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Home , High Speed Photometer, Hubble Deep Field, NGC 3312, NGC 3314, NGC 4921, Twin Quasar

On a collision course?

Sometimes these tricks of perspective are in the foreground, and NGC 3314B, in the Colliding or not? particularly dramatic because they imply background, are relatively undisturbed. The NGC 3314 looks like two spiral in the midst links between objects that are not even slight warping of NGC 3314A’s shape (its of a colossal collision, but they are at a safe distance close to each other. arms are more spread out below and to the from each other. The distortion in NGC 3314A’s shape right of the core) is actually thought to be (its arms are more spread out below and to the right of its core) is actually due to an interaction with another The pair NGC 3314A/B must be the due to an encounter with another nearby galaxy that is outside the frame. most eye-catching example of this. Although galaxy, perhaps NGC 3312, which is out of the two objects look for all the world like two the frame in this picture. spiral galaxies in the process of merging, even when you look closely, detailed meas- One thing that is totally clear in Hubble’s by the coming from behind, making urements have shown that the two cannot image, however, is which galaxy lies in front them very clearly defined. NGC 3314B’s be interacting. of the other. The way in which they overlap dark and dusty regions, in contrast, seem makes their appearances dramatically far less defined because of the pale fog of The speeds at which the in the two ­different. The lanes of NGC 3314A, in billions of stars from NGC 3314A that lie in galaxies are moving show that NGC 3314A, the foreground, are dramatically silhouetted front.

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Layout-replacing all images2.indd 148 27/09/2013 17:35 Telling points of light apart

It isn’t just galaxies near and far that can This was particularly confusing when Because are very distant, they confuse an onlooker. Many of the most ­quasars shone through the galaxies that can often be lensed by objects in the fore- important objects in appear lay in front of them. A bright dot on a galaxy ground, adding yet more confusion. The only as -like points of light, even through image is usually, but not always, either a Twin , first spotted in the late 1970s, powerful telescopes such as Hubble. Even if very bright star within it or a foreground intrigued scientists, who thought they might most of these distant dots are indeed stars, star in the . The have spotted two quasars with very similar there are a few which are not. NGC 1073 is a ­perfect example of this. The properties close to each other in the sky. But three bright dots in Hubble’s portrait look this was actually one of the first gravitational Ancient astronomers learned to tell the like they might be foreground stars, but they lenses ever observed: the “twin” quasars difference between and stars long are in fact ­quasars billions of light-years were just one. The path taken by light from before telescopes let them see what the beyond the galaxy of which they appear to this quasar was bent and distorted by a clus- planets look like because planets move be a part. ter of galaxies in the foreground, creating a across the sky differently from stars. double image.

Similarly, today’s astronomers have to look beyond the appearance of many objects to tell them apart.

One type of object that looks uncannily like a star is the quasar, which is discussed further in Chapter 7. The name is short for “quasi- stellar object,” which is appropriate given its appearance. Quasars were unexplained for a long time; looking through telescopes, astronomers saw what looked like bright, bluish stars, much like those in the Milky Way. However, studying the properties of their light revealed a conundrum: The calcu- lations suggested that they lay at distances that placed them sometimes more than halfway across the visible .

Seeing double? In the center of this Hubble image, two bright objects are clearly visible. When they were first discovered in 1979, they were thought to be separate objects; however, astronomers soon realized that these twins were a little too identical! They are close together, lie at the same distance from us and have surprisingly similar properties. The reason they are so similar is not some bizarre coincidence; they are the same object gravitationally lensed into two images by a foreground galaxy. These cosmic doppelgangers make up a double quasar known as QSO 0957+561, also known as the Twin Quasar.

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Layout-replacing all images2.indd 149 27/09/2013 17:35 Foreground stars or distant quasars? NGC 1073 is a classic , dotted with bright stars. However, three of the points of light apparently superimposed on it are actually incredibly distant quasars billions of light-years behind the galaxy.

