CEU eTD Collection Urban Developments inthe Time of Cholera: Vienna 1830-1850 In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Second Reader: Pr. Markian Pr. Prokopovych Reader: Second Central Central University European Supervisor: Pr. Karl Hall History Department Budapest, Hungary Budapest, Master of Arts Submitted to Submitted Ernst Visser Ernst 2011 by CEU eTD Collection instructions may notbe made without the written permission of the author. copies madein form with mustthese Further accordance suchmade. apartof any copies Central the Library.European University maybe Details obtained from librarian. This the page maypart be made only in accordance by with instructions the given Authorandlodgedthe in Copyright in the text of this thesis rests with the Author. Copies by any process, either in full or Copyright Notice ii CEU eTD Collection century. influencing urban issuespolicies on of health,public during the second half of nineteenth the in Society, foundation of Viennesethe Doctors’ the whichwastoplay importantrolean in functioned asa catalyst Cholera of cholera-hospitals. in construction the materialized example a social wereboth areas residential overcrowded that realization supply the and fresh-water of increase the as canalization, such projects, policy public urban particular fostered disease theories on miasmatic especially from resulting developments urban concomitant The environments. urban in particularly spaces’, smaller inmuch ‘pathological were erected changing.cordons Sanitary was by theeconomicof choleratrend ‘population’, category 1850this thereby and protect thespread thwart largea very on scale, to alloverEurope, wereraised 1830’s sanitary cordons Whereasin the and municipal authorities. ofstate from perspective the interests, with economic associated extent a significant was to theory medical importance of thatthe I argue analyzed. developmentof urban infrastructure and the organization of scientific organizations is 1850 is main the medical of between topic thesis.this relationship the theory, Especially Abstract The role of cholera epidemics in the urban development of andof The between epidemicsintheurbandevelopment1830 of Vienna role cholera and a medical problem. Medicine became a social science, a development that for that a development science, social a became Medicine problem. medical a iii CEU eTD Collection girlfriend Maria Falina for her insightful comments and interest in my work and well-being. and work in my interest and comments insightful her for Falina Maria girlfriend and Dulovi Röder Vladimir Brendan Anna friendship Jan Mazanik, Bröker, of company, the and advice breaksI appreciated significantly less lonely,boring and enterprise.repetitive During an endless numberof coffee many spot-on, pertinent comments on content and form of the thesis. Ohad Parnes. I thank them for a period of fruitful cooperation, interesting conversations and professors at the Central European University: several Pr. from Karl Hall, comments Pr.extensive Markian received have I Prokopovychindividuals. following and the of Pr. advice Acknowledgements Also several haveAlso university the my friendsof several at madethewritingof thesisa this and assistance help, the without possible been have not would thesis this of writing The ü especially. Last but not least,I would thankmy not butLastlike to especially. iv CEU eTD Collection Bibliography...... 90 Conclusion...... 85 Chapter Four: Cholera as ...... 67 a Catalyst of Change Chapter Three: The Great Importance of ‘Tiny ...... 36 Organic Bodies’ Chapter Two: The Birth of Population in the Population of Birth The Two: Chapter Chapter One: Creating Norms and Normality, Creating Health ...... 10 and Pathology ...... 1 Introduction Table ofContents Secondary Sources...... 92 Primary Sources...... 90 Part grassroots, part state organized ...... 74 new policies The professionalization and reorganization medical ...... 70 of specialists A European affair...... 68 Debatable specificity...... 60 Non-contagious spreading of disease...... 57 Microscopic vision, macroscopic ...... 52 consequences Discourses on disease...... 46 Cholera Hospitals...... 44 ...... 42 Organization Publications preceding and during the first epidemic...... 36 Initial reaction to Cholera ...... 33 morbus The secularization of medical knowledge and care...... 28 The birth of Policeywissenschaftin Vienna...... 24 Kammer ...... 