Federal Service of Russia for Hydrometeorology And

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FEDERAL SERVICE OF RUSSIA FOR HYDROMETEOROLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING Russian Federation State Research Center Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute Russian Antarctic Expedition

QUARTERLY BULLETIN №2 (19) April - June 2002

STATE OF ANTARCTIC ENVIRONMENT Operational data of Russian Antarctic stations

St. Petersburg 2002 FEDERAL SERVICE OF RUSSIA FOR HYDROMETEOROLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING Russian Federation State Research Center Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute Russian Antarctic Expedition

QUARTERLY BULLETIN №2 (19) April - June 2002

STATE OF ANTARCTIC ENVIRONMENT Operational data of Russian Antarctic stations

Edited by V.V. Lukin

St. Petersburg

2002

Authors and contributors Editor-in-Chief - M.O. Krichak (Russian Antarctic Expedition (RAE) Department) Section 1 - M.O. Krichak (RAE) Section 2 - Ye.I. Aleksandrov (Department of Meteorology) Section 3 - V.A. Belyazo (Department of Long-Range Weather Forecasting) Section 4 - A.I. Korotkov (Department of Ice Regime and Forecasting) Section 5 - Ye.Ye. Sibir (Department of Meteorology) Section 6 - I.P. Yeditkina, R.Yu. Lukianova, I.V. Moskvin, A.V. Frank-Kamenetsky (Department of Geophysics) Section 7 - N.I. Fomichev (RAE) Section 8 - V. Ye. Lagun, S.V. Yagovkina (Department of Air-Sea Interaction) Section 9 - V.A. Kuchin, V.V. Lukin (RAE)

Translated by I.I. Solovieva

Editor-in-Chief – M.O. Krichak http://www.aari.nw.ru/Projects/Antarctic/, Russian Antarctic Expedition, Quarterly Bulletin.

Acknowledgements: Russian Antarctic Expedition is grateful to all AARI staff for help and assistance in preparing this Bulletin.

For more information about the contents of this publication, please, contact Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute of Roshydromet Russian Antarctic Expedition Bering St., 38, St. Petersburg 199397 Russia Phone: (812) 352 15 41 Fax: (812) 352 28 27 E-mail: [email protected]

CONTENTS

PREFACE………………………………………………………………………………………...1

1. DATA OF AEROMETEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AT THE RUSSIAN ANTARCTIC STATIONS…………………………………………………………...3 2. METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS IN ANTARCTICA IN APRIL-JUNE 2002 …………………………………………………………….17

3. ATMOSPHERIC PROCESSES ABOVE THE ANTARCTIC IN APRIL-JUNE 2002…………………………………………………..………….23

4. BRIEF REVIEW OF ICE PROCESSES IN THE SOUTHERN OCEAN FROM DATA OF SATELLITE AND COASTAL OBSERVATIONS AT THE RUSSIAN ANTARCTIC STATIONS IN APRIL-JUNE 2002…………………………………………………….……….24 5. RESULTS OF TOTAL OZONE MEASUREMENTS AT MIRNY STATION IN THE SECOND QUARTER OF 2002……………………… ………………… 27 6. GEOPHYSICAL OBSERVATIONS AT RUSSIAN ANTARCTIC STATIONS IN APRIL –JUNE 2002……………………………………………………………28

7. SPATIAL-TEMPORAL VARIABILITY OF THE HYDROCHEMICAL SEA WATER PARAMETERS IN THE COASTAL ZONE OF ARDLEY BAY (BELLINGSHAUSEN STATION AREA) IN THE SUMMER PERIOD 2000-2001…………………………………………..36

8. ON METHANE MEASUREMENTS IN ANTARCTICA ………………………..46 9. MAIN RAE EVENTS IN THE SECOND QUARTER OF 2002………………….51

PREFACE The Bulletin is prepared on the basis of data reported from the Russian Antarctic stations in real time via the communication channels. The Bulletin is published from 1998 on a quarterly basis. Section I in this issue contains monthly averages of standard meteorological and actinometric observations and upper-air sounding at the Russian Antarctic stations for the second quarter of 2002. Standard meteorological observations are carried out at the present time at Mirny, Novolazarevskaya, Bellingshausen and Vostok stations. The upper-air sounding is performed once a day at 00.00 UT at two stations - Mirny Observatory and Novolazarevskaya (During May 2002, no upper-air sounding was undertaken at Novolazarevskaya station due to modernization of the AVK measurement complex). More frequent sounding is conducted at both stations during the International Geophysical Intervals (IGI) in accordance with the International Geophysical Calendar. The meteorological tables present the atmospheric pressure referenced to sea level for the coastal stations and to the station level for the inland Vostok station located at a height of 3488 m. Along with the monthly averages of meteorological parameters, the tables also present their departures from multiyear averages (absolute anomalies), normalized anomalies (departures in σf fractions - (f-favg)/ σf) and relative anomalies (f/favg) of monthly sums of precipitation and total radiation. The statistical characteristics necessary for calculation of anomalies were derived at the AARI Department of Meteorology for the period 1961-1990 as recommended by the World Meteorological Organization. The Bulletin contains brief overviews with an assessment of the Antarctic environment state based on actual data. Sections 2 and 3 are devoted to the meteorological and synoptic conditions. The analysis of ice conditions of the Southern Ocean (Section 4) is based on satellite data received at Bellingshausen, Novolazarevskaya and Mirny stations and observations conducted at the coastal Bellingshausen and Mirny stations. The anomalous character of ice conditions is evaluated against the multiyear averages of the drifting ice edge position and the onset of different ice phases in the coastal areas of the Southern Ocean adjoining the Antarctic stations. The multiyear averages were obtained at the AARI Department of Ice Regime and Forecasting over the period 1971-1995. Section 5 contains as usual, an overview of the total ozone (TO) based on measurements at the Russian stations. Data of geophysical observations published in Section 6 present the results of measurements in Mirny Observatory and at Vostok station under the geomagnetic and ionospheric programs (magnetic and riometer observations). Data of riometer observations are presented as the plots of the maximum daily values of space radio- emission absorption at the 32 MHz frequency. Geophysical information also includes the magnetic activity index (PC-index), which is calculated on the basis of geomagnetic observation data at Vostok station. Section 7 presents an article of N.I. Fomichev devoted to the ecological activities at Bellingshausen station, namely to the study of physical-chemical water characteristics in the coastal part of Ardley Bay as this area presents a sewage water dumping site of the Russian Bellingshausen Base and the Chilean Frei Base. Section 8 publishes an article of V.Ye.Lagun and S.V.Yagovkina on the methane measurements at the Russian Antarctic stations with a comparison of measurement data of the Russian and foreign stations. The last Section of the Bulletin (9) deals traditionally with the main directions and events of the logistics activity of RAE during the period under consideration.

Russian Antarctic stations in operation in April - June 2002

MIRNY OBSERVATORY STATION SYNOPTIC INDEX 89592 METEOROLOGICAL SITE HEIGHT ABOVE SEA LEVEL 39.9 m GEOGRAPHICAL COORDINATES ϕ = 66°33′ S; λ = 93°01′ E GEOMAGNETIC COORDINATES Φ = -76.8°; ∆ = 151.1° BEGINNING AND END OF POLAR DAY 7 December – 5 January BEGINNING AND END OF POLAR NIGHT No

NOVOLAZAREVSKAYA STATION STATION SYNOPTIC INDEX 89512 METEOROLOGICAL SITE HEIGHT ABOVE SEA LEVEL 119 m GEOGRAPHICAL COORDINATES ϕ = 70°46′ S; λ = 11°50′ E BEGINNING AND END OF POLAR DAY 15 November - 28 January BEGINNING AND END OF POLAR NIGHT 21 May - 23 July

BELLINGSHAUSEN STATION STATION SYNOPTIC INDEX 89050 METEOROLOGICAL SITE HEIGHT ABOVE SEA LEVEL 14.3 m GEOGRAPHICAL COORDINATES ϕ = 62°12′ S; λ = 58°56′ W BEGINNING AND END OF POLAR DAY No BEGINNING AND END OF POLAR NIGHT No

VOSTOK STATION STATION SYNOPTIC INDEX 89606 METEOROLOGICAL SITE HEIGHT ABOVE SEA LEVEL 3488 m GEOGRAPHICAL COORDINATES ϕ = 78°27′ S; λ = 106°52′ E GEOMAGNETIC COORDINATES Φ = -89.3°; ∆ = 139.5° BEGINNING AND END OF POLAR DAY 21 October - 21 February BEGINNING AND END OF POLAR NIGHT 23 April - 21 August

PROGRESS STATION

METEOROLOGICAL SITE HEIGHT ABOVE SEA LEVEL 64 m GEOGRAPHICAL COORDINATES ϕ = 69°23′ S; λ = 76°23′ E BEGINNING AND END OF POLAR DAY 21 November – 21 January BEGINNING AND END OF POLAR NIGHT 28 May - 16 July

3 1. DATA OF AEROMETEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AT THE RUSSIAN ANTARCTIC STATIONS

APRIL 2002

MIRNY OBSERVATORY Table 1.1 Monthly averages of meteorological parameters (f) and their deviations from multiyear averages (favg) April 2002 Normalized Anomaly Relative anomaly Parameter fmon.avg fmax fmin anomaly f-favg f/favg (f-favg)/σf Sea level pressure, hPa 982.8 1006.2 954.6 -5.4 -1.6 Air temperature, °C -10.6 -1.6 -24.1 3.3 1.7 Relative humidity, % 85 12.7 2.8 Total cloudiness (sky coverage), tenths 8.4 1.7 2.1 Lower cloudiness(sky coverage),tenths 5.9 2.9 2.4 Precipitation, mm 64.2 24.7 0.8 1.6 Mean wind speed, m/s 12 26 -0.4 -0.3 Prevailing wind direction, deg 158 Total radiation, MJ/m2 97 -9.8 -1.0 0.9 Total ozone content (TO), DU 274 328 216

Table 1.2 Results of aerological atmospheric sounding (from CLIMAT-TEMP messages) April 2002 Number of Isobaric Resulting Number of Isobaric Dew point Resulting Wind days surface Temperature, wind days surface, deficit, wind speed, stability without height, T °C direction, without P, hPa D °C m/s parameter temperature H m deg wind data data

981 53 -11.6 2.8 925 499 -11.3 4.4 88 12 97 4 6 850 1144 -13.8 4 86 10 92 4 4 700 2608 -18.7 4.4 47 3 31 4 5 500 5044 -33.3 4.4 310 5 46 4 4 400 6577 -43.3 4 302 9 59 4 4 300 8462 -54.9 3.7 297 12 65 4 4 200 11040 -53.6 4.9 274 13 82 5 5 150 12893 -53.1 6.1 269 13 88 5 5 100 15490 -55.2 7 266 15 93 6 7 70 17743 -57.8 7.5 267 18 96 9 9 50 19874 -59.8 7.7 265 21 97 9 9 30 23092 -61.2 8 267 25 97 11 9 20 25621 -61.6 8.3 267 29 97 13 9

Table 1.3 Anomalies of standard isobaric surface heights and temperature April 2002

P, hPa Н-Нavg, m (Н-Havg)/σН Т-Тavg, °С (Т-Тavg)/σТ 850 0 0.0 2.4 1.7 700 11 0.4 1.9 1.8 500 21 0.5 1.0 0.7 400 25 0.5 0.8 0.5 300 35 0.5 -0.3 -0.2 200 6 0.1 -1.7 -1.2 150 -8 -0.1 -1.1 -0.9 100 -17 -0.2 -1.5 -1.3 70 -56 -0.7 -2.4 -2.0 50 -64 -0.7 -3.1 -2.2 30 -90 -0.7 -3.4 -1.9 20 -107 -0.7 -4.0 -1.5

NOVOLAZAREVSKAYA STATION

Table 1.4 Monthly averages of meteorological parameters (f) and their deviations from multiyear averages (favg) April 2002 Normalized Anomaly Relative Parameter fmon.avg fmax fmin anomaly f-favg anomaly f/favg (f-favg)/σf Sea level pressure, hPa 984.7 1006.6 964.1 -2.9 -0.8 Air temperature, °C -8.8 1.7 -20.7 3 1.7 Relative humidity, % 54 6 1.3 Total cloudiness (sky coverage), tenths 7 1.5 1.7 Lower cloudiness(sky coverage),tenths 2 0.8 1.0 Precipitation, mm 23.8 8.3 0.3 1.5 Mean wind speed, m/s 13.1 29 2.2 1.2 Prevailing wind direction, deg 135 Total radiation, MJ/m2 60 -11.4 -1.9 0.8 Total ozone content (TO), DU * * Data of TO measurements require quality control and will not be published until it is done.

