La Nuova Scienza Di Ibn Ḫaldūn: Principi Fondamentali E Ipotesi Di Confronto

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La Nuova Scienza Di Ibn Ḫaldūn: Principi Fondamentali E Ipotesi Di Confronto UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI PADOVA DIPARTIMENTO DI SCIENZE STORICHE, GEOGRAFICHE E DELL’ANTICHITÀ UNIVERSITÀ CA’ FOSCARI VENEZIA DIPARTIMENTO DI STUDI SULL’ASIA E SULL’AFRICA MEDITERRANEA CORSO DI LAUREA IN SCIENZE DELLE RELIGIONI La Nuova Scienza di Ibn Ḫaldūn: principi fondamentali e ipotesi di confronto Relatore: Chiar.ma Professoressa Ida Zilio Grandi Laureanda: Ines Cumerlato Nr. Matricola: 1084962 ANNO ACCADEMICO 2015-2016 2 SOMMARIO INTRODUZIONE 5 1 CONTESTO STORICO E POLITICO 11 1.1 Tappe storiche prima di Ibn Ḫaldūn 12 1.2 Il Mediterraneo di Ibn Ḫaldūn: situazione politica 21 1.3 Il Mediterraneo di Ibn Ḫaldūn: aspetti religiosi 29 1.4 Il Mediterraneo di Ibn Ḫaldūn: aspetti economici 33 2 VITA DI IBN ḪALDŪN 37 2.1 La famiglia e le sue origini 37 2.2 L’istruzione nella casa paterna 40 2.3 La peste e i primi incarichi ufficiali a Tunisi e a Fez 43 2.4 Le prime esperienze nel mondo della politica 45 2.5 A Granada 46 2.6 Ritorno in Nord Africa 51 2.7 Ritiro e lavoro letterario. Il ritorno a Tunisi 55 2.8 In Egitto 59 2.9 Il senso di un’autobiografia 69 3 L’ISLAM E LA STORIA 73 3.1 La produzione storica prima di Ibn Ḫaldūn 73 3.2 La classificazione islamica delle scienze prima di Ibn Ḫaldūn 83 3.3 La “nuova scienza” di Ibn Ḫaldūn 91 3 4 DUE NOZIONI FONDAMENTALI: ʿUMRĀN E ʿAṢABIYYA 109 4.1 Kitab al-ʿibar: titolo e schema dell’opera 109 4.2 Il concetto di ʿumrān: l’oggetto di studio della storia 113 4.3 Il principio del divenire storico: la ʿaṣabiyya 128 5 IPOTESI DI CONFRONTO 149 5.1 Ibn Ḫaldūn e Machiavelli 149 5.2 Ibn Ḫaldūn e Vico 165 CONCLUSIONI E NUOVI SPUNTI 185 BIBLIOGRAFIA 191 SITOGRAFIA 203 4 INTRODUZIONE Quello di Ibn Ḫaldūn (Tunisi, 1332 - Il Cairo, 1406) è un nome noto a molti nei paesi di religione islamica del Nord Africa e del Medio Oriente, mentre nel resto del mondo la sua vita e le sue opere sono familiari solo ad una fascia ristretta di studiosi dell’Islam e delle sue varie realtà. Tale affermazione non è assolutamente sorprendente, se si tiene conto che Ibn Ḫaldūn è uno storico musulmano medievale, ma è curiosa se si considera che per lungo tempo si è sostenuto che egli fosse stato trascurato e dimenticato dai suoi correligionari, e il merito della sua riscoperta si debba agli europei, i quali, dai primi tentativi di raccolta delle sue opere, fino alla traduzione in francese di parte del suo libro di argomento storico, il Kitāb al-ʿibar e della sua introduzione, la Muqaddima, mostrarono sempre grande considerazione del lavoro del maghrebino. In queste brevi pagine d’introduzione, vorrei cercare di capire se tale primato europeo sia effettivamente tale o sia presunto, ripercorrendo la storia della ricezione delle teorie ḫaldūniane e degli studi che si sono sviluppati nel corso dei decenni. In primo luogo è necessario chiedersi se lo storico sia stato veramente dimenticato o trascurato dai suoi correligionari, o se invece egli e la sua opera rimasero sempre un punto di riferimento per le successive generazioni. Una risposta al quesito la può fornire A. Abdesselem