20 v CEU eTD Collection last significant outbreak occurred in occurred outbreak significant1873. last in1831-1832. The of the summer Vienna epidemic during first process The reached this time. also leftimprinttheiron European the which continent, was arapidundergoing urbanization that scourge wereaworldwide epidemics and 1892 cholera 1817 century.nineteenth Between history of cholera is Vienna numerous the epidemics hauntedthe which city the during in the chapters neglected completely large. almost Oneof these publicat for the (re)discovery areawaiting and forgotten historical events developments array imagined Vienna, awhole of facade Behind this of for anumberof city.the stereotypical depictions of known allover Europe well- already was Vienna height, current its reached industry tourist the before Even branding. city which in both Europe suffersmuch and from very so and profits strong permanent city predominantly With fin-de-siècle.the possibleexception the there no is of Paris, probably other Wiener Werkstätte 1 cholerae bacterium with contaminated or water the food ingestion of infection caused by intestinal is an acute “Cholera asfollows: goes cholera of definition Thecurrent specialists’. century question. outbreaks of cholera andits eventual demise as an urban phenomenon in Vienna is an interesting The city of Freud, Klimt, the splendor Introduction of the Othmar Birkner, The contemporary understanding of cholera differs greatly from that of early nineteenth early of that from greatly differs of cholera understanding The contemporary Vienna. about thinks one when mind to comes that thing first the exactly not is Cholera . It has a short incubation period, from less than one day to five days, and produces an Die BedrohteStadt: Cholera inWien and manymore famous individuals is in asense frozen in time, embodying 1 What happenedinbetween firstthose destructive (Vienna: Franz Deuticke,2002), 6. Ringstrasse , the failed artist Hitler, artist failed the , Secession Vibrio , CEU eTD Collection approach, in This historiography early inits period was characterized positivist bya which straightforward rather a narrativeAckerknecht, booksnumerous have been historicalthe on published calledevents epidemics. of H. Erwin late victorious the history, medical of discipline the of fathers founding the of one with science and its heroes becomesand more apparent. power was unfolded. knowledge, space between relationship the inVienna, medical knowledge of institutionalization From the led medical construction tothe such cholera-hospitals, institutions,of as andthe involved aspects makingBy describing history. actors decision of this in which the process the largely neglected hitherto it drawattention does to perhaps Viennacentury, inthe nineteenth urbanthe setting.Although thisstudy not shed much does light medical general the on history of in history medical in context of especially the incognita, aterra the fin-de-siècle with compared is however, century, nineteenth the of half first The Vienna. studying historians of attention Meanings diseases. specific leadto could micro-organisms specific that beyond doubt nineteenth proved the century, made in decades duringbacteriological before lastthree the of breakthroughs accepted research contemporary definition of cholera, since specificity of disease was not proven, let alone widely 3 http://www.who.int/topics/cholera/en/ (accessed March 3, 2011). 2 patients.” dehydration is if promptly not inand death treatment alsogiven. most Vomiting occurs leadtoseverecan that diarrhea quickly causes watery painless, a copious, that enterotoxin See for an overview: Frank Huisman and John Harley Warner, Harley John and Huisman Frank overview: an Seefor World HealthOrganization, “Health Topics: Cholera,” World HealthOrganization, Diseases have been the subject of historical inquiry since as early as the 1950’s. Starting 1950’s. the as early as since inquiry historical of subject the been have Diseases The period 1857,thesocalled after post- (London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006). 2 It is important to notice the specific causal effect of bacteria which is presentin the Ringstrasse Locating Medical History: The Stories and Their and Stories The History: Medical Locating era, has received quite a bit of 2 3 CEU eTD Collection (London: Penguin Books, 1990). E.Evans, Richard 1987), Press, University 6 5 disease wereframed and how this knowledge throughout spread a given locality. much lesser extent in these constructivist approaches was the way scientific discourses on 4 states’. ratherthe than interests, private economy, serving and trade of continuation the to prevalence gave and borders any of closing the necessitate the state was the minimizedof be structure political andthe survival of closedborders todown,trade ought the primary goal. Miasmaticmore inwere a disease lineimplied liberalism.Acceptingall that that with was contagious, explanations explanations etiological miasmatic and absolutism with associated was contagionism discourses: of diseaseReactions toepidemics in nineteenththe century could thus be seen as competing political on the other handwas