White migration to Southern : a European study

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Alternative title Notes and Documents - Centre Against ApartheidNo. 7/75 Author/Creator United Nations Centre against Apartheid Publisher Department of Political and Security Council Affairs Date 1975-04-00 Resource type Reports Language English Subject Coverage (spatial) , , Western () Coverage (temporal) 1975 Source Northwestern University Libraries Description Introduction. Definition of immigrant. Immigration to South Africa: historical background. South Africa's immigration policy. Effects of immigration in Southern Africa and Europe. Implementation of the immigration policy: organizations and techniques. Appendix. Format extent 31 page(s) (length/size)

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http://www.aluka.org NOTEI AND DOCUMENTS*

NOTEI AND DOCUMENTS* No. N/5 A Africana April 1975 WHITE MIGRATION TO SOUTHERN AF IA A European Study LNote: This issue contains sections from a study on emigration from Europe to South Africa and Southern , compiled by a number of European anti- apartheid organizations and published in March 1975. The participating organizations are: Comit6, Amsterdam; AntiApartheid Movement in Britain, London; Anti-Apartheid Movement in Ireland, Dublin; Boycot Outspan Aktie, Leiden; Centre Europe - Tiers Monde, Geneva; Comit contre le et l'apartheid, Brussels; Ecumenical Research Exchange, Rotterdam; Informationsstelle Sudliches Afrika, Bonn; and International Defence and Aid Fund for Southern Africa, London. In commending this study, H.E. Mr. Edwin Ogebe Ogbu (Nigeria), Chairman of the Special Committee against Apartheid, declared on 7 March 1975 that it can be a valuable weapon in the campaign to end white migration to southern Africa and thereby deprive the racist and criminal regimes in and Salisbury of one of their main sources of sustenance. He added: "Let us make it clear that every white migrant to South Africa is a source of support to the racist regime which is bent on continuing the oppression of the Black people at the risk of a violent conflict - a conflict which can be suicidal for the white minority itself. Let us make it clear that every white migrant is, in effect, a usurper of the inalienable rights of the millions of Black people of the country to land, to employment opportunities and to freedom. Let us make it clear that every white migrant is a violater of the United Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, as well as the fundamental principles of trade unionism. "Let us warn the abettors of this unholy traffic that they can no more claim innocence of the consequences of their actions or escape retaliation." The full text of the study may be obtained from Centre Europe Tiers Monde, 37 Quai Wilson, CH - 1201 Geneva: price 6 Swiss francs]_7 75-07729 *All material In these notes and documents may be freely reprinted. Acknowledgement, together with a copy of the publication containing the reprint, would be appreciated.

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Introduction 1 I. Definition of immigrant 2 II. Immigration to South Africa: historical background 4 III. South Africa's immigration policy 6 IV. Effects of immigration in Southern Africa and Europe 12 V. Implementation of the immigration policy: organizations and techniques 14 VI. Appendix 26

INTRODUCTION A great deal of attention has recently been paid to the question of white migration to southern Africa. In 1968, the United Nations' General Assembly passed a resolution requesting "all States to discourage the flow of immigrants, particularly skilled and technical personnel to South Africa" .I/ and, in May of the same year, the Security Council "Called upon all States Members of the United Nations or of the specialized agencies to take all possible measures to prevent activities by their nationals and persons in their territories promoting, assisting or encouraging emigration to , with a view to stopping such emigration" 2/. Since then, numerous institutions (t'rade unions, churches, students' unions, etc.) and groups (Anti-Apartheid Movements, Southern Africa Action groups) have published information concerning European migration to Southern Africa and have sometimes mounted campaigns to discourage this form of support to the apartheid regimes. The aim of this study is therefore not to describe primarily the situation resulting. in Southern Africa from the inflow of white immigrants, but to expose the machinery which makes the immigration phenomenon possible. It would indeed be naive to believe that emigration from the European countries is nothing but the exercise by individuals of their right to freedom of movement and travel enshrined in the Universal Declaration on Human Rights. In a sense, the potential European immigrants are considered by South Africa and Rhodesia as a sort of "market" which they have to exploit and win for their own interest. An extraordinary network of "immigration offices", private companies, travel agents, and employment bureaux covers Europe with the explicit or - more frequently implicit complicity of Western governments, national airlines and, last, but not least, some international organizations. All these agencies are producing leaflets, magazines and "information booklets", celebrating the comfortable life of the white southern Africans, their unparalleled standard of living, and the exciting feelings of those who are to become the defenders of civilization (that is to say white civilization.) on the African . This sort of publicity certainly appeals to some people who are tired with the humdrum daily life of a European factory or office. But it may not be enough to convince them to respond positively. Thus the existence of a series of devices - like fare reductions, free lodging upon arrival, special assistance in finding a suitable job, etc. - that has been conceived to seduce the potential emigrant. If one wants to stop emigration to Southern Africa, one first has to understand how the system functions, one has to be aware of the multiple ways in which recruitment campaigns are organized, one has to publicly expose the intricacies of the phenomenon. For migration to southern Africa is not dependent merely on the willingness of an individual to leave his country of origin on the one hand, and on the goodwill of the host country on the other. This may of course be the necessary condition, blt by no means a sufficient one. Between the "seller" and the "client" many middle men are to be found, on whose shoulders rests the responsibility of the success - or the failure - of the bargain. To discourage potential emigrants from setting out for southern Africa is an unending task, and it mkghtbbe easier to put an end to the activities of the different relays which, in Europe, make emigration possible. Our aim, in publishing this research, is to throw enough light on the "South African connection" regarding immigration, and thus to suggest to the different groups concerned ideas and means to take action. I. DEFINITION OF IMMIGRANT Normally, an immigrant is a person who intends to settle permanently, for the rest of his life, in a given country. Most countries have experienced in their history the phenomenon of new immigrants, that is, of people coming from abroad and taking roots in a new fatherland. Examples are the way in which the United States, Canada, and New Zealand were re-populated and the interEuropean migrations at the time of wars of religion, or of political revolutions. Clearly, the same phenomenon took place in South Africa and Rhodesia: the Dutch settlers, the French Huguenots, the British, the German colonisers of , all these people came to Southern Africa as a result of their personal or national history and their descendants have stayed there ever since. Undoubtedly they were immigrants in the proper s&nse of the word. But in recent times, this type of immigrants has bedn replaced by, or combined with, a new sort of "migrants", people who leave their country of origin for a mid-term period, between one and five years, with the intention of returning home. This phenomenon is clearly a consequence of the rise of the multi-national corporations,which transfer their personnel from one country to the other according to the needs of the firm. This tendency to geographical mobility is linked with social mobility and one could say that a series of sojourns abroad is a must in a business career today. This not only indicates what kind of people figure in the official statistics of the immigration departments of South Africa and Rhodesia (and suggests the importance of considering also the reverse flow of emigrants from Southern Africa), but throws some light on the links between immigration and foreign irvestment.