Table 1.5 Results of aerological atmospheric sounding (from CLIMAT-TEMP messages) April 2002

Number of Isobaric Resulting Number of Isobaric Dew point Resulting Wind days surface Temperature, wind days surface, deficit, wind speed, stability without height, T °C direction, without P, hPa D °C m/s parameter temperature H m deg wind data data

971 122 -9.1 8.5 925 508 -9.8 8.3 110 18 97 0 0 850 1154 -14.2 6.8 93 17 95 0 0 700 2609 -20.4 5.2 81 9 78 0 0 500 5036 -34 4.5 351 4 46 0 0 400 6567 -44.1 4 326 5 44 0 0 300 8445 -54.8 3.6 307 8 56 0 0 200 11044 -51.4 5.1 283 10 88 0 0 150 12913 -51.5 6.5 276 11 92 0 0 100 15536 -53.1 7.5 272 13 93 0 0 70 17824 -55.1 8 269 15 95 0 0 50 19976 -56.4 8.3 269 18 94 0 0 30 23226 -56.9 8.7 266 22 93 1 1 20 25780 -57.1 8.8 267 26 94 3 4 10 30067 -55.5 8.9 20

Table 1.6 Anomalies of standard isobaric surface heights and temperature April 2002

P, hPa Н-Нavg, m (Н-Havg)/σН Т-Тavg, °С (Т-Тavg)/σТ 850 6 0.2 1.9 1.5 700 19 0.5 2.2 1.7 500 39 0.9 2.0 1.5 400 53 1.1 1.8 1.4 300 61 1.2 1.1 0.9 200 74 1.5 1.8 1.0 150 90 1.8 2.0 1.5 100 116 1.9 2.5 1.8 70 139 2.1 2.5 2.0 50 176 2.3 3.3 2.4 30 242 2.7 4.7 2.9 20 263 2.2 4.3 2.0 10 311 1.6 4.4 1.3

BELLINGSHAUSEN STATION Table 1.7 Monthly averages of meteorological parameters (f) and their deviations from multiyear averages (favg) April 2002

Normalized Anomaly Relative Parameter fmon.avg fmax fmin anomaly f-favg anomaly f/favg (f-favg)/σf… Sea level pressure, hPa 988 1003.4 967.1 -3 -0.7 Air temperature, °C 0 6.1 -7.6 2 1.4 Relative humidity, % 90 3.2 1.0 Total cloudiness (sky coverage), tenths 9.6 0.6 1.5 Lower cloudiness(sky coverage),tenths 8.4 0.6 0.6 Precipitation, mm 59.2 -8 -0.4 0.9 Mean wind speed, m/s 7.2 18 -0.4 -0.4 Prevailing wind direction, deg 315 Total radiation, MJ/m2 28 -59.7 -6.4 0.3

VOSTOK STATION Table 1.8 Monthly averages of meteorological parameters (f) and their deviations from multiyear averages (favg) April 2002 Normalized Anomaly Relative Parameter fmon.avg fmax fmin anomaly f-favg anomaly f/favg (f-favg)/σf Station surface level pressure, hPa 622.6 642.2 608 -0.3 -0.1 Air temperature, °C -62 -41.7 -73 2.9 1.4 Relative humidity, % 54 -14.1 -2.9 Total cloudiness (sky coverage), tenths 2.3 -0.8 -1.0 Lower cloudiness(sky coverage),tenths 0 0 0.0 Precipitation, mm 3.6 0.9 0.5 1.3 Mean wind speed, m/s 1.6 8 -4.1 -3.7 Prevailing wind direction, deg 202 Total radiation, MJ/m2 30 11.6 3.7 1.6 Total ozone content (TO), DU *

* Data of TO measurements require quality control and will not be published until it is done.

A P R I L 2 0 0 2

Mean sea level pressure, hPa 982.8(Vostok st.data984.7 - pressure at station988 surface level) 900

700 622.6

500 Mirny Novolaz Bellings Vostok

(f-favg)/σf -1.6 -0.8 -0.7 -0.1

Air temperature, °C 0 0 -10.6 -8.8 -50 -62 -100 Mirny Novolaz Bellings Vostok

(f-favg)/σf 1.7 1.7 1.4 1.4

Relative humidity, %

90 100 85 54 54 50

0 Mirny Novolaz Bellings Vostok

(f-favg)/σf 2.8 1.3 1.0 -2.9

Total cloudiness, tenths

15 8.4 9.6 10 7 5 2.3 0 Mirny Novolaz Bellings Vostok

(f-favg)/σf 2.1 1.7 1.5 -1.0

Precipitation, mm

100 64.2 59.2 50 23.8 3.6 0 Mirny Novolaz Bellings Vostok

f/favg 1.6 0.3 0.9 1.3

Mean wind speed, m/s

13.1 15 12 10 7.2 5 1.6 0 Mirny Novolaz Bellings Vostok

(f-favg)/σf -0.3 1.5 -0.4 -3.7

Fig. 1.1. Comparison of monthly averages of meteorological parameters at the stations, April 2002.

MAY 2002

MIRNY OBSERVATORY Table 1.9 Monthly averages of meteorological parameters (f) and their deviations from multiyear averages (favg) May 2002 Normalized Anomaly Relative Parameter fmon.avg fmax fmin anomaly f-favg anomaly f/favg (f-favg)/σf Sea level pressure, hPa 994.7 1007.6 972.4 5.3 1.0 Air temperature, 0C -11.5 -0.9 -24.1 3.9 1.5 Relative humidity, % 73 -1.2 -0.2 Total cloudiness (sky coverage), tenths 6.8 0.2 0.2 Lower cloudiness(sky coverage),tenths 2.4 -0.8 -0.5 Precipitation, mm 42.8 -7.2 -0.2 0.9 Mean wind speed, m/s 11.9 30 -1 -0.7 Prevailing wind direction, deg 135 Total radiation, MJ/m2 22 0.0 0.0 1.0 Total ozone content (TO), DU 255 299 210

Table 1.10 Results of aerological atmospheric sounding (from CLIMAT-TEMP messages) May 2002 Number of Isobaric Resulting Number of Isobaric Dew point Resulting Wind days surface Temperature, wind days surface, deficit, wind speed, stability without height, T 0C direction, without P, hPa D 0C m/s parameter temperature H m deg wind data data

976 53 -11.6 4.4 925 471 -11.6 6.7 91 15 99 0 0 850 1125 -14.7 5.9 86 13 95 0 0 700 2602 -17.7 6.5 72 7 79 0 0 500 5060 -32.3 5.8 37 6 56 0 0 400 6619 -42.3 5.5 21 7 51 0 0 300 8545 -54.2 5.1 358 9 53 0 0 200 11232 -58 5.5 320 6 50 0 0 150 13159 -56.6 6.3 293 8 77 0 0 100 15869 -58.2 7.1 278 13 94 0 0 70 18263 -60.9 7.4 272 19 96 0 0 50 20527 -62.6 7.4 271 24 96 2 3 30 23978 -65 7.7 265 33 97 6 6 20 26737 -65.5 7.6 264 40 98 11 9

Table 1.11 Anomalies of standard isobaric surface heights and temperature May 2002 P, hPa Н-Нavg, m (Н-Havg)/σН Т-Тavg, °С (Т-Тavg)/σТ 850 63 1.4 2.8 1.6 700 78 1.7 3.8 2.6 500 113 1.9 3.2 1.6 400 130 1.8 3.0 1.7 300 155 1.9 2.2 1.8 200 157 1.8 -0.4 -0.2 150 165 1.8 1.1 0.6 100 185 1.7 2.1 1.0 70 213 1.5 1.8 0.8 50 214 1.5 2.2 0.8 30 268 1.4 1.9 0.7 20 268 1.1 1.8 0.6

NOVOLAZAREVSKAYA STATION Table 1.12 Monthly averages of meteorological parameters (f) and their deviations from multiyear averages (favg) May 2002 Normalized Anomaly Relative Parameter fmon.avg fmax fmin anomaly f-favg anomaly f/favg (f-favg)/σf Sea level pressure, hPa 992.2 1010.7 971.8 2.4 0.5 Air temperature, 0C -9.5 -3.1 -20.5 3.9 1.8 Relative humidity, % 51 1.6 0.3 Total cloudiness (sky coverage), tenths 6.4 0.5 0.4 Lower cloudiness(sky coverage),tenths 1.7 0.3 0.3 Precipitation, mm 71.4 47.9 1.7 3.0 Mean wind speed, m/s 15.9 40 4.8 2.3 Prevailing wind direction, deg 135 Total radiation, MJ/m2 4 -0.9 -0.5 0.8 Total ozone content (TO), DU * * Data of TO measurements require quality control and will not be published until it is done.

BELLINGSHAUSEN STATION Table 1.15 Monthly averages of meteorological parameters (f) and their deviations from multiyear averages (favg) May 2002 Normalized Anomaly Relative Parameter fmon.avg fmax fmin anomaly f-favg anomaly f/favg (f-favg)/σf Sea level pressure, hPa 993.3 1015.4 974.1 -1.7 -0.3 Air temperature, 0C -5.7 2.6 -16.5 -1.5 -0.8 Relative humidity, % 85 -2.1 -0.6 Total cloudiness (sky coverage), tenths 9.6 0.9 1.5 Lower cloudiness(sky coverage),tenths 8.3 0.7 0.8 Precipitation, mm 41 -22.1 -1.4 0.6 Mean wind speed, m/s 7.3 20 -0.3 -0.2 Prevailing wind direction, deg 158 Total radiation, MJ/m2 28 -4.7 -1.0 0.9

VOSTOK STATION Table 1.16 Monthly averages of meteorological parameters (f) and their deviations from multiyear averages (favg) May 2002 Normalized Anomaly Relative Parameter fmon.avg fmax fmin anomaly f-favg anomaly f/favg (f-favg)/σf Station surface level pressure, hPa 633.5 651.7 622.8 9.9 1.8 Air temperature, 0C -59.3 -40.2 -69.5 6.5 2.5 Relative humidity, % 54 -14.1 -2.8 Total cloudiness (sky coverage), tenths 1.1 -1.8 -1.5 Lower cloudiness(sky coverage),tenths 0 0 0.0 Precipitation, mm 0.9 -2.1 -0.8 0.3 Mean wind speed, m/s 3.7 7 -1.9 -1.9 Prevailing wind direction, deg 202 Polar Total radiation, MJ/m2 night Total ozone content (TO), DU *

* Data of TO measurements require quality control and will not be published until it is done.