epidemics that posedserious challenges tothelegitimacy quo. of politicalthe status did not buttressing studies these assumption The weretaken. underlying subsequent countermeasures and out locality broke on had they the where impactthey social gazeof the the through Canguilhem. of work influenced French the bythe Georges philosopher was heavily constructivist approach motionin set have ‘gaze’ medical the of metaphor a popular the and asylum machineryinsane the of institution the of of beone. ahighly influential to out turned approach research researchers.into the In linksrelation mental of caught attention of the corpus 1960’s onwards, increasingly an ever growing diseases tobetween this growth ofscience interest in theand history (political) of diseases, Michel power.Foucault's His Charles E. Rosenberg, Charles Georges Canguilhem, Michel Foucault, What most of these social-constructivist studies shared was that they diseases they perceived was that shared studies social-constructivist these most of What 5 The Birth of the Clinic On the Normal and the Pathological The Cholera Years: The United States in 1832, 1849 and 1866 (London: Routledge Classics, 2003). Death in Hamburg: society and politics in the cholera years, 1830-1910 (Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publications, 1978) 4 His works on topics such as hysteria, the rise 6 What was taken into account to a to account into was taken What (Chicago: Chicago 3 CEU eTD Collection 8 1990). resultcombination. the this of the sociology of knowledge framework, a surprisingly rich and thickhistorical analysis couldbe historians and social Especially scientists. elementswhen of spatialthis intointegrated were turn 7 development of Vienna? Development in this sense should be understood in two different ways. patients. societies, duetoits quick onset and horrific the pathologicalit effect had on physiquethe of century nineteenth on impact strong extraordinarily an had which one yet example, an as served disease The alone. by cholera caused was disease of newimplythis understanding intendthat to Idonot models of ingeneral. Secondly, disease explanatory conceptualized revealed newly this study as the paradigmatic inunderstanding of etiology disease firstthe halfof nineteenth the iscentury. Cholera used in epidemicthe focus disease of this study of is thenot sonineteenth a spatialmuch context. Several preliminary remarks areon important to take choleraintoaccount here. First of all, as such,century but on in on writing disease of analysis when categories unavoidable space werealmost knowledge and a moreand generalresponses change in theto it science. history of fruitful incorporation the of spatiality as an factor canbeinexplanatory the framework of the how studies have shown several since surprising, This issomewhat fieldresearched ingeneral. Dora Weiner and Michael Sauter, “The City of Paris and the Rise of Clinical Medicine,” Clinical of Rise the and of Paris City “The Sauter, Michael and Weiner Dora Donald Reid, The interrelationship between spatiality and science is an interesting, yet another under another yet interesting, is an science and spatiality between interrelationship The What effects did a changed understanding of disease etiology have on the urban the haveon diseaseetiology of understanding a changed did effects What power, between The relation of Foucault. work the to connected this extent a certain To Paris Sewers andSewermen: Realities and Representations 7 The 'spatial turn' of 1980’sintroduced the a new ofinquiry method formany 8 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, Osiris 18 (2003), 23-42. 4 CEU eTD Collection Campus Verlag, 2000), 51. 11 10 1990), 107-149. capitalism. pomp. and marvel It historicist of form in the aspirations waspolitical their materialize to middle-classes the rise of wasfirst away ideafor newly andforemost the the propagated this sprawling project that non-aristocratic elite, who rose to prominence through trade and 9 Whatrole epidemics. of frantic contextcholera inthe it fact, role aninteresting played 1850. In urban populace. of the part for another this pomp to accessibility the decreasing of population, while the part one of splendor exemplify the to intended device, exclusionary became a social increasingly street construction of the social impact as well. Their separation from the social top classes has been exemplified by the growing presence ofthe less membersdesolate, wealthy society in of had Viennaobviously a The by comparison. shrunk elite relatively andbureaucratic political aristocratic, while the city’s social structure. Increasingly, the number of people belonging to the lower classes grew, and a fostered This combinedthe work promise changing food. development balanceinthe of with andnew at