Journalism in Conflict and Post-Conflict Conditions Journalism in Conflict and Journalism in Conflict and Post-Conflict Conditions: Worldwide Perspectives aims to provide both empirical and theoretical input to the discussions of the role of journalism and media in conflict and post-conflict situations and in the often rather muddy waters between them. Together, the chapters in this book emphasise that discussions about post-conflict situations will gain from including the media. At the same time, the contributions from different contexts and parts of the world problematize the concept of post-conflict and powerfully illustrate that the phase between war/conflict and peace is neither unidirectional nor linear, as the use of the concept sometimes seems to imply. Journalism in Conflict and Post-Conflict Conditions: Worldwide Perspectives is a most important“ book in our time of uncertainty. It adds to our knowledge base and understanding concerning the role of journalism and media in the complexities of post-conflict processes and peace building – a role that is often ignored in contemporary discussions. Ulla Carlsson, UNESCO Chair on Freedom of Expression, Media Development” and Global Policy, University of Gothenburg PERSPECTIVES WORLDWIDE The essays in this book address questions linked to the contradictory character of a jour- “nalist’s vocation – to report on conflict but also to build a consensus on the way out of it – in different contexts, ranging from Afghanistan to South Sudan, Syria to Libya, and Nepal to Co- lombia. In doing so, they allow us to go beyond the sometimes banal and formulaic literature on “peace-building” in “post-conflict” societies. Mahmood Mamdani, Director of Makerere Institute” of Social Research, Uganda; Herbert Lehman Professor at the School of International and Public Affairs and Professor of Anthropology, Politi- cal Science and African Studies at Columbia University Kristin Skare Orgeret and William Tayeebwa (eds.) William Tayeebwa (eds.) William Tayeebwa & Kristin Skare Orgeret Journalism in Conflict University of Gothenburg Box 713, SE 405 30 Göteborg, Sweden and Post-Conflict Conditions Telephone +46 31 786 00 00 • Fax + 46 31 786 46 55 E-mail [email protected] www.nordicom.gu.se ISBN 978-91-87957-24-6 WORLDWIDE PERSPECTIVES United Nations UNESCO Chair on Freedom of Expression, 9 789187 957246 Educational, Scientific and Media Development and Global Policy Cultural Organization Sweden NORDICOM NORDICOM Journalism in Conflict and Post-Conflict Conditions WORLDWIDE PERSPECTIVES Journalism in Conflict and Post-Conflict Conditions WORLDWIDE PERSPECTIVES Kristin Skare Orgeret and William Tayeebwa (eds.) NORDICOM Journalism in Conflict and Post-Conflict Conditions Worldwide Perspectives Kristin Skare Orgeret and William Tayeebwa (eds.) © The authors and Nordicom 2016 This book is published in collaboration with the UNESCO Chair on Freedom of Expression, Media Development and Global Policy at the University of Gothenburg. ISBN 978-91-87957-24-6 Published by: Nordicom University of Gothenburg Box 713 SE 405 30 Göteborg Sweden Cover by: Per Nilsson Cover photo: Bassam Khabieh/TT.se Printed by: Responstryck AB, Borås, 2016 Contents Ulla Carlsson Preface 7 Mahmood Mamdani Foreword 11 Kristin Skare Orgeret Introduction. Conflict and Post-Conflict Journalism.Worldwide Perspectives 13 1. Elisabeth Eide Afghanistan. Journalism in Pseudo-Post-Conflict, Conflict and Post-Conflict. A Clash of Definitions? 23 2. Charlotte Ntulume Justified Mission? Press Coverage of Uganda’s Military Intervention in the South Sudan Conflict 39 3. Rune Ottosen & Sjur Øvrebø Who’s to Blame for the Chaos in Syria? The Coverage of Syria in Aftenposten, with the War in Libya as Doxa 63 4. William Tayeebwa Framing Peace Building. Discourses of United Nations Radio in Burundi 81 5. Kristin Skare Orgeret Women Making News. Conflict and Post-Conflict in the Field 99 6. Samiksha Koirala Experiences of Female Journalists in Post-Conflict Nepal 115 7. Henry Caballero Fula Intercultural Indigenous Communication of the Indigenous Communities of Cauca in the Context of the Armed Conflict 129 8. Roy Krøvel Global and Local Journalism and the Norwegian Collective Imagination of “Post-Conflict” Colombia 147 9. Elsebeth Frey Improving Post-Conflict Journalism through Three Dances of Trauma Studies 169 10. Anne Hege Simonsen Moving Forward, Holding On. The Role of Photojournalistic Images in the Aftermath of Crisis 189 The Authors 201 Preface Journalism in Conflict and Post-Conflict Conditions: Worldwide Perspectives is a most important book in our time of uncertainty. It adds to our knowledge base and un- derstanding concerning the role of journalism and media in the complexities