M a y 2 0 0 2

Mean sea level pressure,hPa (Vostok st.data - pressure at station surface level) 994.7 992.2 993.3 900 633.5 700 500 Mirny Novolaz Bellings Vostok

(f-favg)/σf 1.0 0.5 -0.3 1.8

Air temperature, °C

-30 -11.5 -9.5 -5.7 -80 -59.3 Mirny Novolaz Bellings Vostok

(f-favg)/σf 1.5 1.8 -0.8 2.5

Relative humidity, % 85 100 73 51 54 50 0 Mirny Novolaz Bellings Vostok

(f-favg)/σf -0.2 0.3 -0.6 -2.8

Total cloudiness, tenths

15 9.6 10 6.8 6.4 5 1.1 0 Mirny Novolaz Bellings Vostok

(f-favg)/σf 0.2 0.4 1.5 -1.5

Precipitation, mm

100 71.4 42.8 41 50 0.9 0 Mirny Novolaz Bellings Vostok

f/favg 0.9 3.0 0.6 0.3

Mean wind speed, m/s

15.9 20 11.9 7.3 10 3.7 0 Mirny Novolaz Bellings Vostok

(f-favg)/σf -0.7 2.3 -0.2 -1.9

Fig. 1.2. Comparison of monthly averages of meteorological parameters at the stations, May 2002.

JUNE 2002

MIRNY OBSERVATORY

Table 1.17 Monthly averages of meteorological parameters (f) and their deviations from multiyear averages (favg) June 2002 Normalized Anomaly Relative Parameter fmon.avg fmax fmin anomaly f-favg anomaly f/favg (f-favg)/σf Sea level pressure, hPa 987.6 1007.1 955.1 -1.7 -0.3 Air temperature, 0C -12.6 -5.4 -24.7 2.8 1.3 Relative humidity, % 79 3.7 0.6 Total cloudiness (sky coverage), tenths 7.7 1 0.8 Lower cloudiness(sky coverage),tenths 5 1.8 1.5 Precipitation, mm 77.1 4.4 0.1 1.1 Mean wind speed, m/s 12.2 26 -0.8 -0.5 Prevailing wind direction, deg 158 Total radiation, MJ/m2 3 -1.0 -1.1 0.8 No observa Total ozone content (TO), DU tions were done

Table 1.18 Results of aerological atmospheric sounding (from CLIMAT-TEMP messages) June 2002 Number of Isobaric Resulting Number of Isobaric Dew point Resulting Wind days surface Temperature, wind days surface, deficit, wind speed, stability without height, T 0C direction, without P, hPa D 0C m/s parameter temperature H m deg wind data data

982 53 -12.3 3.4 925 506 -12.3 4.6 92 15 97 0 2 850 1149 -15.1 4.5 86 13 86 0 1 700 2604 -20.5 3.5 61 5 53 0 0 500 5023 -35.1 3.9 18 6 51 0 1 400 6544 -45.4 3.4 353 7 52 0 1 300 8414 -56.2 3.6 316 8 52 0 0 200 10948 -60.2 4.1 292 12 78 0 0 150 12743 -60.5 4.6 279 15 90 0 0 100 15233 -64.2 4.8 273 22 94 1 1 70 17404 -67 5.1 269 29 97 4 4 50 19424 -69.2 5 266 37 97 5 5 30 22452 -71.4 5 264 48 97 6 6 20 24854 -71.6 5 262 57 97 9 9 10 29040 -68.2

Table 1.19 Anomalies of standard isobaric surface heights and temperature

June 2002

P, hPa Н-Нavg, m (Н-Havg)/σН Т-Тavg, °С (Т-Тavg)/σТ 850 9 0.3 2.7 2.0 700 21 0.6 1.7 1.4 500 30 0.6 1.8 1.1 400 38 0.6 1.6 1.1 300 56 0.8 2.3 2.2 200 85 1.2 3.4 1.9 150 114 1.6 3.5 2.2 100 141 1.7 3.0 1.7 70 178 1.4 3.3 1.5 50 203 1.6 3.3 1.3 30 213 1.2 3.1 1.0 20 197 0.9 3.4 1.1 10 395 1.5 5.1 1.4

NOVOLAZAREVSKAYA STATION

Table 1.20

Monthly averages of meteorological parameters (f) and their deviations from multiyear averages (favg) June 2002 Normalized Anomaly Relative Parameter fmon.avg fmax fmin anomaly f-favg anomaly f/favg (f-favg)/σf Sea level pressure, hPa 986.7 1001.3 970.4 -3.5 -0.8 Air temperature, 0C -12.1 -2 -24.9 3.4 1.5 Relative humidity, % 38 -13.4 -2.3 Total cloudiness (sky coverage), tenths 7.9 2.3 1.9 Lower cloudiness(sky coverage),tenths 2.1 0.9 0.9 Precipitation, mm 28.3 -0.9 0.0 1.0 Mean wind speed, m/s 14.2 28 3 1.3 Prevailing wind direction, deg 135 Polar Total radiation, MJ/m2 night Polar Total ozone content (TO), DU night

Table 1.21 Results of aerological atmospheric sounding (from CLIMAT-TEMP messages)

June 2002 Number of Isobaric Resulting Number of Isobaric Dew point Resulting Wind days surface Temperature, wind days surface, deficit, wind speed, stability without height, T 0C direction, without P, hPa D 0C m/s parameter temperature H m deg wind data data

971 122 -12.2 11.5 925 501 -13.2 9.7 109 18 98 7 7 850 1138 -17.9 8.2 100 19 98 7 7 700 2568 -24.7 5.1 85 10 90 7 7 500 4953 -37.2 4.4 48 7 77 7 7 400 6462 -47 3.9 27 8 67 7 7 300 8314 -59.1 3.4 14 8 65 7 7 200 10790 -65.2 3.5 332 7 66 8 8 150 12545 -64.9 3.6 304 9 82 8 8 100 14999 -68.2 3.8 293 15 93 8 8 70 17121 -70.6 3.8 284 22 96 8 9 50 19107 -71 3.9 285 29 97 12 9 30 22166 -70 4.1 284 42 99 17 9 20 24678 -65.2 4.7 20

Table 1.22 Anomalies of standard isobaric surface heights and temperature

June 2002

P, hPa Н-Нavg, m (Н-Havg)/σН Т-Тavg, °С (Т-Тavg)/σТ 850 -19 -0.5 1.6 1.0 700 -14 -0.3 0.7 0.5 500 -10 -0.2 1.6 1.1 400 0 0.0 1.9 1.2 300 14 0.2 1.4 0.9 200 19 0.3 1.8 1.0 150 41 0.6 3.1 1.9 100 77 0.9 3.8 2.1 70 131 1.4 5.8 2.5 50 166 1.4 7.6 3.5 30 295 1.9 10.9 4.3 20 498 2.8 15.4 5.8

BELLINGSHAUSEN STATION

Table 1.23

Monthly averages of meteorological parameters (f) and their deviations from multiyear averages (favg) June 2002 Normalized Anomaly Relative Parameter fmon.avg fmax fmin anomaly f-favg anomaly f/favg (f-favg)/σf Sea level pressure, hPa 991.2 1010.2 965.1 -3 -0.5 Air temperature, 0C -8.9 0.2 -20.7 -3 -1.5 Relative humidity, % 83 -4.2 -1.2 Total cloudiness (sky coverage), tenths 8.8 0.2 0.3 Lower cloudiness(sky coverage),tenths 7.4 0.1 0.1 Precipitation, mm 30.7 -19.6 -0.8 0.6 Mean wind speed, m/s 7 22 -0.7 -1.2 Prevailing wind direction, deg 202 Total radiation, MJ/m2 13.4 0.4 0.1 1.0

VOSTOK STATION

Table 1.24

Monthly averages of meteorological parameters (f) and their deviations from multiyear averages (favg) June 2002 Normalized Anomaly Relative Parameter fmon.avg fmax fmin anomaly f-favg anomaly f/favg (f-favg)/σf Station surface level pressure, hPa 625.7 636.4 613.3 2 0.4 Air temperature, 0C -65.9 -52 -76.4 -0.9 -0.3 Relative humidity, % 54 -14.7 -3.4 Total cloudiness (sky coverage), tenths 0 -2.9 -2.9 Lower cloudiness(sky coverage),tenths 0 0 0.0 Precipitation, mm 0.3 -2.7 -1.2 0.1 Mean wind speed, m/s 3.3 7 -2.4 -3.0 Prevailing wind direction, deg 270 Polar Total radiation, MJ/m2 night Polar Total ozone content (TO), DU night

J u n e 2 0 0 2

Mean sea level pressure, hPa (Vostok st.data - pressure at station surface level) 987.6 986.7 991.2 900 625.7 700 500 Mirny Novolaz Bellings Vostok

(f-favg)/σf -0.3 -0.8 -0.5 0.4

Air temperature, °C

0 -50 -12.6 -12.1 -8.9 -100 -65.9 Mirny Novolaz Bellings Vostok

(f-favg)/σf 1.3 1.5 -1.5 -0.3

Relative humidity, %

100 79 83 54 38 50 0 Mirny Novolaz Bellings Vostok

(f-favg)/σf 0.6 -2.3 -1.2 -3.4

Total cloudiness, tenths 8.8 10 7.7 7.9 5 0 0 Mirny Novolaz Bellings Vostok

(f-favg)/σf 0.8 1.9 0.3 -2.9

Precipitation, mm

100 77.1 50 28.3 30.7 0.3 0 Mirny Novolaz Bellings Vostok

f/favg 1.1 1.0 0.6 0.1

Mean wind speed, m/s 14.2 15 12.2 7 10 3.3 5 0 Mirny Novolaz Bellings Vostok

(f-favg)/σf -0.5 1.3 -1.2 -3.0

Fig. 1.3. Comparison of monthly averages of meteorological parameters at the stations, June 2002.

17 2. METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS IN ANTARCTICA IN APRIL-JUNE 2002 In April-June 2002, large heat anomalies were recorded at the Antarctic Novolazarevskaya, Mirny and Vostok stations. At Vostok station, May was the warmest over the entire observation period from 1957. The mean monthly temperature here was -59.1oC (Fig. 2.1). At Mirny in April and at Novolazarevskaya station in May, the temperature anomaly by the rank of warm years was the third and the second, respectively. Only at Bellingshausen station, there was a large cold anomaly in June (the fourth in the rank of cold years). The temperature conditions in April-June on the entire continent are characterized in Fig. 2.1, which presents monthly averages and the absolute and normalized surface temperature anomalies at the Russian and foreign meteorological stations. Actual data contained in /1/ and multiyear averages for the 1961-1990 period /2/ were used. In April-June, the tendency observed from the beginning of 2002 for the dominance of extensive heat centers in the territory of Antarctica was preserved. The core of the heat center similar to March was noted in the Polar Plateau area. Thus April 2002 at Amundsen-Scott station was the second by the rank of warm years (from 1957) at the temperature anomaly of +4.7oC (+1.9σ). At the same time, a center of cold anomaly (-2.8oC (-1.1σ) persisted above the western territory of the Queen Maud Land in the vicinity of Halley-Bay station. In May, the above zero temperature anomaly was noted above the entire East Antarctica. The heat anomaly in the vicinity of Vostok station comprised +6.7oC (+2.6σ). In West Antarctica in the area of the Weddell Sea and the Antarctic Peninsula, a cold center was formed. Its core was situated in the area of Rothera-Point station (-3.4oC (-1.3σ) in the western part of the peninsula. In June, the heat center has become weaker. The most pronounced heat anomalies were observed only at the East Antarctica coast. In the areas of Dumont D’Urville, Mirny and Novolazarevskaya stations, the above zero heat anomalies comprised about 1.5σ (Fig. 2.1). The cold center in West Antarctica has slightly intensified and expanded in area towards the Polar Plateau. The cold anomaly at the core of the center in the vicinity of Rothera-Point station comprised -8.1oC (-2.2σ). An assessment of the long-period mean monthly temperature changes at the Russian stations in these months indicates the statistically significant tendencies only at Bellingshausen station (Table 2.1, Figs. 2.2-2.4). A temperature increase in May and June at Bellingshausen station from 1968 was 2.34oC/35 years and 2.4oC/35years, respectively.