migrants. families and wealthy were contrasted times very poor old a spacewhere intomade it growth, industrial hub of and an Empire of capital administrative a proto-industrial imperialbesides being capital. beingcity, the position, ambiguous an This In 1800 20% of city the was inemployed industry, textilethe effectively making apart of Vienna century. nineteenth the during grewrapidly Vienna space. of ordering therewasthe of Firstall M.J. Daunton, Wolfgang Maderthaner, Lutz Musner, Carl E. Schorske, E. Carl Sizeable masses of unemployed, low or non-educated people were attracted to the city by city to the attracted people were non-educated low or unemployed, masses of Sizeable 10 Not disputing Not Wolfgang thesis,has this Maderthanerpointed outhowthis circular Housing the Workers, 1850-1914: ComparativeA Perspective 11 Fin-de-Siecle Vienna: Politics and Culture But this segregation of classes was already part of the social fabric before fabric social the of part wasalready of classes segregation this But Ringstrasse , which , which commenced in famously 1857. Carl E. Schorske Die Anarchie derVorstadt: Das WienAndere um1900 (New York: Vintage Books, 1981),25-27. (London: Leicester University Press, University Leicester (London: (Frankfurt: 5 9 CEU eTD Collection Verlag, 1981). Lesky, Erna 13 12 describe particular case studies. Rather, the work of Lesky offered a broad overview on a chapter include either acritical analysisof social impactmedicine,the nor did of they thoroughly nineteenth century. decadesof the three first the during knowledge medical andimportant of Paris, prestigious mostthe center Itshifted was to which research in Europe. medical of center prime the longer no was Vienna century the of turn the around but being, into came medicine’ Viennese of school ‘first called so the influence his Under patients. diagnose method anda newand useof thermometers autopsy the to popularizing post-mortem reanimation de Haen This(1704-1776). Dutchphysician worked for overtwenty years in Vienna, developing legacy Anton the of partially thanksto Europe, reputation throughout hadagood faculty medical cities’ the century the of start the At century. nineteenth the in position special a holds city large history in medicinecity of a the also study.of is this Especially the subject degree the to spread of cholera anddid role this changebetween 1830and 1850? did background social andspatial inplay arrangements on discourses explanatory causeandthe the nineteenththe century. In 1960’s the several she and 1970’s wrote standardworks on medicalthe history Viennaof in scarce. is surprisingly metamorphosis this on literature The science. medical of centers innovative most the of one into production, a prime butmost medical of certainlynot unimportant, from century center a not knowledge 1860 Vienna reclaimed its formerleading position. Thecity changedthus during the nineteenth Erna Lesky, Erna Dora Weiner and Michael Sauter, “The City of Paris and the Rise of Clinical Medicine,” Clinical of Rise the and of Paris City “The Sauter, Michael and Weiner Dora Besides the role of space in medical discourses, the institutionalization of science in the science of institutionalization the discourses, medical in space of role the Besides Erna Lesky was for decades the greatest specialist on the topic in- and outside of Austria. and outside of in- on topic the specialist thegreatest for decades Leskywas Erna Meilensteine der Wiener Medizin: Grosse Ärzte Österreichs in drei Jahrhunderten indrei Österreichs Ärzte Grosse Medizin: Wiener der Meilensteine Die Wiener medizinische Schule im 19. Jahrhundert 13 These books offered a wealth of information, but certainly did not (Cologne: Hermann Böhlhaus Verlag, 1965), Osiris 12 Between1830and (Vienna: Maudrich 18 (2003): 23-42. 6 CEU eTD Collection MinnesotaPress, 2000). 16 Osiris City,” Century Nineteenth the in Labor Industrial and Revolution Laboratory Experiment: for “Engines Dierig, Antoine Picon, “Urban Cartography and the Scientific Ideal: The Case ofParis,” Case The Ideal: Scientific the and Cartography “Urban Picon, Antoine 15 authors. of range broad a by shown was locality given in a science 14 assumption both that space in andknowledge areconstructed pregnantwitha process tension example, the For her with work. presuppositions important some my shares study cholera, Although didworkCraddock not on Viennesethe context, nordidfocus onthehistory she of knowledge can inreinforce one particularanother meaningascribing individuals. onto eventsor convincingly space showedhow and ofscienceRather, Craddock discourses for granted. diseases and take not did approach, heavilyleaningon social-constructivist the Her approach, in narrative. fore tothe a persuasive wasbrought power and knowledge between space, relation