In fact, from the European point of view and ignoring provisionally the South African and Rhodesian interests, a great deal of white immigration must be ascribed to foreign investors who badly need skilled workers and who, being forbidden by law to hire black workers for positions with responsibility, are left with the alternatives of opposing the legal system or of shipping the necessary skilled workers with their capital. Since the entrepreneur does not want to jeopardize the extraordinary profits that are possible because of white rule, his way out of the dilemma is self-evident. Thus, once more, the interests of the foreign companies coalesce with those of the white governments. This has already been shown in numerous studies dealing with the role of foreign investments in southern Africa, such as the South African Connection by Ruth First et al. (Temple Smith, London, 1972) and "...a people company", a report on an investigation into Standard Telephones and Cables (SA) Ltd., an associate of ITT prepared by Spro-Cas on behalf of the Presbyterian Church in the USA. The latter study showed that over half STC's work force is white (owing to the generally skilled nature of electronics work) of which roughly half (24.4% of all employees) are immigrants from Europe and the USA. STC recruits white technicians from its plants in other countries, as well as outside the company. It should be noted that the numbers of people falling into the category (and into the statistics) of "immigrants" is certainly higher than the normal use of the term would have us believe. Naturally, there are still people leaving Europe for good, in order to settle permanently in Southern Africa. But they are no longer the most numerous. Between the "permanent" resident and the mere tourist or the executive on business trips, there is an intermediate category: the "provisional" or "temporary" immigrant. For a long time, the people who settle in southern Africa were part of the so-called "pioneers" who created white southern Africa; nowadays, most of those who immigrate should be considered as the "followers", who go there because of preexisting links (family, multinational corporations, etc.). Although we have not been able to find the official definition of the term immigrant, we shall assume, in this study, that an immigrant is a person who settles - in most cases with a working permit - with his family if married, for a period of time not shorter than a year in either South Africa or Rhodesia. This description is likely to cover most of the people registered as immigrants; the only alternative definition is that an immigrant is a person who has been accepted as such by the Immigration Department, an almost tautological statement which does not take us further than the above attempt to define our subject matter.

II,,- IMMIGRATION TO SOUTH AFRICA: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Following II there was a boom in immigration to South Africa, mostly by skilled workers on whom the economy depended. This boom coincided with the 1948 election in which the Nationalists gained power. They at once reversed the United Party's pro-immigration policy. The new policy was spelt out in a directive Immigration on a Selective Basis, sent from Pretoria to the Immigration Selection Committee in London in 1948. It spoke of the need to increase the white population in order to maintain "Western civilization in Africa in the centuries to come", but estimated that the country could absorb no more than 14,000 whites a year- - and only if these did not disturb "the existing composition of the European population." This revealed the Afrikaner fear of being reduced to a powerless minority in what has become (also) their fatherland. The Nationalist Party saw the dilemma thus: without immigration to augment the white population, it was possible that it would "go down in a sea of colour" (as one United Party MP put it in the House of Assembly); yet an influx of largely English-speaking immigrants might well vote the Nationalist Party out of power. A strictly limited number of immigrants was therefore decided upon - together with careful selection. Immigrants were to be white, skilled and, as far as possible, sharing an outlook on life similar to that "generally current in South Africa." This directive formalized the principles of selection and sought to direct immigration through official channels. It set the pattern for subsequent years. Throughout the 1950s- overall immigration remained at a low level with the exception of the Netherlands. It was not officially discouraged, but no etforts were made to encourage it, and at a time when other Commonwealth countries were pursuing active immigration policies (Australia introduced assisted passages in 1947, Canada in 1951) this passivity was enough to ensure a low level. In 1956, for example, the net gain in white immigrants (i.e. immigrants minus emigrants) was only 2,000. The fact that most of the newcomers were of Dutch origin was however quite satisfactory to the Nwtionalist government., By the late 1950s the Nationalist Party was so well entrenched that it had little to fear in any election. At the same time the shortage of white labour and the refusal to allow Blacks into "white" jobs were making themselves felt economically. Growing internal unrest, temporarily subdued by the Sharpeville massacre, and subsequent emergency measures, and increasing external hostility as a result, combined with labour problems to bring about a change in the Government's immigration policy. At the same time, as a result of the 1960 crisis, the immigration figures reached an all time low - with a net loss of emigrants over immigrants in 1960. The opening speech of the 1961 Parliamentary session announced that a Department of Immigration would be established "in the near future", and that special efforts were to be made to encourage suitable immigrants.

5. The results of this decision can be seen in the statistics for 1955 to 1972, as follows: -IMMIGRATION INTO SOUTH AFRICA 1955 - 72 TMIGRANTq NET GAIN (immigrants minus emigrants) 36842038367258663185282314061197130808326o32985837761 27 648 29 6o3 32 133 32 245 27 438 24 892 17 624 The figures show a massive increase in immigration following the establishment of the Immigration Department and an energetic immigration policy, which reached its highest level in 1966 when 42,000 immigrants arrived. As with South Africa, there appears to have been a large British influx into Rhodesia in the immediate post-war period. Statistics earlier than 1955 are not available, and those between 1955 and 1963 are rather rough estimates, because of the difficulty of disentangling the components of the Central African Federation. Those figures which follow are from the Monthly Migration and Tourist Statistics, published by the Central Statistical Office in Salisbury in April 1974. YEAR 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 NET GAIN (immiarants minus emigrants)

6. IMMIGRATION INTO RHODESIA 1955 - 73 IMMIGRANTS NET MIGRATION (immigrants over emi arant~s 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 710 280 090 050 210 oo 540 400 820 68o Immigration, which appears to have been at a substantial level throughout the 1950rs, began to decline dramatically in 1959 and within two years this led to a net loss of more emigrants than immigrants (together with rise in numbers of emigrants). This decline continued until 1965; although the following year again saw a net loss, the number of immigrants then began to climb, reaching a peak of 14,743 - in 1971 and thereafter showing another decline. Immigration in 1973 was low and emigration was high: the net gain was down to 1,600. According to the Zimbabwe Review of 24 August 1974, statistical figures for the first 6 months of 1974 showed a loss of 37 people between the age groups of 20 and 30 and a "gain" of about 200 in the age bracket between 40 and 60. III. SOUTH AFRICA'S IMMIGRATION POLICY The real reason for the immigration policy of the white dominated countries of southern Africa lies in the combination of two related factors: the technological developments which have been introduced into the industrial sector of production on the one hand, and the consequence of the struggle for power between the white and the black communities on the other. YEAR 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1965 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973

