I. A.ProblemB. formulation. willGivenidentify eliminate problemsa at structured least those onewhich thatdiscrepantor involveopen are not situation, findingevent.feasible. (LA;causes, the(I, B, p.student 14)2,the a; student p. will 15) TheseEliminatescause.Communicatesis unlikely ideas a within problemmay one be theproblem onexpressed present the thatcriterion limits involves in of that man's findingsolution skills. a the student's C. willGiven eliminate problems those which that involve are not finding feasible. causes, (I, B, the2, b; student p. 15) Eliminatesstudent'sandislanguage. unlikely skills. language. a withinproblemThese theideas on student's the may criterion be present expressed that knowledge solution in the E.D. GiventoGivenc;limits p.his 15)a of instructionsteacherproblem, available the the totime,extent studentdo so,tools, to the will which andstudent redefine observations. he will has it communicate utilizedwithin (I, theB, the 2, resource.IndicatesDepends onextent(E, existing 1 through to which limitations. E, he 7 hasbelow utilized are examples a particular of sourcefollowingteacher persons, consultation, resources books, as periodicals, aidstext, otherB, 1; and p. students, 14) research other reports. re- in selecting a problem: - 2 0 - this objective elaborated for research reports.) Inquiry Factors Acceptable Student Performance 2.1. AnalyzedIdentified1, a; p. 14) sources the basic parts of the research reports, author, title, journal, etc. (I, B, For Research Report Utilization student will have: TheCitationperson analyzed tois findspecific parts the aresame enough recognizable reference. to enable as entities. another formulationconclusions,waysdatae.g., collection of organizing of and procedures, the assumptions problem data, kind(s) interpretations and which interpretationof data guided collected, and/or the of problem, hypotheses, experimental design, 3. partschaptervariousAnalyzeddata. of category(I, "Inquiry parts B, the 1, of relationshipsb; E intoreports arep. Inquiry",14) also such (Additionally, an betweenas: elaboration pp. 38-43) the all basicof further the and variousLimited parts by thepresent number in the and report scope analyzed. of basic and b.a.c. formulated.Interpretations'InterpretatiiisData sought and and and the the theproblem. kinds way ofthe data problem obtained. was 4. d.Described each report. researchtheAssumptions, researcher design, implicit inand relation interpretations. and explicit, to the problem, made by asSummary a description abstract is aor comprehensive translation written match by with student the 5. Evaluateda. reports in the following ways; he has:itsjudged formulation, the appropriateness given such criteria of the as problem feasibility and original.theLimited specific by reportstandards evaluated. to be set by the teacher for implicitbackgroundlimitations;problem and to time explicit.ofdata the and sought, author; tool andlimitations; relationship assumptions, research of theboth - 21 - Inquiry Factors Acceptable Student Performance b. givenJudgedtentative the the criterionsolutionsappropriateness tothat the the problem,of hypotheses the hypotheses, and he: arc objectivestatements(InDepends this and testing onof other specifics,the situation, performanceshypotheses it isthe suggested understudent which consideration. will dependthat, be in able anon (2)(1) MustMust identify clearly critical state hypotheses elements. in the de- choicesto correctly with oneanswer being an correct.) item consisting of five (4)(3) ductiveduplicates.MustMust sense.insure insure that hypotheses arc testable that hypotheses are not partsthuswillinproblem. that of supportcontributing requiredcategory (The or datareader rejectE are canto iselaborationsthesolution be readvised collectedhypotheses, of that andtheof all c. design,Judged given the appropriateness the following criteria: of the research pp.the 38-43.) chapter "Inquiry into Inquiry", throughLimited,lection 6.) asmethod(s), above, by etc.the specificprovided. design, (Applies data tocol- 5 c (1)(2) ThesupportThewhichproposed. design design can or berejectionmust must analyzed. be ofablestructured all tothe yield hypotheses to test data for (3)Judgedmethods the given appropriateness the following of criteria: data collection assumptions,The design must both meetstated the and researcher's implied. (1) collected.InquiryMethods Factors must fit the type of data Acceptable Student Performance e. organizing(2)Judged the data, appropriateness given the following of methods criteria: ofcollectMethods the mustdata sought.have functioned to actually anotherDatatheinferencesMethods hypotheses could way must drawn not to presentunder havegreater from examination.been the the facilitate data dataorganized such relate infer- that toin f. assumptions,Judgedand conclusions the appropriateness in and in termsby the of problem,of stated interpretations and hypoth- impliedination.ences about the hypotheses under exam- 6. thenumberJudged parts. coherence of interlocking of the relationshipswhole report based andeses, data research organization design, datamethods. collection methods, among all of on the 8.7. Evaluatedpertinentlem is judged evidence, reports reports in terms such soand of that thatmethodsother the adequacy possible importance of gathering assumptions,of the of prob- data. the ImportanceAdequacymethods.assumptions, has has been pertinentbeen judged judged evidence, in in terms and of data gathering any way in terms of some other F. Given a problem, the student will state it in research-tentialresearchstudent, contribution is the judged political in to terms scientific and ofsocial its knowledge.significance times, and the to the po- Communicateseach of the three thecriteria. elements of the problem on i able terms. (I, C; p., 15) which hypotheses could be based. II. Formulating hypotheses. Inquiry Factors Acceptable Student Performance A. Givenstudentwhichwillmunicate identify a includeproblem shall one potentialinclude orthe of more avariable cause-effect evidenceindependent (functionally in controllablethat nature., variables, theseparate) hypotheses the form. andhypothesesstudent com- The are Enquirytakeaccepted1. the #10."deductiveas tenable (Schwab, andform. fruitful. 137) See "BSCS The hypotheses Invitation shallGiven to a problem statement in researchable terms, Any size list of any factors more than one. 2. Giventhatrelatedthe studentcomes a to list the to ofwill problemmind."factors said(II, on A;theto bep. criterion: 15)possibly "anything related to list any factors which may be Any order of factors on the criterion that some are 3. Givenwitha p.certain 15) respect a problemproblem, to relevance statement the student to in the researchable problem: (II,terms, A; will order the factors Identifiesproblemmoreby the "central," student.than potential others, "important," independent or some other variables. reason offered "related," to the 4. Giventhe(II,p. student15) C; a p. hypothesis, 15) will formulate the astudent hypothesis. will (II,clarify A & it.B; Thewaycontrollable implied of controlling). independent (student gives variable example or variables of at least art' one 5.6. (II,problem,GivenGiven C, 1; a a p.group thegroup 15) student ofof hypotheses will eliminate (asderived in 5),duplication. fromthe student one CombinesOrdersno duplication. the or groupeliminates of hypotheses hypotheses on so the that basis there of ishis andwill relevance.communicate (II, his C, decisions 2 & 3; p. as 16) to the testability - 24 - judgment of testability and relevance. Inquiry Factors Acceptable Student Perfortnance III. DesigningA. a study. Givenacommunicate test a of problem, the hypothesis(es). all and/or the variables hypothesis(es), (III, that A, might1; p. the operate student during will 16) pendentIndicates variable at least underone variable study. other than tlw inde- B.C. studiedGivenmunicate a toproblem test the the single and hypothesis. hypothesis,independent (III, the A,variable student2; p. 16) that will must com- be Includesesis.pulatedIndicates forin as theeach a variabledeductive independent that statement factor variable which of athe situation ishypoth- mani- D. Givenoper.,iitmentto control instructionsa(based variables, problem, the onindependent athe tohypotheses,hypothesis preparestudent variables. willthe or and designcommunicatehis (III,listown of A,of oran 3;all another's experi-p. aother 16)plan outPreparesitin iswhich executionleft free ita isdesign to held vary.plans, constantthat, canwhen andyield given a situation execution to others in which planswith- E. Givenstudentwaychoice) it instructionswaswill that toprepare could be executed besuchto executeddo a so,design. by the the by student (III,student others B, 1;will in p. the16)produce same himself, the student.identicalDisplays regularity of time intervals for measure- to those intended or produced by the F. Planstionevidence1. of procedures descriptive that he tohas data. yield planned (III, wanted B, for 2; data: p.systematic 16) observa-Given a situation that requires gathering data, and Selectsallment, areas is the constantrelative "means" to in descriptive skillsjudged of simplest tool observation. use, by is theconstant teacher. in 2. inggivenGivenmeans. data, five different (III,the means studentC, 1; samplesof p. differingwill1.6) select purported simplicity the single to represent for simplest gather- the SCIeetti the tiample judged most representative by 3. varywilldistributionstrumentGiven selectin n instructions and and/orthe of randomness.) aone given technique most to data communicate representative (III, population,for gatheringC, 2a; thep. the (Samplesacorrect givenstudent in-set 16) rectIndicatesthe teacher. by the instrument teacher. and/or teehnique judged cor- 2,of b;data, p. 16)the student will so communicate. (III, C, 25 4. Given instructions to communicate a method of Inquiry Factors Includes formulae for finding circular, rectangular, Acceptable Student Performance instructionsdeterminingGivenmunicatedepending a cylinder acceptable the toon determinearea regularity of of 500methods. a flat mlits of field, watervolume, the (III, theperiphery, fromC, student the2, ad; studentlake p. will,com-16) and oneandStatesalong ofirregularly several withvolume a polarmapping tobordered + or 5 mlhatchet procedures error.areas planimeter). (in thecould latter be usedcase 6. willwilluatedGiven2, d;determine communicatep. cylinder, a 16) cup of the anda watersoil a accurately centigram of column's unknown balance,the volume. density, density the (III, astudent of grad- C,the Includes accuracy to ±. .5g /cc. 7. Givensubstance.object.studentbalance, an (III, willobject and(III, C,communicate theC, 2,of 2,valued; unknown d; p. p. 16) of 16) the weight, correctforce of a weight centigramgravity, of thethe Includes accuracy to ±. .1g. H.G. GivenGivenstudentmatical instructions techniques willoperation so select. to and/orin select a (III, certain equipmenttheC, 2, mostset e; ofp. appropriate 16)circumstances,for measuring mathe- andthe IncludesSuchcircumstances.vance a by communication.indication the teacher of an as operation most appropriate defined infor ad- the formationstudenthabituallydegreeprocessing above will that works data communicatethe the in equipmentwithin correctan experimental a figure,certain that is inaccurate the andset study, techniquesof that error andtoshe alimits, givenoperatorknown and/or thein- I. toheTheerrorequipment accountwill student is weightrandom. foris will systematically itsor (III, alsoerror.calibrate C, communicate (III,3, 4;the C, pp.in systematic 5; error,16 p. andthe17) and extent17) error the tooperatorproducer which Includes calibration + 1/2 of the limits of fluctuation. Inquiry Factors Acceptable Student Performance J. givensimilarrepresentingHe will a populationmaterial or will observations for not offour accept data other of gathered athe operators.single work measure, by of (III, the the C,operator operator,and 5; p.given 17) tionIncludeslent has in thethe selection smalleststudent's of variance, ownthe operatorlanguage. spread, whose or its distribu- equiva- K. ing(III,lected,experimentalGiven collected D, a the1, deduced 2 student &data design,3; p.soantecedent-consequent will 17) as and tocommunicate prepare the nature it for a of plan interpretation. datahypothesis, for to process- be col- its utilizingfollowingFormulatesprocedures:to the data), oneorganizational ameasurement or charts,plan both utilizing orof forms: figures.the of followingcentral one graphs Formulates or tendencies, more (appropriate statistical of a theplanChi- IV. ExecutingA. the plan of investigation. gatheringGiven instructions and processing to execute data from a plan a controlled which includes experi- square.nificant Designs relationships. a format to record findings or sig- 2.1.ment, the student will: UsedataProduce gatheringaccording evidence techniques to thatthc plan.he is (or gathering(IV, instruments), A; p. and17) processing process- IncludesContingentprovided a matchplan. upon of nature gathering of specific and processing problem. to the withingerrorandthe forms, whatever techniquesstatistical consideration and crrorstatistical procedures(or considerationsinstruments), above procedures, may for have,data processingand in collection.assumptions toaccordance clarify forms, the If notmineapplicable,(IV,nature applicable, ifB; actualof p. the17)an errorproblemcrroraccuracy analysis is withinas will interpreted willbe predicted determined be used by the limits.to byteacher.deter- the If 3. functionedceduresReviewplan. (IV, theby D; indicatingtechniquesas p. planned 17) thc (orduring instruments)extent execution to which and of each pro- the bywithIncludes the specific teacher such acceptance demonstrationsfor a given minimaproblem. in the to student'sbe determined idiom, Inquiry Factors Acceptable Student Performance V. InterpretingGivenit,eses, the processedand student the the data controlledwill: data or findings.and aexperimental synopsis of the design problem, that producedhypoth- A.B. CorrectlyUsep. 17) the resultsidentify of the at leastassumptions one of three of the other study. studies (V, pro-A; CommunicatesIdentifieserror.areas of: at theoretical, least the three extent operatorassumptions; to which error, another one instrument each study in C. Inductive:videdGiven to interpreta set of data,the data communicate or findings. (V, a generalization. B; p. 17) (Fromsupportwas used graphed of to hypotheses make data) a judgment states by the a newrelationship of support data or or findings.between lack of D. (V,GivenDeductive: C, 2; data p. 18)and a generalization, the student will solve a judged(Fromtwo variables. correct a stated by Thisrelationship the mustteacher. be between the actual two relationship variables) E. toUseproblem bring at least outusing twodifferent the different generalization. features means of the(V,of presenting data.C, 1; p.(V, 18) D; the p. data 18) involved.behaviorstateswhenPresents the asked of behaviordata the to twoother. do ofsodifferent Accuracyoneby the variable waysteacher. specific judged when to given acceptableproblem the F.G. GivenbyWhenthe the particular that instructedteacher there conflict.to is beto a drawinsufficient,conflict (V, conclusions F; in p. the 18)withhold data, from communicate judgment data, known until WithholdstheIncludes conflict a judgment.statement, sought by in the the teacher. student's own words, of H. limitedWillfurtherp. 18) select data to the isfrom available.restrictions a list the (V, ofone H, the 1; interpretation hypotheses.p. 18) (V,which H, 2;is Selects the one judged correct by the teacher. Inquiry Factors Acceptable Student Performance I.J. WillWilllimitedlimited(V, select selectH, 3; to fromp. thefrom 18) restrictions a alist list the the one of one evidence interpretation interpretation available. which which (V, H,is is 4; to the restrictions of assumptions available. Selects the one judged correct by the teacher. VI. SynthesizingA. knowledge gained from the investigation.p.studentportingGiven 18) limited will demonstrate antecedent-consequent that he has conclusions, compared these sup- data, and other experimental reports, the laritiesIncludes and a comprehensivedifferences as they communication actually exist. of simi- B. ofportingGivensimilardata one and limitedstudy'sand/or data, conclusions andreplicateantecedent-consequent data comprehensive and studies.with conclusions data (VI, knowledgeand B; to conclusions,p. conclusions similar18) of and/ormatch sup- of areLists possible at least as two defined applications by the teacher. where applications C. thisoneportingGivenreplicate study. study's limited data, (VI, studies, dataC; comprehensiveantecedent-consequent p. theand19) student knowledgewill list conclusions, applications of match sup- of conclusions to similar and/or Includesreplicateof the any studies studies. application given originallyof the limited and conclusions in similar or D. replicatetiveGivenofand the relatedconclusions, new a studies,report problem's problem, of and a researchsolution.the giveninstructions student current (VI,study, will C,theoriesto predict 1;includingresolve p. 19) that the a seek naturenewtenta- to problemDepends, and for theories a positive given. or negative answer, on the countedthelematicaccount(VI, conclusions C, in forfor,4; the p.such not 19)study, contradictoryarephenomena the(are student not) as validlyto werewill the communicate consideredcurrent related, theories. i.e. prob- thatac- E. Givenwillday" select aoccurrences report the as occurrence above, or adolescent its orfindings, interest interests, and most a list closely theof "every- student related Inquiry Factors Is problem specific as above. Acceptable Student Performance F. testtonewGivenured the item.) findings.problemunobtrusively (as (VI, above), A; (Ideallyin p. which the18) rather studentthis a cause thanobjective will through-of identifysome would an at be objective least meas- one phenomenon Includesarea as athe problem given problems,defined from and the which same would general not G. isGiven notdatacate known. whichana theoretical experimental (VI, will D, (through 1;model, p. procedure 19) interpretation) the student designed will support, communi- to produce fail to andbeenhavecontradict.Depends students. beenundertaken. recognizableon Datastructures must hadand be notabledesigns the to previoussupport, given by fail,studies teacher or H. support,procedurecludedGivenp. 19) aorabout, problem contradictfor reinvestigatingthe whichstudent the he theoretical will has it. communicate already(VI, model.D, studied3; p. (VI, 19)a modifiedand D, con- 2; beCommunicates not identical toat original).least one such procedure (must I. observationalGivennewwhich problem.a bestlist ofrelates theories data,(VI, or E;the organizes p.and student 19) a new thewill problem data select pertaining with the theoryrelated to the SelectsMarks the "inconclusive" one theory that the will one from such a list set of five.evidence J.K. inconclusive.theory,Givenplanets,Given a the setinstructions the student of (VI,student inconclusive F; will p. will to19) categorize test communicate evidence a theory the newfor of that orlifeevidence againstwe on are other asnota Includesfromwords.clusive a total as such judged of athree statement by thesets, teacher. two in ofthe which students are owncon- L. capablephenomenon,phenomenonGivenpriate severalat of this the and time different severalthe faced ofstudent testing theories. theorieswith will thethis that Additionally,selectnecessity theory. account the (VI, to most for explain G;the a appro-p.19)certain student the Selectionstheoriessuch. (Given provided.) and widestatements variance (in in his appropriateness own words) as of will communicate that neither theory is broadly "most Inquiry Factors Acceptable Student Performance VII. ofentheticalDifferentiation Inquiry: references Recognition of the are various and for Differentiation.")the'chapter principles "Guiding of inquiry. Principlesinstancescorrect," wherebut rather the other(s)each functions do not. (VI, H; as a useful tool in p. 19) (Par- A. studentGiven examples will select of thethe variousexample principles which is of antecedent- inquiry, the Principles of Inquiry Includesstudent's such own words.behaviors communicated in the B. Givenstatingstudyconsequent, from athat problem it thelabel involves others itwhich as findingsuch,by involves listing and separateits finding differences this particular and by causes of effects. (II; p. 6) a cause, the Includes a comprehensive and operational com- C. willGivenpropriate.student list a completedchanges will (Chapter state which study whichTwo, would inIntroduction; principle apply of throughout inquiry the one principle, thc student p. 5) is ap- ExampleDependsidenticalinmunication to below:on the principle-changeof formal the antecedent-consequent definition. and problemthe principle,student's idiom, which is functionally area. (Chapterstudy if aTwo different Introduction; principle of inquiry p. 5) were used. classificationtaxonomicIn changing study, from would of operations data be into the wouldcategories.end in and of The a cause-effect study to a cease with it- isonomictaxonomiccollectionself, not with likely to literature themethods scheme. withoutantecedent-consequent reviews A reformulation change directed from principle thc of or supporting use of a at refining tax-the i problem itself. Samples of Instructional The page numbers below, as Strategies to Bring about in the previous chapter, Desired Behavior. refer back to Chapters Two and Three. Only the last entry in this section I.refers to Chapter Two.) (I,FormulatingThe A; teacherp. 14) a mightproblem. present ceasing, and reoccurringBSCS upon "Invitation to Enquiry moving to Boulder,#10" to (Schwab,Chicago, 137) to class inand such back a way to Boulder.as to give Satisfaction raw information of this aboutobjective sickness would occurring, be evident "What"Could"What caused was something in the Boulder sickness present that in in when a majority of students or made them sick?" or:Boulder?"Chicago, or:but not in Boulder, teams formed a causal be responsible for their problem such as: sickness?" II. FormulatingThe(II,might 3; class p. lead 16) if hypotheses. faced them withto suggest a problem relating to "Invitationpossible to causes and to phrase their statements about causeEnquiry #10": "What caused in a deductive mode: If..., the sickness in Boulder?" The then.... Accept- teacher III. lationDesigningable ofstudent some a study. performance potential independent For pollen allergy as a would be reached when allpossible cause: "If we wear pollen variable is suggested. Example: individuals or teams generate at filtering masks while in Boulder, least one such statement in which then we should not get sick." manipu- The(III,intem theC;class is p.deductive a 16)light-sensoryhas accepted sense: thesystem,If we problem:interfere "What with isthe the ability role of of the thishas system been selected to as a possible potential influencelateral explanation.line of othersystem factors, in The fish?" teacher An has lead receive light, then the behavior hypothesis, that the lateral line sys-the classsuch to form as sound this hypothesis and temperature, of the fish will be affected. hypothesis.Theastures.with possibleclass the has Evidenceability also been of ofthe exposedattainment lateral of stimuli to the lateral line system. line system to receive light whilethrough discussion to the this objective would be The teacher suggests that they production by eachenabling team it orto individualreceive sound and be design a controlled experiment which exposed to different tempera-of a design which interferes will test their IV. Executing(IV,The A, class B the and has plan C; just p.of 17) investigation.started to perform a laboratory activity which - 32 - requires titration and specific calculation in order to be able to recordwhether number or not of the millimoles physical manipulations andof mathematical exhaled CO2. The teacher moves among calculations are being performed and calculation exactly as calledthe teams or individuals as they according to the plan provided in for in the plan. work. She checks V. Interpretingthe(V, Thelaboratory C, students,2, Induction; the guide. data in teams or Evidencep. findings. 18) or as of individuals, are shown a graph which successful performance is manipulation relates frequency of comprehend that the relationship breakage to uv A for maze. between the variables isThecomprehension expressedchromosomes.whole teacher class samples by orthe thisThewithin plotted understanding far)ensuing teams, of points. a discussioncertain of the Theand teacher explainspossible then wherenucleic shows relationship needed acid,the class producesuntiland between twoall orevidence the three first other of attainment of the absorption spectra (sampling thismaterials objective for if uv theand energy. inference second She showings isinvites made with respect to and explaining to assure discussion, by the from the curvesthe nature of thatGiven(V,most C, 1,thelikely Deduction; above to break mightintroduction p. a 18)be strand made and of of nucleic acid?" Successful performance continuing withnucleic thenucleic same acid. topicacid absorptionthe graph (or, more teacher asks,is attained "Which when of several students uv select frequencies commonsimply, any frequency represented at a frequencies would be peak on the to VI. theSynthesizinginferchromosome (VIchromosome theA, B,correct C, knowledgebreakage &breakage frequencyE; pp. graph) 18-19) graphgained for as andbreakage from only the this ofinvestigation. nucleic acid.information is needed, once the V, C, 2 relationship above is accepted, to strongly toThetweensome each class behavior characterthese has studiedfindings, during are pure,Mendel's thus and indicating and Sutton's germ-cell division. During an open discussion of that these characters are transmitted attainment of this objective, by describing work and has an understanding of (a) independently, andthese (b) papers, Sutton's the observations student tan show the Mendel'sthe parallel conclusion between that puritygerm-cells and independentin respect of chromosomes. relationship be- of chromo- VII. transmissionDifferentiatingThe(Guiding class hasPrinciplesof hereditarythestudied various of Mendel's Inquiry, factors principles paper, andII; p. ofthe 5)inquiry. "Experiments in Plant Hybridisation." The structural integrity and independent assortment ("The Reproductive Cells of the Hybrids") is in the students can recognize that the first part of the antecedent-consequent inquiry,mode,studydistinctionthe was paper.and the in can objective thebetween describetaxonomic (tothe the differentiate)two mode, differences modes. that the During will insecond have a discussionpart problem-formulation and experimental design of the twobeen parts obtained if each team of students - 33 - of Mendel's paper aimed at differentiating the differentiates as above for each part of guiding principles of which justify the AFFECTIVE OR ATTITUDINAL QUALITIES OF INQUIRY CHAPTER FIVE BEHAVIORS nowbehaviors available. seem Their to pervade the entire inquiry process,Among no behaviors important to success at inquiry are importance, however, is not to be negated or minimized. As more those sometimesconsistent termed(156) method affective has of recently identifying, or attitudinal. operationalized describing, Although and or ameasuringmeasured some of these is known about them, they will be accorded variety of thesetheir extent is objectives. ofcertainmore those specific observable behaviors hasbehaviors been included may reasonably here as ManyNo attempt of these has behaviors been made are todifficult be all inclusive,to identify to because prescribe no sequence, or to and detailed attention and treatment. Steiner desirable objectivesbe taken as of indicative the inquiry of experience. affect or as expressions of attitude. To that extent, a verifiable psychomotor response can be associated with them. Yet, associate these behaviors with particular activities. It sampling willisquiry assumed apply process and that buildas students one on of themawill voluntary demonstratethroughout active their theseparticipant inquiry rather Attitude or Quality and other desirable behaviors to varying degrees at the beginning of the courseexperience. and It is further assumed thatthan the a passivestudent receptor. perceives his role in the in- Related Observable Behavior I. Curiosity. The Student: B.A.C. ideas.ExpressesAsksExpresses for aevidence desirea desire to to forinvestigate support additional conclusions new information. things made or E.D. frompublicExpressesExpresses scientific domain. interest a materials.desire infor scientific explanations. issues in the II. Openness. The Student: A.C.B. opinionsDemonstratesSeeksExpresses and to criticismconsiders willingness the realization and new evaluationto evidence. subject that dataknowledge by others.and/or is - 34 - D. ofExpressesincomplete. conclusions knowledge as products of the of science.tentative nature III. Reality orientation. Attitude or Quality The Student: B.A. Expresseshis Demonstrateslimitations.Related awareness Observable knowledge that Behavior change and acceptance is the rule of C.D. knowledge.ExpressesratherExpresses than awarenessthe exception. of of the several fallibility sources of human of F.E. influencingExpresseseffort. belief the environment. in science as a means of . : G.H. scienceDemonstratesDoespresentDemonstrates not requires knowledge. alter the awarenesshishard realization data. work. of thatthe limitationsresearch in of I.J. mentExpressessirableDemonstratesand ofcharacteristics patterns novelty awareness of beliefshould inquiry of of science. that bethe and tempered historicthe of searchthe processes develop-by foraware- de- IV. Risk-taking. The Student: A.B. WillinglyregardlessExpressesand/orness and failure. subjectsunderstanding hisof theopinions, himself presence of feelings, to traditional ofpossible authority. or criticismcriticisms concepts. V. Objectivity. The Student: C.A.D. IndicatesParticipatesported by a a willingness evidence freelypreference in classover to for try unsupporteddiscussions. statementsnew approaches. opinion. sup- Attitude or Quality B. IndicatestionsRelated that a preference have Observable withstood for scientificBehaviors the test generaliza- of critical VI. Precision. The Student: A.C.B. Indicatesreview.DemonstratesSeeks adefinitions preference sensitivity of for important coherent to the words. statements. appropriate- D. Expressesgivennessmore of context. thangeneral the one need and/or point to examine of a problem from specific statementsview. in a VII. Confidence. The Student: B.A. successExpressesleaps."Demonstrates at inquiry. confidence willingness that he to cantake achieve "intuitive VIII. IX. Perseverance.Satisfaction. The Student: A.A. Pursuesinquiry.Expressespractical a pointproblem satisfaction of termination. to its with solution the process or to a of X. Respect for theoretical structures. The Student: B.A. enceExpressesrelatingmodels,Demonstrates will enableand theories,confidence organizing awarenesshim andto that newconcepts ofhis knowledge.the inquiry importance as means experi- of attain future goals. B. knowledge.frameworkcurrentlyDemonstrates accepted or awarenessbasis theories for the of emergenceandthe importanceconcepts of newas of a - 36 - C. knowledge,scientificDemonstrates procedures theories, awareness andto the concepts. of generation the importance of new of XI. Responsibility. Attitude or Quality The Student: A. learningIs activeRelated goals. in helpingObservable to identify13ebaviors and establish C.13. Insistsassignment.Demonstratesbase conclusions. upon adequate willingness evidence to work on beyond which the to F.E.D. ShowsSuggestswithDemonstrates others. respect changes for willingness to the improve contributions to procedure. share knowledgeof others. XII. Consensus and collaboration. The Student: A.G.H. InitiatesOffersidiom,Demonstrates a style,rationale action or for framewillingnessfor the criticism. of benefit reference to changeof thewhen group. from work- one C.13. whenCallsingofSeeks withview uponopinions clarificationothers. or other frame and talent of help reference.of from arcanother needed. within person's the group point There are means other than direct laboratory experiences to involve students in inquiry. One INQUIRY INTO INQUIRY CHAPTER SIX means consists of allowing students scientificarethatdevelopto critique very the majority investigationsimportant.skills scientific and of appreciationsstudents papers, carried enrolled (See out of Appendixby critical in scientists biology reading B forwilland example) andbecomescience thinking students. abstracts, that This or other type ofreports activity to discover the variety of logical consumers of science rather than scientists, these skills and appreciations arc generalizable to other types of communication. Assuming can be challenging and cart help students patterns in 1. A.Analyzingidentify: research for its basic parts. The student willThe problem. WasWhatThe the student question problem might was stated askthe explicitly? investigator concerned with? B. The hypotheses. WhatwhichHoworganismsFlow initial data diddid hewas theguesses studied,select investigatorcollected? amongdid factors the these?investigator limit looked the problem,for, make? time e.g.,over C. The experimental design. WhatbestWhat guess? wereconsequences, plan the was experimental used if to answer factors? the question? any, did he predict from his D. The procedures for collecting the data. WhatWhat procedurescontrolsother instruments, variables were were used? tools,were used? identified?etc. were used? E. The kind(s) of data collected. WereWhat verbalsamplingproceduresqualitative descriptions, techniques wereand quantitative made diagrams, used? for replication? etc. constructed? measures taken? F. The ways of organizing the data. used?WereHow were graphs, the datacharts, organized? and/or statistical procedures The student might ask G. The interpretations and/or conclusions. WereWhatfied?pretations? assumptionsdiscrepancies were or conflicts made in inmaking the data the identi- inter- H. Thethe assumptions, researcher in both formulating explicit andthe probleirimplicit, tndthat interpret- guided WereWhatoriginaltion interpretations ideasdoes problem aboutthe investigator and the, made hypothesis? nature within takeof the the for problem limits granted, of situa- the e.g., II. Analyzing relationships among basic parts. Examplesing theare: data. cyclicaldynamicsingle causal system, chains? stable system, linear eausal chains, factor, multiple factors, discrete entities, A. Data sought and the problem. InAreproblemthe his the theway experimental means datais the stated? problemsought of collecting design consistent is delimited? 1wthe selecteddata with consistent the plants way with the B. Interpretations and the kinds of data obtained. beyondDoparticulardata the. warrant? interpretationsthe characteristics. data? Are they "fit" Why? more the data? limited Do thanthey thego C. Interpretations and the way the problem was formulated. problemsDotoDo theadequately they interpretations asshow stated? investigate the need provide for the additional stated an answer problem? data into orderthe D. Implicit and explicit assumptions made by the researcher Whatformulating assumptions the problem? were made in delimiting or The student might ask inpretations. relation to the problem, research design, and inter- Whatstudy?data? assumptions were were made made in in interpreting designing the E. Amongreport.)(Examples other combinations of the above: are stated in general terms; they would be phrased more specifically when referring to particulars Wereproblem the takenassumptions into account made in ininterpreting the data? formulating the of the given III. A.Evaluating a research report. EvaluateI. the components of the study (where present).Problem and its formulation. theIsproblem? the prior problem knowledge Why stated or why available as not? clearly that as is possible relevant givento the 3.2. ResearchHypotheses. design. IfWereso anthe given hypothesis most the the assumptionsappropriate? type is notof stated, Couldused was in others designing it necessary have. thebeen to study doused? problem? Why or why not? 4. Methods of collecting data. WereWhyWhatdata or allconsidered'? iswhy the the not?available investigator's techniques justification for collecting for using the the 5. Methods of organizing data. IfWouldmethods tionsmadestatistical inothercertain selected them procedures methods features consistent rather ofwereof than organizingthem with used, other more the were possible assumptions theapparent? the data assump- ones? have of statisticalthe problem procedures and design applied of thecorrectly? study? Were the The student might ask 6. Interpretations and conclusions. IfCouldtationmade? statistical other based procedures possible only on theinterpretations were statistical used, is relationships the have interpre- been or Ifthem?howalso?is there there does arc substantive discrepanciesthe investigator evidence justify for the his interpretation treatment of or conflicts in the data, B. ficationalso(QuestionsformEvaluate pertinent the and coherentthe listed forinterlocking here, reasons for whole. but II, for"Analyzingin relationships additioncoherency wouldrelationships...," of all ask for justi- or lack of it.) parts which are Aretionships?Did the the relationships investigator stated overlook or implied? some possible rela- C. 1.Evaluate the adequacy of the problem in Possible assumptions. terms of other: ficationArcmade? there Wouldor other delimitation theseassumptions have of provided the that problem? might additional have Why been clari- or 2. Pertinent evidence. databeenArewhy there benot?considered? more other complete? kinds'of If these Why evidencehad orbeen why thatused, not? could would have the r 3. Methods of gathering data. WhyinterpretationfewerIfused, other or assumptions whywouldtechniques not? have the have hadfordata gatheringbetter had be to supporting be themade? data Wouldevidence? had been the more complete? Would The student might ask D. Evaluate2.1. the significance of the scientific paper to:The politicalstudent himself. and the social times. Whatissues? dolight theDoes does findings it this help studyof me this understand, throw study on mean contemporary e.g., to me?the argu- 3. Scientific knowledge. vestigation?Haveprovidements I pro learnedevidence or con something pro on or population con? new about control? modes Does of in- it IV . A.Comparing scientific papers. Comparesults.related Given problems,several two research or yet more give reports of similar such that reports,and/or deal with different the closely student re- will:1. Statea. how they differ with respect to: Problem and/or hypotheses. (ifwayWhat stated)? the were problems the similarities were stated? and Indifferences the hypotheses in the c.b. ResearchMethods design. of collecting data. Whatdesignstechniques arearc of the for studies?similarities collecting the and data? differences in the e.d. InterpretationsMethods of organizing and conclusions. data. WhatAreof organizing arethere the differences similarities the data? in and the differences interpretations?. in methods 2. Identify variations and possible causes for variance. Werement?encesizing different datadone? available? assumptions techniquesIn technological Why? for used? collecting Were development time and study organ- of differ-equip- Did one investigator take something The student might ask into account 3. toDetermine the problem if and can how be different solutions (if synthesized. present) Cancountthat the the the differences other variations did not? be noted resolved in by , a-d and 2? taking into ac- 4. Identifyto other some problems, implications as well as of to the interpretations the one at hand. WhatknowledgeHowthese donew studies? the problemsin results this area of are theseof suggested biology? studies bypertain the results to other of B. Compareproject,Author'spurpose, severalto purposeeither encourage scientificbasic may research,or be papersto report to to summarize aidentify specific practical, for writing paper. findingsresearchauthor's investigations?Whatitticular aimed type investigation? atof the report Is lay its isreaderpurpose this? Does orIs to itatit raisesummarize a report questions? of a par- other investigators several Is V. Applyingother kinds skills of reports.gained from analyzing research reportsfromport severalor other projects, scientific and/or paper. to evaluate a research re- to inWhat this field? is the reportauthor's abool? purpose in writing this? WhatWhatWhatthe does report is are the he the say?functionto othermeanings partsof key of and keystatements, to terms the whole? which or parts, he uses? of IsWhat therepreviouslyHow are coherence adequate the interrelationships in evaluating isamong it in terms the other parts? ofof similar thecriteria parts? papers? 1 have used class discussions which illustrate inquiry into inquiryPerhaps (see one Chapter of the Six).best waysThe to develop an understanding of inquiry is by example. Hence this chapter includes two examples of CLASSROOM DISCUSSIONS: INQUIRY INTO INQUIRY CHAPTER SEVEN paper under discussion is the first portion of Gregor derstandingareMendel'sterns beginning of Experimentsquestioning of inquiry inquiry, arc intoin and Plantdifferent. inquiry. both Hybridisation deal BothIt is with important discussion essentially (Harvard toThe patterns recognize University thetwo examplesshow that Press,much these of 1958,that differencesclass is discussionsdesirable in arca discussion not presented focused on developing an un- same parts of the report. However, the stylesas ideal of the models. teachers Rather, and their they pat- are typical of teachers and students who pp. 1-13), which is included in Appendix B.are not only possible, but desirable, and that there apparentdonedentis no responses,inset terms strategythe strategy of and teaching for so beinginquiry the strategy. discussionsused. into Three inquiry. That aresets is, differentHowever,the of categoriesteacher'sEach from it shouldquestions discussion havethe standpoint been be andnoted usedhas statements been ofthatfor student classification. differentannotated have participation linesbeen in orderBoth categorizedof questioning managerial.andto point probable in out tend andvarious learning. guiding things questions that become and apparent on analysis. The analysis has been a manner designed to make to elicit different stu- statementsthewhileter Six.discussionclassification because Other are based schemes pattern.of theirof on the Taba'scouldsimplicity teacher's havework andquestions,been (158)1. because used The foroccasional they third annotation bring set ofnotes into categoriesof the focushave discussions, been is based inserted but the which three call used attention many important aspects of an inquiry discussion. In addition to on the tasks of inquiry into inquiry outlined in Chap- were found to be particularly worth- to interesting occurrences in morelogical thinking, function refocusing, and which and indicate negative. approval, disapproval,The first set agreement, of categories etc. used Four in sub annotation is managerial. These are questions or statements which have a managerial or psycho- - categories are distinguished: supportive, inviting fiedcognitiveoperations in order operations sought. to make Three classificationand thesub-categories logic of theguiding content, questions Thethese second tasks most providetype useful. of questionstheSince third the ortasks statements of inquiry guide into the inquiry discussion and are used: focusing, extending, and lifting. The cognitive operations sought must also be speci- arc related to the logic of the contentset of categories. and to the cognitive involve both different adapted:See also for Klinckmann inclusion here. (137), Chapter 5, for additional discussion of teaching strategies in relation to inquiry. Part of the material in Chapter 5 has been DescriptionsI. of Categories Used in the AnnotationsManagerial questions and statements. These indicate of the Discussions. approval, disapproval, agreement, etc. M.2.M.1. InviteSupportive:E.g.,, more "Yes;" providethinking: "That's approval, probing, on the right track;" "Let's see if I understand encouragement. you correctly . . .. M.3. RefocusesE.g., "I'm the not content sure I understandgivediscrepancies. us an example?" "Can you explain forpursue us how the you stated arrived yourresponse atpoint;" that to "Couldclarify, youbring clarify for us how your point relates to theinterpretation?" topic?""Can out further details, resolve inaccuracies you or M.4. Negative:E.g., "Remember"No, disapproval, that's wrong;" that discouragement,before "You're chromosomes had been described." or limitswe only of discussion.have data on one type of plant;" "We not thinking;" "I don't controlling. agree with you;" 'That doesn't answer my question;" "That's should remember that Mendel's studies were done II. G.1.GuidingObviously, questions the last andtype statements. inhibits both These thinking Focusing: establish the contentnot what you were told to do." or topic and the arecognitive designed operation to achieve to be three performed. types of and verbalization whereas the first three types invite purposes by different questioning strategies: more thinking and discussion. G.2. Extending:E.g., "How continue does the exploration data obtained of theby "What aredo yousome observe possible in explanations that drop of group A comparecontent with that by encouragingof thought ofpond why water?" the frog did not swallow group B?" on the same cognitive level. (Distinguishedthe robber from fly?" E.g., "Can anyone think specificity,M.2.of another type because etc., of it content brings"That's"What inalready additional are an under someimportant other generalization. questions way we might obtainwe might the needed ask about data?" the changes which occurred content on the samediscussion.) cognitive level; M.2. type asks forin clarification the pond?" or further G.3. Lifting: movement of thought aboutalso(Adds allows and to the' stating for 'content assimilation the idea by in of their to a more complex cognitive level. providing additional examples an importantWould ideaanyone and state encourages it inown terms.) a different way?"or statements that expand or enlarge more students to rtrticipate by thinking a key idea; r- E.g., "Now that we've identified(from differentiation to grouping) some of the characteristics of these animals, - 4 5 - can we group them in one or more ways?" predictship) about changes in the"Assuming"What human part population?" ofour the generalizations data leads about the growth of a yeast population apply to other populations, what can you to that interpretation?" (from interpretation to explanation by showing relation- you III. 1.1.Tasks of inquiry into inquiry (see 1.1.b.I.1.a.Analysis into parts: Identification of problem. pp. 38-43) 1.1.f.1.1.e.1.1.d.1.1.c. IdentificationInterpretationsExecutionDesign of the of of thestudy.of assumptions.hypotheses. data. plan (includes procedures for collecting data, kinds of data collected, ways of organizing data). 1.2. AnalysisI.2.d.I.2.b.I.2.a.I.2.c. of relationships among basic parts: AssumptionsInterpretationsData and problem. re and andother problem.kinds parts. of data. I.S.1.4.1.3. ApplyingEvaluationI.2.e.Comparison skills of researchof to scientific other kinds papers. of reports. Other relationships. report. ExamplesI. of Classroom Discussions (LeftFirstmade discussioncolumn to distinguish indicates of "Experiments type of question in Plant orHybridisation," statement used by teacher. Twelve students participated, but among them in the responses.) by Gregor Mendel (see Appendix B for copy of p aper).no attempt has been G.1.I.1.a. IdentificationFocusing of problem T. TodaytherecalltainMendel's investigator things we'dwhen plant like we'llthe hybridisationconcernedto be make looking an with? for. To set the tone, paper was written. Now, what was paper.inquiry into Gregor There are cer- S. I think he was trying to explain the pattern of M.2. (Note:Invite more Rather thinking than telling student he is student to continue.) correct, and thus tending to close off the 'F. Whatations,different do youto traitsexplain as thethey appeared in mean by patterns?response, the teacher encourages the reasons for the pattern. different gener- M.2. Invite more thinking T.S. Wheregeneration.thenLike skiphow in the aThisa generation,trait is would andshow then show a pattern. up in one generation, up in a third S. statedIthis don't problem? the think results. he Was stated it stated it specifically? paper did you find this pattern or as a hypothesis, he kind of M.3. Refocusing T. Doandtion,On youpagethat it says thinkthe 9, where recessivethat that's there it stating first the ones reappearare dominant characteristicsstarts with the P2 genera- problem? . . . S. thenisticWell, completelyit yes. comes The back problemdisappear is from how . . . one generation,can one and character- S. lawpairwasOn page accordingofto differentiatingobserve 4 he to these which variationscharacters, they in and the says, "The object of the experiment.. appear in the succes- to deduce thecase of each . S. Well,That'ssive ongenerations."in thea way first a statement of page,his object. deduce this law . . . M.1. Support(Note: Several students respond and teacher to provide some support or guidance. Such student interaction interact with each other without the T.S. GoDeduce ahead thiswith law? what What kind of law? occursteacher rather guiding frequently until init's this discussion.) you were going to say. necessary for the S. Well, on the first page he states the problem: "So farthewhatcessfullytion no lawandgenerally he thinksisthe formulated." thus development applicable is and the so.law, IlawActually,' hekindof governingdidn'thybrids of take sayhe has thedidn't wellit been heforma- I hasthinkstate suc- a (Note: Student uses the term "" which Mendel does not use. Teacher might have picked up on this ratios.bilityhunch thatbecause there all are through two alleles it he bringsand computes in the possi- the for the purpose G.2. Extending of clarifying what Mendel did say and the terms he did use.) T.S. andThisDo you it's is thesomethingagree? first time new. anyone I think has that used he mathematics, had an idea, M.2. Invite more thinking T. well,Youing,Maybe sincethe think Irecessive cannothing he find pretty elseandsomething accurately haddominant come explaining statestraitsup, let ho theme names.this problem?try differ- this. G.1.I.1.b. IdentificationFocusing of hypotheses S.T. problem.thatHemightLet's doesn't this go haveis What my on,come made, problem keepinginitial out in andguesses the in saysense mind doit in ofyou the so what thinkmanynature kind Mendel words ofof thehy- . . . (Note: A "what" question implies that there is a stated hypothesis. Since noing paperhypothesis being used, slightly ais better stated misdirected. question in the portion Seewould refocusing haveof the below.) been, "Did Mendel state a hypothesis?" This is an example of the focus- pothesis he's working under? M.1. (Note:Support Temporarily teacher shifts from "hypotheses" to "assumptions" in keeping with student's use of the word.) - 4 8 - 'F.S. DoRight. you meanWhat hiswere big some assumptions? of his assumptions? S. I thoughtHethisthe was dominantwas probablymaybepointed and heout the recessive. figured beforefirst one hintout I to don't the sit downtwo know alleles and whether think . . . M.3. Refocusing T. hypotheses?Isthatabout there maybe it anda place define in recessivethe paper and where dominant. he states I think his . S. Well,(long pause) at the very end he sort of states his conclu- . onesions,sivemainform,ters, or andcharactershe the constantwhile says, ofother these, the". andof respectively other one-halfthe receive two half differentiatingdevelop theyield dominant plants again whichthe orcharac- reces- re- . the hybrids form seeds having in equal numbers." Md. Support T.S. That'spattern.He(Note: might veryp. 13) have good. thought You're theresaying could then thathave this been was a M.3. Refocusing 1'.S. SothroughHehis canhunch,has we notthe butsay experiments..been itthat wasn't sure the hypothesisreallyof all statedthe parts, was that stated way..he went ex- . . S. sectionIplicitly? don'tdataof drew was believethinkwe conclusions have,kind he that couldofhe slantedinactually from thishave much his towardstatedhad data; theof it. thea also, dataHehypothesis. paper, just Iarid think kind thenthe his I 2_ - 4 9 - justdon'tsigned picked think to answer,up he anystated hypothesis. what it in heblack finally Iand think white.reached, it was butde- I G.1. Focusing T. Do you think that's good for scientists to do? 1.3.M.2. InviteEvaluation snore of thinking report S.T. I don'tfar. think he wanted to stick out his neck too G.1. Focusing T.S. understandIgations,Do Dodon't you you thinkthinkoat suppose it.explicitly thatthis he isthe wrotea stating qualitylayman this a inhypothesis?paper reading different for theit investi-would layman? 