indevelopment Francisco, San between 1930.By 1860 and analyzing several diseases, the Francisco publishedSusan Craddock in 2000 city. the and science of history the of science andurban history support this claim. examples integration of relatively Two a fruitful isrecent from story century the far completed. practically firstthe scholar whospecialized in history medicineof the in in Vienna nineteenth the few on in Vienna medicalhistory the general works century. thenineteenth of Lesky was very the among are still Lesky of works the Nonetheless, enough. analytical not and descriptive straightforward approach of Lesky still useful offers information,its scope and approach are too of history medical largelyViennese hitherto neglected by historians of science. Although the Susan Craddock, Dora Weiner and Michael Sauter, “The City of Paris and the Rise of Clinical Medicine,” Clinical of Rise the and of Paris City “The Sauter, Michael and Weiner Dora “Science and the City,” the and “Science 18 (2003) 116-134. In 2003 Osiris, anacademic journal on history the an scienceof devoted entireissue to . 16 Her work offers an analysis of public health policies, disease theory and urban City of Plagues: Disease, Poverty, and Deviance in San Francisco 14 Osiris In twelve essays, the influence of spatial locations on the development of 18 (2003). City of Plagues: Disease, Poverty, and DevianceinSan Plagues: Disease,Poverty, City of Osiris 15 Furthermore, the historian (Minneapolis: University of 18 (2003): 135-149 Sven, Osiris 18(2003): 23-42 , 7 CEU eTD Collection outbreak of cholera in the Empire. It explains why the interest of administrators went far went beyond interestadministrators of explains the why It in theEmpire. cholera of outbreak 20 University Press, 1987), Bruno Latour, 19 18 Cambridge University Press, 1992), 215-242. 17 such ‘population’ and theas of the actor-network theory of the philosopher of science Bruno Latour. main disease'. two usedarethussocial-constructivism, The approaches combinedwith elements place'framing of the and inwhichthis took 'centers' 'knowledge are the production', concepts Among material.these source analyze primary to which wereused concepts relevant numerous Charles E.Rosenberg’s concept of cholera as a tool for social and economic analysis. medical theory andinis specialists themeVienna, a recurrent following thesis, throughoutthe of importance and position the to related authorities of state the interests and theory economic The way research the question. to response in beformulated shall answer an Lower Austria pamphlets, journal and medicalbooks archivesarticles, the Commission of of Sanitary the between cholera and in urban developments Vienna between 1830 and1850? By analyzing space. making claims stronger of possessing indispensable necessary forknowledge ahealthy urban by level, urban the on influence political their increase wereableto scientists or organizations, a thus societies,scientific of study.formation Especially the key this through of presupposition influence on other spheres of life, such as the spatial development of neighborhoods or cities, is and shifting interests of several actors. The potential power of scientific knowledge and its All translations in this thesis are my own,unless stated otherwise. Bruno Latour, Bruno Ibid, 109-121. E.Rosenberg, Charles 17 The second chapter provides contextual providesbackground of concepts, economical The second contextual political chapter introduces beThechapter will clarified. considerations In chaptertheoretical first the The research question I am addressing in this thesis is: what was is:relationship in the what thesis this I am addressing Theresearchquestion Science in Action: How to Follow Scientists and Engineers through Society Explaining Epidemics and Other Studies in the History of Medicine Wohlfahrstaat The Pasteurization of France [welfare-state] (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993). 20 , that were challenged by the by challenged were that , 19 (Cambridge: Harvard (Cambridge: 18 8 CEU eTD Collection each house. each in fresh water plentiful and such ascanals, sewers in cityscape, the objects basic as disregarded often too all now elements of construction the and space urban of development eventual impacton the indirect had city apeculiar the scienceand between relationship complicated outlook on Vienna, they will shed light on an often neglected part of its history: the fact that the in newresult acompletely willnot Although chapters these is takeninto account. development contagious rather that and could non-contagiousdiscourses and very often overlap.did but science, successful cumulative story of neat nois ofdisease history the that become clear it question how the spread andare intomethods healing