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Theorizing Racialized Discourse: Perils and Paradoxes in Canadian National Security By Madalena Santos A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree Master of Arts School of Linguistics and Applied Language Studies Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario ©Madalena Santos, 2008 Library and Bibliotheque et 1*1 Archives Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-47502-7 Our file Notre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-47502-7 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives and Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par telecommunication ou par I'lnternet, prefer, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans loan, distribute and sell theses le monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, worldwide, for commercial or non­ sur support microforme, papier, electronique commercial purposes, in microform, et/ou autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. this thesis. Neither the thesis Ni la these ni des extraits substantiels de nor substantial extracts from it celle-ci ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement may be printed or otherwise reproduits sans son autorisation. reproduced without the author's permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformement a la loi canadienne Privacy Act some supporting sur la protection de la vie privee, forms may have been removed quelques formulaires secondaires from this thesis. ont ete enleves de cette these. While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires in the document page count, aient inclus dans la pagination, their removal does not represent il n'y aura aucun contenu manquant. any loss of content from the thesis. •*• Canada ii Abstract This study investigates the racialized exclusion of "others" in the Canadian national security discourse on counter-terrorism in the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act (IRPA) and the practice of security intelligence gathering by the Canadian Security and Intelligence Service. It is argued that in the exclusionary discourse of the IRPA, the government has unofficially designated a category wherein racialized classifications are officially practiced. An interdisciplinary analytical framework that bridges critical discourse analysis with evaluation theory and other critical approaches is used to identify the discursive argumentation strategies, lexical associations and narratives and myths which construct a divide between "us" and "them" and present non-citizens as former, present or future "terrorists". Comparisons with the racist mistreatment of Japanese-Canadians in Canada during World War II are made. The study finds that the racialized discourse of internment, deportation, and the legal exclusion of "others" is still present in current national security legislation and practice. iii Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge the tremendous support and assistance that I received throughout the process of writing this thesis. Firstly, I would like to acknowledge my thesis supervisor Dr. Lynne Young without whose encouragement and direction this project would not have been possible. Dr. Young's creative suggestions and constructive advice helped me to shape my study and keep me on the course that I wanted to follow to make this thesis a realization. I would also like to offer my appreciation and gratitude to my second reader Dr. Jaffer Sheyholislami who at a very busy time in his life was kind enough to meet with me to discuss my initial ideas and suggest a concrete way forward in the preliminary stages of my study. Thanks also to Dr. Mahmoud Eid from the University of Ottawa, who kindly agreed to participate as an external reader. To my immediate and extended family, in particular my parents Ana and Jose Santos, I extend my gratitude, love, and respect. I would like especially to thank my nieces Dina Cristino and Andree Chiasson for their support and genuine interest in my work and for making time for me despite their own hectic schedules. To my partner Mujahed Abu-Assaf, I am eternally grateful for the countless dinners, the thoughtful ear and the perpetual push forward. I would also like to acknowledge all of my friends who have supported my efforts. Particularly, I would like to thank Charles Miller for being a friend indeed by providing me with a roof over my head when I had none, and Salah Ahmed for listening to me without reservation. I would like to offer a final word of thanks to everyone at OPIRG-Carleton for acknowledging the importance of this study as a contribution to social justice by awarding me with the Terry Cottam Research Bursary. Thanks also to the Ontario Graduate Scholarship program for granting me with the financial