1.4.M.2. InviteComparison more thinking of reports S.S.T. ttI don'ting;asWas8e.ems ti these think experimentto popes mepeople he that could were went way, havethat along, why worriedwritten didn'tbut instead allabout he, this when plants.of down leav- he a hint of that in the paper? M.2. Invite more thinking T. whatever,hiedrecopieddidn'tDo of you hethem it, so dothink say it that?is would now,goingit's necessary makethis to turnis him my allout soundhypothesis: the dominant time good. to doWhy one-and this? M.1. (Note:Support Previously in the discussion, and becoming .more apparent at this point,coursewhichpothesis. the leads almoststudents The the apparent exclusively studentsare confused reason to with expect aboutfor inquiry this, explicitly the which inhy- the statedthe antecedent- teacher hypotheses. recognizes consequent This here, is probably is a well-established due to dealing frame previously of reference in the You've learned that it is. mode. The portion of Mendel's paper with havewhich hypotheses, they are dealing especially is, however, not of the in ifthe taxonomic mode. Investigations in this mode characteristically do not . , then . . . type.) S. somethingOne thing thatlike this,I'm thinking and I don't about know is whenwhat they're I read S. lookingning,Also,ferent andif ideasfor,for, he then thenstatesPm about he moreyou the givesit expect too.hypothesislikely his If ityoutoevidence, to come turnknowat the upout. youwhatvery with see begin-you're dif- this rirrmilpepwireterww ,1-7r.o.TcwnwftEpnwormrirrrri thisgoes way, with ycuthe hypothesis,have Z,o read and the it's whole a lot easier. Ant paper, and S. hypothesis.backyouActually, see through the heconclusion anddidn't see really how at the startthe end, datahis and experiment applies then you to the right ga M.1. Support Whyfl.).vers,likeaway. explaining would Heexplained doeshe dothe a that? why lotdifferent of heWe background picked characteristics this flower. work at first, start here with exp:tri- of the M.3.I.1.c.G.1. RefocusingDesignFocusing of study T.S. Yes,Whytion.mental hewhat You picked design. weremight these That's thego flowers?ahead something with it. reasons for the selection of we should men- M.2. Invite more thinking T.S. There.fromtheseDo wereyouforeignparticular think pollen, that'splants? andnecessary? they had lot of types; they could be protected a short life cycle. S. hardwhatever,It'steristicsYou a to lot have chop easier werebut to iffind thetosome look sometlii-.gsize plants' atof thethe only colorxylem,to suitdiffering of that the would charac- up all the plants and look at the xylem. your purpose. pods or be I.2.e.G.1. RelationFocusing between design and problem T. plantstheYou'reYou need. withdo saying lave Now these to inhe chooseparticular hishad experimental to according choose characteristics. things design he to the need. according to Why?selected M.2. Invite(Note: more thinking occurredStudent is earlier using ininformation the discussion learned with elsewhere these two terms.) rather than noting function of these T.S. DidBecause he know some that are though?dominant and terms in this paper. This also some recessive. S. He said that they never mixed. like some character- M.2. Invite more thinking S.T. istics,gotWell,Howtransitional. information like couldhe probably red he or do from white, that?had them, done How but plus otherno could pink.he experimente- livedhe There'stell in all an that'? agri-no and S.S. grewHeculturalheHe'd selected picked. them probably area. and his seenplantsselected from thembefore. garden according peas and to what then M.3. Refocusing S.T. essarilyOnThatistics. page it What possessappears 2 he didsays constantin he everyexperimental mean differentiating,generation. by that? plants By "constant?" mustcharacter- nec- M.2. Invite more thinking T.S. WhyTheyrecessive,Well, neverwasthat theythiswouldn't had important?wouldn't those be transitional true be Itconstant.of says what ones. here, he later "constant called S.S That'swantIcharacters." think to what he'swork his Whytrying with whole would peato experimentmake heplants want it foreasier. that? is eight for Ito years.wouldn't see how M.2. Invite more thinking S.T. WhatknowtheseHow characteristicsdo the you characteristics mean "logical?" pass on.are Itpassed seems on. logical, He's study- you . . . M.1. Support T. Ilookedhappens:That'sing think the allitway like. is. observations that Is thisit happens. what on you the meanplants, by what "way'?" they right. You're saying the way that it M.3.M.1. RefocusingSupport T.S. WhyAgainhappens,Well, would I'myou're why talking hegoingthe want different about back constant the to characteristics thepattern, characteristicsoriginal how problem.appeared. often to it M.3. Refocusing (by student) S. Well,startHavetime with? countingif we they decided weren't them. what He'd constant, he have meant Al he'd bythese "constant?"have different. a hard . S.T.S. Inpure-breeding.Yes, eachBy Icharacteristic, generationdon't understand it doeswould that he appear wordmean at iikcthe all. same,yellow like seeds T. doesoforEither the he greenseeds? mean'..)ne, seeds? asjustWhen long the Or heassize does they'resays or he constant constant.just mean characters, . . the color T.S.S. Okay.giveInYes. other round words, peas, a another plant that kind had would round give peas wrinkled. would (Note: In the classification scheme we are using for annotation, there oranswers disparage a direct the question. student for asking a "simple" question.) The only one that might be used is "support," in that the teacher does not T. is no truly appropriateOkay, now category that we'vefor when got thethat teacher settled, how about discourage G.1.I.1.c. DesignFocusing of study S. therunningSeepollen. theresecond that What'swere inmaze characteristic it anda he overlot sayingall of there?of light a here? sudden Supposein the he room stopped,a mouse and a andwere lot if of protected from foreign - 5 3 - wassound the in light the room,or the yousound wouldn't or know whether it. what. You've just got to have one variable to affect the experiment or M.2.M.1. InviteSupport more thinking T. hadOkay,disturbance,youpollen. adon't plantthen Why know you're thator would whatever. whichwould saying, he onedo.that?not what beit is disturbedare that's the controls;causing by other thehe (Note: Use of the terms "control" and "controlling" here and following suggestsitsof referencemeaning again that forre students inquirystudents.) inhave the antecedent-consequent mode. The teacher, in using the term, apparently recognizes S. Well, when you're experimenting with different a strong frame M.1. Support T. Allteristicsthrowcrosses, right, it offyouif veryyou because got getgood. from pollen you theNow won't fromparents. the know anlast unknown, one,which "hybrid's charac- it will M.3. Refocus S. I(longfertility."offspring don't pause) really Whatshould understand does suffer that nomean? it. marked But in the disruption next para- in M.3. Refocus S.T. Thatwhat?graphHe's are really fertile. saying that he wants plants that arc . . . 1.1.d.G.1. (Note:ExecutionFocusing The of term plan "might" and "controlling" tend to distort the intended focus.crosses The most and the significant results is procedurenot, therefore, of the sharply emphasized in the subsequent responses. A better question might T. hehaveLet's was usedlook controlling in at collecting the procedures his operation the data. that rather Do Mendel you effectively? think might that be, "What did he do in his first experiments?") S. greenhouseItment,He seems says so toa he plants; certainme watched that he insect hesays for was, couldthat.something because I mess thought about up he theit hasinsects.sounded experi- the werelike he transplanted controlled everything.so they wouldn't The smallerbe taken plants over plantswell,by the outnatural bigger because selection,ones. he I realized because they'd he took be the selected smaller . . . guess he believed in , S. reallyI justHeagainst was thoughtbecomes really of assumingsort something. of Darwin's When hypothesis. he did this, it an ideat situation, his whole ground.therewouldbecause,idea; it'swasn't affect It really,surprising took a plants. droughtso there much that And it afterwould eight work that are so many conditionsarea.or something,that It doesn't orsay even that the he years,. that way M.2. Invite more thinking T. assumption.it?ItMaybehad doesn't We trouble reallythere mention withwasn't don't different know.that muchin We'll the compositions difference. have to make of soil. that paper though, does T.S. That'scareandSurely say,he ofan the wasassumption knowing dirtsoil? cautious, in the that same that he hadhegarden would such good probably controls, take now, and could we generalize was all the same. I.1.d.M.3. ExecutionRefocusing of plan T.S. lectingWhatandwouldYes, werea the littlehaveif he data?some madehadabout of Now,noticed note theprocedures we'veofexperimental it. stated he the used design. problem, in col- We any strange differences, he (Note: Two slightly different questions were asked here. The first one is more sharply focused than the second.)- 55 - butreally the haven't controls. said What much about about the the design design, itself? have we, S. graph,Well,diddifferent thaton he page before saysvarieties, 3 thatit crossing says, he'sto twoin subjected the them, year next trials. and to the that And peas, the last para- the pure that he the M.1. Support T.S. breedsThat'sHe spentmaderemained good. twosure yearsconstant.of that just before making he started.sure he was starting G.2. Extending T.S. out aboutPageAnyright.And other 3, artificialanother in thingsabout thing fertilization aboutthe thatmiddle the he design? did of thewas page, to and how he did it. make a table he talks S. ofthatSomething allbumen thehad differences.. andlike I don't allround different understand seeds. kinds and is, greenof did he or characteristics and characteristics take a plant yellow al- M.2. Invite more thinking T.S. IWhat don'tteristicsoppositemixed do know. you hethem toworked thinkSeems the with first? he with, likeothers did? there's but that I don't sohad many know exactlycharac- S. whathedifferentI thinkHe is he lookingcrossed did. he kinds divided for.one of seedswith them the and in other sectionscrossed five them of and plants sixnotes times. whatwith M.3. Refocus S.S.T. IsexactlyDopaper?Right. she you saying alikeDoesn'tmean one except he characteristic?'it tooksay for something two shape plants of aboutseeds? which that were in the lihIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIINMIIIIIIIMIIIMNMIIIMMINIIMNIIMIMINMIIIIINMIimrrmiw - 56 - 1 S. characteristic.AndOh, so he one did characteristic,an experiment like for eachwrinkled type, for each or round. I.2.a.G.1. (Note:RelationFoscusing Question of data andimplies problem that reference must be made to the nature of the problem,theproblem. students but Also,it if problably this it were is usually wouldworded better to show to continue that "good" with meansidentification looking ofat partsthe relationship of the report between before the asking data and T. Was that a good way for him to do it? be clearer to the about relationships between the parts.) S. wasOneYes. interestingthing we haven't was when talked he saidabout he that crossed I thought them questions S. Seem;gotshortand somethe one, like hybrids 6 aboutthat ishad, one transitional. well, foot, on with Like - 71/2 feet. What would cause that? page 8, he crossed a one six feet and you mix red M.2. Invite more thinking T.S. Well,Long.It'sand not whitewhat between, would and get appearit's pink. just to adding be dominant? it together. M.1. Support T.S. producedMaybetional.Tall. All the right,something recessive so I don'textra. trait think with itthe would dominant be transi- trait S. theofSeemsBut the plant. he plants.like says that aIt's greaterwould not onlybeluxuriance transitional. taller, but has more on appears in all parts M.3.M.1. RefocusSupport - 5 7 - T.S. Well,AYes healthier let's go plant? back to selection of the plants. T.S. WasHe didn't he looking really say for whatthat, kindthough? of results he expected. M.3. Refocus T.S.S. He'sIfthingBut he trying remember, hasspecific ato pattern, see he's you if lookingthere's saidin working that a for. pattern. on apage mathematical 1 he has some- for- M.2. Invite more thinking S.T. AhasmulaDo to you tofit find everythink is the case.anit does?solution, exception I thinkto the the rule. conclusion How can M.1. Support S.T. Consideryouhe7,He thatfit doesn'tdoes it there itin say anothercountexcept arethat problems. them.this problem.as an will happen,I think he on also pages says odd one? 6 and that 1.3.G.1. FocusingEvaluating of report T.T.S. Separately.ShculdDoplants. you he think count On ittheir them? was own, good not to putwith that the in rest his of paper? the I.l.c.G.1.(Next day) DesignFocusing of study S.T. WeHeand hasended some to. upYes. of discussing the data. theThe problem, procedures the procedures for collect- I.1.d. Execution of plan Oningheup?the pages thehas experiments.What data,selected 4 does and we heas5 ought hepure-breedingdoHow talkswith look does theseabout at he thatplants, plants?setarrangements athe little the procedures ones more. of that - 58 - S. characteristics,Hewrinkled crossed seeds, the likeones and the gotthat ones hybrids. had with the the round and differentiating M.1. Support T. goMaybe along. one In of other you wordswould you're write thesesaying down what as trait. we S. FirstLet'stofollow pick? one.pick his out particular a particular design. trait What and trait see do if youwe canwant M.3. Refocus T.S. WhatHowRound wasdid would was hishe crossed doyoufirst with putcross? with itthis in wrinkled. letters?now? Write this down. (Note: Student again is using previously learned information rather than restrictingthe paper his about statement this first to setwhat of iscrosses.) stated in S. It'sRR smoothx rr 4+ Rr.or wrinkled. G.3. LiftingI.l.d from to I.2.a. S.T. WhyTheHe dominanthaddid heto crossmake is round. homozygous that kind of cross?plants. M.2. Invite more thinking T.S. Heplants?How couldn't do you be know sure, that but these after aretwo homozygous years . . . T.S. inOnThatAndcrossed the page getshybridsso 8 all rounditback sayshis is results totheandwhichever the dominant wrinkled showselection characteristic the trait. peas, recessive of Like thehe got showsplant.when is carriedround. uphe (Note: This student has stated a critically important point; it is pursued later.) S. comeinBut the back.youhybrid. have to go on to another generation and T. (Directed to other student) What do you thinks he M.2.M.2. InviteInvite more more thinking thinking S.T. Round.gotNow all thewhat offspring kind of thought mightand have they been were all what? going M.2. Invite more thinking T.S.S. Itthrough Transition?seemsNo. I hismeanlike mina it halfwould when round seedsbe half and and half half. wrinkledhe got the data? seeds. G.3. Lifting (to prediction) S.T.T. That'sHe'dWhatDid whatprobably if hehe checkIgot meant. have that? all theseLet's made up a formula for traits out? Did they all just suppose it. that. show I.1.d.G.1.G.1. ExecutionFocusingFocusing of plan T.S. theknowButYes. same the this? patternthing that of bothersdominant me is this: and Howrecessive? does he I.1.e. Interpretations of data S.S. wereHeparentBut crossed like,how is the comethe ones parents one hethat that wouldn't say like thethat had the recessiveis responsible?he knew traits. what the parents dominant M.2. Invite more thinking S.T. Isn'twrinkledButvery howthat start? pure-breedingseeds? about pretty when he crosses important, from the pure-breeding, S.S. goingAndBut the tohe be offspring,has dominant, to be surethat's some that he'sthem just up crossing with thefine, pure- some of recessivethem are . . . the M.2. Invite more thinking - 60 - T. hybrids,breeding.Do you and think not mixthat's what he did? S. I thinkonwhichbacktrack, to the hepure-breeding. nexthad 8o togeneration.he'd go know one But step towhich be beyond, sure were he'd hybridand have then to and go I.2.b.G.S. kinds(RelationLifting of to data) between interpretations and T.S. unlessWhyFlow would he'd would gonehe have he on? know to go onthat to the the recessive next generation? was there II. Second(Endmade(Left of column todiscussiontime: distinguish discussion indicates of among"Experiments not type completed.)them of question in in the Plant responses.) or Hybridisation" statement used by byGregor teacher. Mendel. Fifteen students participated, but no attempt has been G.1. FocusingIdentification of problem T. WhyasktheBefore paper,several do we you I questions. beginwould suppose looking like ato man stari. at thewould out: specific in work general parts on thisand of M.1. T.S. topic?Allcurious.He wantedright, Do you he to have wastry out curious,any something idea? wasn't different; he, about he how was Support hybrids,problemductorygivescharacteristics you well remarks to somewhat workthe from patternas on. to one of whyCan byageneration hint he whichany chose to of this 'they you tothis in another. picktransmittheparticular intro- it Heup (Note: By using an M.2. type of question, e.g., "What was he curious about?",thinking.) students would S. there?That Yes?"so far no generally applicable law governing have had to do more -- 61 -- successfullythe formation formulated." and development of hybrids has been M.2. Invite more thinking T. What do you think about the statement that he G.2.M.1. ExtendingSupport T.S. becauseHiswrote:?His motivation motivation Whatthere had'tis forhefor beenreferringdoingdoing any it;it. ye's,law.to? heOther wl...5 comments motivated G.1.M.1. FocusingSupport T.S. Iabout thinkVio.dSMILs this? you'rethe to Yes?problemme right.that no hi Let's applicablethe paper. go on lawWhat to seehas was ifbeen wethe found. canques- I.1.a.M.1. Identification of problem T. (OntonWouldExperiment") the page initestigetor you 4, under read it"Division was for concernedus please? end Arrangement with? of Support S. variationswhichcharacteristics"The object they in theappearof theandcase experimentin to of successive deduce each pair wasthe generations."of lawto differentiating observe:- according these Lo G.2. Extending T.S. lem?mightDoOn all page disagreeof you 1 he agree thatstates, with that "The that?is a statementstriking Is there regularityanybody of the prob- who with developmentstaken,specieswheneverwhich the induced fertilization sameobject of hybridfurtherthe of hybridswhich took formsexperiments place wasin alwaystheir betweento followprogeny." to reappeared be the under-up same the M.3. Refocusing S.T. startingWouldments"the object youofwith the read of"the hybrids which the object." last wasin theirpart to follow ofprogeny." that upagain the please,develop. M.2. Invite more thinking '1'. intolemlem?Do the add you mightearly So anything feelI guess partbe that stated of towhat thisthe what in paper.we're istwo hasalso or sayingbeen Right? athree statement said? isdifferent Do that you theof wish placesprob- G.1. (Note:Focusing At this point the teacher might have chosen to firmly establish that whataskingthese is the studentssignificance to compare of the difference the statements. in the wording?) Are they really saying the T. How do you suppose he felt about working on are twosame statements thing, the of thesame problem problem? by If so, (Note: A focusing question, but it is not included in the categories being used.approach Since it to pertains inquiry than to the logical analysis, which is the basis of S. Well,somethis problem? it couragesays on page to undertake 2, it says ait laborrequires of suchindeed far our categories.) more to a psychological reachingdecisionsuitedments"Whether towere extent.ofattain the theconducted plan thereader." Then desiredupon andit which says end carried isonthe left downoutseparate to was the further, friendly theexperi- best M.1. Support work.makewhattheAnd rest I heaguess decisionofdid the that'sand period thenof what how to iswe're considerwelltaking going we a think itcareful to carefully be he doing lookdid and thefor at I.l.c.G.1. DesignFocusing of study S. designAfterWhat washe of stated the his experiment.next the stepproblem, after he he stated went rightthe problem? into the G.2.M.2. ExtendingInvite more thinking T.S, ableHowYes.Are youto do find thesaying a rest hypothesis? that of you he did feel not about have this? a hypothesis? Were you S. Wellone.crossedcause I don't he those, didn't believe so know I hecouldn't had what a hypothesissee he howwould he either,get could after be-have he 1.3.G.1.M.1. EvaluationFocusingSupport of report T. toingtheSodid work? heit.problem, this, Dojust Now doyou sort you and thinkthat of think workedthenwe this understandthis he a valid satinductively.was down away valid the for toway approach? startHea scientistMendel stated solv- (Note: A series of lead-up questions might have helped student to respond to teacher's evaluative question.) S. I don'tbya hypothesis, to believeknow if he youyour had must ideas a hypothesis have are right.some because, Ifguidelines you justto form jumpto go M.1. Support T. Allsultsyouin headlong, right, needand get you'veto get.anyou explanation Youbroughtwon't can't know up lookfor something what them. back kind on thereof your results that re- M.2. Invite more thinking S. knewWell,long.isdidn't interesting. Dowhathe have youkind problem think aYou ofhypothesis, had Mendelsaid he everything hewas jumpedis he working guilty didn't planned inof havesort on.this? Sinceof anyout; head- ideahe M.2. Invite more thinking T. youngwhatDo you he lady. reallywas goinggoing think toto that get. get? he I'd didn't like haveto hear any from idea this of M.1. Support T.S. forWell,areHea law.a states lawtransmittedI think of in orderthat two hefrom byor was threewhich one pretty places generation these sure thatcharacteristics he wouldhe's to another, looking find readyspecifically quoted dealing from two with places hybrid in theforms. paper You've in which al- I.2.d.G.1. AssumptionsFocusing re problem S. WhaterallyWell,Direrthis isassumptions you whereapplicablestated pick orhe up implied.stated law.didsome he I theofthink make that?part he in about mustregard findinghave to this? assumed a gen- I.2.e.G.1.M.1. ofRelationFocusingSupport study andbetween problem design T. "The"SelectionNowHethere assumes isletselection a me law. of thatrefer Experimental of there youthe plantisto apage law. group Plants." 2 of which the paper, shall underserve goesoutsetforofpossible experiments the through every plants. care risk three Whyif of itof thisisof wasquestionable to the kind be it necessary necessarydesired must beresults." to madequalificationsforavoid him with Thenfrom to haveall theit S. plantsBecauseprerequisite?acteristics? that ifpossessed he Why didn't do constanthave you plants suppose differentiating that he were made constant, char- this a M.2. Invite more thinking T.S. AllHeinghe wouldn't wouldtheright, experiments. didhave know Mendel had what no have control. changed a control in thein the plants work dur- he S. couldWell,wasinsectsoutdoors, doing? hebe put abothered controland some he kindssaidbecause them if in there (he athe greenhouse, didn't wasrest anything,of think them and they'dwere ifthat the - 6 5 - inbothertell the what greenhouse. them the very insects much, did butbecause if they he did)had somehe could more T. ThatDidcontroltheteristics was he next alsoa the control wereas have ?he transmittedwas for control insects,doing for the fromwasn't the experiment? wayone it? generationthe charac- Did heto T.S.S. Well,HeHowthem. observed he did only he hadknow the oneplants that variable thesetwo years plantsin each before were plant. he different? crossed T. thebeforeSo,saidLet's plantsin plants thisheread arestarted case number must,concerned. he in during couldas 2, far on control asthepage the flowering 2:characteristics the "The experiment hybridsperiod, of beof thisorprotectedhearingbut be necessary? let'seasily frombefrom capable sure one, theI thinkit's influencetwo, clear we three, broughtto ofall four, allof thisus.foreign five, Let'sout six before,pollen, see,people. I'm of said protection." Why was T.S.S. ItWould mentalrefersandHe hadyoufertilized toPlants." tonumberrepeat know them. the 2what question?under pollen "Selection entered of what Experi- plants T.S. WhyLet'swereBecause is thego that onotherwiseparents. important? and look he at wouldn't the third know prerequisite: which plants shouldunder"theprerequisite?tility hybrids number insuffer successive and no 2) marks their"the generations." hybridsoffspring of disturbance and . theirWhy in offspringtheirwas thisfer- a . ." (I'm reading M.1. Support T.S. forAllcouldn'tWell,as theright,the if selectionoffspring theygo he any couldn'tcouldn't further. areof theconcerned. find produce experimental out what offspring, So hehappened setsplants. thenthe ascriteriaNow they far carefulthatwe'veheplants. therestarts taken aboutHe isn't to araises dolook reallyhow the atthese crossing heathe hypothesis, selects problemplants forthe and but two experimental weyet years havehe's before verysaid that is, the crossing Weheablylong,between mentioned raised not and the Ithe think parentalcase, heplants maywe've since plants forhave decidedhe two setjumpedused years up thatin those the intobefore that experiments. criteriathis was starting head- prob- and I.1.f.G.1. IdentificationFocusing of assumptions S. Ithe havehapsNow, experimental hea didquestion. was you working pickcrosses. How up with? could any assumptionshe tell the that plants per- M.2. Invite more thinking S.T. twoWell,haveHow years, the when do necessary you he he couldsuppose raised characteristics? have the he crosseddidpure-breeding this? them during plants that for M.2. Invite more thinking S.T. withoutAretime, you or listingbefore,saying them thatto see hein if hismay they report? have have done fertile some offspring. things A M.1. Support T. thingAllHe may aboutright, have it. don't decided you that think without that tellingat one you time any- or - 6 7 - ifanother hethey would've would he crossed have done fertilesome that ofoffspring?sort these of thing? pea Is plantsit Because,likely to thatsee if pagethatyou the 3,read thepea on secondplants farther do full here,meet paragraph thehe mentionedrequirements; the on down, "Some fact tainlycharactersthoroughlyeny."mutually recognizable, whichcrossed distinct are they forms constant,and yield when of perfectly thisand their genuseasily hybrids fertile andpossess prog-cer- are M.3. Refocusing S. thatOrThatWhat the these he assumptions workexperimented were of characteristics other can withweplant make them. breeders of from pea plants.that? had shown I.2.d.M.3. AssumptionsRefocusingof study re design T-. statedsomeBacksayingplants on assumptionsthe that ourmore problem, fillline than, the of thinkingcriteria?thatand "Well, whenhe was I'mthen,It heseems going setcan about toyou to me select think tothat find ofhe'sout making when he (Note: In this case the refocusing is necessary because the initial focusing question did not wantcertainplantshe make to plantsputthat thatdown met which guided certain on paper."meet therequirements? any fact What requirements that assumptions he had tothat havedid I make clear the type of assump- tions to be identified.) S. tiesOneassumedcharacteristic inof plantshis assumptionsthat were fromthere necessary parentsmust was bethat to tosome theseoffspring. follow kind three a certain of Hequali- plant also M.1. Support T. Let'swhichcharacteristicsationsobject go would ofinback thethe meet andexperiment case and lookthe of deducethree eachat thewas conditions. pair problem theto observe oflaw differentiating accordingagain. these The vari- to which they appeared in successive generations. So G.1. Focusing T. thetypeyou'reNow, problem. of saying howplants is thathe going hethe had assumptions, about to have, solving related then, the problem? backfor the to I.1.c. Design of study thatLetduction,somegoing me was ideaaskto not do andyou of donethat what's sortthis. was before ofWhat been different?looks hiswasdone at time? Mendel thisbefore, Now andWhat hegoing in says, gives thewas to intro-"Ah, hedoyou S. differently?else."they'veHe is Did goingdone you that, to pick differ now up I'min what that going he he wastois dogoing going something to to try do to G.2. Extending T. verbally.tofigureisHow correspond he outgoingis he some going to to get?kind what to Whatoffind other relationship, a kind ratio? people; of Whatdata hadsort is kinddescribedof he a looking ofratio, data S. offerentBeforehe'sfor different going in kinds whenrelation to characteristics. do they differently?to experimentedthe problem He was they going used to useall dif-one they were different with a whole lot that reflects what M.3. Refocusing T. Athatgoingout.acteristic, minute was to different agofind then youthe he ratio?from usedwas goingtheanotherWhat's term to he showin"ratio;" going only how onetohow itdo? workedchar- is he G.2.M.1. ExtendingSupport T.S. Good.Interpret(longhis data Andpause) his mathematically? whatdata mathematically.must he do in order to interpret I'd2, like ". to direct your attention to the top of page. . to make it possible to dew; line the number Whathybridsofdefinitelytainty different does appear,according he toforms plan ascertain or to tounder arrange do?their theirWhat which separate these statistical must the forms generations,he offspring do relations."with in order cer- of or S. generation.totellBeforeHe carry hasthe this thatto different keepout? he says track forms he's of goingthe of characteristics the to offspringmake sure in heof each canthe T.S. Ifhybrids.Verygoing he's going good.to have to In todetermine other count words, the statistical different he's going relations,types. to have he's to tically.goingcounthemake was theto He'shis theinterpret types inferences goingfirst he one hisgetsto to collectdatafrom in do each mathematically,this.that. quantitative generation As far as dataweand statis- know, he'sand T. Well,(longaboutAll right, pause)we'veit? What what had did plansome he did do?time he to use? think How about did this. he go T.S. WhatthisHedifferentLet's picked on do enlargethe you peas characteristics.board. think withon Canthis; isseven the youhe different firstpickedMaybe help thing me peas wecharacteristics. youngI canshould with diagram lady? seven put 7o S. Selectionup here? of plants. M.1. Support T. Can you add something to what we've already said M.2. Invite more thinking T.S. I'mHeguess,on a selectionused little wasn't true confused hybrids. it?of plants? because This usually was his when first stepyou I M.1. Support T.S. Hehybrids?springbreedVery used a good. from hybridpure it.breeding plant Now, you plants.what get dodifferent you mean kinds by of trueoff- (Note: Even though student here asks a question which takes the discussion offan theaspect track of the report already dealt with, the teacher continues on the line set by this student on through the S. whyWereWell, didn't howthey comebesthe use suitedthe beans, plants for or thethat tomato experiments, he chose, plants? were or, peas? say, set by the teacher, and back to M.1. Support next page until it is cleared up and they can return to the design and execution of the study.) T. Allpeatimeslent right, plants? question, myself. do you Why I'vehave wonderedin any the ideas? world about That would isthat anhe severalexcel-choose G.2.M.1. ExtendingSupport T.S. Well,Allfertilized right, one bythisbig insects. isreason one thing. was Whatthat theyelse? couldn't be S. Well,everythingupSize, ratein the of where papergrowth, a itpea saida peaplant that plant forms artificial will a nice grow fertilization vine. straight a tomato plant will get all drawn out and M.Z. Support T. gotAllwasfromyou're toright,one protectforeign goingof and the tothepollen.thisreasons. artificially top goes of back the fertilize ovary to closed theand plants, theflowers; stigma you've if G.2.M.1. ExtendingSupport T.S. It factor.Thetime.says availability in 1)o the you paper have of that somedifferent they other also varieties ideas? is have a short life another M.1. Support T.S. IAllWell, mightthingsmany right, you flowers, add,you've incan other thatget mentioned. a Iwords lot think of peaspea someone There's plantsfrom one one form many pods, and all the other typicallytouched have upon generation.other thing member,earlier,andcouldthe seeds. had iswork injustthe Theythe withotherthe paper, were fact that advantages thatavailable;when seemed they he you'vetotalkswere it fitwas all somethingaboutavailable.mentioned getting Re- he as the criteria, 1.1.d.G.1. FocusingExecution of the plan OrNow,well. abouthere?maybe what's solvingWe're you thewant trying his next toproblem, itemchangeto look I should how now he putat how up something that's up carried out his hehere? went M.1. Support S.T. experiments.onlyHeOkay. found vigorous He a selected number plants. only of weak the vigorous plants plants. and selected M.2. Invite more thinking S. IfWonderWell,against hewould didn't he beingwhy causewanted choose hescientific? him did to difficultyfindthethat? mostdifferences isn't invigorous this determining kindbetween plant, of goingkinds of plants. it 1.1.a.G.1.(End of first session) IdentificationFocusing (review) of problem T. plantstions,Yesterday or kindsand somewe of offspring.talked about about the experimental the problem, assump- design. By he'sexperimentaloneon.to answerworking Whatrestate question the it with?design for question. us Maybewas wetoday? hemean Do weworking you canwhat recall restate plan thz wasit questionand used go with? Can some- M.1. Support S.S.T. IfShallthese"The you I would, readvariationsobject the please. ofpaper? thein the experiment case of each was pair to of observe differ- I.1.c.G.1. DesignFocusing of study T. entiatingquestion?Nowwhich how they characteristics did appear he go in about successive and to to answer deduce generations." that the particular law in G.2.M.2. InviteExtending more thinking T.S.T.S. VigorousVigorous.AllHe selectedright, selectedplants. plants. What plants. other Just criteria any plants? did he use? G.2.M.1. ExtendingSupport T.S. didTrue-breedingplants?All he right, use? Yes? true-breedingIs thisplants. all he did plants. was Whatfind true-breed;ng other o.riteria G.2. Extending T.S.S. AllHelieYes? choseright, used self-pollinating. plantsplants that that were were pelf-Any pollinated otherpollinating. chameti.visties? by themselves. G.2.M.1. ExtendingSupport T. Well,talkingtherequire that's paper,plant, about that kind aren't.1. the thinkthe of plants characteristicsself-pollination.we? you'll Whathave? recall characteristicsIf twoyou'll of We're orthe thinkthree flower really back criteriadid of heto 7 3 of what the plants must have. Yes? S. Thatteristics. plants possess constant differentiating charac- G.2.M.1. ExtendingSupport T.S. All1-kyesterday.think right, wanted we constant talked What the flowers else?some differentiating about to be why,closed, characteristics. and so what foreign that pol- Iis M.1. Support T. WiaAndlen could youthirdly speaknot get up. in. please., I can't, quite hear you. . . . I.1.d.G.1. FocusingExecution of plan IF.S. turbanceheLet'sHe followedwanted go in on. their the What to fertility.offspringanswer did he the doto problem?suffernext as no far markedlle as selectedthe plandis- T.S. dotheWhereHe then?plants selected did according he an grow area tothem,in certainwhich did tocriteria.he grow tell you? them.What did he M.3.M.1.M.2. SupportInviteRefocusing more thinking 'F.S. InIn thedoof the themgarden.next? garden in Is the thisand., greenhouse. all as he we'. did, also selectLet's said go theyesterday, on; plants what and somedid the he M.1. Support T.S. haveHeareaFine,, had where a coupletohe choose chosethey of should the examplesthe traits be grown? onof thethose. Could some- traits didn't he? Maybe we can plants. G.2.M.1. ExtendingSupport S.T. oneone,The read difference differencethe us next the firstinone in the. theexamplelisted, form form -ofis of ripe ripe seeds. seeds. Another he gives?the color of the seed - 7 4 - albumenchose the traits. or the endosperm. It stores food. So he G.2. Extending T. M.2. Invite more thinking T.S. acter?CouldsevenWellHow manyfor characters.you each give traits plantus didan example.hehe hadhave just forof a one,each trait but andcharacter? he had a char. G.3.M.1. RefocusingSupport T.S. characterANow,opposingSo trait each wouldwhat wouldplant traits was be had befor thelike the oneeach next roundshape. trait, character.step? orand wrinkled, he had plants and thewith M.2.M.1. (Note:InviteSupport more Directing thinking the question to other students implies a negative comment, MA., T.S. aboutSetHe setup this? uphis his control.Did control. he set What up controls do the restat this of stage? yotr think an audio tape it is difficult to determine if the student perceived. it that way.) S. crossing.plants,He had so taken he had two a yearscontrol of earlier trial working before he with started on the part of the teacher, but from pea M.3.M.1. RefocusingSupport T.T. right,before,sureYou'reI think but you've what goingbeforeways workedwe're that tohe havestarted sayinginvestigators through to the ishelp that experimental experimental he have controlled designs it. all me along here. I'm gone about crosses. M.1. Support T.S. AllWell,hesolving do? right, then How problems. bred he did bred plants he What'splantsgo with about with the solving next the step? the problem? What will same traits. same, traits. M.1.M.2. InviteSupport more thinking S.T. No,CouldHe I crossed meanyou give plants two us anplants with example, roundthat had of and this round wrinkled from seeds. the, seeds. paper? G.2.M.1. ExtendSupport T. wrinkledOkay, plants seeds. with Any roundcomment seeds on this?and plantsYes? with M.4. Negative (very mildly so) T.S. Well,aresayingDid you didn't he that questioning cross he round cross round was plants this? with crossed with round? roundwith Let wrinkled. seeds? me see. Now We're M.1. Support T.S. ThiscrossWell, I. Ithink thought was yesterday the point we saidtried heto wasmake going awhile to . . Oh, well, never mind. withistic.shapetraitsago when Now,thatof the havewe there'sseed were to as do twobeing talking with shapes one the about particular thatsame twowe're thing character-different dealing round and wrinkled. Because the one char- the M.3. Refocusing T.S. lemAllUh-huh.acter right, here theis the next shape step of he the used seed. in solvingAre you the clear? prob- What was the procedure that he followed? G.2.M.1. ExtendingSupport T.S. WhyGood.crosses.In every would Why one hedo of useyou his reciprocal suppose crosses, he crossing? hedid used this? reciprocal S.T. AllspermWell,He right. would contribute I think be ablehe equally might to get tohave data the donetouh sec it if to the find egg out and if character. M.1. Support T. workingMendelbutetheyHe domight'veequally contributeknew under to aboutdone athe kindequally. itchromosomes?character. to of find difficulty out Do if Hetheyyou because was supposedo reallycontri- the I.1.e.G.1. InterpretationFocusing of data equally?Whathim.things did that he you find? know Do were they completelyor don't they unknown contribute to M.2. (Note:Invite more Asking thinking three questions that call for different things might confuse the student.) T.S. tation?termineCanThey you do. that? explain What that was for the us? basis How for did that Mendel interpre- de- M.3.M.1. RefocusingSupport T.S. WhattheBecauseVery results did good. hehe of couldn'tdo Now,the two what find(reciprocal) was any the differences nextcrossings. step? between the next step in the procedure? M.2. Invite more thinking T.S. afterthatHe started were he did given,crossing that. and with he allwould the differentformulate characters his data S. likeGood.Hedidyou yellow crossedhe includedLet's make andsee each with ifagreen lotwe're pairall in endosperm. the thatofall traitsdifferentclear statement. onfor whatcharacters?each What youcharacter said crosses M.2. Invite more thinking T.S. AndinJustwhen the what one heoffspring didofdata thethe did traitscrossing? he get?of the What parent were plants the resultsshowed the dominant one. I.1.e.G.1. InterpretationFocusing of data T. justEvenLet's one. diagramthoughconcentrate All right, hesome usedwe of onthink seventhis the ofas roundcharacters, thiswe go as and along.his firstlet'swrinkled. follow cross. - 7 7 - isNowis the the we first parental can generation, label generation, each generationthe onesometimes Mendel as follows: called called ThisP; the this wassomehybrids,bers going numbersthat or hetoF1. countworked onHow this? themabout with? Someone ratios? said Does earlier he give that you can you find any num- he M.2. Invite more thinking S.T. AllandOh565, right,round. 192 now were what round page and is that372 on?were both wrinkled well, on the F2 he got, well when he used M.3.M.1. RefocusingSupport T.S. I don'teration.Okay,It'sdid on knowhe pagethat getLet's gives whatin12. gothe pageusback first part it generation?to isof the on; the F1 it's data generation. in onmy the notes F3 What .gen- . . M.1.G.2. ExtendingSupport T.T.S. AllAllHe right,one crossedright, kind what he ofthe crosseddid trait F1 he generation.for do the each next? F1 character. generation. What did M.2.M.3. InviteRefocusing more thinking S.T. kindAllCrossedhe cross right, of results them then withwith? did this hethemselves. would get? give him the F2. What M.2. Invite more thinking T.S. Wouldhaven'tIAllSome think right, were somebody we'vewe? some round There gotwere and besome roundare kindsome some data andenough were some tospecific wrinkled.work to were give withnumbers. wrinkled. those here, to S. theus?ones."round"From second or 253 roundish trial hybrids, year. ones 7,324 Among and seeds1,850 them wereangular were obtained wrinkled 5,474 in M.2. Invite more thinking T.S. Well,ratioWhatShouldn't close abouthow enough it comehis be ratio2.96 to he 3 tohere?hasto 1.04?1 ato It'sratio call Shouldn't 2.96 it of that? 2.96to 1. it Istoadd the1? up M.3. Refocusing T. record.Ito reallyquestiongeneration. one? Itcan't goes about answer Is on thingsthere in the that anythingfound paper because onand youpages allsums wouldI have10 up and the islike 11?theF2 to M.1. Support T.S. AllWhatdoublesignification? right. does signification "Thehe mean dominant by a character character having can doublehave a that of a parental character M.3. Refocusing orwhatdocsdeterminedcations a hybrid-character. hehe's it mean appears talking by here? the in about? following eachIn Do which separateyou He's havegeneration." talking case some can about ideaonly What the ofbe of the two signifi- ratio.2.96seedsdominantnification toDowhich 1 youratio charactermeans? are have whichround. some now, heRemember idea rounded in whatour weexample theoff said doubleto ahe 3those got tosig- 1a M.2. Invite more thinking S.T. TheyouonehaveSally, ones likecould two I'mthatthe characters clarify notsecond come sure that fromparent. I forknow pure us. what hybrid you parents mean. Maybecan one like the first parent or S. IroundThe thoughtthat seeds areand heterozygous. by somethat hybrid-character come wrinkled from the ithybrid would will be bethe some ones like the original parents. M.1. Support T. zygous"Good is a more recent term for what Mendel both of you are correct. But "hetero- I(long"parentaltermmeant guess "heterozygous."pause) bya goodcharacter?" "hybrid-character." question What here does is, Heif Mendel you didn't arc mean uselooking the by S. it orderatwhatHe the had toitsround determine genotypeto cross seed, them. can theis? yougenotypeWhat determine did ofhe those have by lookingseeds?to do in at M.1.M.2. InviteSupport more thinking T.S. SomeWhatplantsAll right, didjust self-pollinate.. he like some cross them. thatthem were Whatwith? just kinds like of them, seeds or resulted let the S. Thehavefrom F3 tothis look self-pollination? at? What generation do we . T.S. roundandItheading.Look means wrinkled. at they pageWhat some carry 12,does Therefore,round thesome that second seeds paragraphkind even produceparagraphof genetic though mean? both undermake-up they round arcthe S. thattraitIround don'twhy allows that seedswould understand hadthem produce you a togenotype crossproduce only it with round.that wrinkled onewas that heterozygous, seeds. was Otherthe same if he had a plant that had a M.2. Invite more thinking T. CanorSothing? heterozygous then some You'd how of thestillcould inrest get the you ofhomozygous first you tell place? answer if it was or this? heterozygous.homozygous T.S. IfLet'sselves, homozygous,they seewere the how heterozygousoffspring Mendelthey would would states andall it.bebe crossed Look ofthe different same. at with the them-bottom kinds. caseacharacterof ofparental page thecan two only11 cancharacter significationsand behave determinedtop a or doubleof a pagehybrid-character. it byappearssignification 12: the "Thefollowing in each dominant In separategener-which that of clearsamecharacter,changedation. behaviorwhatAs to a onparental"doublethe the aswhole inother characterthesignification of hand,first the offspring;generation." itit mustmust of thepass maintain as dominantNow aover hybrid- is un-the it M.3. Refocusing T. Nowwefullycharacter" will webecauselet's jumpwill trymeans? haveto wefrom interpret willto alook 3 be to this.attalking 1 this ratio What next aboutto kindparta 2 ratios, to veryof 1 results ratio. care- and S. Whatraised"Experimentout.did hekindNow fromget? of we rounddataLet's are1. did Amongseetalking seeds he if get? weof about565 thecan firstplants reallythe generation,F3 whichanalyze generation. were this193 roundconstantyieldedparedto 1. Theand withround in numberwrinkledthis the seeds character; constants of only,seeds, the hybrids,372, isand in 1.93 thehowever,remained totherefore,proportion 1." gave therefore as bothof com- 3 I.1.e.G.1. InterpretationFocusing -81 - T. writingWell,(TeacherDo you itlet's on followrepeats gothe on. chalk that? Howresults board.) does of Experimenthe organize hisI data? while Wouldwriting you that have done it differently if you were other than using different words? S. Docould?organized you think way? that he The presented best way, his perhaps, data in a thatwell- he that.specialithisIt inseems data. there little likeHe would parthe didn't for just his have throw data any and it separatein referred here and place back throw for to . . . I think that he should have made a M.2. Invite more thinking T.S. isSometimestheIHow think. scattered paper? was How his throughouthe datadid used he organized? tables,organize the paper.but Wehis most datatouched of throughout the on time that, it I.1.e.G.1. InterpretationFocusing of data T.S. Well,believe"Sincedid let's he to lookmake?the be themembersat his Willconclusion? conclusions. you of theread first Whatit for generation conclusionsus, what (F2you ) itspring whileandoneis now ofGr directly thethese otherclear other one-half thatoffrom half the the theyieldtwo develop hybrids seed differentiating plants ofagain form the which thehybrids seeds hybridremain characters, having (F1 form, con- ), G.1.I.2.b. RelationFocusing between interpretation and data T. stanttionuponDocharacters youandabout the thinkreceive data (respectively)this? that the hehis dominantgot? conclusion in Doequal you or numbers." havetheis valid, recessive any basedques- M.2. Invite more thinking -82 - S.T. Doesknow.Hiswould conclusion he work indicate for is onlysomething anywhere applicable other in tothe than pea paper peas? plants, that you it I G.2. Extending T.S. Wellally inapplicable the introduction law has been he states formulated. so far no gener- . . . S. otherWell,thinkKeepDo you aboutquestioning.kindsif thinkhe would that.of that plants that haveI would is comparedthe likecase? to Do knowhis you results whatthink with you uh, he would have more 1.1.3.G.1. EvaluationFocusing of report T. toAreshouldnearly make there hadhave about some a triedgenerally the general more paper? applicablecrosses. comments I have beenlaw you sort would of lead- like uh, he also S. giveImentsing would you you about a like alongchance theto and go papernow back directing to and maketo, how well, you.some you just I feelgeneralwould before about com-like Carl it. to goingasIasaid mean,separate it thatwas, to in do,he sheetwashis thought and time fine or each separate andbecause that time everything, data table.he he should interprets sets I kind I up thinkbe of what placedit felt thefor he that,datayou on is forth.goingthereformulatesbefore toI formean, do,he you. doesand his maybe then Youdatait and he nowanddon't tellsgoes everything,it have youmightright exactly tointo be refer hisbetterand what databack it's to andrighthe doand is M.1. Support T. Inbeit differently, done.general, how but wouldI just think you itdescribe is the way the it way should he M.2. Invite more thinking -83 -- heorganizedwould organize just it? it? like to have you repeat that. How did I think you are getting it here, I S. Well, he set up his interpretation first andtold what the experiment was going to be andwhat he was going to do. . .and he gave us everything he was using and then he went ahead and didthe experi- ment, formulated his data, and putit right below his interpretation so you got exactly whathe did out of it. S. I think it's good that he wrote it out becausepeople weren't exactly mathematically inclined,therefore, it would be easier for them to read andunderstand. INTERIM SUMMARIESFROM THE OFBSCS INVITATIONS TO ENQUIRY BIOLOGY TEACHERS' APPENDIXHANDBOOK A Appendix.developedThe writiag Seeby committee Joseph also bibliography J. gratefully Schwab. acknowledgesnumbersOne version 62, 112,of its this reliance and concept 137 on (pp. ais concept 124,presented 132 of andenquiryl in this137 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Therespectively).Chapter1970 Interim editions) Four Summaries, of theand BSCS are presented best Biology understood in the following by reading pages, the Invitations are integral and parts Interim of Teachers' Handbook (in both the 1963 and withInvitationsSummariesBoulder,the thetotal permission Colorado.number here in the rather ofsequence of pages thethan Biological involved.presenting as presented Sciences The them materialin inthe Curriculum their in entirety this AppendixStudy, simply P.O. becauseis Box presented 930, of Handbook. We are listing the to1 While Schwab's much work, of what the iswriting included committee in Chapters has Two,chosen Three, the more and Sixcommon is either spelling based ofon "inquiry." or related -85 - THEINVITATIONS NATURE AND TO ENQUIRY,USE OF INVITATIONS GROUP 1 TO ENQUIRY TABLE OF CONTENTS 87 InterimUFAList of of SummaryInvitations Invitations 1, 2,(1-4) (5-13) KnowledgeRole by ofby Subject the Subject andHypothelis and Data and Topic Topic 89889391 INVITATIONS TO ENQUIRY, GROUP II List.List ofof InvitationsInvitations (14-16A)(17-25) by by Subject Subject and and Topic Topic . r 9594 INVITATIONSINVITATIONS TO TO ENQUIRY, ENQUIRY, GROUP GROUP III IV . InterimList of Summary InvitAtions 3, The(26-31) Concept by Subject of Causal and LiliesTopic e . 9897 INVITATIONS TO ENQUIRY, GROUP V InterimListInterimList of ofSiimmary Imitations Invitations Summary 4, (52-37) The(38-44)5, The Concept byWhole by Subject -Subject of as Functional Determiner and and Topic Topic Part of It; Paris . 103104103 99 THE NATURE AND USE OF INVITATIONS TO ENQUIRY 2 TheinisOmissionsThe invitedmappingInvitations Invitations to mayand participate include guiding include,to Enquiry separate actively eachamong are enquiry components otherteachingin the discussion.things; enquiry units for the and teachersthat Theplan thus provide materialsof contributeandan experiment students. the invite student to contributionshisSuggestions or ownwith the: understandiNsamplesconclusions andfrom explanations of students theto of be operationhow drawnas theysc.ii:ce from engageof operates.the given prbcessin adata. discussion ofThe Enquiry. student with are provided to aid the teacher inguidingTheproblem,the the teacher Invitations Invitations. principles not or isolated each are and groupedother. parts their Many of underlyinglargely a problem. of the on Invitationsthe assumptions basis of are five are sequenced general discussed principles so in that the theyInterim or concepts tend Summaries to buili for guidingon and one recapitulate anotherinquiry and(see the dealChapker with Two). These -.Iuneepts developed a continuing