prescribedaccount.will It the taken disease, the of theorigin changesconcerning Possible 1830's. early from the of that publications init. and Thecontentbooks of pamphletson cholera inthe aroundperiod 1850iscompared to of state in perspective. the international strength an be was to alsoperceived butendangeredwhat inhabitants, of mere sufferingthe humane their Lastly, in the final chapter the impact of medical thought on Viennese scientific Viennese on thought medical of impact the chapter final in the Lastly, space of role andthe medical theory focus on actual stronger hasa three Chapter 9 CEU eTD Collection are also applicable to the way I interpret concepts such concepts as interpret way tothe I applicable are also constructivist approach in history the medicine,of such as Michel Foucault. Some ofhis insights twentieth source ofinspirationcentury. Hewasanimportant for historiansapplying the science,Canguilhem Georges redefined(1904-1995), thethinking on disease andmedicine in the of philosopher French The granted. for taken time long a for were concepts These changed. area. a particular atmosphere at the dominate would constitution’ case an‘epidemic particular decisiveindividual towards autopsies in diseases’ was and the predisposition an of comparative in through be located body the the origin could matter, of disease inanimate and animate of out consist to thought was world the example, For machinery. body’s human the of of mechanism the theunraveling instance for resolve problems, naturalists’ were usedto scientific methodandspace production, differentmethodsofinquiry ofbiological knowledge became the laboratory the before decades the In century. early the twentieth into would continue that one lively of debate, part a were of disease, called etiology so the disease, Itwas occurred. duringin period this nineteenththe understandingscentury that of originsthe of is inwhich attention time theparticular they frame of our cholera deserve epidemics 1830-1850 answer this question,from a theoretical point of view. Oneimportant reason why I argue that the ago? Thisis legitimatea question which requires an answer. This chapter attempts to sufficiently Pathology Chapter One: Creating Norms and Normality, Creating Health and In this period explanatory concepts of disease and health were starting to be debated andbe debated to health were starting and of disease concepts explanatory period In this 180year place approximately thattook epidemics series of a Why would one research health and disease inthis study. a priori 10 CEU eTD Collection 23 Cambridge University Press, 2000), 22-23. state of the organs and can thus diagnose bodies as being subject topathological processes. ask the question to thismechanism currently by controlled industry pharmaceutical the itintois account, important 22 a ascribes has aspecial ambiguous quality. Itdoes not only refer to the habitual state of the organs,but also anatomy, organs and comparing localizing pathology inside the body. andcomparative microscopes pathological usage the of of body,through the interior the shiftedfrom leftcentury,behind diagnosticexternalby impression practices to the patient, the patients hadin eye skillful the of During doctor. the the middle decades of nineteenththe assumed swiftness, the that by a diagnosismade,which was thelevel would raise trust of was usedof half century. inthefirst methods bymedicalpractitioners It the nineteenth the of one was patients of character or posture demeanor, on based diagnosis A swift cordons. sanitary in healthyquicklyeffective tocreate and to sickorder people, medical demarcate specialists for it was highly desirable occurred, epidemic when an Especially norm be the differentiated. can pathologicalWithout the be anormative thuscannot there which standard todiffers all that from 21 andconditions biological science of situations a is There normal. the of science biological no is there then, speaking Strictly methods. scientific by determinable an be concept reducedto objective morecannot physiology elsewhere, than drew attention to theirorigins: constructed ofnorm “The is concept an original concept which,in Canguilhem scrutinized everyday health used talking while terms about and disease and thereby Georges Canguilhem, Michael Worboys, Michael Georges Canguilhem, Canguilhem was one of the first to critically observe that the term 'normal' in medicine in 'normal' term the that observe critically to first the of one was Canguilhem normative Spreading Germs: Disease Theories and Medical Practice in Britain, 1865-1900 who From the Normal to the Pathological From the Normal to the Pathological quality onto this state by elevating it to an ideal state thebody. of an idealstate to it byelevating this state onto quality actually determined in 1830-1850 what was perceived to be the habitual to whatwas perceived in1830-1850 actually determined called (Dordrecht: D.Reidel, 1978), 69. (Dordrecht: D.Reidel, 1978), 138. normal. That science is physiology.” science That normal. 