nel suo volume Ibn Khaldun et ses lecteurs, dedicato espressamente all’analisi delle letture che i pensatori successivi hanno fatto del lavoro di Ibn Ḫaldūn. Il primo capitolo di tale opera vede come protagonista Ibn al-Azraq, un giurista musulmano vissuto nel XV secolo pressappoco negli stessi territori toccati da Ibn Ḫaldūn nel corso della sua vita: Andalusia, Maghreb, Egitto, Gerusalemme e le città sacre Mecca e Medina. Egli viene ricordato come autore di un trattato di politica (Badāʾiʿ al-silk fī ṭabāʾiʿ al-mulk), le cui due edizioni sono precedute da un’introduzione che tesse le lodi dell’opera, considerata migliore della Muqaddima di Ibn Ḫaldūn. Quel che interessa non è tanto il paragone iniziale, quanto il fatto che, secondo Abdesselem, le teorie formulate da Ibn al-Azraq risentono notevolmente dell’influenza di quelle elaborate qualche decennio prima dal suo correligionario, e ciò prova che la Muqaddima non venne totalmente ignorata nemmeno negli anni successivi alla sua composizione, ma anzi, la si prendeva addirittura come metro di giudizio per valutare la bontà di uno scritto di argomento simile1. 1 A. Abdesselem, Ibn Khaldun et ses lecteurs, Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 1983, pp. 17-18 ; R. Simon, Ibn Khaldun. History as science and the patrimonial empire, Budapest, Akadémiai Kiadó, 2002, pp. 19-21. 5 Non mancarono certamente i critici, tra i quali si contano i due storici Ibn Ḥaǧar al- ʿAsqalānī (m. 1449) e il discepolo al-Saḫāwī (m. 1497), che accusavano Ibn Ḫaldūn di possedere una limitata conoscenza storica per quanto riguarda le vicende dell’Oriente musulmano e di voler sempre agire e pensare in modo contrario ai suoi contemporanei per puro piacere2. Non è dato sapere se tali pareri fossero motivati da una onesta divergenza intellettuale, o da gelosie e invidie molto più prosaiche – opinione questa che Ibn Ḫaldūn non mancò mai di sostenere nelle sue opere. L’opera ḫaldūniana non era però conosciuta solo nelle terre da lui visitate, in quanto si sa che una copia cairota del manoscritto della Muqaddima fece la sua apparizione nelle mani di un visir ottomano della fine del XVI secolo; mezzo secolo più tardi la stessa Muqaddima venne inserita dallo storico e geografo Kātib Çelebi (m. 1657) nella sua opera compendiaria Kašf al-ẓunūn e usata come modello per alcune idee espresse dall’autore in un’altra sua creazione di argomento politico (Dustūr al-ʿamal fī iṣlāḥ al-ḫalal). La fama di Ibn Ḫaldūn si diffuse poi all’inizio del XVIII secolo e il suo metodo storico venne ripreso in parte da alcuni storiografi ottomani3. La prima comparsa del nome di Ibn Ḫaldūn in ambito europeo avvenne alla fine del XVII secolo, quando a Parigi l’orientalista Barthélemy d’Hérbelot (m. 1695) inserì nella sua Bibliothèque orientale una breve, anche se parzialmente errata, biografia del tunisino, prova di un iniziale interesse da parte dell’Europa per le forme letterarie delle civiltà orientali. Per più di un secolo nel vecchio continente non si sentì più parlare di Ibn Ḫaldūn, finché all’inizio del XIX secolo il francese Sylvester de Sacy (m. 1838) pubblicò nel giro di pochi anni diverse biografie dello storico, corredate dalla traduzione di alcuni passi della Muqaddima, mentre un’edizione critica dell’opera in arabo venne curata dall’orientalista E. Quatremère (m. 1852) e presentata solo nel 18584. Non solo la Francia si interessò al lavoro di Ibn Ḫaldūn: tra i primi ad occuparsi del tunisino ci fu infatti lo svedese J. Gräberg de Hemsö (m. 1847), che studiò a Tangeri e Tripoli, cercando di procurarsi un manoscritto del Kitāb al-ʿibar , e tenne una conferenza 2 R. Simon, Ibn Khaldun, op. cit., pp. 17-19. 