4 2A more extensive statement of the nature and use of Invitations to Enquiry may he found in Schwab (137), Chapter Four (1963 and 1970 editions). 87 INVITATIONS TO ENQUIRY, GROUP I SimpleInvitationInvestigation Enquiry: The Role and Nature of General knowledge, Data, Experiment, Control, Hypothesis, and Problem in Scientific LIST OF INVITATIONS (1-4) 4321 PlantSeedThe cell germinationphysiology nucleus Subject InterpretationMisinterpretation of variablesimplecomplex of data data data data Topic

11011...111. Interim Summary 1 Knowledge and Data3 origintent of ofhis mathematics, theorems. Men but areone divided, thing is inclear; fact, whatever about the the nature origin and of THEviewoperationof IDEAsimple these OF enquiry.ofGENERAL ideas two ideasbriefly In KNOWLEDGEWith this basic andintroduction,Invitation toat the scientificsame4 we we have timehave enterprise. completed notetried certainto show our relations himintroduction the to the student Let us re- triangles.maticalmeasurablemathematics form, particulars. may did be, not it ariseTheis not essencefrom an origin measurements of in science, concrete, then, of existing, the is sides that observable, itof is, many paradoxically, general The Pythagorean theorem, in its mathe- amongembracesparticularIt is the them. idea wholething of generalin sets oneOne of particular knowledge, particulars. idea is centraltime knowledgeThis and to idea placeall otherssets which but science knowledgein is defining not apart about which thefrom one scientific enterprise. ticularsknowledgeParticularsTHE IDEA belonging fromOF are DATA particulars, indispensable to the worldScience, from of to existing, things then,science, beginsand observable, but events. withonly particulars, asmeasurable raw materials. butpar- it does not rest in them. almostcertaineachGenerally,History alloccurring day, andthe they otherorbiography, in at try formsthe a to specifiedmind recover offor knowledge ofexample, a time ardcertain recount and andare leader placeindedicatedenquiry specific, or thinkermana certainto uniquehasthe in invented.particular. citythe events, midst on a TheyFurther,ofticularsmaterial. particulars are they likeas the areore areore indispensableto relevantofthe science. refiner and ofOnlyraw useful metals. materials some to Some a aspects scientist of ofa certain theand in ore itemssearch limited is unwanted of of a kind.agroup gen- Only a part of it is the desired gold. So, too, with par- isAnddoesof from tryinga specified, whenthe mathematicsalthough tohistorian writehe does,single is tryscientific he moment toThe is discover quite idea history. of in ready,of thought generalan general entirely nay, or laws truthsdecision.proud different among about to say his particularsway that particulars. fromwhat hethatalso sets science apart Rarely, indeed, Theyrialsareeralwe irrelevant truth.formean represent any by one to scientific histhe general search.factsOnly data. truth. about some Data particulars aspects, are the then, gold that ofextracted the a group scientist fromof particulars selects the ore. serve as raw mate- The remainder of the manifold aspects of the particulars It is this condition that defines what anglesscience;whichgeometry distinguishesand perhaps, has has bearing to indeed, sayscienceNevertheless, abouton muchall from other"triangle," morehfstory. figures the general, forgenerality as example, well. even universal.of holdsmathematics for all tri- does not make it the Mathematics is as general as What larsaimfromto heofknow all issciencelead thestudying. about available the him role factsOur to ofthe Invitationsbecause nuclei most revealingin he cells. (1thinks and He truths they2) selects begin willabout withthebest the facts servethis particu- whichpoint. the A scientist wants Data, then, are selected facts. mathematicsticulars.generalsame as orknowledgescience, universal is not for derived of statementsthe concrete, general from of theexisting,knowledge ,:he world mathematician observable, of characteristic things and measurablehave events. of their science Theorigin par- is It is about the world of things and events. The knowledge of aboutdata,areare relevant involved"real"; andcells tries and tothey inthistonuclei. theserepresentdraw question. Note beginningfrom thehow Hethem facts. examinesthe hints (interprets major about thesepoints enquiry. them) selected we havea general facts, mentioned thesetruth Second, the data represent se- First, the data (Supervisor)3lnterim1963.ideasin 2ndsomething summaries whichEdition, BSCS he Biologyelseperhaps1970. instudies the Klinektnann, AppendixTeachers" and in whose ideas arcHandbook.E. (Supervisor).component inreproduced the mind New ideas from ofYork: the becomeSchwab, Johnmathematician, Wiley, the J. J. con - lectedhisingportionabout enterprise.points. facts; the of nucleusthe theyWhat problem. are the which only scientist Third, thosethe scientist can thefacts datamake that has are ofwill formulated only his answer data raw ismaterials, the asthe thequestion climax central start- of Invitation 65 PlantMeasurement nutrition in general LISTSubject OF INVITATIONS (5-13) PlanningSystematic of andexperiment random error Topic 987 PopulationPredator-prey;Plant nutrition growth natural populations ControlThe"Second-best" problem of experiment of data sampling 13121110 NaturalVitaminLightEnvironment and selection deficiency plant and growth disease PracticeConstructionThe"If idea in of hypothesis hypothesis of hypotheses .. ., then .. . ." analysis Ihterim Summary 2 OPERATIONALtaining wanted UNCERTAINTY data.Invitation IN SCIENCE 8 raises a quite different aspect of the problem of ob- In an ecological setting we see the possibility The Role of Hypothesis quirydatasothatvestigating warp thecan is of operationsthebe considerable obtained. situationa sequence required under importance.of events investigationto obtain in time. one thatset of little wanted further data useful may This kind of handicap to the progress of en- It arises whenever we are in- In such a case, we usually behaviorinvestigation.needmomentrequire for data intrudingtois moment.no about Bylonger thisourselves the appropriate act progress we or may our ofto so instrumentstheour alter sequencewhatinvestigation. the process into the that itprocess is itslike further underfrom This requirement often leads, in turn, to the knowledge.EXPERIMENTData ( selected AND CONTROL facts) Invitationsare the raw 1 materials to 4 emphasized of science. only the ideas of data and general Their relations were summed up in Interim Summary 1. What the investigationselectroninvestigated.measurementgation are without very in How must the small. using physicalare useOne we, devices something of forsciences the example, mostof much whereon extreme theto the themeasure electron same examplesobjects size the that under asvelocity of is the this asinvesti- objects bigproblem of anor occurs in those In such cases, the most refined methods of comemusttistscientist faces "clean"; somehow canin this makethey cutenterprise. alwaysofthrough Inhis Invitation data involve in orderis the 2variability, wetoclimax arrive began of atto whichthe general hint enterprise. at the some knowledge. scientist of the difficulties the scien- It was pointed out there that data rarely biology,whichbiggersmall-particle may than too. make it is, , theand measurement Thethat but mosttherefore it is, extreme nevertheless, worthless alters examples the for a velocity continuingour ofpurposes? this to handicapproblema degree in may occur only in It arises in the experimental study of the developing orderproblememplifyingOn the in whole, which of theobtaining however,differentuse of datawantedThe aspectsthese intheme arriving data.early of of this InvitationsInvitations at problem general wereknowledge.5 through confinedraised. 13, to on ex- the other hand, is the Let us look back briefly at the Invita- notofandtions,embryo, Invitation merelyso in on. thein atheexperimental 9,problem whereexperimental theof obtainingproblemstudy study of populationof aof samplingfair growing sample genetics a and mouse but waning also and population aevolution, problempopula- is It is illustrated once again among our enquiries in the case wantedreducedperimentastion the 5 data.means,pointsbut is not defined out eliminated.par the excellence, as existence a situation for of obtainingsoerror planned and ourthe as chosenfactto yield that data. specified,it can be However, the difficulties in the way of carrying out Invitation 6 then introduces experiment Ex- THEof minimizing ROLE OF HYPOTHESES the effect of IN sampling SCIENCE on the population itself. adequatetainingInvitationthe plan wanted of control. 7. an experiment data, the particular are not dealt difficulty with here being but that carried of ensuring over to Here again the emphasis is on the difficulty of ob- wantedtion with data. the They use introduceof Invitations"IfIn these the Invitations idea 10 and of hypothesis 11 the continue hypothesis in toclose treat is connec- treatedthe problem in large of partobtaining as if its . . . , then . . ." reasoning. role in science was primarily to be established ordisestablished, "proved" or "disproved."In fact, however, hypotheses playanother important role.They serve as guides pointing the way to newdis- coveries. We can make the significance of this role clearerby re-examining the "If...,then..." logic associated with the use of hypotheses. When we look at such a logical chain from one pointof view, it seems to be purely and simply a major steptoward "proving" the "If.""If A, then B." We seek for B.If we find it, our hypothesis, A, is ren- dered possible.If we fail to find B, we are in doubt.If we show that B does not exist, we have disproved the hypothesis, A. Now let us look at an "If A, then B" from anotherpoint of view. The A, the hypothesis, is a new idea, or a familiar idea in anuntried and unfamiliar context.Therefore, the B is also something new or something familiar but located in a context as yet unsearched; so we proceed to search forthe new thing or in the new context.In this new search something new may be discovered.Whether the something new corresponds to our hypothesis or not, it setsoff a stream of fresh enquiries likely to lead tofresh and important knowl- edge.This is the point suggested in Invitation 11 and repeated in Invitations 12 and 13. There are two important ways to emphasize this role of hypotheses. One way is to point out that science is not one process but two.It is a process of discovery aswell as a process of "proof." A second important way to present the role ofhypotheses in the process of discovery is as follows.The problem of obtaining wanted data is twofold.First, it is the problem of obtaining the data when we know what data we want.The planned and controlled experi- ment is the best solution to this problem. In addition, the problem of obtaining wanted data is theproblem of knowing what data to want. The conceiving of fresh hypotheses is the way we solve this problem. The two problems are, of course, connected.Hence the devices that solve them are connected too.Although it is the experiment that leads us to our data, it is the hypothesis that leads us to our experi- ment. And the fresh hypothesis leads us also to freshproblems.