22 (New York: 23 Taking 11 21 CEU eTD Collection 24 a and clinic of hospital, the advent the with in aprofessional a sense became medical practitioner pharmacies inquacks andperiod medical waragainst the which the of practitioners, standardization and physicianswas a founded, It andprofessionalized. were institutions runmedical expanded state educational was underway perceivablesymptoms. predominantly the according to towards a tightening levelone another,into couldcholera milderormoreof develop deadly adiagnosis made variant, where nature, bea transitory of imaginedto were Diseases simultaneously. exist cholera could of the diagnostic they accordingis symptoms bodies:the in to types that whynumerous caused patients’ of gaze: andclassified Diseasesunknown werediagnosed as cholera. such disease, truly hitherto the of symptoms if a disease was well known, such as the Blackhealth for Even other. intheory the anyone couldthough observation based makeadiagnosis on Death, this was not the case with a of practice 1830's theory to abstract this to translate Or, as well. were medicine and therapies prescribed not andunique machinery,individual, only eachdiagnosis particular tothat disease was once. at person than more one diagnose to affair risky and difficult extremely an it makes norm biological of relativity individual The impossible to determine whether or not an individual is in a normal, healthy condition or not. by nearly statistics erait pre-specificity disease nature.In of was way the of individual extremely nineteenth medicine,an such century, wasof proto-clinicalof early until the age established, are necessary. Only after this is done itwill become clearer why diagnosis during the bywas diagnosis which process concerning the some considerations century,nineteenth Ibid, 105. In order to clarify the diagnostic practice of medical practitioners in the first half half first in medical the the of practitioners of practice clarify diagnostic In order to the Cholera entered the historical stage at a critical moment, during the decades in during which decades moment, atacritical the stage historical the Cholera entered Diätetik [dietetics]: what made up an unhealthy diet for one person might be restoring 24 In an age where every body was conceived as being an 12 CEU eTD Collection 28 Cambridge University Press, 1992), 310-315. 27 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), 115. 26 University Press, 1992), 220-221. Laboratory Revolution in Medicine 25 for inaccessible laymen. increasingly and specialized knowledge became relationship between andpatient doctorchanged during the nineteenth century, when medical observations,patients’ bedside inhis orher home, carefully and patiently listening to their clients’ the influence conceptual intertwined. weremuchat more sat atimetwo During whendoctors’ the approaches these century nineteenth the of half first the In health. of of models scientific and health the of models patient on the eventualobtains hisfaith in as this triad idealthe knowledge.” of diagnosisit: “Certainty, simplicity,vividness originate in popular knowledge.is That where the expert was considerable.information was presented in the texts’ body. Or, as the philosopher of science Ludwig Fleck put new that pointing out bynot exactly disease, and oncholera newfacts reconfirmed continuously This and facts. They befor they alarge cradles of seenasthe can constituted intended audience, because they were Exactly research in context. to this sources excellent cholera are on leaflets specializations. medical of broadening humors. four bodies' the of imbalance to disease of cause the attributed which schemes explanatory humoral from themselves slowly uncoverremoving mechanisms of the thereby disease, was to burgeoning specialists medical clear The newly challengedescription for specific etiology. of cut classification and diagnosis of disease was more dominant in the theories on disease, than was a particular parts of the body, the overall image of the relationship healthof and disease wasmuch Michael Bury, E. Rosenberg, Charles Ludwig Fleck, Andrew Cunningham, In contemporary theory on health and disease a separation can be made between lay made between be can aseparation disease and health on theory In contemporary 28 Even though through pathological anatomy the cause of disease was traced to traced of was disease cause the pathological anatomy Even though through Health and Illness Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact “ Explaining Epidemics and Other Studies in the History of Medicine Transforming Plague: The Laboratory and the Identity of Infectious Disease,” in Disease,” Infectious of Identity the and Laboratory The Plague: Transforming , ed. Andrew Cunningham and Perry Williams (Cambridge: Cambridge (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2005),2-3. 