Table 2.1 Linear trend parameters of the monthly surface air temperature averages

Parameter IV V VI IV V VI Stations Entire observation period 1992-2002 period oC/1 year 0.290 -0.40 0.460 0.450 3.020 2.560 Novolazarevskaya, % 19 2 25 6 39 43 1961-2002 P ------oC/1 year -0.100 -0.260 0.330 4.030 5.910 0.960 Mirny, 1957-2002 % 6 14 20 56 75 12 P - - - 90 95 - oC/1 year -0.030 -0.070 0.040 1.480 5.210 2.550 Vostok, 1957-2002 % 2 3 2 19 50 33 P ------oC/1 year 0.380 0.670 0.700 1.050 0.580 -0.010 Bellingshausen, % 27 32 31 25 13 0 1968-2002 P - 90 90 - - -

Note: First line is the linear trend coefficient; Second line - dispersion explained by the linear trend; Third line - level of significance (given if it exceeds 90%, 95% or 99 % confidence intervals).

During the last decade, a statistically significant linear temperature trend of April and May in East Antarctica is observed only at Mirny station. The atmospheric pressure at the Russian stations was less in April and June and higher in May compared to a multiyear average. The greatest departures from a multiyear average were observed at Mirny and Vostok stations. In April at Mirny station, a negative pressure anomaly was -5.5 hPa (-1.7σ). In May at Vostok station a large positive pressure anomaly occurred for the second time after 1975 (+9.8 hPa (1.8σ). A statistically significant negative trend is observed in the interannual variations of atmospheric pressure at Mirny station (April-June) and Novolazarevskaya station (April-May) (Figs. 2.2-2.4). The atmospheric pressure has decreased most of all for the months under consideration during the period 1957-2002 at Mirny station (-6.7hPa/46 years, May). 18

During the last decade (1993-2002), a statistically significant linear pressure trend is observed only at Novolazarevskaya station. The pressure decrease here comprised -1.1 hPa/10 years. Precipitation in April and May exceeded a multiyear average. Precipitation in April at Mirny, Novolazarevskaya and Vostok station was 1.5-fold greater than a multiyear average and in May at Novolazarevskaya station – about 3-fold and at Vostok station – about 2-fold greater than a multiyear average. In June the amount of precipitation at all Russian stations was less than a multiyear average. It is noted that the tendency for the decrease of the amount of precipitation fallout prevails for the months under consideration.

References:

1. http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/ol/climatedata.html 2. Atlas of the Oceans. The Southern Ocean. RF MD (in press)

1 2 3

Fig. 2.1. Surface air temperatures (1) and their absolute (2) and normalized (3) anomalies in April (IV), May (V) and June (VI) 2002 based on data of stationary meteorological stations in the Southern Polar Area.

Fig. 2.2. Interannual variations of air temperature and atmospheric pressure anomalies at the Russian Antarctic stations. April.

Fig. 2.3. Interannual variations of air temperature and atmospheric pressure anomalies at the Russian Antarctic stations. May.

Fig. 2.4. Interannual variations of air temperature and atmospheric pressure anomalies at the Russian Antarctic stations. June. 23 3. ATMOSPHERIC PROCESSES ABOVE THE ANTARCTIC IN APRIL-JUNE 2002

The period April-June for the Antarctic in the climatic respect can be considered as the period preceding winter and the beginning of winter. The character of the atmospheric circulation undergoes sharp changes at this. After summer zonality, the meridional processes predominate. In 2002, the modification of the atmospheric macro-processes in the Southern Hemisphere was especially dramatic. There were significant negative anomalies of the zonal circulation form (see Table 3.1). It is noted that the tendency for the decrease of zonality has appeared as early as February-March.

Table 3.1 Frequency of occurrence of the atmospheric circulation forms in the Southern Hemisphere and their anomalies in April-June 2002

Month Frequency of occurrence (days) Anomalies (days) Z Ma Mb Z Ma Mb April 5 11 14 -6 0 6 May 3 11 17 -5 -3 8 June 6 8 16 -2 -7 9

As can be seen from the table, the decrease of the frequency of occurrence of zonal circulation was accompanied with the anomalous development of Mb form. We remind that the increased activity of Mb form is observed from the middle of 2001 and from February 2002, large anomalies in its frequency of occurrence are observed. This is the main peculiarity of the period under consideration, which is also reflected in the formation of mean monthly temperature and pressure. The most active during April-June was the ridge of the Indian Ocean subtropical High typical of Mb processes. The subtropical High ridges combined sometimes with the Antarctic High ridges. The cyclones moved more often along the South American, Central Atlantic and Kerguelen meridional trajectories. The stationary depressions were located above the Lazarev, Riiser-Larsen, Cosmonauts, Davis and Mawson Seas. In these areas, centers of significant negative anomalies of mean monthly pressure were formed. Here, due to an intense meridional outflow of warm air masses, centers of large positive anomalies of mean monthly air temperature were observed. Significant temperature anomalies in April and May at the Russian inland station Vostok presented an important indicator testifying to the increased development of meridionality above the Hemisphere (+6.5oC in May, see Table 1.16 of this Bulletin). In the lower stratosphere, the modification process has been fully completed by April and a developed winter stratospheric vortex was established.

24 4. BRIEF REVIEW OF ICE PROCESSESS IN THE SOUTHERN OCEAN FROM DATA OF SATELLITE AND COASTAL OBSERVATIONS AT THE RUSSIAN ANTARCTIC STATIONS IN APRIL-JUNE 2002

An intense expansion of the Antarctic ice belt that began everywhere in March (see review for the 1st quarter of 2002) has become sharply slower in April-May. Moreover, in these months in the majority of the areas of the Atlantic and the Indian sectors of the Southern Ocean, the periods with duration of not less than two 10-day periods characterized by an absolute stabilization of the position of the external northern ice edge were observed by turns. As a result, the ice extent in these sectors in May was in general much less than a multiyear average (Fig. 4.1 and Table 4.1). At this background, zones of the active ice export northward in the areas of 55-60o W, 20-25o W and 10o E and 85o E were especially clear. In particular, in spite of the extremely southern location of the Atlantic massif in summer of 2002, the increased autumn advection along the Antarctic Peninsula has determined in the second half of May the ice export from the Weddell Sea reaching Bransfield Strait. A direct result of this was the beginning of stable ice formation in the vicinity of Bellingshausen station on earlier dates usual for the period prior to 1996 (Table 4.2) unlike the last 6 years with a weaker development of ice processes due to warm winters. In June, there was a typical of the Antarctic repeated jump-like increase of the ice belt dimensions. Especially impressive was fantastically rapid young ice coverage of the so-called Weddell Polynya area between 62-67oS and 10oW-10oE. In conclusion, one should note a decreased intensity of the growth of last year landfast ice that has been preserved in the area of Mirny Observatory (Table 4.3) due to its initially high thermal isolating properties compared to ordinary ice.

Table 4.1 Latitudinal location of the external northern drifting ice edge in the Southern Ocean based on satellite data of Novolazarevskaya and Mirny stations in May 2002

Multiyear Meridians Actual average 60º W 63.7 63.1 50º W 62.4 60.5 40º W 63.5 61.2 30º W 64.4 62.6 20º W 64.4 64.6 10º W 64.4 66.2 0º 67.8 66.8 10º E 66.1 66.3 20º E 67.4 66.2 30º E 66.9 66.4 40º E 66.1 66.2 50º E 64.9 64.8 60º E 64.4 63.6 70º E 63.8 63.0 80º E 63.6 63.4 90º E 63.5 63.3 100º E 63.2 62.9 110º E 63.4 63.5 120º E 63.8 63.8 130º E 64.4 64.0 140º E 63.5 63.9

Table 4.2 Dates of onset of main ice phases in the areas of Russian Antarctic stations in the first half of 2002

Landfast ice Ice formation Freeze-up Station formation (water area) First Stable First Stable First Final

Mirny Actual (roadstead) 26.02 26.02 30.03 30.03 30.03 30.03 Multiyear 11.03 12.03 30.03 02.04 14.04 17.04 average

Actual Bellingshausen 07.06 07.06 08.06 NO NO NO Multiyear (Ardley Bay) 09.05 08.06 11.05 13.06 13.07 07.07 average Note: NO – phenomenon not observed (has not yet occurred)

Table 4.3 Average residual (last year) landfast ice thickness (cm) and snow depth on landfast ice (cm) in the Mirny Observatory area from data of profile measurements in the first half of 2002

Мonths I II III IV V VI 103 - 64 72 83 96 Actual Ice

Multiyear 46 67 84

average Snow 3 - 14 24 11 21

Fig.4.1. Actual and mean multiyear position of the external northern drifting ice edge in the Southern Ocean in May 2000. Symbols: actual; norm (multiyear average).

5. RESULTS OF TOTAL OZONE MEASUREMENTS AT MIRNY STATION IN THE SECOND QUARTER OF 2002

Regular observations of the total ozone (TO) in the second quarter of 2002 were continued only at Mirny station and were completed due to the low Sun’s height on May 13. The monthly TO averages in April-May (273 Dobson units in April and 254 Dobson units in May) were slightly lower than in the previous year. However, in April and May (see Fig. 5.1) quite significant ozone oscillations were observed. This can be probably attributed to the anomalously sharp modification of the zonal atmospheric circulation typical of the summer to the meridional one with an explicit dominance during the period under consideration of the meridional processes that were accompanied with the export of air masses from temperate latitudes. The least TO value of 210 Dobson units was recorded on May 5.

350

300

250

200 Total ozone (DU)

150

100 1/4 11/4 21/4 1/5 11/5 Date

Fig. 5.1. Daily total ozone averages at Mirny station in the second quarter of 2002.

6. GEOPHYSICAL OBSERVATIONS AT RUSSIAN ANTARCTIC STATIONS IN APRIL-JUNE 2002

MIRNY OBSERVATORY

Mean monthly absolute geomagnetic field values April May June Declination 86º45.9´W 86º51.4´W 86º57.7´W Horizontal component 13950 нТ 13950 нТ 13879 нТ Vertical component -57496 нТ -57496 нТ -57546 нТ

Mirny, April 2002

6 dB

max, 4 А

0 135791113151719212325272931

Mirny, May 2002

6 , dB

max 4 А

0 1 3 5 7 9 1113151719212325272931

Mirny, June 2002

6 , dB

max 4 А

0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31

Fig. 6.1. Maximum daily space radio-emission absorption at the 32 MHz frequency from riometer observations in Mirny Observatory.

Mirny, April 2002

9.6

7.2 00UT 4.8 12UT f0F2, MHz 2.4

0 1 3 5 7 9 1113151719212325272931

Mirny, May 2002

9.6

7.2 00UT 4.8 12UT f0F2, MHz 2.4

0 1 3 5 7 9 1113151719212325272931

Mirny, June 2002

9.6

7.2 00UT 4.8 12UT f0F2, MHz 2.4

0 1 3 5 7 9 1113151719212325272931

Fig. 6.2. Daily variations of critical frequencies of the F2 (f0F2) layer in Mirny Observatory. 30

VOSTOK STATION

Mean monthly absolute geomagnetic field values April May June Declination 121º04.01´W 121º03.77´W 121º05.91´W Horizontal component 13340 nT 13466 nT 13470 nT Vertical component -58148 nT -58143 nT -58129 nT

Vostok, April 2002

6 , dB

max 4 А

0 1 3 5 7 9 1113151719212325272931

Vostok, May 2002

6 , dB

max 4 А

0 1 3 5 7 9 1113151719212325272931

Vostok, June 2002

6 , dB

max 4 А

0 1 3 5 7 9 1113151719212325272931

Fig. 6.3. Maximum daily space radio-emission absorption at the 32 MHz frequency from riometer observations in Vostok Station.