9 2 - Invitation LIST OF INVITATIONS (14-16A) 16A161514 DiscoveryAuxinsDicoveryNeurohormones and of of plant penicillin anaphylaxis movement of the heart Subject AccidentOriginHypothesis; of inscientific enquiryinterpretation problems of abnormality Topic INVITATIONS TO ENQUIRY, GROUP II InvitationsThe Conception of Cause in Biological Enquiry: Causal Factors, Multiple Causes, Time Sequences, Negative Causation, Feedback LIST OF INVITATIONSSubject (17-25) Topic 20191817 ThyroidSeveralPhotosynthesisDisease action examplesand treatment of sequential analysis UnitSerial causes causation 2421252322 Pituitary-gonadControlParathyroid of pancreaspancreas,thyroid action mechanism secretion continued InhibitoryMultipleFeedbackDiverse causation effectscausation causes mechanisms of diverse causes t Interim Summary 3 previousfectedmainder by of Invitationsthe the removal whole have asof ifthe indicated,none one ofpart the inthe remaining question. assumption Asparts so permits hadmany been of us our af-to The Concept of Causal Lines partanimalinterpretindependent removed. as differences if these parts differences betweenisThe that most of anwere a usefulchainanimal due of biological entirelywithout antecedents toa version partthe absenc#1and of aeonsequents thecomplete conceptionof the of separate and pletestructionof data conception and of their Irc.iitheses, of interpretation, scientificThe Invitationsthe research. formation the planning up We toof have thisproblems, of pointexperiments,dealt seemwith and thetothe thepresent ideassearch con- a reasonably com- independentpendentleadscauses to and of,I, andeffects. unaffectedof X X leads A leadsThe by, to usefulness YLto -4leadsB K-4leads to I,and to Z.and C.simplicity eachMeanwhile of ofthese, research L leadsin turn, based to isK on such a principle Y Z. But A B-4C is inde- forotherofenquiry causal independent patternsthe usedfactors. in biologicalcausal patternIn fact,lines. basedresearch, however, on thea pattern theseidea of basedInvitations function on the andrepresent conception the pat- only one pattern of In later Invitations, we deal with determiner,ofsimpleareIn separate seen similar versions with parts letfashion special us of and say,physiology. we independentclarity of may brown in speak simple eye causal of color; versionsB lines,as ofa determinera we ofthe geneticstalk determiner of geneof and height, Aofequally as blue. theC of In simple genetics based on the idea oflogicalinternthe orderthe based idea most enquiry, to onisbegin useful that the let ideatowe principlesus clarify treatlookofThe regulation. ideaanybackthe of differencesgivenof atenquiry separatethe wholeidea used amongcausalof asseparate in if science. lines itthese consists causal is lines one lines.ofof themanybio- simplest but also one Before embarking on these, and Basically, eyewhosemodifycurlythought pigment hair, genetic the of and effect as composition soonethe on,of genewhose theassuming forother. composition is brown AABBCC as we eye speak is pigment,will AAbbcc. thathave no thenprecisely one whether of these the sameit will is in That is we speak as if an animal As long as A is separateconsideredandeachentity. regardless part parts, is independentand each ofdoes, whether of it which is in and theit operateskeepsdoes sense regardless companythat as we a separate, treatof or the not.it companyas independent if its behavior it keeps That is, we plan experiments and interpret data as if what Each part is basedAtheor has company tissue on eyethe A pigment.asassumptionof havingB or b, effectCIn ofor simple separatec, a; there we physiology, speak will causal beof noorganlines. similarly, influence WeB as speak wehaving on have the of effect experimentsorganeffect b, and conclusions aand assumeaboutgiven effect connectionssubject that are alwayseach matter part between theThe byoperates same advantagestudying the whether as studied if each ofit theissuch partofindependent, other itsa andprinciple parts parts other without act weofparts. or enquirycan not. worry ignore is that it lets us study If we andeachorbasic soC orcausal on.assumption D is linepresent goes that or its Itorganabsent. isway this Aindependent Again, conceptionwill produce each ofofchain effectotherindependent of causalacauses whether lines. causaland organ effects, lines, B independent chains Here, as in the case of genetics, there is the underlying causalasmuchitthe keepsa company part simpler lines andin the letsitstudy and keepslarger us less its remove orwhole. Conversely, properties confusingeven aremove part thanand fromthe it behaviorstudyingfrom assumption the the whole complicateditwhen when and of alonewhich independent ittreat is companyworking the re- is parts and separate Thequiryofsequentsofthe antecedent-consequent abasic area illustratedset of stepsof made antecedents. physiology are in up ouras of follows. Invitationsthe to connection, manyexemplify differentso far. thatthe majorleads consequcnts to steps the patternin flowing this pattern.of en-sep- Second, we must identify the mass of cnn- First, we must identify the members Let us take a problem in arately from each antecedent. With our identified set of antecedents are interested in, we may think of cause B as affecting cause A in a physiology.givenperformin hand, antecedent. antogether experiment withLet the which us mass take will of the identifyconsequents, cat as ourthe consequentcase the nextin point. task of Weeachis to take all the separate Let us see how this works out in the case of causecasespendingcertainIn that will,B way. maycase,on in whether have effect,again, an the causebeeffect twoapparent 13on different isthe acting effect same causes. orofend not,cause organ since A aswill Adoes. indiffer these cause depend- two A. Then, of course, the effect of cause A will differ de- On the other hand, sequentantecedents.organscedents.normal identified to cat antecedent Weas made bythen anatomical proceedstreatup of the the wholestudyas many follows. of physiological consequentsthe cat as our condition ofset all of theseidentified of ante-the Then our experimental identification or linking up of con- In a number of cats we ingviolentexperimentaltion. on whether upset in animals,cause the utilizationPhysiology B iswe acting find of offers thatsugaror not. absence usand an fats. excellent of this tissue example leads ofIf tothiswe removekind of interac-islet tissue of the pancreas from a number of If in another group animals.ofrecoveredremove these oneexperimental from particular the effectsWhen animalsorgan. of thethese When insurgery, searchdifferences the we animalsof scrutinizedifferences are havenoted the presumably from wephysiology then intact treat them as signs or function.ofthediscoverlobe), experimental notion we consequences kind of separate cessation animals causal very weof bone removed differentlines. growth fromthe and pituitary the of sexualexpectation gland maturation (anterior based and on If we now remove both organs from the sante animals we Animals with both these tissues mallypresent.sayWeevidence what thenfollows oftrythe the tofrom"presence" interpretabsence the removed of theseis; that that signsphysiological organ is, what of when absence the that consequentorgan soorgan asdoes to is which bewhenpresent. able nor-it tois maturationmetabolismbothfailureremoved organs of regulationdoseentogether are not in removed exhibitthe with of cases sugarthe merelythan sameof metabolism separateit isfailurethe when same removal. of the is bone failure much islet growth On tissue lessof the sugar severeand alonecontrary, sexualand whenis re-fat mallytemperature,dicatorssumption maintained of of somethingplacidity, oxygen, by theThus, and obesity, calledthyroid so if on, we thelower gland.we find "basal interpret respiratory that metabolism" removal these rate, as of absences, reducedthe which thyroid is con- as nor- in-gland leads to lower This maintenance of basal mean,thearatemoved. organism. and however, independent that Theit causal is onefact linestothat be theis discarded. a concepthighly simplified Onis a thehighly contrary, model simplified ofit model does notIn short, the concept of an organism as consisting of sep- metabolismantecedent-consequenttakenand asusefulness antecedent. is then of the the Theconnectionsdiscovered conception vast quantity bears consequentof separate ampleof biological witness causalof thyroid lines.knowledgeto the activity strength that takes the form of It has a ofkindsedgehasthe knowledge given realityaboutof experiments, us the means andof organism.the will onlyorganism. othercontinue that The kinds we tofact need ofgive data,that otherus the and,a vast modelsmodel therefore, quantity is leading simpler other of knowl- to kindsthan other ogistsgardlessnotcausalcentral be know linetheindependent.weakness, of thatthe idea company"causes" however, of They its orindependencethey dowhich"antecedents" keep.not is,necessarily Onin fact, fromthe in contrary, the livingevery act basic the organismsother ideaa same living line.behind way organ-may there- Biol- concepteffect,thewhat organism the that treats idea there asofthe aseparateis organismwhole. noSpecifically, whole causalThe simply in idea anylines we ofas functional needseparatea collection, a concept causal not which lines un organiza- brings back into the picture so conspicuously leaves out sense. Instead, the says, in whatrule:ismdifferent is Everyother so much causesbehaviors."cause" an are integrated is Thisoperatinglikely On themassive to whole onehave at the hand, interaction athat samedifferent theif time.cause opposite effect, of causesA is dependingis the almost can cause arise the on we from either of two simpledoesinvestigation.tion, ofbring waycauses. backit Theoperates the web organismThe areformed conceptillustrated by these of in function linesthe Invitations is notis one investigated. ofof theGroup principles IV. of enquiry that Each causal line, taken separately, is the object of as a whole. This concept and the Quantita:3ve Relations in Biology: Linear Relations, Exponential Relations, Rate, Change of Rate, Units and INVITATIONS TO ENQUIRY, GROUP III L1ST OF 1N MATIONS (26-31) Constants Invitation 2726 OxygenLight intensity and carbon and dioxide photosynthesisrespiration in Subject Linearity;Linear relation limiting faators Topic 28313029 PopulationGrowthRateLight of andfermentationregulation growthauxin formation in leafbacteria ChangeExponentialNonlinear of rate; polynomialpolynomial functions;complicated, of of exponentsdegree degree variables '>1