After World War II, foreign capital became increasingly important in South Africa and "Afrikaans capital" - which for a long time had been invested principally in the traditional sectors (agriculture and mining) - was more and more geared to the secondary sector (manufacturing industry). In addition to these developments concerning mainly the export-oriented industries, the Government launched its programme of national corporations (ESCOM, , etc.). The net result of these three factors was the increase. use of new, sophisticated technology, coupled with a need for more workers in absolute figures and for greater qualifications and functional differentiation within the labour force. This process can be exemplified by the following table _/,: COMPOSITION OF COMMODITY EXPORTS FROM SOUTH AFRICA (in percentages) other primary half-products and products a/ industrial products 1938 69 27 4 1948 54 36 10 1954 32 56 12 1960 38 45 17 1966 39 39 22 1969 33 40 27 1972 (estimated) 36 54 30 In 1963, the Department of Labour announced a shortage of 28,662 workers, particularly of professional and semi-professional, technical and skilled workers /. In 1965, the Steel and Engineering Industries Federation declared: "acute shortages of technical and skilled labour continue; even operative and unskilled labour is not freely available" .5/. In 1972, the Immigration Department explained: "in order to maintain the present growth rate of 5.2%, as far as the White labour force is involved, an annual net gain of between 13,000 and 14,000 economically active immigrants is necessary to supplement the labour force which becomes available each year through natural increase. This means that the total annual intake of immigrants must be about 40,000." 6 In South Africa, whites account 17,4% of the population and 37% of the annual increase in white population is accounted for by immigration 7/., The situation is similar in Rhodesia, where only 4.4% of the total population is white: in 1972, the total population increased by 190,000, and the white population accounted for 10,000 of the increment. The net gain of 8,820 immigrants was the major factor in expanding the new European population _/ , and this figure alone explains why the country is so eager to attract new people. a/ SITC Code 00-4, plus uncut Source: Yearbook of International Trade Statistics, and International Financial Statistics, various editions.

No wonder that the argument for immigration is based mainly on economic grounds: "South Africa's need for men and money 8/ to sustain her economic development is great and these immigrants have brought brains, manpower and money to the country" 9/. "One of the most important requirements laid down was the actual contribution which immigrants could make towards the development of this country, particularly in the industrial sphere, and not the personal gain which would accrue to them as permanent residents". IL/ Thus the South African Government has constantly advocated the following objectives: - improved utilisation and better training of the limited rutber of white workers, - improved utilisation of "non-white" labour rescarces by better on-the-job training and employment in semi-skilled job categories, - import of skilled workers and professional people from Europe. These requirements have led to some measures which may have given the impression that greater industrialisation would bring apartheid laws to an end. Indeed, in order to cope with shortages of qualifie d labour which cannot be overcome by resorting to immigration, the Government has made concessions to the industrialists by occasionally lifting some job reservations or by closing its eyes on the non-implementation of the apartheid laws. Yet it should be clear that this "liberalization" demanded by white entrepreneurs actually means increased freedom for the managers rather than for the workers. It allows the industrialists to adjust more flexibly and rapidly to the needs of modern technology. Despite massive employment of Africans in semi-skilled positions and the partial lifting of job reservation, African wages in relation to national income and to white wages have not increased (even if, in absolute terms, African wages have increased). This can be partly explained through the practice of job fragmentation. The colour bar has been raised a notch or two in certain industries, and there has been the concomitant advantage that the cost of some jobs has fallen. Blacks doing jobs hitherto reserved for whites, are in general paid less, and categorized differently. (e.g. whites are classified as "craine drivers" and Blacks as "craine operators", at 75% of the white rate).

This development makes immigration less vital in an absolute sense. It is no longer necessary to import white crana drivers in order to keep that occupation white at all costs. This seems to lie behind a subsequent paragraph in the Report from South Africa (Vol.12, no 1) article, which says: It is generally acknowledged that Blacks must increasingly provide higher industrial labour also in the higher occupational groups. At the same time it is realized that the Bantu population, on an average, have not reached a high level of education. Consequently an extensive educational programme for Blacks was instituted as well as an active immigration policy to meet the local shortages of trained labour. Recently positive Steps were also taken to provide improved facilities for the training of black labour in white industrial complexes." This is why Duncan Clarke of the University of Rhodesia pointed out in 1970 that white immigration, which tends to promote capital intensive rather than labour intensive growth, may in fact retard African employment. Although there is in general no formal job reservation in Rhodesia, -hites are given preference over Blacks, so any immigrmt will help to keep an African out of -. job rr training. Sector Technology Qualification Policy Blacks Whites Traditional labour intensive unskille. skilled migrant labour with mining and (many) (few) no political rights. agriculture Strict apartheid Modern capital intensive semi-ski highly Urban workers with Industry and led and skilled limited rights. Services skilled (many) black labour force (few) not easy to substitute. Petty apartheid becomes obsolete Thus, it is obvious that all these measures - including the so-called "liberalization" advocated by white industrialists have one single aim: to keep the tip of the labour pyramid entirely white, whilst adjusting to new technology. If immigration declines, this will mean further adjustments but the general pattern will remain the same.

One can naturally point to some instances where a shortage of immigrants can lead directly to changes in non-white employment. In September 1973 Unicorn Lines announced it was now training Coloured deck officers and engineers in its ships on the same terms as whites, following an unsuccessful recruiting drive in Britain. It is unlikely that the changes in job reservation in the post office, and in the motor, mining and building industries would have been made had sufficient immigrants been available in the relevant trades. However, whatever the importance of such moves for individual black workers, no fundamental change in the overall pattern has occurred. Blacks must at all times be subordinate to whites, for example. Immigration has to be viewed in the context of skilled labour shortage problems, but this is part df a broader political context: the maintenance of white supremacy 11/ This is why the basic rights of the workers (right to organize, political rights, etc.), will not be acquired as a result of industrialization. This is also why immigration of qualified labour into South Africa and Rhodesia is highly political, strengthening the racist pattern of the white economy. Whatever the "economic grounds" put forward by the South African Government to promote immigration, the fact remains that the "Immigration Scheme is fundamentally a selective one" 12/; That is to say that several considerations, besides the economic ones, are taken into account by the screening committee responsible for admitting new immigrants. Whoever is accepted as immigrant is - willingly or unwillingly - made a supporter of the racist policy of South Africa and Rhodesia. Another argument is frequently used by "liberal" businessmen to justify immigration. They claim that immigration is, in the last analysis, beneficial to the black community since each new white worker creates jobs for 10 Blacks. This again is true only in the context of a racially based society where "top jobs" are reserved to the white "elite", whereas the unskilled and semi-skilled jobs are to be filled by Africans D/. Prof. J.L. Sadie of Stellenbosch University said several years ago that one European worker helps to create jobs for 7.4 Africans, and this is still quoted. But Edson Sithole of the African National Council of Rhodesia, said in 1974 that Africans were not deceived that more immigrants meant more jobs. "We know what jobs such immigrants bring - more cooks, garden boys, nannies, houseboys and housegirls." The aim of immigration was to "secure the white manTs future in this country" l_./.