Layout-replacing all images2.indd 150 27/09/2013 17:35 Old stars look young

Astronomers can calculate the ages of stars the progression from blue to red almost Youngsters in NGC 6362? on the basis of their color. Early in stars’ always holds true – but not quite always. The core of the NGC 6362 reveals lives, they shine pale blue; their surface a number of extremely blue stars scattered around. temperatures are incredibly hot, and they Sometimes, stars can get a new burst of life Globular clusters are made up entirely of older stars, spew out high-energy light along if they siphon material from a near-neighbor which usually look red. Sometimes, however, if they with visible light. in a binary system. This sudden influx of can tap into fresh sources of fuel, elderly stars can take on a new lease on life, making them blue once matter bulks them up, brightens them, and more. Over time, they cool and redden; elderly red makes them blue once again, even if they giant stars are deep red, with surfaces much are very old. colder than the Sun. In globular clusters of stars, which, because blue, young-looking stars can sometimes The rate at which this happens varies with of their age, should all be old and red, this be seen. the size of the star and its composition, but means that an unexpected population of

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Layout-replacing all images2.indd 151 27/09/2013 17:35 Clusters in disguise

Dotted throughout our galaxy, and observed by Hubble in other galaxies, are ancient clus- ters of stars called globular clusters, which typically contain a few tens or hundreds of thousands of stars. These are interesting to astronomers for various reasons. For exam- ple, they contain some of the oldest stars in the universe. In addition, they all formed in single episodes of , in which a cloud of gas collapses in on itself, trigger- ing the birth of hundreds of thousands of stars all at once. This sets them apart from galaxies, which contain multiple generations of stars and often have new star formation continuing today.

Globular clusters have a distinctive appear- ance – balls of closely spaced stars – so they should be easy to identify. However, astronomers have found a number of impos- tors, one of which was only exposed after many years of misidentification.

In the southern sky, the of Centaurus contains what looks like a slightly fuzzy star, known as Omega Centauri. Look- ing at it through even a simple telescope reveals something quite remarkable. Even without any magnification, the extra light- gathering power of a telescope reveals vast numbers of stars that are invisible to the naked eye. Covering an area larger than the size of the , Omega Centauri was long considered to be the archetypal globular cluster. within the cluster for many centuries into the Globular cluster or not? However, Hubble and other modern obser- future. Omega Centauri’s central region, imaged by Hubble, vatories have found many subtle features looks much like any other globular cluster. However, of Omega Centauri that reveal it to be quite All this information indicates that Omega recent research suggests it may not be a globular different from other globular clusters. For Centauri is the core of a dwarf galaxy that cluster at all. one, there is a large black hole at its core, was swallowed by the Milky Way, with its much like galaxies have. Moreover, an looser outer regions stripped away and examination of the colors and intensities of assimilated into our home galaxy. However, be hard to tell apart, too. Open clusters the light coming from its stars reveals that you wouldn’t guess any of this just by look- are smaller, looser and less regular, but they are not all the same age. Finally, it spins ing at it. here, too, appearances can be deceptive. faster than other globular clusters; Hubble’s NGC 411, for instance, looks remarkably precise measurements enable astronomers Globular clusters and their younger, smaller similar to a globular cluster, even though it to forecast the movement of individual stars cousins, the open clusters, can often is actually a dense .

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Layout-replacing all images2.indd 152 27/09/2013 17:36 Globular cluster or not? NGC 411, imaged by Hubble, may look like a globular cluster, but it is in fact an open made up of young stars.

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Layout-replacing all images2.indd 154 27/09/2013 17:36 Hbbu le’s future

The Hubble of today is a far cry from the Hubble of 1990, with modern cameras that let it peer to the very edge of the observable universe, along with new solar panels, gyroscopes, and guidance systems that keep the spacecraft in good working condition. The telescope is producing some of its most profound science right now, and almost every year that goes by sees more Hubble studies published than the year before.

As we all know, all good things must, one Eventually, Hubble will stop working. It could nudge it out of its orbit, safely crashing the day, come to an end. Hubble has already be that its instruments will fail; they are intri- telescope into the ocean. By then, however, outlived its planned lifespan of 15 years, and cate and highly complex devices that can Hubble should have a successor. if all goes well, it will be able to continue for and do wear out. Or the gyroscopes that some years to come. However, the Space keep it pointing in the right direction will NASA and the European Space Agency, Shuttle fleet has now retired, and no space- break down. Or perhaps it will be hit by a the organizations that built and launched craft in service or on the drawing board can piece of space junk; this happens frequently, Hubble, are building a bigger and bet- go back to Hubble with spare parts and a although without major damage so far. But, ter observatory, the James Webb Space crew of astronauts. The telescope is on its inevitably, the time will come. Telescope (JWST). Joining them will be a own; there will be no further refurbishments, new partner, the Canadian Space Agency. no new instruments, and no more repairs. When it does, a rocket will be sent up to JWST is planned to launch in 2018 on board Hubble one last time, dock with it, and a European Ariane 5 rocket.