ArgumentThe Concept from of Function:Adaptation Evidences for Inferring Function, INVITATIONS TO ENQUIRY, the Doubtfulness of GROUP IV Functional Inferences, Argument from Design versus Invitation 32 MuscleSimple structure examples and of functionevidence LIST OF INVITATIONSSubject of(32-37) function SixSeven evidences evidences of function of function Topic 3433363537 MuscleEmbryonicTheMuscle valves synergism and ofcirculationbone the andveins function FunctionPersistenceExperimental in a assystem evidence of function Interim Summary 4 havegeneraland alreadya detailingknowledge seen of examplesof this the character whole: of this a graspand procedure: nature of its characteras detailing we have of noted. animal We and nature, The Concept of Functional Part furtherhumancharactercal process behaviorscharacter in terms called whichin of induction.terms ingestion,This set of generalmen a modified digestion, apart character from animal and other of so the characteranimals.on; whole specification is plus discovered through the classi- In this process numerous instances of those of PARTenquiryroleas AND subservient they whichWHOLE serve gives in to the thespecial Ineconomy whole Invitations weight and of tothe to 32the whole. to whole, 37 we one have seen the operation of a be investigated by asking what which treats parts principle of calledFromeachofthat what kind discards"experience";this isof repeated central thing individual are and from observation scrutinized characteristic. experience,variability inof theirthemandin turn, thenormal comes comesincidental state the the and stateinductive and condition. takesof mind leap hold throughofpressedwith it. a certain througha catalogue character a numberIn of this capacities or conception ofnature. capacities and the activities and "whole" activities ashas familiar first characteristic place. as it is Thus the character or nature we call "animal" is expressed That character or nature is ex- It is a "going concern" betheandgators biased "kind" interests. will ( atypical) under select investigation in differentThis process ways,will isarise. notdepending a guaranteed on their one. past Our sample of instances may Hence, disagreement as to the essential character .of The selective observations of different investi- (This is the principal source histories venerable,specificcharacterexcretion,that species versions thator locomotion, nature is,apart ingestion, of of fromthese a specificintegration, othergeneric digestion, species. animal traits reproduction, distribution pluswould certain be andexpressed and others assimilation, so on.which set through The arefoundoftiveof the distinguished enquiry investigationshadeswherever used of menopinion andto ofinvestigate developdefined.) the and whole the classificatory parts diversitiesbut progressivelynot only ofschemes requiresorganization corrects in this which prior, it.which "kinds" induc- arc As we shall see, however, the pattern "parts"mustThereing itsbe are play needssupplied conditions their as well role.if Thesethey that as constitutingmustare capacities to be be held maintained. its andwithin visible activities, bounds existence. andin turn, needs make certain They are the servants of the whole, supply- It is here that the demands. that THE PATTERN OF ENQUIRY!When PART we RELATIVEhave our preliminary,TO WHOLE inductive grasp of the whole rea- eachnervousgrosspurposes system, parts system, of asone for the stageandthe entire timesoIn of on.this investigation,circulatorybeing, At conception as a "whole,"system, the notion and investigate of "parts" itsis veryparts, flexible. another stage, we may focus down, treat they may be taken to be such the digestive tract, the For the Whatisparts.sonably clear doesThe enough: well leadingit established,do Whatfor question the Whatis whole? the we weisrole are not are ofready at toeach all ask to clear,part turnin eachin however,to the investigation such whole investigation is economy? what of data the we need to answer andmicrostructures,vestigate,the organs. whole asis two-pronged.their which parts,The compose patternthe tissues, andof enquiry maintain the variety which them. of flows cells, from even this conception Organs, in turn, may be treated as wholes while we in- First, there must be some preliminary of part the Thatpointsuchlocationthe notiona notionthat question ofthe is whichevery conceptionbriefly and part, ishow andat onceandthese simplymakes the its data observablegreatest this:its are crucial The to strengthbe structure actionscommitment,interpreted. and of everyorits insorest sets everypart, forth point. the part It is at this are all appropriate to, neatly fitting for, the role it plays in the whole ture of these vessels ( whether their walls were muscular; if so, whether andit (seean whataction operative also questions pagesof each principle 193-194). topartThis ask is ofcrucialin appropriate enquiry,our laboratory. notion by to bringstelling its role, the us then, functionalwhat from data knowl-toconception seek to life, makes If the structure, location, orleadthatvalves;as opposedstrong wouldto independent and as checkto ifor theso, weaker inferencespermittinghis inferences inferences than thosemade flow which from offromin thewouldwhat the theheart; structuredirection) structureeither whether be of ofconsistenthe the thethey sought heart heart. too with dataandhad borsourrole.edgeof data: the andof structure,part how What we is isareit location,connectedthe investigating? shape, and with the action, architecture,them; Second, we what should we does ask,the be it detailedWhat ablepass toareon structureinfer toits them, neigh- thatThese matters, then, are what we should seek to discover as sequenceture,deningthe action,visible ofof heart contractions andactions locationwall of Finally,and heartand are blood expansions,examined althoughand vessels, blood there and theandvessels, interpreted,isalternate so no on. significancenoted paling hethe turned andorder to red-the toand order in which struc- Here he had still changes?ingceptibleor do them? to motionsthem? Physical Leaving are changes? them? thereWe now Happening( as alsoin the know heart)? within what Whatthem? to do do withWhat we these see chemical enter- data when we have them. Third, What are its activities? That is, what per- tobloodchecka third the inhislungs. body a other constant of inferences.data circulation fromThus, which he from came to lungsinfer to the tofunction conclusionheart to and body, thatwith thence the which role back ofto the heart is to pump Weotherenablewhatthe are whole. itpartsto isthe treat because partsimiliarly We them to are thatserve as to existindicators,is interpret theits as function.structure the evidencetheconnections whichThestructure connections of will what which ofbest the (best or partof effectively enablethis doesas partbeing forit to ) mattertheneedsnected clear, remains ofthis thegreat movement body to emphasis be which, firmlyThis, of thein ofultimately, established,the bloodcourse, body to isonthe thisnot butflow whole thecirculation there through end economy, is of already the serves. work,lungs.the a need clue for or he had not yet con- This All part.playtheinvestigation its chambers role. of into the rolewhichOne of fine theit was exampleheart. divided, of the the use movable of this principle flaps which of enquiry is Harvey's So too, the motions and changes which take place in the First, he examined its structure: throughforuseonlythe bloodenquiryof a datafraction the passes about lungs?is indicated. goes throughconnections to any theWhat otherlungs and happens neighbors). singleat each topart complete the (note blood herecircuit, in itsthe whereaspassage further So, the next problem rangementaswhichguardthe muscular. muscle composethe entry would fibers: He its into then walls.do. They each Heasked were traced chamber, himself so thearranged consequences thewhat arrangement that such their a structure ofcontraction contraction of the and fibers would ar- of By a closer study he identified these fibers whichinweand lungs shall seek are andtrymore to todiscover other tracerichly major theIf suppliedwhat and connection places whenspecial with and that betweenevents bloodthe question needs vesselstake what of isplace happensthe answered,than bodythere. the to inordinary the wegeneral. bloodshall note other organs Finally, oftheheart.resultthe chambers blood flaps Hein an thenthe at overallto entryheart tookone contained.another,andnote reduction exit, of the and the Heconsequencesin inblood thesaw consequence volume that, would in of viewbeof ofsuch theimpelled the of chambersa arrangementsthe constriction connections through of the on cer-of KNOWLEDGE OF PART ANDWhen WHOLE enquiry controlled by the functional principle is well done, a toemergencetain andthe pathways questionfrom of the vessels from ofremainder connection chamber leadingHaving of to tothe ofthus and chamberthe body. inferredfrom heart By the andwith further what lungs, thence its he neighbors, studyand couldout. others of from the sawleading struc- structure, the Harvey turned - loo kindentresearch,itemsto being ofsections ofknowledge knowledgethrough reported of a textbook:theemerges in such differentprinciple as which the scientificoffollowing, iscausal quite paperslines. differenteach of and them from recorded from that a brought indifferent differ- From the latter come movement of white blood1. Chemicals cells. produced by some bacteria stimulatejr.11111111MPEIMPIFFMNIMMINWIMPINFIRPOPPIIMMIIIIMMIWIF and direct the enquiry.cept of independent causal strands and this loss has consequences for oftheterials the precursor neighboring flow out of which fibrin blood3.2. dostrands, VariousInvessel not cases do walls may sobacterialof ordinarily. localflowis altered. infectionoutproducts in For considerable example, areby manyknown fibrinogen, quantity.bacteria, to increase the the physical phagocytic state In consequence, ma- manythatanatomyof enquiry.of biological independent and We physiology, sciences, have causalA already second the the lines interconnecting two andseen is being lessthis: that obvious joinedIt it permits requires toadvantage give an an integrationus integration of the classical of of conception over of many different lines the data and hand,( engulfing) would come activity somethingWhenFrom of white enquiry bacteria like blood the directed cells.following:invade bya local the functional area, as by conception, a scratch onor puncturethe other andtheveryenceto conclusionstheecology "whole,"an sciences organized on theaboutthe of livinganatomyone"whole" functions. hand organism, ofand and biological physiology. physics with and chemistry on the other It also serves to relate psychology which it deals.knowledge which mirrors the It thus brings into exist- whichisms,towound,these wall and emerged offendsa numberdestroy the are infected achieved. asofthe fruitsprocesses developingThe area, of statement preventcausal-line are colony set thewouldin motion ofspread enquiries, invaders. then whichof go on but serve to thesereport eventually details the detailed steps by which In so doing, it would include all the items the invading organ- whole,verychemicalas wesimply soinvestigate wecomponents to investigateour knowledge organsKnowledge and asphysical processes composing of their of components the anatomyas physicscomposing andand andchemistry processes serving of func-and living things is joined and serving functions in the and physiology. Just originteria.ingwould the inbe roles thisrelated they concept to played one ofNote another partin protectingthat and andthe whole. totwo the familiar "Organ" wholebody against organismwords means invading"organ" much by exhibit- moreand "function" have their bac- organizedcomprisetionsfor example,within them. into the studiedthe organization structure Atthe the nesting, of other of biological the migrating,end tissues, of knowledge.the cells, andline, nurturing andecology Once organs behaviorandwe which have,psychology of are similarly phrasedthana something amerely mere in terms doing; ina distinguishablethe of serviceit themeansIt serviceis of in a the thisdoing part; it concept renders whichit means of isto the seenanthe organismagent, whole. and understood a subordinate, that the centraland place of anatomy whole. "Function" means much more isachieved.birds, tionsit that we which turns canWhat relate turnthe organs energyback theWhen physics andserve of askthe to and birdinvolvedhow initiate chemistry toall the these theorgans building flight ofcomplex theare northward? bird'soflocated, a behaviors nest? cells, we Whatascan arewell ask still further ques- responsibleandture,ofand physiologymotions architecturelocation, for and discovery action,as actions sciences of parts. to and anda conclusionof fordescription great interpretations dignity about of hasthe function. structure,itsof allorigin. the datatopography,Anatomy on struc- is Physiology is responsible for discovery toorturn,portionas further nesting,its leadorgans, ofchemical to darkor still mating, to to itsfurther anddaylight, behavior or physical brooding? chemico-physical or as seasonal changes a bird. changes Howwithin changes do the inchanges temperature,organ triggering which,in the flight, leadpro- in STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSESThere are shortcomings and objections to this classical ( going back whatorganism,objections, objections it isindeed hard, to it violentat canWith first,One be ones,soto ofraised. seemuchthe have whatmost to been beweaknessesserious said raised. inobjections favor it may of havetothe the classical and concept concept of function of the as a But weaknesses there are and majornessestothe whole, advantages. in the and back concept ) into of Itstheconcept independent principalfield ofof theenquiry. virtue organism,causal consists The strands. wholejust in as the isthere lostfact are inthat theweak- it con-brings "the organism," Let us examine some of each. There are also somethingwould,organismfineprinciple art. presumably, of is other enquiry as it than should ishave itthat now be. greatit treatsis. difficulty organisms in surviving as if they awere transition works toof They have finish, completeness. It could not have been otherwise; it Everything about each Weourperfect; canunderstanding take it isit notas a inflexiblystatement of Thereit as a areofwhatprinciple fact: two it Theis.ways of organism enquiry,we can takeis not this finished criticism; and one is important to Certainly these critical asser- the other is not. cipleonlythan probable,of absolute enquiry sureness,in despite which its the we limitations. classical can have conception a degree of confidence rather remains a fruitful prin- "functionless."remnantstionsifinto not arethe made intrue.living its inevitable.Thebody organism organism of past by organizations, whichhas had further a history now change pointless of change. is at and least Thereirrelevant, promised are Moreover, we know that there are mechanisms built These changes will often occur piecemeal. presentpossessConsequently,its organization. workingcharacteristics some scheme organisms,Although rather thaneventhese effective, large assertions populations necessary are sound, of elements them, they may do of not, for this reason, (parts) which are merely tolerable in the withoutsourceadaptedLetconstitute us ingrant ato function.past atheir criticism that or roles. projected many of the organs classicalconditions of the concept of body the as organism,are a principleless than are of perfectlypresently enquiry. It is still the case that fruitfulGrant knowledge further that will some be organs, whatever their Ifdisclosed action,thethe principle. organ and by islocationasking less than the toIf its questionsperfect,the role, part then whichif and it ourincludes seeking concerns research remnants the ourwill data research disclose prescribed of past isthat wellroles role.by adapted in structure, partsfirstofends.and the than aspectsconclusions Somerole would played datathat otherwise presentlycollectedby by studying the part.be havewill required. many find no role, moreno place our neighboring research in our final will and formulation have connected loose Moreover, we may need to verify our questionforthcoming.principle,structure thatwean organ putThehas because, nothing at function,all.It undermay in this eveninvestigationthat case, is be not, the it inhas case willthe no sensethat refuseanswer. our of to theinterest answer classical willthe have lighted on a In that case the data we require will not be This very ing.this,insilence, this too, case though, is properwe areis evidenceknowledge dealingIn short, wewith of can if thea weuse.part organism admit which the withdoes desirability whichnot "belong," we of are finding deal- and answers which are It points to the possibility that InterconnectionsThe Self-Regulatory of Homcostascs Organism: Homeostasis; Dynamic Equilibriums; Organismic Behavior; Adaptive Change of Equilibriums; INVITATIONS TO ENQUIRY, GROUP V LIST OF INVITATIONS (38-44) Invitation 403938 BloodControlA thermostatic sugar of blood and model thesugar internal environment Subject TheFitnessMaintenance concept of models of of homeostasis dynamic equilibrium Topic 44434241 BloodTheBasal stresssugar metabolic reaction:and insulinhunger rate adrenaline InterrelationsOrganismicSensingAdaptive mechanisms change behavior of horneostases: of ofasequilibriums homeostasishomeostaticregulating the self- organism. Interim Summary 5 The Whole as Determiner of Its Parts supplyrestingareleases cooler isstate, answeredenergyclimate is generally for by maintenance. Aa proportionatesimilar increased, shift ofand increase. norm an exercise occurs for the basal rate at and drops if we spend sufficient time in a warmer It rises if we stay long enough in which our body call for extra EXAMPLES OF SELF-REGULATION one.shiftand, again,its norms in theas wellcase These asof correct body instances temperature. departures seem fromcommonplace.It occurs, too, in the case of water utilization In the first place, they are In brief, the body can them. by the kidneys triggeredto releasestop whatwhich of storedwe tend areWhen to sugardoing remedy blood by and the the sugarseek liver. situation. out drops We areOneto an mechanism "uncomfortable" leads level, events are food. impelled(There by another is evidence, secondandonlytake circumstancessecond-order for place, granted. they instances arewhichAt changes first are of aglance,of hostin the rate, of essence mountainephemeral in degree, of being sickness which we appears to be but But let us look further. adjustments to need alive. another in- tend toIn the need.)indeed,similarmuscles that but consume somecontrary animals the processes sugarConversely, seek that areout is available.evoked.whenthe particular too The much kidney kind candy ofextracts hasfood raised they sugar the blood sugar level,Still a third mechanism stops down the rate at which our stancequietestallyaltitude,so ensues. muchof second-ordercircumstances, distressshortness less The than amount that change exceeds ofat ofseaoxygen in breath, the inavailable fatigue,the volume supply. nausea, of air and we sobreathe onusu- is level that our demand, even under thedegree. When we move to a high In two weeks moreHungerfor excretion. profound pangs cease. changeThis Our can homeostaticappetite occur. is "spoiled." regulation, however, is not the whole story. The liver stores as much as it can; so do muscles. The body can "reset its thermo- A require.heightsorof three things is or now four,are adequate:only however, changesMany We extractof in the degree: changes from increase it whichas much bringin oxygenthe about amount as this we more satisfactory state this is changed. The thin air of the of stat."pulsionoftheliver. hunger thermostat called pangs hunger behaves, and ceases;lassitude at first, the andas muscles it calls did before. readjustfor stored the sugar ways in If wewhim stay or on circumstance the short rations puts longus on enough, short rations however, for thea time, im- It irks us by way from the which circulatoryoxygen-carryingchemistryof change rate. ofof an a differentpigmentorgan.The inkind, organthe blood,a change is the increased lung. in the Under very blood sea-levelarchitecture pressure conditions and its cells are only But at least one extensive study provides evidence and persistslevelonlytheyit for takewhenwhich awhile. even energy blood formerly if we from sugar return evoked available drops to release. ato "fullermaterials; a level life"until measurably the liver we releases lower its store And this new state of affairs have stayed on than the of a acrossandepithelial:inspiredsion the fromit carbonby airThey ubiquitousregions has dioxide constitute a higherof higherphysical brought oxygena membrane. to means: regions by "tension" the ofbloodThe lower than oxygen are concentration.has thought theof inspired blood to move which air solution in water, then diffu- The ofdownity."thermostat time,which again. When however, normally ora muscle second-order the are Enquiry is numberclosed. called control hasintoof beds disclosedactivity, which which legislatesmany many supply capillary instances a it, new even beds"normal- of in openthis its kind of reset If the muscle is used repeatedly over a sufficient length When exercise ceases, the beds close flowsularchangemore collisions.through carbon occurs thedioxide simply membranes than Afteras a doesresult adjustmentof the of lungthe relative spaces;to high frequencies thealtitude, blood allhas of this muchmolec- is changedif we accept inspired air. In consequence, ex- the research of J. S. Haldane. He undertook measurement of oxygen 3. The middle kidney is removed from a chick embryo. By treat- tensionintoPikesdane's altitudenoand Peak. away datathe ambient showedfromlonger the showedair,oxygen lungsamong in the tensionssymptoms lung spaces,members lower of mountain inin theofthe analveolar blood expedition sicknessHal- flowing air of theirto When members of the expedition reached adjustment multiply,separatedgratedmentabouts with into the migrate,cells alkalia culturemere is andthen suspensioncling dish a placed material tocontains one ofin another,whichseparateda identifiableculture digests and medium.cells. in units protein three Theof days a it kidney.cells is ordisinte- grow,there, "The The suspension of thelungslongerstructure conditionconcentration than an in andepithelium theof action oxygenpassing gradient. ofacross want,blood.lung The whichmembrane sufficiently indicated oxygen was conclusionlong "moved transformed. maintained, itself" was thatbut the aunder verysecre- In short, oxygen was moving against It was no directedsimilarH.establishingdiscrete Moscona, capability cells,"cell themigration,J. Anat.,say structural in the the 86, authorsselective cells1952, pattern of 287-301.)of ancellular ofthis Amblystoma their work, adhesions, tissue "are of embryo:thus origin." mutual capable There assimila- of was re- Says another scientist of a (A. and energytorymainsdoubtful organ ( aactive tenable accuracywhich transport). possibility. moved ofThough the oxygen assays Haldane's "forcibly," of alveolar data by air)have the his expenditurebeen conclusion challenged of re- (because of the tiveism.1948.)Differentiation inductions. and Morphogenesis,"Here, then, are Symposia a number Soc. of instances Exptl Biol., of the No, flexibility 2, of the organ- (Johannes Holtfreter, from "Growth in Relation to compensatorydocumentedremoved.(In this case instances over-growth it is notThere of clear, increase of are one however, similar inkidney auditory cases whetherif the acuity which other we after have isare damagedloss dealingnot of been vision. orwith challenged. There is Similar compensation occurs in testes. There are well- keeps,threebody.manyorganism or (or Therethe moredepending, all?) butstate may several,other of beother chemicals, not depending organs, oneagain, anatomy physical theon on thecondition the ofconditionfactors, conditionthe lung,of and the of structuresbut andtheoutward twoperhaps companyThere,isactivity worldof the notof it one concentration of sugar which is "right" for the Whenbrainbrain.the structural area the whichanimals change is recoverthe ofKarl locus ear fromLashley orof nerve,this the learning reportsmicrosurgery or with similaris "learning.") located they flexibility and are destroyed. retrained in local functioningAnimals of the are taught a certain behavior. Then, by trial, the kidney,withmuscle,supplythe whichdemand not to the muscles,theeven heart. its organism abrother normal Thethe sizeorganizationinteracts. parts average, of muscles,make. There but of The several eventheis notsame brain the one sizes, sizeholds is normal flexible, ofdepending forthat size the principal its forblood parts a on bryosonposition. the are same transplanted problem. 1.Now,to They Beforea site three learn forward the more outgrowthitin orcasesfromanother to the of rear areanerves, experimental of_their of the forelimbs normal embryology. of amphibian em- Development proceeds. Each transplanted limb receives a brain. ismaymultivalent, conformssubject be taken to topluripotent.change. over the organizationby Instead Inanother the embryo,of part. becoming in which the "normal"whatit may it usuallybe fate put of bybecomes, a change given itcell of or group of cells When a part is lost or damaged, its role nervesfull complement they would of ordinarily nerves from have the received. spinal cord. Instead, they are nerves But they are not the circumstanceevenCC radically altered circumstanceand plays the part "normal"from a different circumstances, segment ofhave the gonespinal elsewhere cord, nerves to performwhich would, another in withthat fits the that locality. organization. ( of the .host) but has done. newt so in belly skin grafted to an axolotl head has . . . Paul Weiss says, with moving imagery, a manner charac- . . . complied incells.Theanother,service. harmonious two From rudimentsin linethe relation twowith grow, rudiments2. one Removewith ofmake oneits come eyescontact, oneanother. developingand not and immediatelytwo reassort eyes, eye but fromtheir adjacent one, anconstituent itsamphibian; toparts it. transplant it to offieldteristic Development, of ofthe the axolotl donor. Henry to the Holt, best New of their York, newt 1939.) knowledge." The cells have reacted to the lateral head (Principles THE NEED FOR A THIRD PRINCIPLE OF ENQUIRY

Such events as these point to the usefulness ofa principle of enquiry in biology, one that will open doors to which the classicalconception has no key. The classical conception in itspristine form depends on a fixed structure, a fixed function, and a fixed relation between the two. A fixed function is the knowledge object at which theenquiry aims. A definite structure .( and action) is requiredin order to yield the data which this pattern of enquirymust use. A fixed relation between the two is the groundon which the data of structure, locus, and action are interpreted to yield knowledge offunction, By contrast, such flexibilities and varipotenciesas we have just de- scribed point to anew knowledge-object which requires a new kind of data and a new pattern for its interpretation.Instead of knowl- edge about one collection of regular, recurrentparts, we will want knowledge about changeable parts within the set;even, possibly, of changeable sets.For example, we would no longer ask, "What is the cellular structure of the lung?"Rather, we would ask (by analogy to Haldane's report), "What is the repertory possessed by thisorgan, the several cellular arrangements and architectures ofwhich it is capable?" This new question would bring in its waketwo related ones: (1) What conditions evoke this, that,or the other item in the repertory? (2) What are the complex, subtleprocesses by which one item of the repertory, one cellular architecture, is replaced by another? By questions such as thesewe could seek out the flexibilities of our "parts." We also want to seek out the flexibilities ofour "whole." This can be done byan analogous shift of the problem we pose. We would no longer ask, "What is the functionor role of this organ?" Instead, we would ask, "When parts X, Y, andZ do thus and so, what role does part A play?" We would then ask,"When X, Y, or Z is changed in such-and-sucha way, what correlative change takes place in Awhatnew roles does it play to make of A, X, Y, and Z an integrated whole?" Such a pattern of research reflects the conception of theself-regula- tory organism.