At any event, members of the South African Government have repeatedly stated their policy: To use the terms of the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development in a speech before the Assembly on 7 September 1970, "Bantu must be employed in the white areas in a controlled and systematic manner, and must not be allowed to enter the top strata of labour equality and to integration in residential areas, social matters, and political authority in Parliament."l_/ . Since 1970, however, as we have seen, immigration into South Africa has been dropping markedly, by nearly half in four years. The reason for this decline is not immediately apparent. It may be partly economic. Report from South Africa (Vol. 12 No.1), a South African Government publication, offered the following explanation: ".... Since 1969 the number of white immigrants has declined steadily from 41,500 to 23,000 in 1973. This is due to the fact that over this period the South African economy achieved a lower than targeted growth rate. In 1973, the South African economy, after a few years of slow growth, had ample surplus capacity available with the result that although the rate of growth increased to about 5.1/2%, the migration stream remained more or less constant at 1972 level. By the end of 1973 however, the South African economy had reached substantially igull capacity levels particularly in manufacturing. Increased employment and a maintenance of further growth in the economy depends on the two factors mentioned above, namely whether the balance of payment will again become a boundary condition and whether skilled labour will become available." (This less than lucid statement seems to suggest that immigration will pick up again in 1974 - which appears to be the case, according to press reports of the latest figures showing a net gain of 6,170 settlers for the first quarter of 1974,as against 4,372 for the same period in 1973. This, however, may be explained partly by the large exodus of Whites from Rhodesia in recent months). A second explanation for the fall in immigration may lie in the breaches that have been made in recent years in job reservation. These have been forced on the Government by employers unable to cope with the shortage of skilled labour. A third factor in the fall in immigration is that South Africa became increasingly less attractive to potential immigrants because of its apartheid policies and of its repressive system - efficient also against white dissenters - and their greater exposure in the international media, and because of the anti-immigration campaigns mounted in some countries of Europe by anti-apartheid groups. Early in 1974, the Immigration Department launched a new drive to entice immigrants from Europe because of the fuel crisis and resultant unemployment. In an interview in March 1974, the Secretary for Immigration, Mr. A.P. Ellis,re- iterated the aim of recruiting between 30,000 and 40,000 immigrants a year, and said: "We do everything in our power to gain immigrants." To sum up this section, one could therefore say that the immigration policy of South Africa nrid Rhodesia is an integral and important part of their global policy. Even if some jobs, reserved for hites until recently, are now filled by Africans, the structure of the society is remaining fundamentally the same: the middle of the pyramid is becoming blacker than a couple of years ago, but its top is still as white as e-ver. Since no African is allowed to hold a position superior to a nite, immigration remains a necessity in order to keep in white hands an expanding economy. It may be an economic issue, and it is undoubtedly a political one. IV. THE EFFECTS OF IMMIGRATION IN SOUTHERN AFRICA AND EUROPE A. Contribution to the war effort in southern Afrtca It should be remembered that white southern Africa is preparing itself to go to war to defend its position. In fact, war has already started in the northern part of Rhodesia where the South African and Rhodesian police forces and armies are closely collaborating. South Africa is presently anticipating a war: as changes loom ahead, both in Angola and , the military budget of the Republic has jumped by more than 50%. In the context of fear, institutional violence and mistrust between white and black communities, each immigrant can be considered as one more brick added to the whole fabric of apartheid society. Salaries of white immigrants are certainly high, and taxes "reasonable." However, a large part of the taxes collected by the State are devoted to "defence" efforts (much more than is earmarked for education Although, in South Africa, immigrants are not liable for military service, the situation is different in Rhodesia and a newcomer is likely to find himself in uniform - for a year - after an initial exemption period of 12 months is over. This, of course, is not advertised in the "Settlers 74" campaign by Mr. Smith. Directly or indirectly, each new immigrant becomes an agent of racism.

B. Peaceful change through "liberal" immigration? Some people still believe that lots of new immigrants from Western European countries will slowly but surely, help to bring about the change of mentality which is necessary to "reverse the stream" in southern Africa. According to this argument, liberal and enlightened views can be instilled, through immigration, into the stubborn, white, *racist, Boer mentality of the parties in power both in Rhodesia and South Africa. This approach to the problem runs parallel to the argument claiming that more investment will expand the economy and thus progressively render the apartheid laws obsolete. Recent history however, shows that developments in southern Africa have taken the opposite path. More white immigrants (and more foreign capital) have led to the enactment of more apartheid laws, to the setting up of more security measures, more harrassement, etc. Far from "liberalizing" the society, foreign capital and foreign immigrants have given the power to the racist rulers to go many steps further in their racist policies. To talk about "peaceful change" in such a society is a self-delusion in those who still hold it, and an easy propagandist phrase for those who take advantage from it. In the last analysis it should be obvious that an immigrant who settles in southern Africa is there to enjoy the privileges attached to the colour of his skin, rather than to change the system. C. Keeping Western governments interested All resolutions passed at the United Nations which call upon Member States to break off diplomatic relations with South Africa have been to no avail in the European countries. Despite all declarations condemning apartheid, Western governments will doubtless maintain their ameossadors in Pretoria under the pretext that they have to look after the interests of their nationals in the region. It should be noted however, that these "European nationals" are in fact double- nationals, who more often than.not retain, after several generations, a European passport along with their South African or Rhodesian nationality. This is why new immigrants are not obliged by the South African and Rhodesian authorities to renounce their former citizenship: this "liberal" policy has been carefully thought of as it keeps alive the interest of the European countries in the future of southern Africa. Thus, if violence breaks out, the hope still exists that "friendly states" might help the racist regimes to maintain law and order and take the defence of their white cousins.