The pinnacle of Hubble’s vision This very deep image taken with the Hubble shows the spiral galaxy NGC 4921 along with a spectacular backdrop of more distant galaxies. It was created from a total of 80 separate pictures taken through yellow and near- filters.

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Layout-replacing all images2.indd 155 27/09/2013 17:36 JWST is not an exact replacement for Hub- The JWST will be far larger than Hubble, Final call ble. Rather, it is designed to answer many with a primary mirror 6.5 meters across Astronaut John Grunsfeld working on Hubble of the questions that Hubble raised. To this compared to Hubble’s 2.4-meter mirror. during the final servicing mission to Hubble in 2009. end, it has been designed to study the most The mirror is so big that it will be built of Grunsfeld was the last person to ever touch Hubble: distant galaxies in the universe by observing segments that will unfold, like an origami there will be no more servicing missions now that the the cosmos in infrared light, which is techni- flower, once the spacecraft has reached its fleet has been withdrawn from service. cally very difficult to do from within Earth’s final orbit. .

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Layout-replacing all images2.indd 156 27/09/2013 17:36 The James Webb Space Telescope The huge 6.5-meter mirror will have five times the light-collecting area of Hubble, making it far more sensitive and allowing far higher resolution when carrying out infrared observations. Despite the vast mirror and huge heat shield (the diamond-shaped structure beneath the mirror), JWST will weigh only about half as much as Hubble, as the telescope’s will not be encased by a large metal structure.

Layout-replacing all images2.indd 157 27/09/2013 17:36 Simulating the view with JWST This computer simulation shows the type of image that is expected from a -style observation performed with JWST. In addition to being sharper than Hubble’s equivalent infrared images, it reveals many more faint background galaxies. JWST should extend our view of the cosmos back to where we can see the very first galaxies.

Layout-replacing all images2.indd 158 27/09/2013 17:36 The huge mirror is necessary for two Observations of the very distant cosmos JWST’s mirror reasons. First, infrared light has a longer are just at the limit of Hubble’s capability, JWST’s mirror will be made of beryllium (unlike than the visible and ultraviolet leading to much debate among scientists Hubble’s, which is made of glass) plated in gold light that Hubble specializes in, and to get about some of their findings. When you’re (Hubble’s is plated with aluminum), giving it a the same sharpness that Hubble has accus- dealing with such a tiny, faint fleck of light, distinctive color as well as helping it reflect as much infrared light as possible. Here, six of the eighteen tomed us to, an infrared telescope needs a results can only ever be tentative, and may segments that will unfold to form JWST’s primary much larger mirror. The second reason is have to be withdrawn if new observations mirror are being tested at Marshall Space Flight Center more exciting: one of JWST’s main scientific contradict them. in the USA. objectives is to study very distant and very faint galaxies, such as those Hubble has JWST will change this. Because it combines seen in the Ultra Deep Field. To capture a 6.5-meter mirror (which collects around more light and obtain brighter images of five times as much light as Hubble’s) with faint objects, you need a bigger mirror. highly sensitive instruments, the new tel- escope’s observations of distant galaxies and quasars will be vastly improved over Hubble’s, offering astronomers the clarity and certainty they need.