3 C. Fleischer, Royal Authority, Dynastic Cyclism, and “Ibn Khaldūnism” in Sixteenth- Century Ottoman Letters, in “Journal of Asian and African Studies”, vol. 18, no. 3-4 (1983), pp. 198-200. L’autore nel suo articolo vuole cercare di capire come e quanto la dottrina storiografica di Ibn Ḫaldūn influenzò le riflessioni degli storici ottomani, e come la loro prospettiva mutò dopo aver acquisito le opere dell’autore maghrebino. 4 G. Pizzi, Ibn Ḫaldūn e la Muqaddima: una filosofia della storia, Milano, All’Insegna del Pesce d’Oro, 1985, p. 61. 6 in cui paragonò il maghrebino all’italiano Machiavelli5. Anche l’abate italiano Gian Antonio Arri diede un suo contributo alla materia, in quanto collaborò nell’opera di traduzione in francese del manoscritto della Muqaddima conservato dalla Biblioteca Reale di Torino, cooperando con il traduttore francese De Slane6. Nella prima parte del XIX furono per la maggior parte francesi coloro che si dedicarono allo studio e alla traduzione di Ibn Ḫaldūn. L’interesse della Francia nei confronti dell’opera ḫaldūniana non era però motivato solamente da intenti accademici: il periodo in cui più intenso fu il lavoro di traduzione del Kitāb al-ʿibar e nello specifico della Muqaddima coincise con l’età della colonizzazione del Nord Africa da parte della Francia. Il principale autore della traduzione in francese dei libri di Ibn Ḫaldūn fu il barone William Mac Guckin de Slane (m. 1878), che lavorò durante la sua vita come traduttore per l’esercito. La traduzione risente dell’ideologia colonizzatrice dell’epoca, in quanto certe parole e certi concetti hanno subito un’alterazione di significato nel passaggio da una lingua all’altra, per far sì che Ibn Ḫaldūn potesse essere presentato come un - involontario - giustificatore della colonizzazione. De Slane infatti si preoccupò di fornire una traduzione che finì per presentare le popolazioni nomadi del Nord Africa come incapaci di gestirsi e organizzare uno stato, e quindi addirittura nocive per quei territori in cui risiedevano7. Certamente questo non era stato l’intento del tunisino, come si vedrà più in seguito, ma le sue idee vennero generalizzate e in parte manipolate per legittimare un’azione colonizzatrice in Nord Africa8. 5 Fu lui che postulò la possibile influenza del primo sul secondo, come si vedrà più avanti nel capitolo Ipotesi di confronto. Si veda al proposito R. Simon, Ibn Khaldun, op. cit., pp. 29-30; sulle incessanti ricerche di un manoscritto dell’opera ḫaldūniana, si veda Ch. J. Gräberg de Hemsö, An Account of the Great Historical Work of the African Philosopher Ibn Khaldūn, in “Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. 3, no. 3 (1834), pp. 387-392. 6 Sulla vita e il contributo dell’abate Arri, si veda G. Pizzi, Ibn Ḫaldūn e la Muqaddima, op.
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