D. Propaganda feed-back An immigrant who settles in southern Africa does not cut all links with Europe. He may correspond with his family on the Continent, describing"the wonderful life" he has found in the southern African white paradise. This type of private propaganda by "eye-witnesses" should not be underestimated, especially because skilled workers, professionals and intellectuals - who constitute the large bulk of immigrants - are often considered to be "objective" in their assessment of "reality". Whenever a campaign is launched in Europe against southern Africa, and when newspapers criticise apartheid, relatives of immigrants immediately begin sending letters to the editor stating all those "who really know from daily life" what the situation is like, cannot but disagree with such "a biased description" of a very particular situation, Quite often people who have returned from southern Africa and relatives of present residents are in contact with each other and form all sorts of private associations, clubs and leagues of "Friends of South Africa" and "Rhodesia", whose main task consists of seeing to it that southern Africa is described in a "purely white" perspective. Immigrants also frequently invite their friends and relatives for a "sunny holiday" (during the European winter) in South Africa. "Family tourism" is booming and the number of Europeans who have been able to experience, even shortly, the South African way of life is increasing annually. On returning home these people join the large flock of "Southern Africa eye-witnesses" who argue, "After all, I was there." But the majority of South Africans live in places like Limehill or Dimbaza .where tourists are not taken during their package tours. And if some visitors are taken to Soweto (the black city near ), they have no opportunity to be in real contact with the population. V. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE IMMIGRATION POLICY: ORGANIZATIONS AND TECHNIQUES There are numerous ways by which the southern African regimes try to recruit new immigrants. In this section, we shall attempt to expose some of the usual devices conceived to foster immigration, while in the second part of this study we shall cover the particular aspects of the question in the different European countries.

A. Department of Immigration V In South Africa, the Department of Immigration was established in 1961. The Head Office is located in Pretoria, with a staff of 138 persons in 1972, five regional offices inside South Africa (, Johannesburg, Durban, and Pretoria), with a total staff of 79 persons, and 14 overseas offices (Athens, Berne, Brussels, The Hague, Glasgow, Hamburg, Cologne, Lisbon, London, Milan, Munich, Paris, Rome, Vienna) 2/ Mr. A.E. Trollip was Minister of Immigration until 12 August 1968; he was succeeded by the Honorable C.P. Mulder, with Mr. P.C.J. Koornhof as Deputy Minister. The latter took over in August 1972. Contacts are made with European governments, not only through the emigration officers, but also by personal visits of top members of the Department. Thus, Mr. A.E. Trollip undertook "extensive official trips to Europe during 1962 and 1966 in order to ... strengthen relations with political and other leaders in those countries from which South Africa receives most of its immigrants"l/ Toward the end of the 1960's, the Secretary of the Department visited all overseas offices and took this opportunity to discuss with overseas authorities "at the highest level." L/ This is particularly important since "with few exceptions, foreign governments prescribe specific requirements in connection with the recruitment of immigrants. All recruiting campaigns must, therefore, be planned and conducted with due regard to these requirements ... The need for a discreet approach in those countries cannot be overemphasized".l_2/ Conversely, visits are arranged for senior officials of foreign governments in South Africa "in order to acquaint themselves with the prospects offered by South Africa as an immigration country".2/ At least some Belgian, Dutch, German and Swiss officials have accepted such invitations. The Department of Immigration has published a series of pamphlets printed in seven European languages, covering the following subjects: - The assistance made available by the State - Educational facilities - Taxation and licences - Employment prospects - Housing facilities - Cost of living - Climatic conditions - The immigrant's journey to South Africa - The immigrant's arrival and reception in South Africa

The jcost of printing of these brochures amounted to R 39,460 in March 1971 and to >R 32,747 nine months later, in January 1972. 21/ Immigration offices overseas are in charge of distributing this material to intending immigrants; they also distribute films depicting conditions under which immigrants can settle in South Africa, arranging filmshows and lectures, particularly in those of Europe suffering from unemployment. In fact, the immigration offices seem particularly keen to exploit each labour crisis to their advantage. Advertisements celebrating South Africa as an immigration country are frequently place in local papers. The total expenses for advertising and publicity only (on top of the printing of the brochures mentioned above) of the Department of Immigration, between July 1971 and June 1972, amounted to R 101,240. B. Seii-private organizations Before the establishment of the Immigration Department, since November 1960, two private organizations have been recognized by the South African governments as complementary to its own recruiting efforts: the South African Immigration Organization (Pty) Ltd. (Samorgan) which operates in Britain, and Transa (Pty) Ltd. whose activities are confined to Germany, Switzerland and Austria. One of the pamphlets published by the latter organization, is typical of the catchwords useddi to attr ;.ct immigrants: a full-page text reads: "Sun, leisure, nature, sport, money and success through Trans." Both companies receive a subsidy from the Department of Immigration for each immigrant recruited by them according to a predetermined quota. C. Private employers L ..For reasons already mentioned, private companies cooperate closely with the Immigration Department in recruiting new immigrants. Although it is extremely difficult to assess the importance of this collaboration, it appears to be extremely favourable to the South African Government. "The need for coordinated action is essential and no recruiting campaign should be undertaken ... by private employers without prior consultation with the Depal tment ... . If no basic problem in connection with a proposed recruiting campaign can be foreseen, the employer will be given the fullest cooperation of the Department and its overseas offices ... it is gratifying to be able to report that employers generally are co-operative and act in a responsible manner." ?2/