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Layout-replacing all images2.indd 159 27/09/2013 17:36 Closer to home, JWST’s infrared optics will make its pictures look slightly different from Hubble’s. Dusty regions in galaxies, JWST’s instruments as well as some types of nebulae, will be transformed because of the way that differ- ent types of light interact with dust. Where JWST will carry four instruments on board microshutter array, similar to a grid of tiny Hubble sees visible light that is scattered (one fewer than Hubble): doors that can open and close, that will by the dust, JWST will see through the dust allow NIRSpec to measure the spectra of into the star-forming regions inside. Images NIRCam: Near-infrared Camera up to 100 objects at the same time. produced by the infrared channel of Hub- NIRCam will be JWST’s main camera, ble’s give a sneak producing sharp and colorful images of MIRI: Mid-infrared Instrument preview of what JWST will see, but with only the universe. It will be able to make images MIRI includes both a camera and a spec- a fraction of the detail that the new telescope covering a range of from the trograph that are optimized for observa- will offer. near-infrared just into the red part of the tions at longer wavelengths of infrared visible spectrum. light. Images produced by the infrared channel of Hubble’s Wide Field Camera 3 give a NIRSpec: Near-infrared Spectrometer NIRISS: Near-infrared Imager and sneak preview of what JWST will see, but NIRSpec will analyze the properties of Slitless Spectrograph with only a fraction of the detail of what the light coming from astronomical objects, NIRISS is packaged with the guide camera new telescope will offer. much as the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph (fine guidance sensor [FGS]) and will be (COS) and the Space Telescope Imaging capable of imaging and wide-field grism Unlike Hubble, JWST will not be launched Spectrograph (STIS) do on board Hubble. spectroscopy as well as interferometry. into low-Earth orbit. Its delicate scientific It also has an extra trick up its sleeve: a instruments need to be kept cold for them to work properly, which means shielding the telescope from the light and heat of the Sun, Earth, and Moon. however, because of the quality of infrared Looking through the dust observations obtainable there. Hubble’s infrared capabilities (bottom), compared to To this end, the telescope will have a huge a visible-light image (top) of the same object in the fitted heat shield, but this only works in a What about visible-light and ultraviolet Carina . Infrared light makes dusty regions of position where the Sun, Moon, and Earth all observations? space fade away, revealing the stars within and behind lie in the same direction and the gravitational them. In this case, astronomers have found a newborn star emitting jets (see chapter 5). Hubble’s infrared interplay between the three is stable. There As JWST reaches orbit, a new generation of capabilities are limited. Its best infrared camera, is only one place that fits that bill, a location colossal telescopes will be under construc- Wide Field Camera 3, produces only 1-megapixel is known as Lagrangian Point 2 (L2), and it tion on the ground that will challenge Hub- images, similar to those of a (very) cheap cell phone lies 1.5 million kilometers from the Earth. The ble’s legendary image quality for visible-light camera. Moreover, the 2.4-meter mirror cannot deliver European Space Agency’s Herschel Space observations. images that are as sharp as those that JWST’s 6.5- Observatory, a previous infrared space meter mirror will produce. Stars look bigger and less telescope that operated from 2009 to 2013, Planned for mountaintops in Chile and well defined in Hubble’s infrared pictures compared was also located there. Hawaii, these behemoths will probe the to those in pictures it takes in visible light. JWST will atmosphere using several lasers apiece and transform all this. Producing infrared images with Because L2 is so far from Earth, around four will be able to correct for much of the dis- clarity similar to that of Hubble’s visible light images, times the distance of the Moon and further torting effect of the weather on astronomical JWST will provide a new perspective on star-forming than any human has ever travelled, it will not observations. Because they can be so much regions like this one. be possible for astronauts to service JWST larger than any telescope launched into and its predicted lifespan of 5–10 years is space, they will have unparalleled abilities shorter than Hubble’s. This will be worth it, to capture light from faint objects.

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Layout-replacing all images2.indd 160 27/09/2013 17:36 Layout-replacing all images2.indd 161 27/09/2013 17:36 Herschel also in L2 The Herschel Space Observatory, a European space telescope that specialized in far-infrared observations and observed the sky from Lagrange Point 2. Herschel operated between 2009 and 2013, when its supply of coolant expired.

The European Extremely Large Telescope The European Extremely Large Telescope, seen here in an artist’s impression, is planned for the peak of Cerro Armazones in Chile. With a mirror 39 meters across, which gives it a light-collecting area equivalent to four tennis courts, this will be by far the biggest telescope ever built. Its dome will be almost as tall as St Paul’s Cathedral in London. Alongside two slightly smaller projects, the Thirty Meter Telescope and the Giant Magellan Telescope, the European Extremely Large Telescope will provide some of the visible-light astronomical capability that will be lost when Hubble is decommissioned, as well as opening up vast new areas of astronomy that no telescope in operation today can reveal.

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Layout-replacing all images2.indd 162 27/09/2013 17:37 Three projects underway – the European However, there’s still plenty of time to dis- ATLAST, successor to JWST? Extremely Large Telescope (with a vast cuss the details; even if it gets the go-ahead, Two possible designs for ATLAST: on the left, a 39-meter mirror), the Thirty Meter Telescope this observatory will not launch for another Hubble-like design with an 8-meter mirror; on the right, (30 meters across), and the Giant Magellan 15–20 years. a JWST-like design for a huge folding mirror almost Telescope with seven 8.4-meter mirrors – will 17 meters across, larger than any telescope on the together offer many, but not quite all, of the ground today. scientific tools for which astronomers today use Hubble.