means to carry out my research. I dedicate this project to all people who work and strive for human rights and social justice ~ past, present and future. iv Table of Contents 1 Introduction 1 1.0 Overall Aims 1 1.1 Direction of Research 3 1.2 Research Questions 6 1.3 Limitations and Caveats 6 1.4 Social Significance of Analysis 7 1.5 Theoretical and Analytical Orientation 8 2 Review of the Literature 11 2.0 Introduction 11 2.1 The Origins of "Race" and Racism 15 2.1.1 The Persistence of Racism: Theoretical Explanations 20 2.1.2 The Dichotomy of "Old" versus "New" Racism 26 2.1.3 Orientalism 30 2.1.4 The Historical Construction of the Racialized Muslim "Other" 38 2.2 Constructs of "Nation" 44 2.2.1 Constructing National Identity 46 2.2.2 Citizenship and Immigration 50 2.2.3 Multiple Identities: Challenges to Hybrid Models of National Identity 54 2.2.4 Designating National (Insecurity: Protection for and from Whom 56 2.2.5 Discourse-Analytical Approaches to Uncovering Racism 69 2.3 Evaluation/Appraisal Theory 86 2.4 Conclusion 103 3 Theoretical and Methodological Framework 107 3.0 Defining Racialized Discourse 107 3.1 Dimensions of National Security Discourse 109 3.2 The Methodological Approaches and Interpretative Framework Ill 3.2.1 Van Dijk's Thematic Patterning: Macro and Micro Analysis 113 3.2.2 Wodak: An Archetype for Racialized "Othering" 118 3.2.3 Lazar and Lazar: "Outcasting" 121 3.2.4 Karim: Categorical Generalizations of the Arab/Muslim Stereotype 126 3.2.5 Martin, and Thompson & Hunston: Uncovering Judgement in Discourse. 132 3.3 Jackson: Interpretative Counter-Terrorism Framework 137 4 Analysis 139 4.0 Historical Contextualization 139 4.1 Historical Overview: Japanese Internment 140 4.2 Outline: Documents for Analysis 146 4.2.1 Methodological Approach 147 4.2.2 Background Context and Course of Action: IRPA 148 4.2.3 Identification of Racist Discourse 151 4.2.4 "Out-casting" 169 4.2.5 Background Context and Course of Action: CSIS Summary Reports 184 4.2.6 Paradigms for the Analysis of Racialized Arab/Muslim "Othering" 186 4.3 Discussion: Interpretative Counter-Terrorism Framework 206 5 Conclusion 226 References... 237 V Appendices Appendix A: CSIS Backgrounder 237 Appendix B: Macrothemes in CSIS Security Intelligence Report Summaries 247 Appendix C: List of Terrorist Entities 253 Appendix D: Narratives and Myths in the IRPA 257 Table of Figures Figure 1. Dimensions of Discourse as Social Practice 80 Figure 2: Dimensions of National Security Discourse 110 List of Tables Table 1: Three Linguistic Features to Signal Evaluation 96 Table 2: Martin's Affect 99 Table 3: Martin's Judgement 100 Table 4: Martin's Appreciation 101 Table 5: Steps for Macro-Structural Analysis 114 Table 6: Micro-Analysis: Lexical Themes 115 Table 7: Identification of Racist Discourse 120 Table 8: Microstrategies of "Out-casting" 126 Table 9: Violence and Barbarism: Terrorism and Jihad 132 Table 10: Inscribed/Evoked Evaluation: Positive and Negative 135 Table 11: Thompson and Hunston's Three Linguistic Features to Signal Evaluation 136 Table 12: The Characteristics of Counter-Terrorism Discourse 137 Table 13: Historical Context: Japanese Evacuation, Internment and Deportation 142 Table 14: National Security Discourse 145 Table 15: Importance of Context 153 Table 16: Inscribed/Evoked Evaluation: Positive and Negative 162 Table 17: Lexical Associations 166 Table 18: Ancient History/Ancient Hatred 189 Table 19: Reduction of Islam to Fundamentalism 190 Table 20: Actions: Past, Habitual, Current and Future 194 Table 21: "Bellicosity" 195 Table 22: "Duplicity" 196 Table 23: Intertextuality 198 Table 24: Misappropriation/Misuse of Terms 204 Table 25: Misappropriation/Misuse of Terms 206 Table 26: The Characteristics of National Security Discourse 207 1 1 Introduction 1.0 Overall Aims My aim in this research is to examine the possible manifestation of racism in the national security discourse of democratic nation-states. More specifically, to investigate the possible interconnection of racism and the security measures of democratic nations, I explore the discursive realization of the seemingly contradictory positions of democracies as purveyors of equality, justice and freedom, on the one hand, and the simultaneous implication of racist thought and practice in the security measures of the nation-state, on the other. The association of racism to the rise of independent democratic nation-states and the construction of national security discourse is discussed from an interdisciplinary perspective to nationalism and racism in the approaches offered by Aiken (2007), Anderson (2006), Karim (1997), Lee (2007), Reisigl and Wodak (2001), van Dijk (1993), Wodak, de Cillia, Reisigl, and Liebhart (1999), and Wodak and Reisigl (2003).
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