-106 - APPENDIX B

HYBRIDISATION" (Pp. 1-13), COPY (' "EXPERIMENTSIN PLANT BY GREGOR MENDE!.

This paper was used inShawnee Mission Westhigh school biology classes as a basis for"Inquiry into Inquiry"discussion in Chapter by Seven. It is reprintedfrom "Experiments inPlant Hybridisation" Cambridge, 1958, with Gregor Mendel, HarvardUniversity Press, permission of thepublisher. EXPERIMENTS IN PLANT-HYBRIDISATION I` formsunderto make whichwith it possible certainty the offspring to according determine of hybrids to the their number separate of differentgenerations, forms appear, or to arrange these or 2 (Read at the Meetings of the 4th February and 81/8 March, 180.) BY GREGOR MENDEL tancebyfar-reachingdefinitely which of which we to extent; ascertaincan cannot finally this theirIt beappears,reach requires overestimated statistical the however, solutionindeed relations.' sometoofin beaconnection question ti%courage only the right towith impor-undertake the a labour of such way EXPERIENCEtomental the experiments plants of in artificial order which to fertilisation, obtain will here new such bevariations discussed. as is effected in colour, with has orna- led INTRODUCTORY REMARKS The striking essentials.plantexperiment.history group, of the Whether andThis evolution is exporiment now, theThe ofplan after organic paper upon eightwas now whichforms. practicallyyears' presented the pursuit, separate confined recordsconcluded experiments to the inresults all of such a detailed a small followfurtherwheneverregularity upexperiments fertilisationthe with developments which to took Tobe the undertaken,thisplace ofsame objectthe between hybridhybrids numerous the theforms inobject sametheir alwayscareful of speciesprogeny. which reappearedobservers, induced was to such as Kolreuter, desiredwere conducted end is left and to thecarriedThe friendly value out decisionwas and theutility bestof theof suited anyreader. experiment to attain the SELECTION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL PLANTS are determined by the valuableductioninofGartner, histheir work livesof Herbert,observations; Hybrids "Die with Bastarderzeugung Lecoq,inexhaustible in the WichuraVegetable perseverance. and imKingdom), others,Pflanzenreiche" haveGartner has devotedrecorded especially, (The a very Pro-part and quite recently Wichura published aresubjectedinfitness the conducted. caseof the to before materialexperiment us to itThe thecannot and selection purpose in bewhat ofimmaterialfor the which plant it group whatis used, which plants and shall thus manner such experiments serve for experiments are Willow.thetattedformation results can of hardlyand some development be profound wondered ofinvestigations hybridsat by anyone has beeninto who thesuccessfully is hybridsacquainted of forum- thewith That, so far, no generally applicable law governing the ofavoid this kind from must the outsetbe madeThe every.1. with experimental risk all ofpossible questionable plants must results. necessarilyPossess constant differentiating characters, care if it. be desired to orders.detailedcanwhichthe only extent experiments experiments be arrived of the oftask,at made whenthis and classon we plantscan shallhave appreciate belonging haveto contend. before the to A theusdifficulties final themost results decision diverse with of ancecapablebe protectedin theirof such fertility from protection. the in The2. theinfluence The successivehybrids hybrids of and all ofgenerations. theirforeign such offspring plants pollen, must, should during suffer the flowering period, no, marked disturb- or be easily atnot the oneconviction has been that carried amongThose out all whoto thesuch survey numerous Thisan extent translation the workexperiments and was indone suchmade in a bymade,this way the department Royalas Horticultural will Societyarrive of London, and theerroneous experiments conclusions. andAccidental Reduced impregnation fertility or entire by foreign sterility pollen, of if it occurred were not recognized, would lead to entirely during cer- whichpaperminoris reprinted, changesappeared by suggested in 1866. was published permission of the Council of the Society, with footnotes addedin theand Vcrh. naturf. Vcr. in Brunn,by Professor Abhandlungen, iv. 1865, W. 13ateson, enclosed within [ The original successnewrendertain in of hisforms, the Menders day.] experiments such work as is occurs due. very So difficultin fur the as Ioffspring know(It this conception of was absolutelyis to the clear conception of these three primary necessities that the whole or entirely frustrate them. many hybrids, would In order to discover the relations in which the hybrid forms stand samethose circumstancesindividuals belong display to precisely a species ivhich under pree'isely the similar characters, no two of 4 observation.successivetotowards be necessary each generation other that and all shouldAt also the towards be,very without outset their exception, specialprogenitors attention was members of the series developed in each devoted to the Legu- subjected to it appears sillopinionPisumthese P.-species quadratum, varieties ofsatirmn; experts,of P. could satirum, whileP. however,saccharatum, be the referredand rest sonic the are tomajorityand as regardedone independentP. species.umbellatum. belong and classed,species, to theThe species suchpositions,some as as According to the whichvemosacqualifications.result were thaton account madethe genus with PisumseveralSome was thoroughlymembers found of todistinct this possess forms of this genus possess of their peculiar floral structure. Experiments family led to the the necessary characters speciessharption.areblIWCVer. quite line and imma between whiellvarieties feria' may the themselves. for be hybrids theassigned purposes of tospecks them of andin a varietiesclassificatory as between systemIt has so far been found to be just as impossible to draw a the experiments in ques- whenwhichinsidecannotprogeny. their are theeasily constant,hybrids keel occur, and are and thesincemutually easilyanther the fertilising crossedand bursts certainly theywithin organs yield recognizable,the are perfectly bud, so that and the Furthermore, a disturbance through foreign pollen closely packed fertile commonbe crossed, characters numerous are If experimentstransmitted two plants unchangedwhich have differdemonstrated to constantly thatDIVISION in onethe or ANDseveral ARRANGEMENT characters OF TIM EXPERIMENTS the hybrids and Thisstigmaperiodplantstages circumstance becomesworth inof the growth. mentioning, open covered is ground of especial with there and pollen mayin importance. pots, be even citedand before also As their additionalthe ,lowerrelatively opens. short Artificial fertilisation is certainly a somewhat the easy culture of these advan- otherexperimentthetheirof progeny hand,differentiating progeny; unite was of but theinto theobserveeach characters,hybrid hybrid pair theseis of tousually and differentiating formvariations to avariable.deduce new in character, the the characters,The case law object of accordingwhich each onof inpairthethe to pollen.afterremoved,theelaborate bud which is andprocess, opened the each stigma butstamen before nearlycan carefully atit oncealwaysis perfectly be extracted succeeds,dusted developed, overby means with theof forceps, foreignkeel is For this purpose experimentalresolveswhichthere they are iiself constantlyappear plants. therefore in the Thedifferentiating into successive various just as forms many generations. characters of separate Peas selected The experimentspresented experiment for crossing in as the showed differences These,Inobtainedber the of case however, plants from of one severalall alike,didvariety notseedsmenIn a therefewvaryall, thirty-fourforms werein and the whichnoticed,subjected following more were among to or markedly year,a lesstwo a largerand distinctyears' different.agreed num- trial. varieties of Peas were ofinofformleaves; the the flowerlength and albumen in sizethe stalk;and position, of (cotyledons). colourthe in theseeds; colour, ofcolour, the and Someandstein; form,in thesize ofin andcolour ofthethe thesize characterssize offlowers; of theand the seed-coats formpods; innoted the ofin lengthdo thethe and not Foranyotherseedsentirely rate,fertilisation varietieswere with no thereforeessential another yielded twenty-two differencevarietydoubtless perfectly obtainedof wasmerelythese constant observed werefrom accidentally and theselected similarsame mixed.andseedsman; offspring; cultivated All the at during two trial years. permitdefinitelycouldcharitti:rs" more of only ora sharp couldinless be the applied "and notplants.nature, certainhe utilised toLastly, which characters separation, fortheis often theresult which separatesince difficult must standthe showexperiments; difference to out define. whether clearly is these. ofthey, and a Such constantduringadopt the without strictestwhole any period definition exception.Their of systematicthe of aexperiments. species, classification according tois whichdifficult only and uncertain. They remained If we -109- gardinghiandin theirthe whether type.those entirety, characters from observe these which afacts regular possess any behaviour conclusion a subordinate in theircan be hybridsignificance come unions, to re- 5 6 deeplybeinground alwaysorwrinkled roundish, only (P. cruadratum).theshallow;The 1.depressions, Tocharacters the or differencethey whichif are any, irregularly inwere occur the formselected on angulartheof the forsurface, ripe experiment and seeds. These relate: are either soil,characteroriminatetrussed are only for with with each,subject the certainty,short in soto (11W unimportantfarIn experimentsthat theof Ii/- healthylong variatimisaxis plants, with of 6 this grown toin 7 thischaracter, ft. in character,was the alwayssame in order to be able to dis- ft. to 11 ft. Theand albumen orange coloured,of the ripe2. or seedsTo it thepossesses is difference either apale more in yellow,the or colour less bright intenseof the yellow seed green albumen (endosperm).' were united by cross-fertilisation.Each two of There the differentiating were made for charactersthe enumerated above 1st trial 80 fertilisations on 13 plants. .. .. tint. This difference of colour is easily seen in the seeds as [ = ifj 2nd " 9538 I. 11 " 10ID I. their coats are transparent.3. To the difference in the colour of the seed-coat. This is either 5th4th3rd " 2940 IIft HII" 10 5 IIoIt thatvioletlated;white,a reddish of spotting,orthewith it wings istint. which grey, in Thepurple, which charactergrey-brown, grey and case seed-coats the whitethe stern leather-brown,colour flowers becomein the of axilsthe are dark standards constantlyof with brownthe orleaves iswithout corre-violet, is of in boiling vigorousuncertain were results, chosen because forFrom fertilisation. evena larger in thenumber Weakly first generationof plants plants always of ofthe hybrids, affordsame variety only the most 76tit h " 9 i97 I. " 10 o water.constrictedeithersaccharatum). simply between inflated, thenot4. To contractedseeds the differenceand inmore places; orin lesstheor they form wrinkled are of deeply the (P. ripe pods. These are seteffectedeitherand of still fertilisationentirely inmore such failso a inwayservedto theflower thatFurthermore, subsequent as each orseed-bearer only of theform ones,in two allin a fewmanythe'varieties otherexperimentsand of inferior theset.which offspringwas seeds.in reciprocal used one crossings were axial,stalks,either light thatleaf-veins, tois, darkdistributed and green,5. calyx6. To orTo along theparticipate.2vividly the difference difference the yellow, main in instem;in thethe which colourposition or colouringthey of of arethe the ter-unripethe flowers. pods. They They are eitherare asexperimentsticks,were the pollen maintained branches plant.a number of in trees, their ofThe pot andnaturallyplants plants strings were were upright stretched grown placed position induring between. garden theby beds, meansbloomingFor each a fewof also in pots, and lessinminal,stem' a widenedfalse that is umbel;very is, in bunched sectionvarious in this (P.7. atincase To umbellatum).3thesome the top differenceforms;upper of the part stem inof and the arrangedlengthstern is of more almostthe -tem.or The length of the it is, however, a constant ThebeAmongexperimentperiod detrimental female inthe a insectsingreenhouse,of thethis to open the1species which experiments as to regards isvisit serve known Pcas,the possibleas should tocontrol lay beetle disturbancetheit appearplants eggsBruchns in forin the by numbers.pisithe inserts.flower, mightmain year.ripeningdenote the turns cotyledons, to violet containing and2 blue.One speciesfood-material, possesses[Mendel within a beautifully theuses seed.) the terms brownish-red[Of " albumenthese further coloured " and experiments " pod,endosperm which it seems when" somewhat no account loosely was topublished. Correns has Trials with this character were only begun hest seenwhichandmain inunder axiswasso doingof caughta thelens. plant. opens in Thea flower, the unit keel; of somemeasurement, upon pollen the beingtarsigrains indicatedof could one specimen, inclearly the original be Mention must also be made of a circumstance since! knowunderstood worked has whitewith this such standard paragraph a variety.] 43and [This[In and salmon-red my tookis account often " am calledwings.] "of to these meanthe Mummyexperiments the flora/ Pea. axis, (R.II.S. instead Journal, of the vol. xxv. p. 54) I mis- It shows slight faseiation. The form LaxtonPeaisby evidently a flowers. dash held ('), correct.)the I carelessly same opiniou.1 took1 [It to is havesomewhat been ansurprising inch, but that the no translation mention is here made given of Thrips, which AIWIrill in I had come to the conclusion that this is a real source of error and I see 7otherwiseIt whichoccurs, possibly forquite instance, normally might in lead somedeveloped to rarethe introductioncases flower that wither, certain of foreignresulting parts pollen. in a of an classificationcircumstanceobservation completely of is the of formsgreat or under importancecannot which be detected thein theoffspring determinationwith certainty. of the hybrids Thisand 8 partialtherepensanthersof the exposurethatoccurs keel remained the has apollen gradualofalso the partially been fertilising lengthening observed, uncovered.' organs. owingof the A defectivetopistil which during thedevelopment stigmathe does not reach full perfection. It also sometimes hap- In this event bloom- and foreappear.recessive.termedmitted in themselvesHenceforth entire,the The dominant, or expression almost inconstitute this and unchanged paper"those recessive the thosewhich characters in "characters thebecomehas hybridisation, been of latent chosen whichthe inhybrid, becausetheare and processtrans- there- are the ThisveryPhaseolusing remarkableperiod, slight and oneuntil Lathyrus. withappearance the Pisum,stigmaticThe risk has tipof also falseprotrudes been impregnation observed at the point in by hybrids offoreign the keel. of pollen is, however, e, and is quite incapable of disturbing the asthecharactersis will hybrids,perfectly be demonstrated thereby but immaterial nevertheless designatedIt later whetherwas reappear on.furthermore withdraw the dominant unchanged orshown entirely character byin theirthe disappear whole belongsprogeny, of in theto experiments that it generalBruchussuchtablefully examinedafalse result. case pisi, impregnation wasAmong and there never possibly weremore remarked, had onlyalsothan occurred. athe10,000 very itdescribed may few plants wellcases abnormalities which be where supposed were an incare- in dubithat the Since in the greenhouse ofemphasisedremainsthepractised the seed-bearer two identical parentalexpert by orGartner, isin species tonot both the in cases. pollen-parent;a withwas position thethe seed remarkto determine or the the that form pollen ineven ofa hybridplant.' the the hybrid most which This interesting fact was also floral structure, were to blame.Experiments which in previous years were made with ornamental [F1] THE FORMS OF THE HYBRIDS 2 shallowments the depressions, following areR.Of1. dominant:Thethe The differentiatingyellow round colouring or roundish characters of the fortn seed which ofalbumen the were seed [cotyledons).used with in the or experi-without plantssomeareseveralrelate not have of exactly to theparts, alreadythe more form &c.,intermediate strikingafforded theand intermediate, size evidence of the leaves, thatindeed, the the ishybrids, nearlypubescence alwaysas a rule, of to the be characters, those,between for instance, the parental which species. With coat,the leafin association axils. with5.4.3. violet-redThe greensimplygrey, blossoms grey-brown,colouring inflated and formof the orreddish of leather-brownunripe the spotspod. pod inin association colour of the with seed- the isseen; eachtheso preponderant otherin of other the in seventhecases, hybrid. that crosses however, Thisit is difficult,theis preciselyone hybrid-character or quite the case impossible, resembleswith the to Pea 3detect that hybrids. of of the two parental characters In the case of longersame colour of the intwo the parental stems,With7.6. Thestemsthe regard leaf-veinsdistributiongreater is usually to length thisand exceededof thelastofthe stem.calyx. flowerscharacter by the along hybrid, it must the stein. be stated that the onemany of restrictthe parental to the offspring forms2I [This[Mendel of so two also distinct throughout happens species. in speaks Sweet ofPeas.] his cross-bred Peas as " hybrids," a term which closely that the other either escapes lie, as he explains, held this sternslengtha fact whichof are 1 ft.crossed. is and possibly 6 ft.'thus, in only length for attributable instance, yielded inwithout to repeated the greater exception experiments, luxuriance hybridsapp oars in all parts of plants when stems Of very different oldercharacterto be onlyviews asa of question" transmittedheredity.] of degree.] "3 by[Note either that parent, Mendel, thus withescaping true thepenetration, error pervading avoids the speaking of the hybrid- 111 which varied in length between 6 ft.. and 71 ft. (Glirtmtr, p. 2134 9more spotted, The hybrid seeds in the and the spots sometimes experiments withalso seed-coat frequently are appears , even coalesce into small bluish- when it 'ten seeds.to nine seeds, it In these two experiments In well-developed pods often happened that all the each pod yielded usually which contained on the average six seeds were round both kinds of 10 isviolet areabsentmere developed patches. influenceas a parental The spottingThe hybrid forms of the immediatelyof after the theforeign artificial pollen. character.' seed-shape and of the albumen They can, therefore, be fertilisation by the [colour] pod.neverdeveloped(Expt.the observed main 1) or earlyaxis all more oryellow or from later a It appears to make no than five wrinkled or lateralfive(Expt. .greenin. one. the 2); ones hybrid on the or other whether hand they difference whether the pods are In some few plants only a few spring fromthere were in one plantscharactersobserved as haveeven naturally beenin the raised onlyfirst yearappear from the crossed seed. of experiment, whilst all the in the following year in HYBRIDS othersuch podssivelyseeds the developedone normal of the intwo the characters, firstAs in separate pods, so proportions were maintained did the distribution offormed the pods, and these but in the subsequently developed nevertheless. possessedcharacters exclu- vary characters, also the recessiveIn this generation ones there reappear, [F2] THE GENERATION [BRED] FROM THE with their togetherpeculiarities with the dominant fully infrom separate both plants.series of By way EXPERIMENT 1. experiments may serve. of illustration the first ten Color of Albumen.EXPERIMENT 2. individuals generationportiondeveloped, of threeand three this to display occursone, so the in the definitely expressedthat among average each pro- four plantsdominant character and one of this the Plants 21 Form of Seed. Round 2745 Angular 12 8 Yellow 322314 Green 11 7 whichrecessive.ofform the wereof seed-coats the investigated seed, andthe greenthe in flowers,the This relates without exception to colour of the albumen, the experiments. The angular wrinkledthe constrictions of the pods, all the characters white colour the 465 24263219 1116 7 20247032 2713 yellowthewithoutdwarfed leaf colour venation, anystem, of essential the allthe unripe reappear umbel-like form of the inflorescence,alteration. pod, ofin the the stalk, numerical of the calyx, proportion Transitional forms were not and theand ofgiven, 10798 22882528 2410 76 504444 1814 9 observeddevelopment,alikecan andbe in reckoned any present experiment. consequently no Sinceappreciable the the hybrids resulting together in each experiment. from reciprocal crossesresults are [of the reciprocaldifference in their subsequent The relative num- crosses]formed onlyplant,Expt.one 2 there angular,2of there 20 were was and observed a another caseAs extremes of in the distribution yellow and 19 green. 32 yellowin Expt.and only 1 anof 1 green14instance round seed, ofand 43 15 round angular seeds. of the two seed characters in one but also and In bersareobtained which oras roundishfollows: were in the obtainedones second Expt.for trial each 1.year. Form of seed. and 1,850 angular wrinkled ones. From 253 hybrids 7,324 pair of differentiatingAmong charactersthem were 5,474 round Therefrom the seeds were plantstheIn requisite,average counting they ratios,show since the seeds,thatinbecauseThese some very twoof the experiments are also, especially in Expt. 2, somewith care a smaller numberconsiderableseeds of experimental of fluctuationsmanyimportant plants for maythe the green occur. determination colour of is ratio6,022 2.96 yellow, to 1 is and deduced. 2,001Expt. green; 2. 1 [This refers to the coats of theColour of albumen. their ratio, therefore, is as 3.01 to 258 plantsseeds borneyielded by F, 8,023 plants.) seeds, 1. colouringlooked.ofas the it albumenlikewise has no is occursconnection less The cause of this partial indeveloped, the parental and atvariety. first may be easily over- with the hybrid-character of the disappearance of the green This peculiarity plants, 11 a'hybrid-character, on the other hand, it must maintain the same 12 mentnoted.the[bleaching]sorting, offspring. often Seeds errors isvary whichalso are in confined coloureasily are damaged avoided. to the In luxuriant plants this appearance was and form, but, with a little individual andby is insects notIt is inherited almost during superfluous theirby develop- to men- practicefrequently in behaviour as in the firstThose forms[F3] TILE which SECOND in the GENERATION further vary in the secondgeneration [Pd. first generation [F2] exhibit the reces- [BRED] FROM THE HYBRIDS generation it'd as oughlytionviolet-redthe that shape ripened the flowersand pods andcolour must and have Expt.ofgrey-brown remain the 3. Colouron of the seed-coats. become dried, since seedit is onlyare fully then developed. that seed-coats; 224 had whitethe flowers plants until they are thor- Among 929 plants 705 bore siveyieldregardsin character the offspring firstthis generationdocharacter; notwhich display Itthey is otherwise with those [bred from the hybrids]. Of theseof 3 to 1, and thereby show exactlywhich possessremain the constant dominant in theircharacterthe offspring. dominant and recessive char- two-thirds the inflated,and2.95 white to 1. andseed-coats, in 299 giving theyExpt.Expt. were 4. 5.Form of pods. Colour of the unripe pods. the proportionOf 1,181 3.15 plants to 1.882 had them simply constricted. The number of trial Resulting ratio, sameactersthe dominantratio in the as proportion characterTheExpt. separate 1. Among experiments 565 plants the hybrid forms, while only constant. 193 yielded round seeds only,yielded the following whichresults: were raised from round seeds one-third remains with and re- plantsConsequentlyinflorescences was 580, ofthese axialwhich stand and Expt.428Expt. 207 in had the 6.terminal. 7. green ratio 2.82 to Length Positionof stk. of flowers. Out of 1,064 plants, in 787 cases Among 858 casesRatio, 651 3.14pods had toand 1. 152 yellow ones. 1. ofbothmained theisnumber 1.93 roundfirst therefore to generation,of 1.and the wrinkled hybrids, constant Expt.seeds,therefore, 2. as Of 519 plants which were in this character; 37`2, however, gave in the proportion of 3 to 1. compared with the constants raised from seeds whose The asandtotheby 1.otherwise stem transferredtheir was tall theylong, relatives. to anda special in Even 277 bed. short.in their This In this experiment the dwarfed would have perished through being overgrown quite youngHence state a mutual theyplants canratio werebe ofprecaution 2.84 carefully liftedwas necessary, proportionexclusivelyalbumenhybrid andwas yellow,of constantof 3 yellowto while1. forms colour 353For each separate trial in There resulted, therefore, a division ininto the proportionyieldedthe of following 2.13 r ellow to 1. andexperimentsin green the first' seeds 100 generation, hi plants the 166 yielded easilyfoliage.'dominanttogether, picked there andout recessivebyis found,theirIf compactnow characters,as between the growthresults anthe average of the whole of the number of forms withexperiments the be broughtand thick dark-green ratio of 2.98 to 1, seedsgeneration,werebrown selected of eachseed-coats, and were in cultivated.order whileExpt. to of 3, the The offspringwhich of 36displayed plants yieldedthe dominant character ascertain the significance of this, ten offspring of 64 plants some had exclusively grey- in the first orofviz. 3be theto thatdetermined 1. two of significations a parental by theThe character, following it dominant appears or generation. ina character hybrid- can have here a each separate case can only doublecharacter."- signification InAs which a parental char- andpods;grey-brown some of the constricted. andoffspring someExpt. hadof 71,Expt. white. 4. on 5. The offspring of 40 The offspring of 29 plants had plantsthe hadother only hand, green some pods; had of inflated the only simply inflated acterconceptiondental it must to the herepass hybrid, expressed over and unchanged2 [Thisprobably not "paragraph transmitted for to the presentsfirst[This " time.] to is itthetrue view also ofof thethe dwarf or " Cupid the wholehybrid-character of the offspring;Sweet as something Peas.]as inci- a true and fundamental offspringterminalthe offspring of flowers. 60 plantsof 67, someonExpt, the had 6. green,The offspring some of 33 other hand, some had axial and some plants had only axial flowers; of yellow ones. 13

Expt. 7. The offspring of 28 plants inherited the long axis, and those of 72 plants some the long and some the short axis. In each of these experiments a certain number of the plants came constant with the dominant character.For the determination of the proportion in which the separation of the forms with the con- stantly persistent character results, the two first experiments are of especial importance, since in these a larger number of plants can be compared. The ratios 1.93 to 1 and 2.13 to 1 gave together almost exactly the average ratio of 2 to 1. The sixth experiment gave a quite concordant result;in the others the ratio varies more or less, as was only to be expectedin view of the smaller number of 100 trial plants. Experiment 5, which shows the greatest depar- ture, was repeated, and then, in lieu of the ratio of 60 and 40, that of 65 and 35 resulted.The average ratio of 2 to 1 appears, therefore, as fixed with certainty.It is therefore demonstrated that, of those forms which possess the dominant character in the first generation, two-thirds have the hybrid-character, while one-third remains constant with the dominant character. The ratio of 3 to 1, in accordance with which the distribution of the dominant and recessive characters results in the first genera- tion, resolves itself therefore in all experiments into the ratio of 2:1:1 if the dominant character be differentiated according to its signific ance as a hybrid-character or as a parental one.Since the members of the first generation [F2] spring directly from the seed of the hybrids [F1], it is now clear that the hybrids form seeds having one or other of the two differentiating characters, and of these one-half develop again the hybrid form, while the other half yield plants which remain constant and receive the dominant or the recessive characters [respectively] in equal numbers.