Developing huge and expensive scientific facilities requires compromises. Although the era of JWST and extremely large ground- based telescopes will open up new avenues of research in many fields, a few will be left behind. In particular, once Hubble is decom- missioned, no major observatory will be able to study the sky at ultraviolet wavelengths, which are useful for studying high-energy phenomena and hot, young stars.

Ultraviolet light, like most infrared, is largely blocked by the atmosphere. This is just as well for us because it causes skin cancer. For astronomers, it means they cannot replace Hubble’s ultraviolet capabilities with a new telescope on the ground. This area of astronomy will have to wait for JWST’s successor.

Engineers have not yet finished building JWST, let alone launching it, but astrono- mers are already dreaming of what might lie beyond it. Space missions take a long time to plan – both Hubble and JWST have been decades in the making – so this is not as crazy as it might seem.

It’s still early days, but astronomers are dis- cussing a project called the Advanced Tech- nology Large Aperture Space Telescope (ATLAST for short). This orbiting observatory would be capable of observing in ultraviolet and visible light, with a mirror between 8 and 17 meters across. For comparison, the largest ground-based telescopes in operation today have mirrors just over 10 meters across, so the telescope’s proposers certainly don’t lack ambition.

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Layout-replacing all images2.indd 163 27/09/2013 17:37 Hubble Timeline

1977 American Congress approves funding for the Large Space Telescope.

1978 Astronauts begin training for space telescope missions.

1979 Work begins on the telescope’s 2.4-meter mirror.

1981 Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) begins operations in Baltimore, Maryland, USA.

1983 The Large Space Telescope is renamed Hubble, after Edwin P. Hubble, the astronomer who proved the existence of other galaxies and discovered the first evidence for an expanding universe.

1984 Space Telescope-European Coordinating Facility (ST-ECF) begins operations in Garching, Munich, Germany.

1985 Work on building Hubble is completed.

1986 Challenger disaster puts all Shuttle flights on hold. Launch of Hubble delayed.

1990 Launch: Shuttle Discovery (STS-31) launched on 24 April 1990. Hubble deployed on 25 April 1990. discovered in the Hubble primary mirror, 25 June 1990. COSTAR (Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial Replacement) approved: The creation of a complex package of five optical mirror pairs to rectify the spherical aberration in Hubble’s primary mirror.

1993 First Servicing Mission (STS-61) launched on 2 December 1993 (Endeavour). COSTAR corrective optics installed, replacing HSP (). WFPC2 (Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2) replaced WFPC1 (Wide Field and Planetary Camera 1).

1994 Hubble takes pictures of comet Shoemaker Levy 9 as it hits Jupiter.

1996 The first Hubble Deep Field is published, showing the unimaginable number of galaxies in the universe. Hubble resolves quasar host galaxies.

1997 Servicing Mission 2 (STS-82) launched on 11 February 1997 (Discovery). STIS (Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph) replaced FOS (Faint Object Spectrograph). NICMOS (Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrograph) replaces GHRS (Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph).

1999 Servicing Mission 3A (STS-103) launched on 19 December 1999 (Discovery). Replacement of gyroscopes. General maintenance (no science instruments replaced).

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Layout-replacing all images2.indd 164 27/09/2013 17:37 2001 Hubble observations detect the elements in the atmosphere of HD 209458b.

2002 Servicing Mission 3B launched on 1 March 2002. Installation of Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS). Installation of NICMOS Cooling System. Installation of new solar panels.

2004 Power supply on STIS fails. Hubble Ultra Deep Field released.

2005 Hubble images two previously unknown orbiting Pluto.

2006 Hubble observations show that the dwarf Eris is bigger than Pluto.

2007 The power supply on ACS fails.

2008 Hubble images exoplanet Fomalhaut b, one of the first to be confirmed through direct imaging. Hubble completes its 100,000th orbit around the Earth.

2009 Servicing Mission 4 (STS-125) launched on 11 May 2009. Installation of WFC3 (Wide Field Camera 3). Installation of COS (Cosmic Origins Spectrograph). STIS and ACS repaired. Gyroscopes and batteries replaced. Soft Capture Mechanism installed. New Outer Blanket Layers installed.

2010 Hubble images show distant galaxies with likely greater than 8, showing the universe as it was when it was less than a tenth of its current age.