of post- conflict processes and peace building – a role that is often ignored in contemporary discussions. The aim of the book is … to provide both empirical and theoretical input to the discussions of the role of journalism and media in conflict and post-conflict situations and in the often rather muddy waters between them. Together, the contributions to this book from differ- ent parts of the world emphasize that discussions about post-conflict situations will gain from including the media. At the same time, the contributions problematize the concept of post-conflict and powerfully illustrate that the phase between war/ conflict and peace is neither unidirectional nor linear, as the use of the concept sometimes seems to imply. (Kristin Skare Orgeret, page 16) Now, just as 50-60 years ago, issues of peace building, democracy and development are of central importance in the social sciences. One principal issue at that time – even in media research – concerned the end of colonialism and the political, economic and social development of states that had newly won their independence. And then as now, technological advances were a prime driving force. Peace was at the forefront after World War II, and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights had recently been adopted by the UN. New theoretical and methodological perspectives were being developed – to a great extent as a consequence of the internationalization of research, for example, the seminal work on the role of information and journalism in society from national as well as global perspectives. Different paradigms were emerging, and the media were given a crucial role in most of them. The research field and knowledge production are different today, in our age of globalization and digitization. The character and directions of academic inquiry are constantly changing. Old subjects evolve, their influences wax and wane, and new 7 ULLA CARLSSON subjects emerge – all as a result of the many intellectual and social processes taking place on different levels: the national, regional and international. Society differs radically from that of the 1950s and 1960s when the media and communication research field developed. Our contemporary global and multicultural societies raise more complex issues than ever before. Changes in society and technol- ogy are giving rise to new knowledge that has turned some previous knowledge on its head. Yet some fundamental principles remain, such as peace that is based on human rights – particularly freedom of expression. At present, we need to regain our sense of context and broaden our perspectives in a more holistic direction. Every day we see threats to freedom of expression – and freedom of the press: new forms of state censorship and repression, self-censorship, surveillance, monitoring and control, hate speech, gatekeeping, propaganda/disinformation, acts of terror, anti-terror laws and organized crime, and even cases of outright murder in which journalists or their sources have been targeted. These are critical issues in many coun- tries, but especially in zones facing social, ethnic and political stress, armed conflicts or disaster situations. This issue cannot be neglected now, when the 2030 Agenda is on the global as well as the national arena - more precisely Goal 16 in the UN’s new Sustainable Develop- ment Goals which is to: “promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels”. Three specific targets under this goal are: 16.1 significantly reduce all forms of violence and related death rates everywhere; 16.3 promote the rule of law at the na- tional and international levels, and ensure equal access to justice for all; 16.10 ensure public access to information and protect fundamental freedoms, in accordance with national legislation and international agreements. These three targets have a clear bearing on media and journalism – and peace – not least on the safety of journalists and the issue of impunity. The safety of journalists is essential to protecting all citizens’ right to reliable information and journalists’ right to provide this information without fearing for their safety. The challenges to freedom of expression – especially freedom of information – and the role of journalists in conflict zones and post-conflict processes are unique and call for empirical results, theoretical insights and analytical concepts. If we wish to address the elusive relationship between media, conflict and peace building, we need to bring together researchers from different parts of the world. From that point of view, knowledge such as that presented in this book is more important than ever. Nordicom has a long tradition of publishing books on vital issues related