Vostok, April 2002

9 00UT 12UT 6 f0F2, MHzf0F2,

0 1 3 5 7 9 1113151719212325272931

Vostok, May 2002

9 00UT 12UT 6 f0F2, MHzf0F2,

0 1 3 5 7 9 1113151719212325272931

Vostok, June 2002

9 00UT 12UT 6 f0F2, MHzf0F2,

0 1 3 5 7 9 1113151719212325272931

Fig. 6.4. Daily variations of critical frequencies of the F2 (f0F2) layer in Mirny Observatory. 32

PC INDEX Vostok April, 2002 DATE

01 16

02 17

03 18

04 19

05 20

06 21

07 22

08 23

09 24

10 25

11 26

12 27

13 28

14 29

15 30

00 06 12 18 24 00 06 12 18 24 UT UT

Fig. 6.5. 33

PC INDEX Vostok May, 2002 DATE

01 16

02 17

03 18

04 19

05 20

06 21

07 22

08 23

09 24

10 25

11 26

12 27

13 28

14 29

15 30

00 06 12 18 24 00 06 12 18 24 UT UT

Fig. 6.6. 34

PC INDEX Vostok June, 2002 DATE

01 16

02 17

03 18

04 19

05 20

06 21

07 22

08 23

09 24

10 25

11 26

12 27

13 28

14 29

15 30

00 06 12 18 24 00 06 12 18 24 UT UT

Fig. 6.7.

Review of the state of the geomagnetic field and ionosphere above the Antarctic in the second quarter of 2002 The geophysical observations were conducted at Novolazarevskaya1 (magnetic), Vostok and Mirny (magnetic, vertical sounding of the ionosphere and riometer observations) stations. The state of the ionosphere is characterized by the behavior of the critical frequencies of the F2 (f0F2) layer. The daily variations of f0F2 correspond to a multiyear average. The clearly pronounced daily variations in early April are replaced by poorly pronounced daily variations during the rest of the period, which is related to the onset of polar night and the change in the ionosphere illumination.

7. SPATIAL-TEMPORAL VARIABILITY OF THE HYDROCHEMICAL SEA WATER PARAMETERS IN THE COASTAL ZONE OF ARDLEY BAY (BELLINGSHAUSEN STATION AREA) IN THE SUMMER PERIOD 2000-2001

Fomichev N.I.

The ecological studies undertaken by RAE personnel at Bellingshausen station in the 2000-2001 summer seasons aimed to investigate the physical-chemical characteristics of the water mass in the coastal part of Ardley Bay and its variability in the summertime. This area is the place of discharge of sewage water without any preliminary treatment from the Russian Bellingshausen Base located in direct proximity and from the Chilean Frei Base. In terms of hydrology this area is interesting as Ardley Bay presents a zone of mixing of sea and river water (Stantsionny Stream). No direct measurements of the total freshwater volume (melting of snow, glaciers and ice and fallout of liquid precipitation) discharged to the area of Ardley and Maxwell Bays were made. The indirect data collected during the oceanographic studies indicate a sufficiently large freshwater runoff volume. Thus, in Maxwell Bay with its integral component Ardley Bay there is a halocline in the 5-m depth in the summertime. Typically, a lower temperature corresponds to the highest salinity. Such vertical stratification forms due to the runoff of warmer and fresh land waters. For example, in January 1989 /1/, the temperature in the central part of Maxwell Bay was +0.1oC at the salinity of 34.5‰. In the coastal area of Nelson Island, the salinity comprises 34.2‰ at a temperature of +0.9oC. A typical feature of the study area is the anomalously high tidal sea level oscillations as compared to Hope Bay (63o24’ S, 56o50’W) and Port Foster (62o58’ S, 60o34’W). According to /2/, the tide in Ardley Bay is irregular and semi-diurnal. The tropical tide comprises 2 m and the average tide amplitude is equal to 103 cm whereas the syzygy and neap tides have amplitudes of 146 cm and 42 cm, respectively. At a strong wind (up to 30 m/s), no significant surge sea level oscillations are observed. In the author’s opinion /2/, this is due to a transit water transport across Fildes Strait between King George Island (Waterloo) and Nelson Island (Leipzig). In order to investigate the spatial-temporal variability of the physical-chemical water mass parameters in Ardley Bay in summer, the hydrological transects were made during the 2000-2001 season. The measurement methods and equipment were described before /3/. In our opinion, the shortcomings of the study also include the fact that due to the absence of the corresponding measurement instruments there were no observations to investigate the hydrodynamic processes that produce a significant influence on the character and intensity of hydrochemical, hydrobiological and physical-chemical processes as well as on self-purification, productivity, etc. That is why the condition that any serious decision in the area of protection and rational use of water resources should be based on the experimental study of the hydrodynamic conditions of a specific water body /4/ was not fulfilled. The graphical presentation of all diverse forms of the spatial-temporal variability of the measured parameters of the coastal water mass does not appear to be possible. Therefore, it is important to present the generalized figures and some statistical characteristics of the coastal water mass. One can hope that these preliminary results will serve as a primary basis for further planning and conduct of any special (in terms of a narrow profile and the choice of the study of the specific geo-chemical system: river-sea, water mass, ocean-atmosphere and water-bottom sediments) scientific experiments that are necessary in this area due to a constantly increasing anthropogenic load. A distinct difference of the spatial-temporal variability of sea water parameters at the transects is determined in our opinion by the influence of the wind, air temperature, discharge of melt water and tidal sea level oscillations. The response to the impact of all these different scale processes (integral value) can be characterized by the RMS deviations of the measured sea water parameters obtained from the material of two transects in Ardley Bay (Figs. 7.1 and 7.2).

123123

-5 -5 -5 -5

-10 -10 -10 -10

-15 -15 -15 -15

-20 -20 A -25 C -25 -30 -30 123123

-5 -5 -5 -5

-10 -10 -10 -10

-15 -15 -15 -15

-20 -20 B -25 D -25 -30 -30 123

-5 -5

-10 -10

-15 -15

-20 E -25 -30

o . -1 Fig. 7.1. Isolines of standard σ deviations (A – pH), (B – Eh, mB), (C – T C), (D – S‰), (E – O2, mg l ). Transect No. 1. Observation period - November 17, 2000 – January 26, 2001. Observation period for oxygen - November 17, 2000 – January 8, 2001 45674567

-5 -5 -5 -5

-10 -10 -10 -10

-15 -15 -15 -15

-20 -20 A C -25 -25 45674567

-5 -5 -5 -5

-10 -10 -10 -10

-15 -15 -15 -15

-20 -20 B D -25 -25 4567

-5 -5

-10 -10

-15 -15

-20 E -25 o . -1 Fig. 7.2. Isolines of standard σ deviations (A – pH), (B – Eh, mB), (C – T C), (D – S‰), (E – O2, mg l ). Observation period - November 17, 2000 – January 26, 2001. Transect No. 2. Observation period for oxygen - November 17, 2000 – January 8, 2001

As can be seen in Figs. 7.1 and 7.2 and in Table 7.1, the pH, S‰ and To C parameters have a variability maximum in the upper layer. This is due here to the influence of the hydrometeorological conditions on the quasi- uniform upper layer. According to our observations, a more freshened upper layer is clearly identified in Figs. 7.1 and 7.2 by the maximum temperature and salinity variability and auto-correlated functions of S‰ and To C (Fig. 7.4). The temporal variability (Fig. 7.3) characterizes a periodic disturbance of the salinity-temperature gradient of the upper layer due to wave mixing.

123456789101112345678910111234567891011

st.1 -5 -5 -5 -5

-10 -10 -10 -10

123456789101112345678910111234567891011

-4 -4 -4 -4

-8 -8 -8 -8

-12 -12 -12 -12 st.3 -16 -16 -16 -16

-20 -20 -20 -20

-24 -24 -24 -24

-28 -28 -28 -28 T S pH 123456789101112345678910111234567891011

st.4 -5 -5 -5 -5

-10 -10 -10 -10

123456789101112345678910111234567891011

-3 -3 -3 -3

-7 -7 -7 -7 st.7 -11 -11 -11 -11

-15 -15 -15 -15

-19 -19 -19 -19

-23 -23 -23 -23 Fig. 7.3. Temporal variability of To C, S‰ and pH at stations in Ardley Bay in summer from November 17, 2000 to January 26, 2001. By X-axis – No. of measurements and by Y-axis – depth of the place in meters

In the coastal zone of Ardley Bay at onshore winds, water roiling occurs due to shallow water and frequent mixing because of sea wave. Interstital water rich in nutrients is displaced at this and the effective surface area participating in the process of bottom sediment diffusion increases. The sea water chemistry changes by means of Redox reactions and nutrients income from bottom sediments where their concentration is much greater than in ambient sea water. Simultaneously, equalizing of water temperature by vertical and carbon dioxide concentration between the ocean and the atmosphere occurs. The offshore wind contributes to the development of coastal upwelling due to which warm coastal water is replaced by colder intermediate water. In the absence of wind, which is extremely rare in the given area, the state of the water mass and the ocean-atmosphere systems rapidly stabilizes. A longer process of the equilibrium reconstruction occurs in the water-bottom sediment system. According to /5/, the equilibrium between the different water medium forms is established for 10 days. Thus, considering that according to the hydrometeorological conditions of the given area, the coastal water mass cannot stay for such a long time in the state of rest, it can be said that a periodic partial washout of nutrients and other substances from the coastal zone occurs due to ambient sea water substitution at tidal oscillation and coastal upwelling. The advective processes influence the variability of the oxygen regime in addition to the bio-chemical processes. The salinity field variability of intermediate water (below the halocline) in the coastal band is also determined by sea water advection. The dynamics of these processes can be traced in Figs. 7.5 and 7.6. The influence of bottom topography on the intermediate water mass rising to the surface (Fig. 7.5) and its transformation (Fig. 7.6) is evident. The iso-correlates (Figs. 7.5 and 7.6) were plotted according to the methods set forth in /6/.

st.1 st.2 st.3 st.1 st.2 st.3 st.1 st.2 st.3

-5 -5 -5 -5

-10 -10 -10 -10

-15 -15 -15 -15

-20 -20 -20 -20

-25 -25 -25 -25 A B C -30 -30 -30 -30 Fig. 7.4. Iso-correlates of pH (A), temperature (B) and salinity (C). Transect No. 1 (stations 1, 2 and 3) st.4 st.5 st.6 st.7 st.4 st.5 st.6 st.7

-5 -5 -5

-10 -10 -10

-15 -15 -15

-20 -20 -20 A B Fig. 7.5. Iso-correlates of salinity (A) and temperature (B). Transect No. 2 (stations 4, 5, 6 and 7)

It is noted that the bottom relief at transect No. 2 contributes to a better mixing of the entire sea water column, which influences the dynamics of the spatial variability of pH. The correlation of the pH observation series at standard horizons is practically everywhere equal to 1 indicating a high linear relation of the direction of the processes over the entire transect. This can also be seen from the auto-correlating functions at each horizon (station 7, Fig. 7.6).

27m 22m 20m 20m 15m 15m 10m 10m 5m 5m 1m S 1m

22m 20m 27m 20m 15m 10m 15m 5m 10m 1m 5m 1m T

27m 22m 20m 15m 20m 10m 15m 5m 10m 1m 5m pH 1m

St.3 St.7 Fig. 7.6. Self-correlating functions (R(x,τ)), S‰, To C and pH. Ardley Bay, station 7 and station 3. 2000-2001 season

The normalized auto-correlating functions testify to an ambiguous influence of the synoptic-scale processes on the vertical sea water structure at the points at different transects. This can indicate that in Ardley Bay, the shore and bottom relief contours play a significant role in the formation of the hydrological regime. Due to this, a non-uniform anisotropic spatial-temporal statistic structure of the pH field and in the upper (surface) layer - of the temperature field is created. The salinity as a more conservative sea water parameter has almost one and the same form of the correlation functions, that is why in the first approximation one can suggest that the salinity field by transects is isotropic.