2011 Hubble makes its millionth observation, a spectroscopic analysis of the exoplanet HAT-P-7b. 10,000th scientific paper using Hubble data is published, identifying the faintest ever to be associated with a long-duration gamma-ray burst.

2012 First 3D observations of a filament of the cosmic web in Hubble images of MACS J0717.

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Layout-replacing all images2.indd 165 27/09/2013 17:37 Hubble’s Top Science Accomplishments

Singling out the achievements of a particular telescope is always a very difficult task. Astronomy is a very collaborative science and discoveries often come from large teams working with different telescopes. Nevertheless Hubble has made its clear mark in several areas of astronomy. Here follows a list of some of the most prominent of its contributions.

Planetary science • The first clear observations of Pluto and its moon Charon, and the discovery of its other moons: Nix, , Styx and Kerberos. • The first long-term observations of aurorae on Saturn and Jupiter. • Discovering protoplanetary discs, planetary systems in the process of forming, in the Orion Nebula. • Detecting the chemical and physical properties of exoplanet .

Stars and nebulae • The first direct observations of white dwarfs in globular star clusters, allowing the first accurate measurements of cluster ages. • Discovery of compelling evidence linking supernovae with gamma-ray bursts. • Uncovering stellar nurseries, thanks to infrared observations using WFC3 and NICMOS. • Resolving bright young stars in stellar nurseries thanks to ultraviolet imaging. • Observing the evolution over time of Supernova 1987A. • Resolving individual stars and star clusters in the Andromeda Galaxy.

Galaxies and galactic evolution • Discovering, characterizing and weighing the supermassive black holes in galactic centers. • Tracking the movement of the Andromeda Galaxy and plotting its collision course with the Milky Way. • The first telescope to resolve details within gravitationally lensed images.

Cosmology • Discovering numerous distance record holders in the Hubble Ultra Deep Field. • Imaging quasar host galaxies. • Groundbreaking work on , including detailed maps of its location, distribution and properties, and the first three- dimensional map of a dark matter filament. • Narrowing down on the by making precise measurements of Cepheid brightnesses, giving an age of 13.7 billion years (previous estimates ranged from 10 to 20 billion). • Measuring the rate of expansion of the universe, and contributing to the study of the accelerating expansion of the cosmos and the discovery of dark energy. • Observing the deep fields, our first clear images of the universe when it was less than half its current age.

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Layout-replacing all images2.indd 167 27/09/2013 17:37 Other Books about Hubble

Hubble’s Universe: Greatest Discoveries and Latest Images, Terence Dickinson, Firefly Books, 2012

Picturing the Cosmos: Images and the Astronomical Sublime, Elizabeth A. Kessler, University of Minnesota Press, 2012

Space, Stars, and the Beginning of Time: What the Hubble Telescope Saw, Elaine Scott, Clarion Books, 2011

The Universe in a Mirror, Robert Zimmerman, Princeton University Press, 2010

Hubble: Window on the Universe, Giles Sparrow, Quercus Publishing Plc, 2010

Hubble: A Journey through Space and Time, Edward Weiler, Abrams, 2010

The Hubble Telescope, Derek Zobel, Bellwether Media, 2010

Cosmic Collisions: The Hubble Atlas of Merging Galaxies, Lars Lindberg Christensen, Raquel Yumi Shida and Davide de Martin, Springer, 2009

Servicing the Hubble Space Telescope: Shuttle Atlantis – 2009, Dennis R. Jenkins, Jorge R. Frank, Specialty Pr Pub & Wholesalers, 2009

Hubble: Imaging Space and Time, David H. DeVorkin (Author), Robert Smith, National Geographic Society, 2008

Hubble: The Mirror on the Universe, Robin Kerrod (Author), Carole Stott, Firefly Books, 2007

Universe: Images from the Hubble Telescope, Leo Marriott, Book Sales, 2007

Chasing Hubble’s Shadows: The Search for Galaxies at the Edge of Time, Jeff Kanipe, Hill and Wang, 2007

Hubble: 15 Years of Discovery, Lars Lindberg Christensen, Robert A. Fosbury, Springer, 2006

Hubble Space Telescope Pocket Space Guide, Robert Godwin, Collector’s Guide Publishing, Inc., 2006

The Hubble Space Telescope: Understanding and Representing Numbers in the Billions, Greg Roza, Rosen Publishing Group, 2005

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Layout-replacing all images2.indd 168 27/09/2013 17:37 The Hubble Space Telescope, Margaret W. Carruthers, Franklin Watts, 2003