D. Special campaigns As far as Rhodesia is concerned, the Smith Regime is trying to recruit new immigrants in a rather unusual way. In his New Year broadcast, the Prime Minister launched a new immigration campaign, Settlers 74. Rhodesians were asked to submit names of friends and acquaintances in Britain who might be interested in coming to Rhodesia. A million names were asked for; from there, it was hoped to recruit 10,000 immigrants. Full page advertisements appeared in the Rhodesian press: "Rhodesia Needs Immigrants." Two advertisements were also placed in the British press before the Government stepped in, prosecuted the papers and stopped this practice. This campaign followed the worst year for immigration since 1966. It provoked immediate opposition and was denounced by the ANC and ZAPU. It was also mentioned in the public letter addressed to the ",overnment by six Catholic bishops in Rhodesia criticising the regime's policy. Of the campaign the bishops said: " It is a notable example of insensitivity to the feelings of the African peop'7e who deeply resent it. They were born here and claim a prior right to development. They fear that their opportunities for learning trades may thereby be more limited still. Will not such a policy play into the hands of those who advocate violence?". Several other Rhodesian churchmen supported this statement. At theend of 1974, and despite all efforts from the government, it appeared that this campaign had been a failure; according to The Star of 2'.Notember ai974°:.) more whites were leaving Southern Rhodesia than coming into it. E. Other devices Besides the campaigns launched under the official or semiofficial label, the South African Government also uses more insidious ways of bringing home to the minds of people that South Africa is an ideal immigration country. As an example, one can mention the famous "Club of Ten" which, financed from South Africa, puts large advertisements in newspapers to promote the "official image" of South Africa; or a whole issue of "La Revue franqaise de l'lite europeenne" (April 1973) devoted to The Republic of South Africa. The last article in the latter was devoted to possibilities of immigration and entitled: "A Place in the Sun". (The whole fsue is, albeit published in Paris, written in English; it should be remembered that it is meant for the "European elite" ....). No reference whatsoever is made to apartheid, with the possible exception of the sentence "very quickly they (immigrants) overcome the expected difficulties of living in a different society, mainly because of the uniqueness of its composition that requires adjustments". One has to read in between the lines... Blacks are mentioned in the following words: "Domestic help is easily found and inexpensive (full-time non- White servants, provided with quarters and food, earn from R 15.00 to R 35.00 and higher per month, depending on experience)." This is indeed an "easy and pleasant way of life." For Whites only. F. Selection of South African immigrants-/ The task of the South African Department of Immigration is not only to recruit immigrants but also to select them. The Immigration Selection Board" is the only authority which can sanction the issue of a permit for permanent residence in South Africa and cannot be called upon to furnish reasons for its decisions" g_/., But despite the fact that the reasons behind each particulr decision to accept - or refuse a given individual remain unknown, some general criteria have been set up for the selection of potential immigrants. 1. Whites only Being an aspect of the apartheid policy, immigration is for whites only. The tens of thousands of African workers who enter South Africa every year are not regarded as immigrants) but as migratory labourers. It is certainly significant that one of the first questions of the four-page "preliminary questionnaire", which has to be filled out by applicants, is the following: "Are you and all members of your family European (White)?.' "In framing its immigration policy, the South African Government .has aimed at maintaining as far as possible the present composition of the white population of South Africa, its way of life, health and morals". / To ensure the "whiteness" of immigrants, the Department has a 4-step procedure which was revealed in 1969: 1. The applicant must state on his application form that he and all members of his family accompanying him are of pure white descent; 2. Each applicant must be accompanied by a "very clear photograph" of the applicant and his family; 3. Eve ry applicant must be personally inspected by South African immigration officer in his country of origin; 4. On arrival in South Africa, all immigrant families must be inspected by "well trained immigration control officers."

Thanks to the stringency of these measures, not one immigrant has had to be reclassified as non-white after entry, though it is unlikely that many "non-whites" have applied. We should however, mention that there may have been cases where a skilled person, whose "contribution towards the development" of South Africa could be significant, has been prevented from immigration because he is married to a "non white." a 2. Skilled workers Only those with technical, professional or managerial skills and occupations are allowed to immigrate. No immigrant is allowed to oust a white South Africa from his job, and it has been the practice of the Immigration Department to encourage all prospective immigrants to be placedin a job before they leave, although this is not compulsory. According to a report in the -Johannesburg Sunday Times of 3 March 1974, a firm job offer has now become a requirement for intending immigrants, but it is unclear whether this rule (alleged to be a year old) is strictly enforced. The continually expanding economy demands a constant supply of manpower, and any person who can contzibute towards the expansion of the country by way of his or her special knowledge, skill and experience will be assisted, not only in getting to South Africa, but also in resettling in suitable employment" 9_/. Dr. Koornhof, Deputy Minister of Immigration, said in 1968, that South Africa was the only country in the world which took only skilled immigrants: "We do this because we consider it to be unfair to an unskilled immigrant to come to South Africa and have to compete on a salary scale that is applicable to the Bantu"E/7.). However, according to Dr. Koornhof, immigrants must not oust South Africans (that is white South Africans ) from their employment 2./Y The following statistics show that the net gain of immigrants was particularly high in the sectors of manufacture and construction, "professional" people and clerical staff. e du immi a qni (n, r. V1 Professional Manageral & administrative Clerical Salesmen & related workers Agricultural Mining Transport & communication Manufacture & construction Services Total economically active ...... 50 262 Independent Scholars Other dependents Other: Not econimically classified 1 273 343 930 11557 2924 8633 22650 5024 17626 1 061 150 911 66804 14838 51966 ------3. Protestants desired, Catholics accepted, atheistsa-excluded Intending immigrants are asked to state their religion. This is not a mere routing question, it has been a requirement since 1957. One has to remember that the duty of the Department of Immigration is to maintain "as far as possible the present composition of the white population." This concern was voiced towards the end of-the 1960s when there were many Afrikaner protests about the numbers of people arriving from - Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece. This is combined with the fact that only 3% of the new immigrants are integrated in the Afrikaans-speaking community, 97% in the English community. Thus the Nasionale Jeugbond (Nationalist Youth Movement) expressed fear that the large number of immigrants threatened the identity of the Afrikaaner and stated that it had "the utmost trust in the policy of moderate immigration which will not endanger the future of the Afrikaner Nation" 2/. The same year, 7 resolutions on immigration were passed at the Congress of the Nationalist Party, reflecting this anxiety L0/ . 1/7/1970 31/3/1972 8 119 1 329 5 831 1 747 363 1 289 358 156 77 408 1 802 197 1 262 197 1 06'; 1 422 345 509 448 11 198 1 262 6 372 966 4 542 1 o64 189 232 40 9 396 1 06,; 25 866 6 397 q Period Occunation m m