- 114 - BIBLIOGRAPHY ON BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES AND INQUIRY TEACHING IN BIOLOGY Section I. Some Considerations Contents 117 IV.III. II.V. PreparingInquiryTheBehavioralEvaluating Inquiry as thea Objectives Process Teachingthe Teacher Inquiry Strategyfor Process Inquiry 143139127123 BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES - SOME CONSIDERATIONS SECTION I

-117- 1. Ammerman, H. L. GeorgeThis study Washington examines University, the methods, terms, The derivation, analysis and classification Alexandria, Va. Technical Report 66-4. May, and criteria associated with the of instructional objectives. Human determination of student performance1966. ED 014 793, AD 633 474. Resources Research Office, (5),objectives. 27-30. 2.3. Atkin,Baker, J. E.M. L. Behavioral The differential objectives effect of Thisstudents. article (Doctoral points out dissertation, the limitations University in curriculum design: A cautionary note.behavioral and nonbehavioralof behavioral objectives objectives and cautions of California, Los Angeles) Ann The Science Teacher,against uncriticalMay, 1968,given use 35 toof teachersthem. on the achievementArbor, Mich.: University Microfilms, of their 1967. 4. Bloom, B. S., Englehart, M. D., Furst, No.questionnaire.No 68-7451. significant DA differences 28:4505-A. were found on E. J., Hill, W. H., and Krathwohl, the items directly measuring the D. R. A taxonomy of educational objectives, on the transfer items, or on objectives: Handbook the teacher 5. Brown, W. R. I: TheThis3.5 cognitive (9),article 26-28. is domain. a statement New inYork: Defining the processes of science: A statement behavioral terms and conforms roughly to the Longmans, Green, 1956. by educators in India. The Science scheme of the Taxonomy of Educational Ob- Teacher, December, 1968, 6.7. Canfield,Burns, R. A.W. A. The A theoryrationale of forexpressing performance jectives of the objective "to teach the processes objectives. Educational Technology, October objectives. Audiovisual Instruction, of science." February, 1968, 13 (2), 127-129. 30, 1967, 7 (20). 8. Cohen, A. M. tionaleTo overcome for each the objective. resistance Examples of faculty of the Defining instructional objectives. In System and students, behavioralCollege objectives Leadership utilizationProgram, No. of rationales 9, January, are given for several approaches to curriculum, and instruction in should be accompanied by a statement of 1967, 27-28.conventional objectives. open-door colleges. the ra- 10. 9. Cox,Engmann, R. C., and B. Unks, D. Behavioral N. J. A selected objectives: Key toOccasionalCognitive Report domain. from Learning U.C.L.A. Research Junior and and annotated bibliography of studies concerning planning.Development The Science Center, Teacher, University October, of Pittsburgh, 1968, 35 June, the Taxonomy of Educational objectives: (7), 86-88. 1967. Behavioralstudent of objectives what is expected are an aid of to him. effective teaching only if the teacher bases his plans on them -118 - and uses them to inform the 11. French, W. and Associates. Behavioral goals ofwhichThe author should and be his expected associates of the feel student. that the There generalbest way education to approach in high evaluation school. New of curriculum York: are tables of behaviors which might be expected and Russell Sage Foundation,is by describing 1957. the behaviors some discussion of 12. Gagne, R. M. The implications of instructional Pittsburgh:paringhow these the student mightUniversity be for used self-educative of Pittsburgh by curriculum Press,activities planners, teachers,1964.objectives guidance forcounselors, learning. laymen,In Lindvall,constitutes C. aM. major category in the goal (Ed), Definingstructure. educational objectives. etc. to evaluate the student. Pre- 14.13. Glaser,Gagne, R.R., M. and The Reynolds, analysis J.of H. instructional InstructionalDefiningand programmed educational learning. objectives. Vol. Pittsburgh: IL Washington, D.C.: National Education Association,objectives for the designobjectives of instruction. and programmed InUniversity instruction: of Pittsburgh A Press, 1964. Glaser, R. M. (Ed.), Teachingcase 1965.study. machines In Lindvall, C. M. (Ed.), 15. Glaser, R., Objectives and evaluation studentThisResearch article performance. and emphasizes Development the Center;importance University an individualized system. Science Educationof News, specifying June, educational 1967. objectives for of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa. Reprint curriculum design, teaching, and evaluating24. June, 1967. ED 015 844. Reprinted: Learning 17.16. Haffett,Haberman, J. E. M. Instructional Behavioral objectives:performance (noAn assessmentdate). ED 016 of the 482. values and limitationsBandwagon of the useor breakthrough. of behavioral objectives.Journal of Teacherobjectives for a course in general biology. Manatee Junior College,Education, Bradenton, Spring, 1968, 19 (1), 91-94. Fla., 18. Harmon, P. Developing performance ThesePerformance11-16. instructional objectives objectives of are defined as clear and precise statements of single meaningful objectives in job traininga freshman course in general biology are organized for the programs. Educational Technology, November 30, 1968, units of behavior that will satisfy student's ease of reference. 8 (221, an 19. kapfer, M. B. Behavioral objectives Aareinstructor report comprised of that the of aClark student(a) the County performance School objective title, (b) can perform a task which is a desired outcome ofand the gifted. Educational Technology, District's (Las Vegas, Nevada) efforts the conditions, (c) the behavior, and June 15, 1968, 8 (11)9 14-16. a course of instruction. Performance objectives (d) the success criteria. the gifted. - 119 - to specify objectives for their pilot program for 20. Kapfer, P. G. This11-13. article reports approaches currently being used in a Title HI project at Ruby S. Thomas Elementary School,Behavioral Las Vegas, objectives in the cognitive and affective domains. Educational Technology, June 15, 1968, 8 (11), 21.22. Krathwohl,Koepke, C. A.D. ReplyR. The to Taxonomy Atkin on behavioral of educational objectives. objectivesANevada defense The to Science ofovercome the value Teacher, the of negative behavioral November, reactions objectives. 1968, of 35 teachers (8), 12-14. and students to behavioral objectives. its use in curriculum building. In Lindvall, C. M. (Ed.), Defining Theeducational(c)inworking the valueit provides description withof objectives. the objectives a Taxonomy range of student Pittsburgh: of with possible in behavior acurriculum specificity University outcomes makes constructionand ofthatit aeasierPittsburgh precision may to suggest ischoose discussed.Press,that additionalis appropriate 1964.not Somegenerally goals oflearning its typicalthat major might experiences of uses such be are:included statements, and(a) itevaluation inprovides a (b) curriculum, this instruments,a specificitybasis (d)for it 23. Krathwohl, D. R. Stating objectives appropriatelyJournalcurriculumences,provides for of program,and Teacherfor objectives.(f) a comparisonit forprovides Education, curriculum, aof structure March,objectives and 1965, forfor from instructionalanalyzing 16 curriculum(1), 83-92. test materials items to curriculum, (both development. standardized (e) it might and suggest teacher-made) a hierarchy for of comparison learning experi- with Thethevidesomycribed use hierarchy is a asofabasis relativelyaeducational framework forand precise those concise objectives which higher.comparison; model can atfacilitate for several andthe analysisit the levelsmay development suggest ofof detailobjectives; a readinessin and the analysisit educational provides relationship of objectivesa panoramaprocess existing isat ofdiscussed. thebetween objectives intermediate those The to Taxonomyobjectivesbe level. explored; The lower is Taxon- itdes- pro- in 26.25.24. Lindvall,Krathwohl,Lindvall, C. C. M.D. M. R.,Defining The Bloom, importance educational B. S., andof objectives.specific Masia, objectivesB. Pittsburgh: ANew taxonomy York: in curriculum University David of educational MacKay, ofdevelopment. Pittsburgh 1964.objectives: Press, In author's Handbook1964. Defining II: The educational affective objectives. domain. 27. Mager, R. F. Preparing instructional objectives. Pittsburgh:PalohaviorThis Alto, programmed observable Calif.:University Fearon in text aof learner, includesPittsburgh Publishers, and a Press,self-testhow Inc., to 1964. 1962.write of its objectives,ED contents. 018 143 Itdefine (abstractdemonstrates desired only). terminal how to behavior,specify instructional and state criteria objectives of successful by be- learning. - 1 20 29.28. McDermott,Mager, R. F. J. DerivingJ. Carlisle objectives District writes for the behavioral high The objective of the Carlisle Area School Districtschool curriculum. (Pa.) Title IIINSPI evaluation Journal, project March, 1968, VII. objectives. The Science Teacher, May, 1968,35 (5), 32.3. was to express the skills and competencies 30. Melching, W. H. Deriving, specifying and TheUniversity,presently report posSessed ofAlexandria, a symposium by theirVa. Professional tostudents consider in behavioral Paper 10-66. using instructional objectivea. Human terms so that they could be measuredDecember, with 1966. ED 014 795, AD 646 976. resources Research Office, George Washington some degree of accuracy. 32.31. Popham,Montague, W. E. J., J., and and Baker,Butts, D.E. P.L. BehavioralMeasuring to discuss several means by which future efforts objectives.someteachers' problems The attitudes Sciencefrequently Teacher,,toward encountered behavioral March, when 1968, preparing instructional at implementation might be facilitated. objectives. Journal of Educational Research:, 35 (3), 33-35. objectives and 33. Rummler, G. Specifying terminal behaviors for shownAnJuly-August, attitude to possess inventory 1967, 60 consisting (10), 453455. of 20 a degree of validity. instructional objectives, training. Center for Programmed Learning for some behavioral and some nonbehavioral, Business, University of Michigan, W98 developed and 34. Sharpe, G. H. Some behavioral objectives forCheckliststion,Ann Arbor,Denver, of Mich.,competencies Colo., 1967. August, and 1966. instructional ED 017 elementary454. school mathematicsobjectives (which specify explicitly what programs. Colorado State Department of Educa- skills pupils have mastered) A 35. Smith, R. B. An empirical examination cated and exemplified for many of the topics of mathematics. of the assumptions underlying the Taxonomy of educational objectives: Cognitive are indi- A a tiveIndomain. this classifications study Journal hierarchial of suggested Educational syndrome in theMeasurement, analysisTaxonomy. (McQuitty, 1960) Summer,This was 1968. done 5in (2), order 125. to validate the author's was used to investigate possible ways of combining the cogni- contention that the cognitive 36. Smith, R. G Jr. SevenResourcesprocesses categories involvedResearch are in Office, listed:the Taxonomy George(a) general Washington An annotated bibliography are cumulative and hierarchical.rationales, (b) systems analysis, (c) job analysis,on the determination of trainingUniversity, objectives, Alexandria, research memorandum.Va., June, 1964, ED (d) allocation of training, (e) 012task 976, AD 448 363. Human description, (f) determination of knowledges and skills, and (g) description of objectives. -121- 4 % . 37.38. Smith,Taylor, R. P. G., A., Jr. and The Maguire, development T. 0. Perceptionsof training objectives. of some51Alexandria, (5), objectives Human 438-493. Va., Resourcesfor Research a science Research Bulletin curriculum. 11,Office, 1964. Science George Education, Washington December, University, 1967, 39. Tyler, R. W. Some persistent questions on the definingPittsburgh:jectives.This ofstudy objectives. showsUniversity thatIn Lindv&ll, ofsubject-matter Pittsburgh C. M. Press, experts,(Ed.), 1964. Defining teachers, educgtionat and curriculum objectives. writers have congruent perceptions of science ob-

Os SECTION II

THE INQUIRY PROCESS

- 123 - `41. 40. Bruner, J. S.S., The Goodnow, process J. of J., education. and Austin, New G. York: A. A BrunerstudyRandom of emphasizes thinking.House, 1960. New the need for connection or structure in knowledge if it is to be York: Wiley, 1956. meaningful and/or retained. 42.43. Davis,Bruner, G. J. A.S. The actcurrent of discovery. status of researchHarvard Educationaland theoryEDSummarizes 101in Review, human 506. Winter,problem problem-solving solving. theories in three areas: traditional (stimulus-response) learning, 1961, 31 (1), 21-32. University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis., 1966. cognitive-gestalt approaches, 44. Educational Policies Commission. Education and theTheEDand sciencespirit 011computerEducational of 507. isscience. everywitere and Policies mathematicalWashington, based; Commission namely,D. models. C.: Nationalrecommends (a) longing thatto know schools and should understand, be promoting (b) questioning of all understanding of the values on which Education Association, 1966. things, (c) searching for 45. Educational Services, Inc. The report of the Cambridgequences.data Conference.and their meaning, Boston: (d) Houghton-Mifflin, demanding verification, (e) respecting logic, (f) considering premises, the new challenge. The Science Teacher, November, 1966, 33 (8), 58-59. 1963. and (g) considering se- 47.46.48. Gagne,Gagne,Fox, F. R. R.W. M. M. Education The Psychological acquisition and the issuesof spirit knowledge. in of Science science PsychologicalThe author Review, reviews 1962, the recommendations69 (4), 355-365. of the Educational Policies Commission. A process approach. A lecture delivered at Chicago and San Francisco, 1965. 49.50. Gagne, R. M. WhyThe conditions the "process" of learning. approach New for aYork: modernThisEight Holt, article curriculum?varieties Rinehart presents of &learning EPIE Winston, the Forum,rationale are 1967.identified April-May, of the andCommission 1968,an account 1 on given Science of the Education, conditions American that govern Association their occurrence. for the (8-9), 11. advancement of 51. Glaser, R. The design of instruction. Learning ResearchScience,1966. Reprintand for theirDevelopment No. choice 5. ED of 011Center,the process509. University approach of as Pittsburgh, the basis of their new elementary science curriculum. Pittsburgh,65th Pa.,yearbook Theareof thetheory discussed National and inthe Societya researchsection for devoted relevant the study to to the ofinstructional education, design Part II. are Generalization, discussed in this concept paper, formation, a chapter fromand "process"the analysis of subject-matter objectives of instruction. - 124- objectives 53.52. Hawkins,Guilford, J.D. P. Education The nature and of the human spirit intelligence. of science.While welcoming the recommendations of the The ScienceNew York: Teacher, McGraw-Hill, September, 1967. 1966,Educational Policies Commission in spirit, 33 (6), 18-20. Dr. Hawkins finds it lacking in 54. Holt, J. How children learn. New York: Inposesbody. this bookdirectingIts shortcoming John the Holt spirit lies of in science labeling toward virtues the esthetic value of reverses his perspective from that of his earlier book, How Children Pitman, 1967. as values and then failing to include our communication with nature. a statement of values. Dr. Hawkins Fail, to a more positive pro- 55. Klausmeier, H. J., Davis, J. K., Ramsay, J. G., Fredrick,liography,osityof the present developmental 1950-64. in all Wisconsin factors which Research and young children. can be used to encourage and extend the natural learning which Development Center for Cognitive Learning, W. C., and Davies, M. H., Concept learning and problem solving University of Wisconsin, Madison, results from the curi- surveya bib- 56. Massialas, B. G., and Zevin, J. Creative solving,ThisWis., technical1965. and CRP-2850-TR-1. a bibliography report presents of ED articles 010 dealing a definition of concept, a taxonomyencounters of variables in the significant classroom. New201. York: John Wiley, with both topics. 1967. in concept learning and problem 57. Mayer, W. V. Biology 799-805.understanding,A more challenging critical type thinking, of and problem synthesizer of science secondary education should be promoted or disintegrating discipline? American Biologysolving. Teacher, through teaching the students the December, 1968, 30 (1.0), basic skills of 58. Newton, D. E. The dishonesty of inquiry ThisThroughstruction article emphasizing can, contends and should, thatthe fundamental become the synthesizer a purely inductive science classroom is dishonest for teaching. School Science and Mathematics,philosophy and methodology of science. on which all scientific disciplines depend, biology in- December, 1968, 68 (9), 807-810. 59. Novak, A. Scientific inquiry. BioScience, andhonestlythe demonstratedinefficient reflect technique the needs nature ofof ofadolescents;teaching. science; October, 1964, 14 (10),and (d)25-28. it has not been analyzed(b) it is not an honest preparation for college-bound students; adequately, so that it is commonly four reasons: (a) it is not consonant(c) it with does notan ineffective il tionsinquiryThe of problem isgeneral defined of phenomena science education about as the total configuration of behaviors involved whichis to they avoid are teaching curious. science as "acquiry" and to begin teaching it as "inquiry." Scientificin the struggle of human beings for reasonable explana- 60. The psychological bases of science cessdevelopAScience, collection goals transferable1.965. for of each AAASthree elementary intellectualworking Miscellaneous papers grade processes describingPublicationlevel forare applicationgiven the 65-8. objectives to continued of Science learning in science. Detailed descriptions of the pro- A process approach. Washington, D. C.: American Association for the Advancement of under each of the five major objectives: (a) obse..ing and classifying, A Process Approach. The general objective is to 61. Roughead, W. G., and Scandura, J. M. What is learnedlevel,(b)manipulating communicating, objectivesin mathematical variables, are (c)listed discovery? measuring, (d) as experimenting, follows: Journal (d) (a)recognizing offormulating (e)Educational formulating and hypotheses,using Psychology, models, spatial (b)and relations, August, making (f) interpreting (e) operational drawing data. inferences. definitions, For (c) the contraing junior high and 62. Schwab, J. J. What do scientists do? Behavioral Science,theThe1968, solutions major 59January, hypothesis(4), were 283-289. 1960, not (thatinitially 5 (1), discovery 1-27. known) subjects was confirmed. may discover derivation rules for deriving classes of solutions, but only when 63. Shulman, L. S. Psychological controversies in theinvestigatelineConsists teaching of research, of of why a science formulation scientists and aand strategy mathematics.have of principles theseof enquiry patterns The of isenquiry Science proposed.of enquiry. common Teacher, Also, toSeptember,it isscientists, suggested 1968, notions that this which theoretical initiate frameworkand guide thecan course be used of to a 64. Young, D. D. Enquiry Thisstyles,35 (6),article readiness34-38. compares for learning, the instructional and transfer theories of learning. of Bruner and Gagne with respect to instructional objectives, instructional a critique. Science Education, March, 1968, 52 (2), 138-142. scientists,Afterconsideration reviewing (b) the of theneed the various sciences. for informed definitions Enquiry political is of presently enquiry, leadership, limited the (c)author bythe conflicting need points for out an definitions informedfour needs public,and for inadequately enquiry: and (d) (a)the prepared theneed need for teachers. afor broader more I 1611. 4 SECTION III