Hubble Space Telescope: New Views of the Universe, Mark Voit, Harry N. Abrams, 2000

Deep Space: New Pictures from the Hubble Space Telescope, Simon Goodwin, Constable, 1999

Visions of Heaven: The Mysteries of the Universe Revealed by the Hubble Space Telescope, Tom Wilkie, Mark Rosselli, Trafalgar Square Publishing, 1999

Hubble Vision: Further Adventures with the Hubble Space Telescope Carolyn Collins Petersen, John C. Brandt, Cambridge University Press, 1998

New Images from the Discovery Machine, Daniel Fischer, Hilmar Duerbeck, Springer-Verlag New York Inc., 1998

Close Encounters: Exploring the Universe with the Hubble Telescope, Elaine Scott, Disney Pr (Juv Trd), 1998

Other Worlds: The Solar System And Beyond, James Trefil, National Geographic, 1999

The Hubble Wars: Meets Astropolitics in the Two-Billion-Dollar Struggle over the Hubble Space Telescope, Eric J. Chaisson, Harvard University Press, 1998

Universe in focus, Stuart Clark, Barnes and Noble, 1997

A Journey through Time: Exploring the Universe with the Hubble Space Telescope, Jay Barbree, Martin Caidin, Studio, 1995

The Space Telescope: Eyes Above the Atmosphere, George B. Field, Donald Goldsmith, Contemporary Books, 1990

Alice and the Space Telescope, Malcolm S. Longair, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989

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Layout-replacing all images2.indd 169 27/09/2013 17:37 Image Credits

Cover, xxxxxxx xxxxx xxxxx xxx xxxx

Inside front cover, NASA, ESA and J. Blakeslee (NRC Herzberg Astrophysics Program, Victoria, B.C.)

Table of Contents, xxxxxxx xxxxx xxxxx xxx

Back, Heavenly wonders: ESO

p7, xxxxxxx xxxxx xxxxx xxx

p9, xxxxxxx xxxxx xxxxx xxx

p10, NASA Marshall Image Exchange

p12, NASA National Space Science Data Center

p13, NASA, ESA, ESO

p14, NASA National Space Science Data Center

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Layout-replacing all images2.indd 171 27/09/2013 17:37 Index

G

Gamma ray — 96

M

Messier 87 — 90

S

spaceflight — 11 Sputnik — 103 star clusters — 88

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Layout-replacing all images2.indd 173 27/09/2013 17:37 Index - p2

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Layout-replacing all images2.indd 175 27/09/2013 17:37 The Authors

Oli Usher Oli is a London-based science writer, who works as the communications manager for the Faculty of Mathematical and Physical Sciences at University College London. He is respon- sible for bringing the work of the university’s scientists to the public, covering the fields of astrophysics, space science and planetary sciences among others.

He studied history and philosophy of science at UCL and the University of Cambridge, UK, before working as a journalist and science communicator for a range of organizations and publications including ESO, ESA, the Guardian and Europlanet. Until 2013, he was the public information officer for ESA’s part of the Hubble Space Telescope, writing about Hubble’s latest discoveries and bringing Hubble science to the general public.

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Layout-replacing all images2.indd 176 27/09/2013 17:37 Lars Lindberg Christensen Lars is a science communication specialist heading the ESO education and Public Outreach Department in Munich, Germany. He is responsible for public outreach and education for ESO’s telescopes, for ESO’s part of ALMA, for ESA’s part of the Hubble Space Telescope and for the International Astronomical Union Press Office.

He obtained his Master’s degree in physics and astronomy from the University of Copenha- gen, Denmark. Before assuming his current position, he spent a decade working as a science communicator and technical specialist for the Tycho Brahe Planetarium in Copenhagen.

Lars has more than 100 publications to his credit, most of them in popular science com- munication and in its theory. He is the author of a dozen books translated into Finnish, Portuguese, Korean, Slovenian, Japanese, Danish, German and Chinese.

He has produced material for many different media from star shows, laser shows and slide shows, to web, print, TV and . He is President of the IAU Commission 55 Communicating Astronomy with the Public, manager of the ESA/ESO/NASA Photoshop FITS Liberator project, executive editor of the Communicating Astronomy with the Public journal, and director of four science documentary movies. Lars received the Tycho Brahe Medal in 2005 as the youngest recipient so far for his achievements in science communication.

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