Also again in 1967, the "Council for the Maintenance of our Protestant heritage" of the Dutch Reformed Church pointed out with concern that the percentage of Roman Catholics had risen from 5.3% of the population in 1951 to 6.2% in 1960. The Minister of Immigration of the time, Senator Trollip, said in Parliament: "The Government regards the maintenance cf the existing position as regards the religious and cultural aspects as basic to our whole attitude towards immigration".L/ Immigrants from Southern Europe were not fully approved of, partly on the grounds that they were Catholic and partly because they were not always white in appearance: "Roman Catholics are a bigger danger to us than the communists because at least one can lock up a communist" said a delegate to the 1967 Transvaal Nationalist Party congress. "Coloured people cannot marry my daughter, but when she is 21 a Portuguese can".2/ These grass roots objections appear to have been noted, and acted on. Between 1966 and 1968, white immigrants from Portugal dropped from 6,139 to 1,669, from Mozambique from 1,739 to 690 and from Angola from 159 to 67. Nevertheless, Catholics are accepted, albeit reluctantly, but atheists are definitely banned from entering South Africa. This has been time and again reaffirmed by Dr. Koornhof at the Orange Free State Nationalist Party Congress in 1968, D/ in Parliament in 1970, 1/ and during the Settlers Day ceremony in 1972; he added on this last occasion that prospective immigrants must realise that South Africans were a "boerevolk" and be prepared to become part of the volk (people). 2/ The fact that - in 1972 at least - 39 out of the 45 members of the Immigration Board belong to Afrikaans churches is a atrong guarantee that the policy is not about to change. 4. Discretionary criteria The above mentioned guidelines for the screening of intending immigrants are already sufficient proof that immigration is not a purely economic matter. But there can be no doubt that further conditions have to be met before an immigrant can be granted acceptance. The Board's discretionary powers are subject to the provisions of section 4 (3) of the Aliens Act, No. 1 of 1937, as amended which provides that the Board shall not authorize the issue of a permit for permanent residence unless the applicant is of good character; is likely to become readily assimilated with the European inhabitants and to become a desireable inhabitant of the Republic within a reasonable period after entry into the country; and is not likely to be harmful to the welfare of the Republic.

It is certainly not accidental that the preliminary questionnaire to be filled by an immigrant contains the following question: "All addresses from the age of 18 years or during the last 20 year, whichever is the lesser, also outside (the country of present residence). If married, kindly furnish the same details in respect of your wife." Although this cannot be easily documented, this question may well be one of the crucial ones in the questionnaire. What would be the reason for gathering such a detailed information on the remote past of a potential immigrant, if, subsequently, this information could not be used? The long span of time which normally elapses between the date when an application form is sent in and a positive answer given, is probably used to scrutinize the past record of the candidate. To be sure of this, one should be familiar with the methods of the South African secret services, and their network of informers in Europe. This is certainly beyond the scope of the current study, but it is true in any case, without question, that the special branch is well organized. G. Facilities offered to immigrants Once a candidate has been finally accepted, that is after a procedure which can last between 9 and 12 months, the door of South Africa is wide open to him. He is awarded an impressive series of facilities which solve most of the problems facing an immigrant, and which are intended to givehim a positive cpinicn of the Government. A brochure, publishd &;by the Department ol Immigration, is entitled, The assistance made available to immigrants by the State. The main facilities are the following. 1. Assi4ted passage White immigrants from countries outside southern Africa are eligible for financial assistance towards the cost of the jouTney. No minimum period of residence is made a condition for an assisted passage. The maximum amount is raised periodically, the last time being at the end of 1975 when the amount per person was increased from R 170 to R 200. This is equivalent to about 80% of the special immigrant fares available from Europe. Announcing the increase in passage costs,the Minister of Immigration said that the world demand for trained manpower is growing. "If South Africa wishes to continue to draw the supplementary workers which are necessary for the development of the country, it must be prepared to offer an attractive scheme" L6 . This announcement coincided with the lowest immigration totals since the Department was set up in 1961. It should be noted that, on top of this grant of R 200, each immigrant enjoys a special tariff (almost half the normal fare) from several airlines for his journey between Europe and South Africa. These special tariffs were begun by BOAC and SAA in 1964, and similar agreements have since been concluded with national airlines of the following countries: Austria, Belgium, France, Holland, West Germany, Greece 'S7/ , Portugal, Switzerland. It should be.noted that financial assistance towards travel costs is not available to immigrants from Rhodesia, Zamiba, Mozambique, Angola, , , , Swaziland. These costs are, in any case, comparatively small. In Rhodesia, assisted passages to approved immigrants to cover fares are also available. In addition, the regime has since 1968 provided these for the families of men who arrive at their own expense and subsequently decide to bring their dependants. 2. Relaxation of exchange,control This measure allows immigrants to have their foreign assets. up to an amount of R 20,000 freed at any time during their first 3 years after immigration. Should they need more than this amount to establish themselves in South Africa, further relaxations are favourably considered 33/ In Rhodesia, new immigrants are granted tax concessions for the first two years of residence. In 1968, these extra tax allowances (i.e. income on which tax need not to be paid) amounted to £ 200 for single persons, £ 400 for married couples, plus £ 50 for each child. There are also customs rebates on household goods and cars brought into Rhodesia by immigrants. . Reception of immigrants If they notify ahead of time their date and time of arrival, immigrants are met by officials of the Department, who can facilitate passport and customs' facilities. 75% of immigrants made use of this service in the years 1970-72. 4. Free accommodation An immigrant who does not come with a pre-arranged contract of work is entitled to free accommodation for himself and for his family in hotels or boarding houses indicated by the Department of Immigration until he has been assigned to a suitable job; only 20% of immigrants have resorted to these facilities between 1970 and 1972. Usually 70% of immigrants arriving under the open scheme (without a job) are placed in employment during the first ten days following their arrival. In Rhodesia, Immigrant Settlement officers help to find employment; they also welcome newcomers on arrival and arrange temporary accommodations._2/ 5. Free transport inside-South Africa i Between their port of disembarkation (harbour or airport) and their final place ofdestination, immigrants are transported - together with 200 kg of luggage per person - at the expense of the G ,vernment. All these facilities are rather costly. In Parliament the Minister of Immigration stated that 22,000 immigrants received financial help in 1972-73 and the average amount received was R 163 (this was before the recent rise). The total amount of assistance given annually had risen from R 177,500 in 1962-63 to R 3,576,000 in 1972-73. Figures for previous years were as follows: Number of Total financial Financial assistance immigrants assistance per immigrant 1964-65 26,520 3,690,256 rand 139.15 rand 1965-66 29,648 3,937,729 132.82 1966-67 30,885 4,163,593 " 134.81 1967-68 25,187 3,459,319" 137.34" But, despite these costs, the Immigration Department represents something of a bargain. In 1969, the Deputy Secretary for Immigration claimed that immigrants brought £ 90 million worth of technical and professional skills with them to South Africa annually - i.e. the cost of training the yearly intake of 7,000 tradesmen and 3,000 professionals. As far as Rhodesia is concerned, it was estimated that between UDI in November 1965 and 1972 assisted passages and tax concessions cost Rhodesia over R, 1 million. Integration Once an immigrant has finally found a job and a place to live, the whole process of immigration is not yet completed. Indeed the most difficult stage still lies ahead, namely the integration of the newcomers in the South African society. The then Deputy Minister of Immigration, P.J. Koornhof, told the Parliament in 1969, that prospective immigrants would be s~lected also according to their ability "to integrate into the South African community easily" and under the assumption that "they must become fully bilingual in English and Afrikaans as quickly as possible"4L/ . As an official publication puts it "South Africa is certainly not the place for the easy going. Adjustment to the new surroundings, a knowledge of the official languages, conscientious work and moderation in habits are prerequisites for the success of an immigrant" L2/. According to the Report of the Department of Immigration: "The immigrant has to effect his adaptation at the following . main points of contact: his residential environment, his place of work and in society in general. The latter comprises the school, the church, the concert hall and places of recreation, the shopping centre, etc..." L3_/. Never is the fact mentioned that the newcomer will also have to adapt to the apartheid system. Settling in