Of interest appears to be the pH field. As can be seen from Table 7.1, the pH value in summer in Ardley Bay changes over a wide range from 5.02 to 8.39. As is known the change of pH value in natural waters is closely connected with the processes of generation and decay of the organic matter due to the occurring decrease or increase of the carbonic acid concentration and the corresponding change of the oxygen level. For other equilibrium systems in the ocean (boric, silicic and phosphoric acids), the pH value determines the form of their existence in a solution whereas for many ions of metals in water, the pH value is a factor of their stability in a solution /7/. In natural waters, the pH values vary between 7.9 to 8.3 in the oceans and the seas, 6.5 to 8.5 in river water and 4.6 to 6.1 in atmospheric precipitation /8/. The pH value is also an important condition for the development of the biological processes. That is why the pH value is a condition in some cases and an indicator of the processes occurring in water in the other cases. The low pH values are traced over the entire transect No. 2 (stations 4, 5, 6 and 7) from the surface to the bottom. At transect No.1 (station 1, 2 and 3), they are recorded only in the coastal zone and significantly increase with increasing depth. In our opinion, such an anomalously wide range of the pH variability in Ardley Bay is related to the sewage water dumping sites. A more precise answer can be given only by special experiments on investigating the biochemical processes in Ardley Bay.

Table 7.1 Some statistical characteristics of sea water parameters in the coastal area of Ardley Bay pH Eh mВ T °C S ‰ Нm min max m σ min max m σ min max m σ min max m σ Station 1 5.82 8.20 7.51 0.66 -64 42 -10 38 -0.24 2.36 1.12 0.84 34.28 34.71 34.47 0.13 1 10 6.21 8.20 7.64 0.56 -66 42 -11 39 -0.42 1.57 0.61 0.64 34.29 34.65 34.50 0.10 1 6.14 8.22 7.49 0.69 -67 41 -10 40 -0.34 2.70 1.06 0.92 33.95 34.72 34.46 0.20 2 10 6.93 8.22 7.72 0.45 -70 37 -12 41 -0.47 1.60 0.56 0.67 34.37 34.69 34.50 0.10 27 6.94 8.09 7.72 0.44 -71 35 -20 42 -0.52 1.43 0.47 0.59 34.35 34.69 34.53 0.09 1 7.09 8.35 7.90 0.38 -76 36 -13 44 -0.48 2.50 1.00 0.91 34.09 34.74 34.47 0.18 3 10 7.60 8.36 8.11 0.26 -82 36 -17 46 -0.51 1.63 0.56 0.70 34.29 34.68 34.50 0.11 27 7.55 8.39 8.17 0.30 -98 34 -29 55 -0.63 1.41 0.39 0.65 34.25 34.54 34.47 0.08 4 1 5.16 8.06 7.31 0.82 -60 57 -21 33 -0.08 2.59 1.26 0.94 33.98 34.62 34.39 0.20 10 5.70 8.05 7.43 0.68 -63 58 -23 33 -0.37 1.57 0.63 0.62 34.42 34.66 34.52 0.07 5 1 5.02 8.14 7.38 0.87 -60 17 -24 25 -0.16 3.03 1.29 0.99 33.89 34.65 34.40 0.22 10 5.22 8.13 7.44 0.81 -63 17 -26 25 -0.29 1.58 0.66 0.60 34.37 34.69 34.51 0.09 19 5.19 8.14 7.41 0.82 -64 15 -29 26 -0.33 1.35 0.49 0.58 34.42 34.65 34.57 0.07 6 1 5.03 8.13 7.37 0.88 -61 60 -14 36 -0.21 2.51 1.28 0.84 34.07 34.67 34.43 0.18 10 5.23 8.12 7.43 0.81 -62 60 -13 36 -0.34 1.96 0.59 0.72 34.01 34.66 34.50 0.12 14 5.21 8.10 7.42 0.82 -63 61 -13 36 -0.42 1.63 0.51 0.67 34.39 34.67 34.52 0.08 7 1 5.23 8.17 7.42 0.81 -62 53 -8 36 -0.22 2.60 1.21 0.89 34.06 34.66 34.42 0.19 10 5.61 8.17 7.53 0.71 -64 53 -9 37 -0.36 1.90 0.60 0.70 34.37 34.66 34.49 0.10 22 5.55 8.09 7.50 0.72 -58 24 -10 33 -.05 1.38 0.40 0.60 34.37 34.62 34.51 0.08

Conclusions: 1. Ardley Bay is a complicated multi-component environment with distinguishing features of dynamic, physical-chemical and biological processes. It is characterized by a high variability of hydrochemical sea water parameters in time and space. 2. The external conditions for physical and biochemical processes in Ardley Bay are determined by the hydrometeorological regime of this region, coastline and seabed topography. 3. Tidal oscillations contribute to self-purification of Ardley Bay by replacing the coastal water mass. Due to this, one can recommend to use for sewage water dumping the dispersing outlets that will allow us to intensify the dilution process.

References 1. Kyung II Chang, Ho Kyung Jun, Gun Tai Park and Young Sang Eo. Oceanographic conditions of Maxwell Bay, King George Island, Antarctica (Austral Summer 1989). Korean Journal of Polar Research. Vol. 1. June 1990. 2. Report on the seasonal activity of the 13th SAE. Vol. 2. May 31, 1968.

3. Bulletin “State of the natural environment of the Antarctic. Operational data of the Russian Antarctic stations”, No. 4 (17), St. Petersburg, 2001. 4. Nikanorov A.M., Trunov N.M. Processes within a water body and quality control of natural waters. St. Petersburg, Gidrometeoizdat, 1999. 5. Henderson-Sellers B., Marklend H.P. Dying lakes. Gidrometeoizdat. Leningrad. 1990. 6. Moretsky V.N., Stepanov S.I. Correlation analysis of two-dimensional hydrological fields with the aim to reveal the peculiarities of the hydrological regime. AARI Proc., Vol. 306, Leningrad, 1972. 7. Alekin O.A. Chemistry of the ocean. Leningrad, 1966. 8. Zenin A.A., Belousova N.V. Hydrochemical dictionary. Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1988.

8. ON METHANE MEASUREMENTS IN ANTARCTICA Lagun V.Ye, Yagovkina S.V.

Greenhouse gases and the so-called trace gases have a significant impact on the formation of climatic regime of the global atmosphere and its changes / 1,2 /. The family of major radiation-active atmospheric gases includes the following substances: carbon dioxide (СО2), ozone (О3), methane (СН4), nitrous oxide (N2O), water vapor (H2O), carbon oxide (CO), nitrogen oxides or NOx (NO, NO2), freons: trichlorofluoromethane or CFC-11 (CFCl3), dichlorodifluoromethane or CFC-12 (CF2Cl2), trichlorotrifluoromethane or CFC-113 (CFCl2CF2Cl), chloropentafluoroethane or CFC-115 (CF2ClCF3), chlorodifluoromethane or HCFC-22 (CHF2Cl), and carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), methyltrichloromethane (CH3CCl3), hydroxyl-ion (OH), bromochlorodifluoromethane or Ha-1211 (CF2ClBr), bromotrichloromethane or Ha-1301 (CF3Br), non-methane hydrocarbonates (С2Н2, С2Н4, etc.), sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbonyl sulfide (COS) and dimethyl sulfide ((CH3)2S). Among the trace gases of the atmosphere, СН4 occupies the second place by its contribution to the greenhouse effect (after carbon dioxide). Methane is responsible approximately for 22 % of the atmosphere heating (from IPCC estimates / 2 /) and participates in the transformation cycles of almost all gases enumerated above, although it does not form itself in the atmosphere as a result of chemical reactions, but is emitted by surface sources. A more complicated structure of the methane molecule determines a more efficient, compared to CO2, absorption of infrared radiation. The amount of absorbed (emitted) radiation by gas is known to depend on the concentration of greenhouse gas, emission wavelength and intensity and width of the absorption line. The total absorption depends on the presence of the absorption bands of different gases in the given spectrum region. For methane, the integral radiation absorption increases approximately proportionally to the square root of concentration (for freons, the absorption increases linearly with concentration and for CO2 – approximately by the logarithmic law) / 3 /. At the lifetime of the methane and carbon dioxide ratio of 1:20 in the atmosphere, the ability of absorbing infrared radiation is in proportion of 30:1. The СН4 increase in the atmosphere / 4 / comprises less than 1% a year at the significant interannual variability. That is why a quantitative estimate of the methane concentration is an important scientific task, especially for the Southern Polar Area, where are so far no intensive natural sources of СН4, while the tendency for the change in methane concentration characterizes the changed background conditions for the global atmosphere. On the other hand, the calculations of radiation fluxes in the atmosphere of Antarctica / 5 /, performed on the basis of methodology / 6 / even with a rather coarse prescription of the СН4 profile have revealed that the contribution of methane together with nitrous oxide can be comparable with the contribution of ozone to the formation of long-wave radiation fluxes. That is why, reliable data on the methane distribution in the atmosphere of Antarctica are also important for the assessment of the radiation regime parameters and its changes. The geo-information system “Antarctic” developed at the AARI contains a special section devoted to the results of the measurement and analysis of trace gases (СО2, О3, СН4, CO, N2O, and freons) over the entire period of instrumental observations in the Southern Polar Area. This article aims at a brief overview of the current state of the experimental data on methane in the atmosphere of Antarctica. The measurements of the atmospheric methane concentration are undertaken at present by air sampling with a subsequent laboratory analysis by means of continuous measurements using a gas chromatography (GC) method and by means of spectrometric observations both ground-based and from satellites. The Soviet scientists were the first to begin the direct spectroscopic measurements of the methane concentration in Antarctica in 1976 (observer – I.P. Malkov) headed by Professor V.I. Dianov-Klokov / 7 /, while the first GC measurements of five trace gases of the atmosphere (methane, carbon oxide, carbon tetrachloride, freon-11 and radon) in the Antarctic were carried out by specialists of the US Naval Reasearch Laboratory and NOAA Air Research Laboratory in November-December 1972 in the Ross Sea and at McMurdo station / 8 /. Table 8.1 presents general information about the main campaigns on СН4 measurements in the Southern Polar Area under the RAE Programs. As follows from Table 8.1, most of the initial field materials are unavailable at present for the quantitative analysis. The preliminary results of processing the measurements of solar emission spectra during the seasonal studies at Mirny and Molodezhnaya stations and in the SAE Marine Team are presented in /7, 9-14/. The emission absorption spectra were recorded using a diffraction spectrometer developed by specialists of the Institute of the Atmospheric Physics (IFA) of the Russian Academy of Science (RAS) and the Institute of Experimental Meteorology (IEM) / 15 / in the spectral range of 2995-3005 cm-1 with resolution of 0.32 cm-1. For calculation of the total methane concentration UZ, the following ratio was used in / 7 /: 2 UZ = (W / 4 SN αN K m) F(T) F(p), (1) where W – area of the figure in the spectrogram (on the recorder tape), restricted by an absorption line contour, SN =1.76 -1 -2 -1 atm cm and αN = 0.06 cm , - intensity and half-width of the spectral lines under the normal conditions (pN = 1013 hPa, TN =273 K), m – mass of the atmosphere, constant K = 0.536 is determined by the chosen atmosphere model, T, p – 2 2 -1 temperature and pressure at sea level, F(T) = (T/TN) exp [EJ hc/k (1/TN – 1/T)], F(p) = (pN /p) , EJ = 31 cm - lower level energy, h and k – Plank and Boltzman constants, respectively, c – velocity of light. Formula (1) originates from the

43 study of L. Goldberg in 1951 / 16 /, while the principles of the current integral spectroscopic methodology are based on the results obtained by specialists of the Main Geophysical Observatory (MGO) / 17 /. The total methane concentration was calculated under the expedition conditions by a simplified formula / 12,14 /: 2 UZ = W / (A2 sec z), (2) where z – Sun’s zenith angle, А2 – the so-called “calibration” coefficient /14/ whose value was determined by specialists of IFA RAS on the basis of the analysis of model spectra / 18 /. It is noted that not taking into account the vertical temperature and pressure profile in estimating the total methane concentration presents a rather rough approximation requiring special substantiation. Error of calculation of mean daily UZ values was assessed in / 9, 12, 14 / as 12-15 % without indication of the method of its calculation or estimate. Table 8.1 Spectroscopic measurements of methane concentration in the atmosphere of Antarctica Number of Availability of spectra RAE Measurement Station Source spectra records in AARI archives period measured (as of July 1, 2002) 21 1976 Mirny No data Unavailable / 7, 20 /