INQUIRY AS A TEACHING STRATEGY 65. Allender, J. S., Ziasman, H., Dutter, D. R., and Jurowski,Twosented experimental E. at S.the The American teaching groups Educational of attended inquiry Researchskillsa learning to fifth Association center grade designed children. meeting, to Paper teachChicago, inquiry Ill., February,skills under 1968. two degrees of structure: for pre- student.structured(a)sizedthe leastfirst that Allgroupfor meanby ofthe a theteacher, controlincreases meanprogram and scoresgroup, in (c)was problems greatestfor(b) teacher-directed the of middlefour lookedfor themeasures, valuegroupinto, and questions for that withfor the attendedthe one group second asked,exception, athat learning group information attended were the center in the therequested, whose learning predicted program andcenter direction. inquiry whose time would be: program was self-directed. It was hypothe- was structured by the program was 66. Andersen, H. 0. An analysis of a method for improvingThesciencesolving1966. studentsproblem teaching butNo. noenrolled67-3997.solving significant as a skillsprofession.in DA the improvement27:3332-A.possessed investigator- (Doctoral by incollege designed skill. dissertation, students problem preparingIndiana solving University), to Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms, course showed an improved attitude toward problem pursue 68. Anderson,Andersen, H. R. 0. D. Problem solving and science teaching.itself,This School and article (c) Science someoutlines methods and (a) Mathematics, the which factors have which March, been tend used 1967, to to influence 67improve (3), 243-251. problemthe problem solving solving skills. Using the laboratory to teach the nature of science. American Biology Teacher, October, 1968, 30 (8), process, (b) the problem solving process 69. Baughman, M. D. Teaching early adolescents to think.AUsing633-636. series Junior an of exercise High papers School indealing the Association BSCS with yellowthe teachingof Illinois,version, of Urbana,thethinking author Ill., to describes adolescents1964. ED techniques 011 is contained867. in teaching in this report.in the laboratory. 70. Binter, A. R., and Dewar, J. A. Inabout103-104. order discovering, to make discovery to communicating learning operational his respect in thefor classroom,their learning, the andteacher to recognizing must be committed the limitations to the of the discovery Teacher commitments in a discovery process. Science Education, February, 1968, 52 (1), way children go 71. Boleratz, J. M. Learning by discovery: An experimentalIrrespectiveofprocess Experimental studyas a teachingof to intelligence, Education, tool. Winter,socioeconomic 1967, 36 status, (2), 13-21. and teacher characteristics, students in the experimental measure its effectiveness for teaching value concepts. Journal group outper- formed the control group on the Value Concepts Test designed for this study. - 128 - 72. Brakken, E. Inquiry involves individualizing, Instructor,Children October, who 1968, are interested 73 (2), 95+. in something want to find out more about that specific something on their own terms and at 73. Butts, D. P. The relationship of problem solving abilityThethebehavior, particular andhypothesis science when moment knowledge.that that there behaviorthe issense Scienceno iscorrelationof evaluated inquiry Education, strikesbetween according March, them. knowledge 1965,to This the 49degreedesire (2),of the implies 138-146.to factswhich theand it need displaysprinciples for individualizedspecific of science patterns, and instruction. problemwas not rejected.solving 74. Butts, D. P., and Jones, H. L. Inquiry training and problemThisTeaching,Further, study solvingthe 1966, showed findings in4 (1).elementary a suggest significant ED 010 that school995. relationshipproblem children. solving betweenJournal behavior of inquiry Research is not training nctessarily in Science and changescharacterized in the by problem patterned solving thought. behaviors of 75. Craig, R. C. Recent research on discovery. EducationalAnknowledge.students, excellent Leadership, but review no significantFebruary, of research 1969, relationship on 26 discovery, (5), 501+. between inquiry, inquiry and problem training solving and concept strategies transfer as techniques or changes for teaching. in recall of factual 76. De Tornyay, R. M. The effect of an experimentalADAstudents. teaching guided 28:3499-A. (Doctoraldiscovery strategy dissertation, onmethod the problem was Stanfordnot solving significantly University) abilities more of Ann sophomoreeffective Arbor, thanMich.: nursing conventional University methodsMicrofilms, in improving 1967. No. the67-17, problem 548. 77. Dickinson, M. B. Independent and group learning.toAsolving Washington, discussionreason abilities abstractly ofD. ofthe C.: nursing valueand National to of students.synthesize. independent Education Association, and group learning (no date). for EDthe 017development 332. of thinking processes, such as the ability 78. Dubois, E. A. C. Fromfilms,permit a1966. fifty-year significant No. 67-5563. span conclusions of theDA literature, 28:492-A. regarding twelve induction experiments and deduction are reported as treatments, and criticized. and learning,Only six ofretention, the twelve experiments Induction and deduction. (Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University) Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Micro- or transfer as cri- induction.teria. Of the twelve statistically significant measurements resulting from these six experiments, eleven favor deduction -129- over 79, Edwards, J. C., and Keisler, E. R. The effect of instructionfindingsSincepresented subjects and indicate at concomitantthe inAmerican thatboth children's instructional variables Educational categorizing on treatment multipleResearch skills categorizationconditions Association can be shaped made meeting, ability. significantly and Chicago, Papermodified 111.,More on a February, groupcategorizations instructional 1968. than basis. the controls,Second, par- the 80. Fleckman, B. Improvement of learning division throughGeorgia)ticularmethod theinstructional Anntaught use Arbor,of thethe techniques subjectsdiscoveryMich.: University to maymethod.categorize be Microfilms,more (Doctoral using appropriate relational dissertation, 1966. thanNo. concepts 67-3545.others University betterfor DA teaching than of27:3366-A. the certain overt classespresentation of concepts; of method. the inferential 81. Gagne, R. M., and Brown, L. T. Some factors in theOctober,hinderThe programming guided-discovery computational P./61, 62of (4),conceptual learnings. proved 313 morelearning. effective Journal than of conventional Experimental instruction Psychology, in teaching the concepts and did not appreciably 82. Garry, R., Dietmeier, H., Sheehan, A. C., and Decker,Thisteachingwhich studyM. isAn quitebyconcluded investigation television. consistent that Boston ofthewith concept discovery previousUniversity, development methodfindings. Boston, leads in Mass., elementary to greater December, transferschool 1963. science than ED does 003 a rule584. and example method, a conclusion . 83. Gibbs, R. K. An analysis of the effectiveness of theinteractioncantlyTwo Biological types more of betweenSciences effective television the Curriculum than televisionprograms conventional Study instructorwere single produced:instruction; and topic the information-giving films student.however, in teaching th4 problem hypoth- and problem solving formatsolving. did Neither result approachin a higher was degree signifi- of TheesiscantlyscribedMicrofilms, constructionability correlated teacher of 1967.high instructionto with schoolhighNo. the 67-16,school biology IQ which and399. biology accompaniedstudentsbackground DA students.28:3051-A. to construct of the (Doctoral the use students. ofrelevant fivedissertation, different hypotheses Indiana13SCS was singleUniversity) significantly topic Annfilm improved loopsArbor, and Mich.: through was Universityalso the signifi- pre- 84. Greenwood, G. E. A study of a system of classroomAfterIndianathe instruction: teacherbeing University) exposed as Groupa problem Ann to independent GRIPS Arbor, solver. forMich.: Theirten problem weeks,University attitudes solving. students towardMicrofilms, (Doctoral change the method 1967. their dissertation, perceptionNo. of instruction67-16, 402.of the and DA teacher's the28:2117-A. future role utility toward of onethe courseof viewing read- ing materials do not significantly change but are favorable. These attitudes are affected by instructor differences in grading - 130 - affectand teaching student experience. attitudes toward A definite the six combinationsconclusion of teaching could objectives not be and reached on subject matter gains. GRIPS does not significantly 85. Griffin, G. B. A comparison of three The(Doctoral major dissertation, research hypotheses University of were that attainment of scientificsupplementary knowledge ofGeorgia) studentsapproaches Ann to Arbor, teaching Mich.: high University Microfilms, 1967. No. 67-16, 222. DA schoolteaching biology methods. in two Georgia high taught (a) by specified inquiry 28:2093-A. schools. pro- 86. Grobman, A. G. BSCS biology rejectedprocesscesses will willat the exceed exceed .05 level such such of attainment attainment of of students students taught taught by significance. implementation in the schools. Biological by the Suchmana specified inquiry non-inquiry process, and (b) by the Schwab process. Both research hypotheses inquiry were ingBulletinterialsThe BSCS rationale thatNo. biology 3.facilitate June, and content 1964. teaching ED of 011the are presented. BSCS biology BSCS versions 506. are analyzed, and administrative areprocedures explained; and physical facilities, laboratory equipment, Sciences Curriculum Study, Boulder, arrangements for implement- and laboratory Colo. BSCS ma- 87. Hampton, H. F. A comparative TheNo.pupils results 68-8412. using of thisdiscovery. DA study 28:4934-A. indicated (Doctoral study of selected factors of mathematics that:dissertation, (a) there Oklahoma State University) achievement in homogeneous Ann Arbor, Mich.: University groups of fifth grade Microfilms, 1967. favorablytionalpost-test,ability arithmetic, groups with and the (c)relative highand there achievement abilityto was significant correlationsuccesses betwccn by student performance or by session, in (6) the group during the discovery episodes,test they scores. did An analysis of the results was no significant difference between the performance two groups indicatedwere significantly that while different the low ability notdiscovery learn as episodes, much. past achievement of the high and low group competed relative to the in tradi- 88. Hanson, L. E. Inductive discovery wereThedissertation, differences not significant Florida between Statefor eighth the grade subjects University) Ann Arbor, Mich.: Universitydiscovery learning, reception learning, and group and the reception group but were significant in favor formal verbalization of mathematicalMicrofilms, 1967. No. 67-14,on 451. measures DA of achievement, transfer, and retentionof the discovery group for the college subjects. concepts. (Doctoral 28:1731-A. 89. Hurd, P. D. A study of small PerformanceTheScience performance Teaching, in non-college of1966, incompatible 4 (2). bound ED group dynamics and productivity in the BSCS students010 994. tendedgroups to increasein college with bound classes tended predicted compatibility. laboratory block to be higher than those in compatible program. Journal of Research in groups. 90. Karlins, M. and Schroder, H. M. Discovery learning, creativity,1967, 20 (3, Pt. 1), 867-876. PA 41:14234. and the inductive teaching program. Psychological Reports, June, 91. Kersh, B. Y. tweeninquiryThe Inductive discovery method. Teaching learningThe applications Programand creativity contains of the ITP a set in ofeducation facts Directed discovery vs. programmed instruction investigations are reviewed. about a specific problem whicha test the ofand student a theoreticaleducational must elicitposition research are examined, and its linking involving educational technology. through the role be- 92. Lee, A. E. The development of new supplementaryThisOregonbiology project State curriculum, emphasizes System offinal Higherthe report. design Education, CRP-S-451: of instructional Monmouth, University units Ore., of Texas, teaching materials and an analysis of their potential use in rather than the research problem. March 31, 1964. ED 003 616. Austin, Texas, August, 1966. ED 015 138. the high school 93. Lee, M. A. Development of inquiry skills in ungradedUniversity)andMaterials procedures called Ann of Arbor,"Springboards scientific Mich.: inquiry. University for Discussion" Microfilms, were demonstrated1967, No. to social studies classes in a junior high school. (Doctoral 68-2316. DA 28:3367-A. be effective teaching devices to emphasize processes dissertation, Indiana 94. Luck, W. E. An experimental comparison of direct-and-detailedAdevelopsolving method withoutproblem of instruction loss solving of pupil can skills be achievement fail designed to show so inimprovement thatfactual pupils information. canin acquiring or refining these skills.be explicitlymethod and taught directed-discovery to develop andPupils method utilize who skills ofnever teaching in have beenselected engaged in classes designed to problem AlthoughArbor,automotivewereresults Mich.:instructed of it this topicswas University study reported by to the seniordefinitely Microfilms, in highthe indicatefindings school 1966. that industrialthat No. the there subject artsare no students.groups significant directed-discovery method, scored higher on both tests than did the 67-7252:DA 27:4156-A. included in the higher and lower levels(Doctoral of intelligence, dissertation, which Oklahoma State University)differences Ann between the two methods, the computed direct-and-detailed group. 95. Mascolo, R. P. New conceptual schemes and inquiryUniversity)schemesThe creasetraining: hypothesis performance of AnnSome the Arbor, disciplinepredicting in Mich.: wasgreater University supported. affective Microfilms, Organization meaning 1967. for of groups No.subject receiving matter conceptualizing new material, whereas formal inquiry training had no significant effects upon new learning.67-11, 114. (Doctoral DA 28:1345-A. dissertation, New York aroundknowledge the key conceptual organized schemes around seemedthe key toconceptual effect. in- 96. Mason, J. M. The direct teaching of criticai thinkingteachingScience1 in(4). grades ED unitsof 011 fourcritical constructed239. thinking. to directly teach critical thinking proved more through six. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 1963, effective than conventional science units in the 97. Montague, E. J., and Ward, R. M. The developmentResearchuselearnThe these ofunexpected to problem intransfer approaches Science solving resultsabilitie: Teaching, with of abilities in equalthis critical 1968, study effectiveness. in 5 secondarythinking suggest(4), 354-356. that any school students better chemistry. than with those investigative Journal with traditional of experience experiences in the chemistry or that teacherslaboratory may do not 98. Murphy, G. W, Content versus process centered biologymentNotudes, significant of laboratories,problem knowledge, difference solving part scientific ability, II: was The discoveredattitudes, and development interest problem between in biology.of knowledge,solving the content- Science ability, scientific and Education, or process-centered interest atti- March, in biology. 1968, laboratories 52 (2), with148-162. respect to the develop- 100. 99. Neal,Novak, L. A. A. Techniques Scientific inquiry For developing in the laboratory. methods American ofThisOctober., scientific paper Biology 1961, describesinquiry 45 Teacher, (4),in a children wide313-320. March, variety in grades1963, of techniques 25one (3), through 342.346. for developingsix. Science the Education, ability of pupils to use methods of scientific inquiry. 101. Parakh, J. S. A study of teacher-pupil interaction Thisinber,operations BSCS article 1968, Yellow describes30of a(10), scientist. Version 841-848. some biology laboratory classes. experiences American designed Biology toTeacher, give the Decem- student some understanding of the problems and 102. Pipe, P. Practical programming. New York: Holt, 1966.groupsThisbiology article of pupils.lecture-discussion focuses on describing classes, and andanalyzing compares the natureinteraction of the scores teacher-pupil of each interactionselected teacher in selected while BSCS teaching Yellow two Versiondifferent ciency?ObjectivesIPipe canaction appealssee (b)word.) how canunder to useful Mostteachersbe what improved itpeople, is conditions toto statehave bywhen objectives askingthese will they careful this threefirst behaviorally.behavior try questions:statements to write occur? (a) Hebehavioralof objectiveswhatsays(c) what itwill is objectives, isamazing thefor the studentmost level how seemcourses. of be acceptablemany doingunable But teachers when into performance?mythink he andcourse issmall instructorsdemonstrating it enough. is (Begin different. say, with "Yes,profi- an . .." 103. Raun, C. E., and Butts, D. P. The relationship betweenthatCriterionbehavioralhavioral none the strategies variablescriteria.of change. the strategies Journalof behaviorinquiry of Researchinquiryin were science tested in in scienceand Science to student determine by Teaching, themselves cognitive their 1968, relationship and can 5 affective (3),be used 261-268. to theto predict strategies behavioral of inquiry change in science. in all Itof appears the be- 104. Renner, J. W., and Ragan, W. B. Teaching science in the elementary school. New York: Harper & Row, 1968. 105. Richard, P. W. Experimental individualized BSCSIncludesimportanceery biology. orientations, chapters The of Science"freedom differentiatingtechniques of mind" to inquiry to the and application discovery of fromrational other powers in involve children with science and discovery, and an especially significant treatment Teacher, February,teaching 1969, orientations, 36 (2), 53-54. teacher responsibilities in discov- problem solving and decision making. of the 106. Richardson, C. E., and Oliver, L. E. IntermediateAn coulddirectedscience experiment be curriculumlearningindividualized. was could undertaken be strengthened at the Laboratory through individualizationSchool, of Colorado State College, to determine the extent to which self- study project as viewed by participatingbiology teachers. and the School extent to which laboratory biology 107. Richardson, E. Inquiry in instructional television:ScienceThisOpen-ended A pilot interim and project. Mathematics, reportexperimentation Audiovisual describes December, the is more progress 1968, appropriate 68of (9),a California-based 785-790. to the nature ofproject the early to developInstruction, instructional November,adolescent television 1967,than programs is 12 highly (9), 915-916.indirected the instruction. 108. Rubadeau, D. 0. A comparison of learner-centeredter)inquiry andThe Ann teacher-centeredlearner-centered mode. Arbor, Under Mich.: the groupUniversity direction learned Microfilms,of moreKQED, efficiently pilot 1967. tapes No. and were67-13, equally prepared 665. as effectively to as learning.DA 28:1710-A. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Roches-illustrate inquiry modes. the teacher-centered group. 109. Salstrom, D. A comparison of conceptualization StateinThis two University) studytypes givesof Ann evidence Arbor, thatMich.: conceptualization University Microfilms, may be 1966. aided No. through guided discovery science lessons. (Doctoral dissertation, Kent 67-9428. DA 28:407-A. the tentative proposal to sixth grade pupils of a individually during inquiry, without the 111.110. Schuck,Sanders, R.N. F.Classroom The comparative questions: effects What kinds? of the NewBSCSstimulation,workable York: curricula Harper conceptual information, upon & Row, students framework. and cueing This afforded seems byto bethe true oral even participation for pupils of working their 1967. exposed to instructional strategies incorporating classmates. SignificantsetBSCSpupil induction achievementversion differences, procedures. used. and favoring pupilSchool perception Sciencethe experimental of effective group, teaching; were found however, and Mathematics, October, 1968, 68 (7), 601.608. between the experimental andthese control results groups were in not both significantly effected by the - 134 - 112. Schwab, J. J. The teaching of science as enquiry. The Inglis Lecture in The teaching of science. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard ingTheUniversity this case change for Press, science in 1962. the teaching classroom to arereflect presented. the recent change from stable to information report: Bibliography 1, instructional procedures. fluid enquiry in science, suggestions for effect- 113.114. ScienceScott, Education N. C., and Information Sigel, I. E. Analysis The effects Center. of inquiry ScienceOhioReported training education State University,are in physicalover 180 Columbus, citations toOhio, selected December, documents 1.967. related ED 015 to 077.instructional science on creativity and cognitive styles of elementary procedures in science education. Onlyschoolhimcess in beyondappeared children. the cognitive basic generallyMerrill overt style Palmer perception.to tasks encourage Institute, did the inquiry Detroit, approach Mich., 1965. show EDsignificant 003 700. effects on and develop an exploratory attitude on the part of the individual learner conceptual activities. The inquiry pro- which led 115.116. Shallcross,Shockley, D. W., J. Aand creative McDonald, problem F. J.solving Teaching course. scientificThis NEAmonly article Journal, thinkingused describes in February,the at coursethe a creative are brainstorming problem solving or using course checklists, offered atsuch the asllth high school level. School Alexof Education, 1967,F. Osborn's 56 Stanford(6), Idea-Spurring 57. Uni- Questions.and 12th grade levels. The techniques most com- 117. portantTheversity, study principles.Stanford, had two Calif., objectives: October, (a) 1964.to teach ED the 003 process 456. of search for an answer, Inquiry session: An assist for teaching science via instructional television in and (b) to teach the logical structure of im- the elementary schools. Journal of Skinner, R. OneResearchfollow-up.did of not two seemin typesScience to beof Teaching,follow-upa consistent 1968,was pattern used 5 (4), inafter 346-349.pupil each achievement televised lesson, when eithergroups were "typical discussion" or "inquiry session." There compared according to the type of teacher 118. Sloan, F. A., and Pate, R. T. Teacher-pupil interactionitedSignificantlymathematics. differencesspontaneous CRP-S-137.more between responses new mathematics University from the students,ofteachers Oklahoma, thanand (b)Norman,traditional paid particular Okla., mathematics 1964. attention ED teachers 003 to content (a) School Mathematics Study Group and traditional 462. used analysis questionsdevelopment. which elic- 119. Suchman, J. R. Rebuilding the science program: Inquiry training in the elementary school. The Science Teacher, November, 120. Suchman, J. R. The elementary school trainingtestedFifth-grade1960, more 27 (8), studentshypotheses 42-49. successfully as a result developed of their participation transferable inquiryin strategies, made fewer untested program in scientific inquiry. University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill., June, 1962. an inquiry training program. assumptions, and made and 121. Suchman, J. R. The motication to inquire.The Instructor,asMarkedED a 003result October,530.effects of their on 1965, participationthe motivation, 75 (2), 26+. in theautonomy, training andprogram. questioning fluency of the experimental group of children were observed 122. Taber, J. I., Glaser, R, and Schaefer, H. H. A guideopensureThispersistence to articlethe preparationand is in curiosity.an holding excellent of explanationsTheprogrammed statement motivation tentative. instructional to inquire seems to follow a personal reluctance to accept things on the relationship between closure and the static mind as opposed to that between material. Department of as settled and a 123. Ter Keurst, A. J., and Martin, J. M. Rote arithmeticalThepsychology, hypothesis, procedureUniversity that school whenof Pittsburgh, children the instruction in Pittsburgh, the middle emphasizes Pa., elementary 1962. rote learning grades achieve rather than better learning by discovery, vs. discovery learning. School and Community, November, 1968, 55 (3), 42+. results in learning and retaining a simple was confirmed. 124. Twelker, P. A. Two types of teacher-learner interactionplusNoEducation, significant indirectin learning Monmouth, guidance difference by discovery: on Ore., howwas September, foundtoFinal process between 1967. information the ED effectiveness 018 available 117. of reinforcement by to the learner, and direct prescntation of the same infor- report. Oregon Statepraise System only, of reinforcement Higher by praise 125. VanDeventer, W. C. An inquiry approach to interdisciplinaryJuniormation1968, high intended5 (4), seventhschool 373-384. for furnishesdiscovery.grade science. a final opportunity to take a meaningful look at interdisciplinary science. This interdiscipli- Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 126. Wills, H. Transfer of problem solving ability gainedAnnsurveynary through Arbor,science, of conventionallearning Mich.: however, byUniversity discovery. science needs Microfilms,tofields. (Doctoralbe planned 1967, in terms No. 67-11, of problems, 937. DA ideas, 28:1319-A. and understandings, rather than dissertation, University of Illinois) a limited factual 1 44 127. Worthen, B. R. February,byThis discovery. study 1968, has shown 59 (1, thatPt. 2). students Discovery and expository task presentation in elementary can significantly improve their problem solving ability mathematics. Journal of Educational Psychology, as a bonus to content learned 128. Worthen, B. R. A study of discovery and expositorySummer,toDiscovery initial learning. 1968, teaching 19 (2), proved 223-242. superior to expository methods presentation: Implications for teaching. Journal of Teacher with respect to retention and transfer but inferior with Education, respect 129. Yager, E. Y. December,fer,Although and development the 1968, expository 30 (10),of problem method 816-819. solving yielded skill. Comparison of teaching outcomes between greater initial learning, the discovery method proved superior two teachers of secondary biology. American Biology in retention, trans- Teacher, oftwomentStudents science teachers test ofwhich better the studied indirect requiresthan were did teacher somestudents nearly skill showed equal. taught in interpreting The by directstudents data with more growth on a test measuring mastery of facts. However, means. as well as some ability tothe apply indirect information, teaching themethods students seemed of the to understand the on another achieve- nature 4 SECTION IV

PREPARING THE TEACHER FOR INQUIRY

-139- 130.131. BiologicalBiological Sciences Sciences CurriculumCurriculum Study. New Laboratory materialsSciences blocksDescribes inCurriculum teachingthe objectives Study, and University use of the of laboratory Colorado, block Boulder, materials. Colo., 1967. and techniques in the preparation of high school biology teachers. BSCS biology. BSCS Special Publication No. 5. Biologicil 132. BSCS Newsletter 32. The teacher. Biological SciencesIncludesSpecial1967. Curriculum Publication sections on No. testing 6. Biological and evaluation Sciences and Curriculum on pre- and Study. in-service Study. University ofUniversity Colorado, of Boulder, Colorado, Colo., Boulder, September, Colo., 1969.training of biology teachers. 133. Curtis, W. C. Teacher-training for process orientatedAcompetenciesThis collection science study outlinesof articles are described the on understandings the BSCSunder theteacher afollowing teacher preparation should major activities. haveheadings: of the (a) processes instruction. Science Education, December, 1967, 51 (5), 494-498. data collection, (b) data processing, (c) data interpre- of systematic scientific investigations. Specific 134. Lee, A. E. The experimental approach in teachingBiologytation, biology:The purpose Teacher,(d) An communication. of November, this article 1961, is to 23acquaint (9), 409-411. the teacher with the introduction to the BSCS Laboratory Block Program.objectives American and rationale of the BSCS Laboratory Block Pro- 135. McCormick, F. R. The outdoor laboratory: In-servicegram.of Arkansas) Someeducation presentations Ann in Arbor,the processes Mich.: University Microfilms, by other laboratory block authors give the reader an idea of how the objectives can 1967. No. 67-12, 883. DA 28:1330-A. small degree as a result of participation in the experi- of science. (Doctoral dissertation, University be reached. Thechangesandmental teacher's possibly program. in teaching understanding more, The practices.knowledge findings of thealso of processes appearbiological to ofjustify principles science the increasedconclusion than did to the a that the experimental programcontrol providedverbal and at that behavior.least participation as much, (Doctoral in the dissertation, program effected University of 136. Raack, M. L. The effect of an in-service educationCalifornia,As programcentagepupil a result responses Losof on of total Angeles)teacheran experimentalpupiland in Ann participation use Arbor, of programpraise Mich.: as and well to University encouragement.develop as pupil inquiry Microfilms, These initiation of interaction. While teaching behavior became more indirect, teaching strategies, teachers showed gains in their acceptancegains were of accompanied1967. No. by predicted67-12, 231. increases DA 28:1332-A. in the per- oftotal the teacher teacher's talk classroom went down, role ascongruent predicted, with for an the majority of indirect approach to teaching by- 140- the end of the program. teachers. Also as predicted, teachers affirmed a description 137. Schwab, J. J. (Supervisor) BSCS andThe(Supervisor). fromcharacter the of the physical sciences relevant to BSCS approach to Biology teachers' handbook. New York: biology, somebiology, materials and resource for materials John Wiley,teaching 1963. biology 2nd Edition,as are included. enquiry, materials from statistics 1970. Klinckmann, E. 138. Smith, R. B. The modelThrough1968, for 19 an (3), analysis 338-343. of the use in the teacher education implications of inquiry structures for the conception of knowledge curriculum. implicit in the new curricula,teacher theeducation author curriculum. Journal of Teacherconstructs Education, an instructional Fall, 'aa AAA3 SECTION V

EVALUATING THE INQUIRYPROCESS

-143- 139. BSCS Newsletter 19. Evaluation supplement. BiologicalSeptember, Sciences 1963. Curriculum Study, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo., 140. BSCS Newsletter 30. Evaluation issue. Biological SciencesContainsA1967. report Curriculum of articles the 1961-62 on Study. evaluation BSCS University evaluation issues, of a reportColorado, program. of the Boulder, 1964-65 evaluation program, and a bibliography and abstractsColo., January, on re- 141. Butts, D. P. An inventory of science methods. UniversitysearchlistTheED of 010 TABinvolving clues 338. of Science Texas.to BSCShelp Test Sciencehim materials. was solve designedEducation the problem, to Center,sample and inquiryAustin, (c) the behaviorsopportunityTexas, by to presenting gather clue the data student when wits' they (a) are a specificneeded. problem, (b) a August, 1966. 143.142. Covington,Butts, D. P., M.and V. Jones, A childhood H. L. The attitude development inventory ofThe EDthe for reliability TAB015 problem 497. Science and solving. validity Test. UniversityScience of a tab-item Education, of California, test to December, measure Berkeley, the 1967, behaviors Calif., 51 (5), ca.of inquiry were assessed.. 463-473. 1966. 144. Cox, R. C. Item selection techniques and evaluationtheThisEDin child'sundertakingof paper014 instructional 805 beliefdescribes (abstract problem-solvingabout objectives. a 60-item,the only). nature Journalgroup-administered, activitiesof the ofproblem-solving (scaleEducational II). paper-pencil Measurement, process (scale attitude 1965, I) andinventory 2. the other comprised assessing of the two child's scales, self-confidence one assessing 145. Hammond, R. L. Evlauation at the local level. ProjectThisThisas compared studyEPIC, article is Tucson, reportsdesigned with the Ariz.,a new tostructure evaluate 1967. systematic ofED the 016 effectapproach 547. of statistical to the problem item selection of evaluation on the of structure innovations. of the final evaluation instrument its original item pool. 146. Jeffrey, J. C. Identification of objectives of the chemistryment oflaboratory some of andthese development objectives. of(Doctoral means for dissertation, measuring University student achieve- of Texas) Ann Arbor, Mich.: University . Microfilms, This(f)(b)type-tests1965. laboratorystudyobservational No. classifies for66-1928. discipline.measuring competence, theDA student 28:1732-A. achievement performance(c) investigative in three objectives of competence, these of categories. the (d)chemistry reporting Categories laboratory competence, listed into are: six (e) (a) major manipulative communicative categories competence, and competence, proposes and 147. Kaplan, E. H. The Burmester Test of aspects of scientificItScience dentsappears with thinkingEducation, that the the mechanical Burmester October, 1967,aspects Test of51 of aspects(4), the 353-357. scientific of . thinking A proposed is useful as a means of teaching the mechanics of the scientific method. technique for utilizing theas test an foraid pedagogicalin acquainting freshman college stu- 148. Keisler, E. R. Teaching children to discoverpurposes,ofInglewood, improvement. involving Calif., the 1968. use ofED one 018 or 833 two (abstract practice sessionsonly). with an alternate form, resulted in a problem of goal definition. Southwest Regional Edubational Laboratory, a highly significant increment 149. Klinckmann, E. The BSCS grid for test analysis. BSCStheThe1964, development purpose Newsletter 17-21. of this of 19. problem report Biological is solving (a) Sciences to clarifytests. certain aspects of teaching children to discover, and (b) to offer directions for Curriculum Study, Boulder, Colo., 150. La Shier, W. S., and Westmeyer, P. The use of interactioningisThe testpresented. BSCS items analysis adaptation when Two BSCSthein BSCS relevant of teststhe laboratory Taxonomy, andprior the learning Cooperative block for experiencesexamination Biology of of Testthe students tests to determine if the tcsts actuallyare analyzed. incorporate A difficulty BSCS aims,encountered was that of classify- arc unknown. classrooms. Journal of Teacher 151. Lee, A. E. Education,APublication collection Winter, No. of research6720. 1967, Science 18reports (4), Education 439-446.concerned Center, primarily University with the of evaluation Texas, Austin, of Tex.,(Ed.) Research and curriculum development in science education: 1. The new biology programs. 1968.new programs in high school biology. 152. Lindvall, C. M. Testing and evaluation: An introduction.pagesfulThis evaluation volume areNew devoted York: accomplishes can Harcourt, totake this place, latter two Brace and task,tasks: and(b) providing (a) furnishingWorld, stressing excellent concrete the importance examples practical ofof determininghelptest itemsin the of various types which writingand of classifyingtest items. objectivesNearly one before hundred meaning- 1961. can be used by class- 153. Pfeiffer, I, and Davis, 0. L., Jr. Teacher-made examinations:ingAlsoroom and includedteachers. evaluation. What are kindsdiscussions of thinking of standardized tests currently available and advice doon runningthey demand? a school-wide Bulletin program of the National of test- Association of Secondary School Principals, September, 1965, 49 (302), 1-10. ED 145 - 015 170. itemsThetionscases taxonomic in werethe each highest classified of classification the percentage six into major the of categoriesof upper test questions items three were in fellcategories, the compared semester and across examinations these courses, were found of into the knowledge category. Second highest was application. Very few ques- ability group levels,ninth-grade and programsprimarily teachers of study. in was some In studied. all English Percentage courses. ofIt was sug- 154. Schmidt, D. J. ingtheregested emphases: should that teachers be are more they shouldemphasis the same be onaware as the those higherof whichof theobjectives examinationcognitive for processes all questions? students they in all arc courses. Test on understanding science: A comparison among several groups. Journal of Research emphasizing in their test questions, and that Also, a study should be made of teach- in Science Teaching, scoreOfspectable1967, secondary highest 5 (4), score on365-366.science TOUS;on TOUS methods however, may students,be theirsomewhat mean elementary lessscore than science previously survey suspected. students, and is ten points less than the maximum possible score, indicating that a re- working scientists, the working scientists interaction. 155. Shaffer, V. F. The(Doctoraldents purpose during dissertation, of classroom the study University discussions, was to investigateof Illinois) as well Annasand the Arbor,describe responses Mich.: the made inquiries University to the made inquiries. Microfilms, by gifted 1966. junior No. The categorization of student inquiries and the responses made within the context of classroom performances on selected inquiry process and senior high school67-6729. stu- DA 27:4158-A. 156. Steiner, H. E., Jr. A study of the relationships betweenThebehaviorsKingman,objectives purpose teacher in R.andthe of practices M. thisaffectivedetermine (Ed.) study inquiryand domain was how student to objectiveswell indevelop high student school instrumentsin performancethe biology teaching (both classes. ofcorrelated biology,observational (Doctoral withKansas dissertation,selected and City, pencil-paper) teacherMo.: practices. to measure University ofMid-continent Texas at Austin). Regional 1970. Educational This study was based on selected affective 157. Stilwell, M. E. The development and analysis offilms, aduringLaboratory, category 1967. geometry No.system Position 68-893. problem for paper, systematicDA solving 28:3083-A.1 (1), 1969.activity.observation (Doctoral dissertation, Cornell University) Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Micro- of teacher-pupil interaction 158. Taba, H., Levine, S., and Elzey, F. F. ThinkingThis inFrancisco,seen elementary project in the Calif.,interactionis directedschool 1964. children. tobetween the problem CRP-1574.teacher of and better understanding the process of problem solving in pupils during actual classroom activity. San Francisco State College, San mathematics edm:ation Containsegies more sets explicit. of categories that can be used for categorizing teacher-student verbal behaviors 'to make certain -146- teaching strat- 159. Turner, G. C., and Hettick, V. An evaluative study of teacher constructed test items for BSCS biology. California State Co Ilegct, situation.evaluatingtheThisFullerton, BSCS study YellowCalif., providesthem December,could Version be a portfolio of several thousand field-tested textbook.adapted The by protocol other1967. teaching ED 018 371. described for developing groups in developing test items multiple choice test items test items, for field testing these appropriate to theircoordinated with the chapteu itms,own and teaching for rf 160. Wilds, P. L., and Zachert, ThisCollege, project Augusta, attempted Ga., January, V. to determine if numericalMulticategorical evaluation of 1968. ED 017 025. scoring systems for clinical performance in clinical problem problem solving tests cola solving testa. Georgia Medical be. developed 161. Woodburn, J. H. The methods 481-482.Thiswhich article would reports the measure the effectiveness of different availability of and the procedures of a 50-item test of students' understanding science:instructional An examination. methods in teaching Science Education,of the methodsDeccmbiw, and clinical problem solving skills. procedures of sienee. 1967, 51 (5),