South Africa actually means settling in white South Africa. It should benoted that residence permits are always granted for a trial period and they have to be regularly renewed. Those who do not fit into the context are expelled. Thus, in 1970, 90 whites were served with deportation orders and in 1971, 49; in 1972, 237 Blacks and whites have been ousted. These measures touch ministers, missionaries, journalists, teachers, doctors, etc. whose continuous sojourn-in the Republic is not considered to be "in the interest of South Africa." Since the ordinary immigrant may have problems regarding the social side of his new fatherland, two organizations exist to assist his integration. Die Maatskappy vir Europese Immigrasie for immigrants who are not English-speaking, and the 1820 Memorial Settlers' Association for the English-speaking ones. They are "organized on a national basis with offices and paid officials at strategic points in the Republic. They are voluntary undertakings free from direct State control, but enjoying official recognition and financial aid for their voluntary services." 44/ The subsidy given to each of these two organizations was raised to R 92,000 per annum as of April, 1971.!_Both asked the public to help them in their work. Thus, in 1972, at least 1,500 South African families offered their assistance to the organization and expressed their readiness to act as "guardians" for new immigrants. _ / 4 In Rhodesia, there is a similar voluntary body known as the "Welcome to Rhodesia Association", which also assists in finding permanent accommodation._ 7/

APPENDIX South African Immigration Department (European staff)* 30June1968 30June1972 Athens 1 1 Berne 2 3 Brussels 1 2 Glasgow - 5 The Hague 5- 3 Hamburg 2 2 Cologne 4 3 Lisbon 1 1 London 13 15 Milan 2 2 Munich 2 2 Paris 1 2 Rome 2 2 Vienna 2 4 38 47 Source: South African Department of Immigration Reports for the period 1 April 1961 to 30 June 1968 (R.P.31/69) and 1 July 1970 to 30 June 1972 (R.P.21/73) *South African personnel in overseas service, including chief migration officers, counsellors, attaches, consuls, assistant attaches and viceconsuls. Locally recruited secretarial staff is not included. l/ General Assembly resolution 2396 (XXIII) of 2 December 1968. Security Council resolution 253 of 29 May 1968. _/ R. Horowitz, The Political Economy of South Africa (New York,1967), p. 417. Iip. 413. 5/ *Republic of South Africa. Report of the Department of Immigration for the Period 1 July 1968 to 30 June 1970, R.P. 21/1971, p. 1. Kodwo E. Ankrah, 'Why stop white emigration to southern Africa, World Council of Churches, Unit on justice and service, Geneva, January 1974 (mimeo.), p. 4. 7/ Economic Survey of Rhodesia. 8 Zimbabwe Review, 29 December 1975. 9/ State of South Africa, (Da Gama, Johannesbrug, 1973), p. 93. L1968-1970, Report of the Department of Immigration, p. 2. LIn 1968, the Minister of Immigration stated that the vacancies could be filled by non-whites, but concluded by saying: "the Government rejects this." Information Service, International Defence and Aid Fund for Southern Africa. L2/ Ibid. Emigration to southern Africa, British Council of Churches, Department of International Affairs and The Conference of British Missionary Societies, London, November 1973, p. 12. LRhodesian Herald, Salisbury, 3 January 1974. iQuoted in 1970, Survey of Race Relations, (South African Institute of Race Relations, Johannesburg, 1971), p. 100. 16/ Figures at 30th June 1972, in 1970-1972, Report of the Department of Immigration, p. 7.

1/ (1961-68), Report of the Department of Immigration, p.6. 18/ 1968-70, Report of the Department of Immigration, p.1. j/ Idem. 2/ Ibid., ei5. 1_/ 1970-72, Report of the Department of Immigration, p.2. 2/ 1968-70, Report of the Department of Immigration, p. 1. 23 This chapter deals mainly with the immigration policy of South Africa. Due to the sanctions decided by the Security Council against Southern Rhodesia and after the break of diplomatic relations between most countries and the rebellious British colony, official documents regarding immigration policy are not easy to get hold of. 24/ 1968-70, Report of the Department of Immigration, p. 2. L5/ State of South Africa, op. cit., p. 94. 26/ Ibid. pp. 94-95. 2J/ Evening Post, Port Elizabeth, 2 AT ust 1968. g8/ House of Assembly Debates (Hanbard), 10 June 1969 2/ Rand Daily Mail, 5 September 1967. o/ Ibid., 4 September 1967. / House of Assembly Debates (Hai.sard)i, 24 May 1967 and Sunday Times, Johannesburg, 16 April 1967. -3/ Rand Daily Mail, 6/8th September 1969, Information Service Manual, October-December 1967, p. 102. _33/ The Star, Johannesburg, 21 September 1968; Information Service Manual, July-December 1968, p. 102. 54/ House of Assembly Debates (Hansard), 24 July 1970, cel. 348. 32/ Daily Telegraph, London, 7 July 1972 and The Star, Johannesburg, September 1972.

-36/ London Times, 28 November 1973. I/ The assisted passages from Greece are not as high as for the other European countries. 38/ State of South Africa, op.cit., p. 95. 3/ Employment in Rhodesia, Published by the Department of Immigration Promotion, Salisbury, P. 3. 4Q/ House of Assembly Debates,(Hansard), 18 March 1969, 41 Ibid. 10 June 1969. 42 State of South Africa, op. cit., p. 94. j/ 1968-1970, Report of the Department of Immigration, p. 6. 4/ Ibid., p. 7. !/ 1970-72, Report of the Department of Immigration, p. 6. ~/ Idem. / Employment in Rhodesia, op. cit., p. 3.