23 December 1977 Molodezhnaya 627 Unavailable / 10, 21 / – March 1978 27 January- Mirny 83 Unavailable / 12, 19 / February 1982 28 February - Mirny 53 Unavailable / 13 / March 1983 29 February - Mirny 224 / 13 / March 1984 240 Available / 22 / 30 Season Mirny No data Unavailable / 23 / 1984 / 1985 31 December 1985 Mirny 419 Available / 24 / – March 1986 34 January – Mirny 169 Unavailable / 25 / March 1989 45 January - March Novolazarevskaya 2556 Unavailable / 26, 27 / 2000 46 January - March Novolazarevskaya No data Unavailable - 2002

Figure 8.1 presents the results of calculation of mean daily values of total methane at Molodezhnaya, Mirny and Novolazarevskaya stations compared with data of McMurdo station. The difference in dimensions of methane concentration in Fig. 8.1 is determined by the uncertainty of recalculating the values from atm⋅cm in ppb (multi-value coefficient A2 in formula (2) /7, 18, 28, 29, etc./) existing in the IFA methodology, which makes it rather difficult to compare the results of the measurements made in different years. The results presented in Fig. 8.1 E were calculated from initial data / 24 / using A2 values from / 28 /. It follows from the analysis of Fig. 8.1 and Table 8.1 that during the first years of observations (1976-1986) both the number of measurements and the error value of the measurements performed did not allow even a qualitative assessment of the amplitude of annual variations in the total methane concentration and the character of its interannual changes. The exception is the results in / 27 / (see Fig. 8.1 B) where the seasonal methane changes are described qualitatively correctly but the analysis of numerical values requires a special study. In the general case, the determination of the methane concentration in the atmospheric air column is reduced to solving an inverse task of determining parameters a1,a2, ν of linear function В and parameter cj appearing in the determination of the spectrometer signal /30/:

N H Ui = ∫ B(a1,a2,ν)A(ν-νi) {exp ∑ [-mcj ∫ Kj(T,p,ν)nj(z)dz]}dν+ U0 + dU, i = 1,M (3) ∆ν j=1 z

А B 1.40 1720

1680 ation, ppb ation, m.sm m.sm 1.20 r t

1640 35

hane column, a column, hane 1.00 t 30

Me 25 20 15

Mean Methane concent Methane Mean 1600 10 0.80 5 January February March Measurements number Measurements 1 10 20 30/1 10 29/1 10 20 30

1/4/78 2/3/78 3/5/78 2000 1/14/78 1/24/78 2/13/78 2/23/78 12/15/77 12/25/77 C D 1.60 1.40

1.40 m.sm m.sm t

m.sm m.sm 1.20 t

mn, a 1.20 u

20 25 hane column, a column, hane hane col hane 1.00 t t 20 15 Me Me 1.00 15 10 10

0.80 5 5 Measurements number 0.80 Measurements number 3/5/83

2/13/83 2/18/83 2/23/83 2/28/83 3/3/84 3/8/84 4/2/84 4/7/84

3/13/84 3/18/84 3/23/84 3/28/84 4/12/84 4/17/84 4/22/84 4/27/84 E F 1.20 1720

1.10 1680 m.sm m.sm t ion, ppbion, t a r t 1.00 1640 r 20 hane column, a column, hane t hane concen t

15 numbe s Me

0.90 t 1600 Me 10 emen r

0.80 5 Measu 1560 1/6/86 2/5/86 3/7/86 12/7/85 1/16/86 1/26/86 2/15/86 2/25/86 1/1/86 3/1/86 5/1/86 7/1/86 9/1/86 1/1/87 3/1/87 5/1/87 7/1/87 12/17/85 12/27/85 11/1/85 11/1/86 Years

Fig. 8.1. Mean daily total methane values (circles) and number of recorded spectra (triangles) during the seasonal 23rd SAE (А, Molodezhnaya) /21/, 45th RAE (B, Novolazarevskaya) /27/, 28th SAE Mirny (C) /13/, 29th SAE (C, Mirny) /13/, 31st SAE (D, Mirny) at McMurdo station (F) / 4 /. Segments of straight lines in Fig.8.1 (А-E) correspond to the periods of continuous measurements.

45 where A(ν-νi) – hardware spectrometer function, m – air mass, Kj(T,p,ν) – absorption coefficients of j-gas (function of vertical profiles of temperature T, pressure p and frequency ν), N - number of absorbing gases, nj(z) – concentration profile of j-gas, z- measurement height, H – height of the upper boundary of the atmosphere, U0 – zero signal level in the spectrum, dU – random noise component, M – number of recorded spectral points. According to (3), the methane concentration in the atmospheric column is calculated by the recorded emission intensity value in the atmospheric strata. Such an approach was realized in the measurement complexes designed at the Scientific-Production Association “Taifun” and St. Petersburg State University (SPSU). Intercalibration of the leading national methods of spectroscopic measurements (IFA RAS, Research Physics Institute of SPSU and “Taifun”) conducted in 1997 has revealed /31/ that the methodology of NPO “Taifun” yields systematically overestimated results compared to data obtained using the SPSU methods and the variability of the results obtained using instruments of IFA RAS is greater than data scattering obtained using both of the aforementioned methodologies, and probably the natural methane concentration variability. After coordinating the methods of describing the parameters of the absorption lines and the standard atmosphere characteristics in these methodologies, it has become possible to minimize the above discrepancies in the results. However, no recommendations for correction of the earlier results obtained by the methodology of IFA RAS follow from the conclusions in / 31 /. A possible way out of this situation is a repeated analysis of the results of measurements made using the IFA instrumentation on the basis of the improved “Taifun” methodology. A simultaneous GC determination of the concentration in the surface layer would probably enhance the quality of interpretation of the results of measurements made using different methodologies. The network of stations of NOАА/CMDL (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory) in the Antarctic began regular measurements in 1983-1984 (see Fig. 8.2) collecting sufficient data for 20 years to conduct a statistical analysis of the parameters of temporal variability of the surface methane concentration /4/. The use of the GC method allows one to carry out the measurements the year-round regardless of weather conditions unlike the spectrometric measurements, which require clear weather. Data presented in Fig. 2 show an increase in methane concentration for the measurement period whose rate has become slower for the last few years. In the Southern Polar Area, mean seasonal anomalies of methane concentration achieve their minimum in March (-16 to -17 ppb), and the maximum in September (13 to 14 ppb). Thus, the amplitude of mean seasonal variations comprises about 30 ppb, which is approximately 1.5-fold less compared to data obtained at the stations in the Northern Polar Area where powerful natural and anthropogenic methane sources are located. One of the possible causes of the indicated seasonal oscillations is the corresponding change of the annual variations of the hydroxyl (OH) concentration in the atmosphere, which oxidizes methane. Based on the one-dimensional photochemical model / 32 /, the annual variations in the hydroxyl concentration in the atmosphere of Antarctica, which has a model maximum in the surface layer in January, were assessed. It should be taken into account that in the calculations of Yu.E. Ozolin / 32 /, the insufficiently accurate input data on the concentration and fluxes of greenhouse gases were used. However, according to / 33 / the methane sink at reaction with ОН in the Southern Polar Area is negligible even as compared with the carbon oxide sink at interaction with hydroxyl. That is why the seasonal hydroxyl changes can be not the only cause of the methane annual variations. The other most important factors are the seasonal changes in large-scale atmospheric circulation, mass exchange between the hemispheres and position of the Antarctic circumpolar vortex. Since different standards of gas mixtures are used at present for determining the concentrations of trace gases during the comparison of the results obtained at different points of the Southern Polar Area, it is necessary to know the methane calibration system. The uniformity of the measurement scale is usually achieved by calibration of equipment relative to standard gas mixtures calibrated relative to one common reference standard. At present, the WNO standard presents such a reference standard. The examples of describing the equipment and the calibration results based on methane measurements using the GC method with a flame ionization detector are presented in /34, 35 /. Table 8.2 contains the results of measurements of surface methane concentrations at Novolazarevskaya station performed under the 45th RAE seasonal program in comparison with data of other stations. Table 8.2 Methane concentration ( by NOAA scale, ppb) at Novolazarevskaya station during the seasonal period of the 45th RAE with indication of the measurement error in comparison with data of foreign stations Date Novolazarevskaya Amundsen-Scott Halley Cape-Point Palmer 25.01.2000 1810 ± 6 1699,6 1696,9 1692,7 1696,6 06.02.2000 1731 ± 6 1701,5 1697,5 1688,0 1692,4 22.02.2000 1713 ± 6 1690,7 1688,9 1682,3 1691,0 13.03.2000 1720 ± 6 1690,2 1687,8 1686,4 1692,2 Note: air sampling at Novolazarevskaya station was conducted by observers Yu.I. Baranov and V.P. Ustinov, and the laboratory analysis was carried out at MGO at the gas-chromatographic installation / 36 / by the methodology /37/ corresponding to WMO recommendations for measurements at baseline stations / 38 /.

А B 1720 1720

1680 1680 ion, ppb ion, ion, ppb ion, t t a 1640 a 1640 r r t t

1600 1600 hane concen hane concen hane t t Me 1560 Me 1560

1520 1520 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 Years Years

C D 1720 1720

1680 1680 ion, ppb ion, t ation, ppb ation, a 1640 r r t 1640

1600 hane concen t 1600 Methane concent Me 1560

1560 1520 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 Years Years

E F 1740 1720

1720 1680 ion, ppb ion, t

a 1700 ation, ppb

r 1640 r t

1680 1600 hane concen hane t Methane concent Me 1660 1560

1640 1520 21/11/89 26/08/92 1/11/95 9/07/97 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 Years Fig. 8.2. Interannual changes in methane concentration at foreign Antarctic stations / 4, etc./ А - Halley, B - Palmer, C - Syowa; D - Mawson; E - Scott; F – Amundsen-Scott

The concentration on January 25, 2000 is obviously overestimated, which could be due to seal failure during transportation. In spite of a systematic overestimation, the results of three subsequent samples approximately correspond to data of NOAA/CMDL stations in Antarctica / 4 /. The indicated overestimation could be probably caused by the fact that data of foreign stations characterize mean daily values whereas sampling at Novolazarevskaya station has taken 15- 30 minutes / 27 /, and hence the results present the instantaneous concentration values without taking into account daily variations. For the numerical interpretation of the results of measurements of the concentrations of trace gases and explanation of the observed peculiarities of the spatial-temporal distribution and temporal methane variability it seems to be useful to employ the mathematical modeling methods. For the conditions of the Northern Polar Area, a regional transport photochemical model of methane transfer in the troposphere from the natural and anthropogenic sources was created in a cycle of studies / 39-41, etc. /. This model can be used for the evaluation of methane transfer in the atmosphere of the Antarctic and the quantitative interpretation of the results of full-scale measurements. The local and spectrometric measurements do not provide understanding of the vertical methane distribution in the atmosphere. Such information can be obtained from satellite measurements / 42 /. Fig. 8.3 presents an example of determining the methane profile in the stratosphere and mesosphere / 43 / based on data of the most known HALOE (Halogen Occultation Experiment) program carried out from October 1991 and ILAS (Improved Limb Atmosphere Spectrometer) program carried out from August 1996. The equipment installed onboard the UARS (Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite) is intended for a daily determination of the profiles of pressure, temperature, ozone, water vapor, methane, HCl, HF, NO, NO2 and aerosol extinction of radiation in the stratosphere and mesosphere in the area restricted by 800 S and 800 N. In spite of the possibility of operational obtaining the methane fields in the upper atmosphere using remote sensing methods, an important component of the analysis of spatial CH4 distribution is calibration of satellite measurements using ground-based spectrometric data / 44 /. 50

ILAS HALOE 40 m k

30 Altitude, Altitude,

10 01234 mixing ratio, ppm Fig. 8.3. Vertical distribution of the methane mixture ratio above the point with coordinates 690 S, 1470 E. November 20, 1996 from data of satellite HALOE and ILAS systems /43/.

In addition to the atmospheric methane measurements, important information on the methane concentration in the atmosphere in the past was obtained from the analysis of firn / 45 / and continental ice / 46, 48 etc./ in Antarctica. The study of isotopic composition of methane is widely used for estimating the components of its global budget. The measurements of stable isotopes δ13C and δD are used for identification of the sources and sinks of atmospheric methane 13 13 12 13 12 (δ C = [( C/ C)p / ( C/ C)s-1]⋅1000, where the “p” and “s” indexes correspond to the ratios of concentrations in the sample and in a standard solution. The firn analysis has revealed that for the last 50 years one observes a parallel growth of the methane mixture ratio and value of δ13C, which indicates the increased contribution to the global budget of the anthropogenic sources of CH4 / 47 /. The paleoclimatic reconstructions based on the analysis of ice cores from the borehole at Vostok station /46, etc./ (see Fig. 8.4) have allowed us to determine the succession of the glacial and interglacial periods and the change of thermal regime parameters, which is consistent with the methane concentration in the atmosphere. The data series on

800

700

600

500

Methane concentration, ppb concentration, Methane 400

300 400 300 200 100 0 Time, Kyears Fig. 8.4. Temporal changes of methane concentration for the last 420 thousand years based on ice core data at Vostok station / 46 /.

1800

1600

1400 atio, ppb atio, r

1200

1000 Methane mixing mixing Methane 800

600 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 YearsA.D. Fig. 8.5. Temporal changes of methane mixing ratio for the last 2 thousand years based on Antarctic core data from Law Dome / 48 /. methane concentration from the ice core at Vostok station are in agreement with data obtained from the analysis of Greenland ice cores testifying the reliability of the qualitative conclusion about the character of temperature fluctuations in the Quaternary period. Figure 8.5 demonstrates intersecular variations of methane mixing ratio reconstructed from Antarctic ice core for last two thousand years / 48 /. The analysis of data of the Antarctic and Greenland ice cores suggests that the pre-industrial methane concentration in the atmosphere comprised approximately 40% of the current level / 2 /. The perspective of continuing the methane studies (similar to the study of carbon dioxide) in the atmosphere of Antarctica consists at present in our opinion in the organization of the year-round sampling to flasks and a subsequent laboratory analysis using highly precise equipment and the methodologies recommended by WMO. Such analysis can be performed at the MGO on equipment linked to the WMO standard and subjected to international inter-comparisons /36 /. The indicated measurements (without increasing the personnel numbers) can be envisaged in the RAE programs for Novolazarevskaya and Bellingshausen stations as part of the national system of greenhouse gases monitoring. Sampling can be accompanied with the total concentration measurements in the vertical atmospheric column in the framework of seasonal RAE activities, if the accuracy of these measurements corresponds to modern requirements. In addition to a convenient transport communication, the choice of these stations is determined by the presence of a large number of freshwater lakes. In lakes of the Schirmacher Oasis (near Novolazarevskaya station), there is an increased sedimentation

49 process due to regional climatic changes, while the silty deposits of Lake Kitezh on King George Island (near Bellingshausen station) contain the increased quantity of hydrocarbons due to the increased anthropogenic load for the last few years. These phenomena can lead in the future to the formation of local methane sources. Recent methane flux direct measurements based on static open chamber technique at southwestern part of King George Island during austral -2 -1 summer period / 49 / demonstrated that surface CH4 fluxes from moss (up to 27.8 µg m h ) and ornitogenic soils (up to 227 µgm-2h-1) can be comparable with Arctic tundra methane fluxes. It is reasonable to conduct the assimilation of the results of the experimental studies by the scheme: “measurements”+ “modeling”=”data”. The authors are grateful to I.L. Karol, M. Manning, D. Etheridge, Е. Nisbet, N. Warwick, B. Ya. Lipenkov, N.N. Paramonova and F.V. Kashin for useful discussions. References 1. Karol I.L., Rosanov V.V., Timofeyev Yu.M. Gas mixtures in the atmosphere. L.: Gidrometeoizdat. 1983. 192 p. 2. Climate Change 2001. The scientific basis. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) / Ed. Houghton J.T. et al. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. 2001. – 882 p., http://ipcc.ch/pub/tar/wgl/index.html 3. Wuebbles D.J., Edmonds J. Primer on Greenhouse Gases. Lewis Publishers. 1991. 230 p. 4. WMO World Data Center for Greenhouse Gases Report N 26. Vol. IV Greenhouse gases and other atmospheric gases Japan Meteorological Society. March 2002. -92 p. 5. Dolgin M.I., Rosanov Е.V. Sensitivity of long-wave radiation in the atmosphere of Antarctica to the changes of some factors forming it // Izv. АN SSSR. Ser. Physics of the atmosphere and the ocean (FAO). - 1986. - V. 22, N 1. – P. 22- 29. 6. Rosanov Е.V., Timofeyev Yu.М., Frolkis V.А. Influence of some trace gases on the radiation regime of the atmosphere in the IR range // Izv. АN SSSR. 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9. MAIN RAE EVENTS IN THE SECOND QUARTER OF 2002

April 8, 2002 Arrival of the R/V “Akademik Aleksandr Karpinsky” (Captain S.N. Timerev, Cruise Head V.V. Gandyukhin) that has completed the work under the 47th RAE Program to Cape Town (South Africa) for resupply. April 9, 2002 Departure from St. Petersburg by regular flights via Amsterdam to Cape Town of the 47th RAE group of 64 participants (38 people – Mirny station, Head – V.A. Smirnov, 23 people – Novolazarevskaya station, Head – V.V. Kiselev, 3 people – 47th seasonal RAE, Expedition Head - V.L. Martyanov). Flight Head – A.B. Budretsky. Arrival of the entire group to Cape Town. Start of the expedition cargo loading onboard the M/S “Magdalena Oldendorff” (ship owner – German Company “Oldendorff”, flag – Liberia, Captain I.Dikiy) charted for personnel rotation at Mirny and Novolazarevskaya stations instead of the R/V “Akademik Fedorov” that was out of service. April 12, 2002 Departure of the R/V “Akademik Aleksandr Karpinsky” from Cape Town to St. Petersburg. April 17-18, 2002 Vostok Ice Core Meeting in the Office of Polar Programs of the National Science Foundation (USA) (Arlington) of the representatives of the National Antarctic Programs of the USA, France and Russia on the study and sharing of the ice core obtained at Vostok station from 3611 m – 3623 m depths. The Russian Delegation was represented by the RAE Head V.V. Lukin, lead scientist of the AARI V.Ya. Lipenkov and senior scientist of the St. Petersburg Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Russian Academy of Science (PIYAF RAN) S.A. Bulat. April 19, 2002 Departure of the M/S “Magdalena Oldendorff” from Cape Town to the Antarctic Mirny station. April 27, 2002 Arrival of the M/S “Grigory Mikheyev” (Captain Zlobin V.G.) with the 46th wintering and 47th seasonal RAE personnel of Bellingshausen station (a total of 14 people, Cruise Head Fandeyev N.P.) to Vlissingen port (Netherlands). April 28, 2002 Departure of the group of specialists of Bellingshausen station by bus from Vlissingen to St. Petersburg. May 2, 2002 Arrival of the group to St. Petersburg. May 3, 2002 Stay of the M/S “Magdalena Oldendorff” at the Mirny station roadstead in 14 miles from the station. Due to a thick second-year landfast ice (about 200 cm), which the ship could not overcome, a decision about the helicopter unloading and delivery of the fuel intended for Mirny station to Novolazarevskaya station was made. May 5, 2002 Replacement of personnel at Mirny station. Transfer of the station by the 46th RAE team (Head – Venderovich V.M.) to the 47th RAE team (Head – Smirnov V.A.). May 12, 2002 Completing cargo operations at Mirny station, departure of the M/S “Magdalena Oldendorff” to Novolazarevskaya station. May 14, 2002 Arrival of the R/V “Akademik Aleksandr Karpinsky” (Captain S.N. Timerev) to St. Petersburg. May 23-24, 2002 Workshop of the SCAR Group on Subglacial Lakes (New York). Russia was represented at the meeting by senior scientist of PIYAF RAN S.A. Bulat. May 27-31, 2002 Spring session of the American Geophysical Union. One poster and three section Russian papers were presented at the section “Sub-glacial lakes of Antarctica”. The Head of RAE Lukin V.V., specialists of the Federal Unitary State Enterprise Polar Marine Geological Exploration Expedition (FUGP PMGRE) Popov S.V. and Sheremetyev A.I. and senior scientist of PIYAF RAN Bulat S.A. participated in the work of the session. May 29, 2002 M/S “Magdalena Oldendorff” approached the ice barrier in the vicinity of Novolzarevskaya station. Ship unloading, change of the station personnel. 52 May 30, 2002 Transfer of Novolazarevskaya station by the 46th RAE winterers (Head - Kovalenko A.I.) to the 47th RAE polar explorers (Head – Kiselev V.V.). End of ship unloading and fuel discharge. The ship leaves the ice barrier, enters drifting ice and stops being unable to move further. May 31 - June 9, 2002 Ice drift of the M/S “Magdalena Oldendorff” in the westward general direction with a mean speed of 1.0-1.5 knots an hour. Attempts of active ship motion have failed – during one hour of the ship power plant operation at full capacity, the ship passed 180-200 m. The ship was surrounded by thin first-year ice 40-60 cm thick with concentration of 10 tenths and hummock and ridge concentration of 2-3 points (according to the national 5-point scale) at ice pressure of 1 point (according to the national 3-point scale). June 10, 2002 M/S “Magdalena Oldendorff” enters a flaw polynya according to AARI recommendations to the west of the Bellingshausen Ice Shelf with the aim of leaving the drift system of the large-scale Weddell Gyre. June 16, 2002 Halt of the M/S “Magdalena Oldendorff” in multiyear ice of Muskegbukta Bay (at ice anchor) waiting for the approach of rescue ships. Departure from Cape Town of the expedition vessel “Agulhas” of the Antarctic Program of South Africa charted by the ship owner of the M/S “Magdalena Oldendorff” for rescuing passengers-RAE participants. An ice expert of the AARI A.D. Masanov invited by the organizers of the rescue voyage is onboard the “Agulhas”. June 20-21, 2002 DROMLAN Steering Committee Workshop at the Alfred Wegener Institute (Bremerhafen, FRG) on organization of Air Network in East Antarctica. The Russian Antarctic Expedition was represented by the Deputy Head of RAE V.D. Klokov. June 24-27, 2002 Informal meeting in Buenos-Aires (Argentina) of the representatives of the Consultative Parties to the Antarctic Treaty on the Establishment of the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat. Russia was represented by the RAE Head V.V. Lukin and the official of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia A.G. Shatunovskaya. June 25, 2002 Departure from Buenos-Aires of the Argentine icebreaker “Almirante Irizar” charted by the ship owner of the M/V “Magdalena Oldendorff” for participating in the rescue voyage. The Argentine icebreaker headed for bunkering and loading of icebreakers to the Argentina Navy Base. June 27, 2002 Stop of the “Agulhas” at a distance of 190 miles from the M/S “Magdalena Oldendorff” making two helicopter flights and delivery onboard the “Agulhas’ 25 passengers from the M/S “Magdalena Oldendorff” . June 28, 2002 Four helicopter flights between the “Agulhas” and the “Magdalena Oldendorff”. Forty-four people delivered onboard the “Agulhas” (RAE participants and crew members). July 1, 2002 Two concluding helicopter flights from the “Agulhas”. For 3 flight days, 90 people delivered onboard the South African ship (74 RAE participants, 4 air specialists, 12 crew members from the M/S “Magdalena Oldendorff”).