25 Pamphlets, small handbooks, newspaper-articles and newspaper-articles handbooks, small Pamphlets, , ed. Thaddeus J. Trenn and RobertK. Merton 26 (Cambridge: 27 Symptom-based The 13 CEU eTD Collection 31 30 29 thatcholerain thus epidemic. Akeyassumption the asensewas is this thesis of issued bythemunicipal execute how to authorities preventiveViennaof on measuresconcerning pamphlets of form large, inthe for example publicat the be to revealed to origin of disease conscription into army the expandor population the by reproducing. to eligible were work, possibly could they since aspossible, society of members healthy From itimportant. was desirablesubtle,have of perspective butthe state-rulers, to asmany itisfall luxury.” to sick abiological and recover, is secondthe strive anidealized category “To perceived beto to. in means health beinggood able perceived the to return the to: work can books medicinal goals different have potentially agreatimpacton policymakers. can and disease on in thewriting present still are diseases, of particular nature contagious and factors that were out of control of the individual, such as atmospheric conditions or the the leading for of to individual onset a pathological which couldbean process heldresponsible, factors causal Thistension between not. ill others became and individuals why explain particular to maderesponsible longer and be addressed no could particular diseases towards predisposition of faculty old the and sick them make would behavior of kind what know could they all, After disease, alsothe responsibility individual of members of state the or city remainto healthy grew. With this move however, by themselves. became entities from body and the weredetached diseases Slowly holistic. more through a more precise diagnosis of the causal agents or vectors of Ibid, 116. Georges Canguilhem, Ibid, 12. Cholera made a devastating impact in the early 1830's, forcing fundamental claims on the on claims fundamental forcing 1830's, early in the impact devastating a made Cholera Concluding the topic of what health and disease comprise, itis important to point out the healthy body. From the Normal to the Pathological 30 The difference being,the first category is used toestablish disease and 29 31 The difference between the two categories is categories two the between Thedifference (Dordrecht: D.Reidel, 1978), 107-108. normal state of the body, or to a helping to 14 CEU eTD Collection published in 1883 by Robert Koch (1843-1910). 35 University Press, 1992), 238-243. Laboratory Revolution in Medicine 34 1970), 2-8. 33 States in1832,1849 and 1866 methodological claim I share with David Bloor, and most historians of science in general, is the is general, in science of historians most and Bloor, David with share I claim methodological key one Therefore, in general. of disease etiology the cholera and into research of development when choleratalking about in 1830, asopposed to cholerain 1900. an instrument pre-laboratorythe theeye of without tools, precision. instruments could definitely identify the causal agent of disease, since thisis notobservable her with or his of help the with bacteriologist the only era, laboratory the After practices. diagnostic 32 yet We thus dealingdeveloped.of was nota are specificity with disease publication. of time the at models explanatory customary than exceptional, rather were these century, seventeenth in livingdisease late the of were published of identification asvectors causation tiny entities known earliest the though Even same. the longer no development historical this after and before are diseases laboratory, the and bacteriology of With advent the era. in pre-laboratory the present changing disease concepts, and not only as an actor threatening political stability. inof network the actor ahyperactive of disease, origin the question and medical science organize university. Ithus interpret cholera as an enforcer of an already ongoing debate on the necessity to medical the such as medical knowledge, of runcenters state of credibility the authority of the to a challenge posed and medicine of field the in revolution scientific modest a intensify Taking into account the proof of the cholera bacteria’s causal relationwith the state of illness of patients’, Andrew Cunningham, W. D. Foster, For another opinion, set though in American context: Charles E. Rosenberg, E. Charles context: American in though set opinion, another For Thus itis importantnottooengage very in a teleological description of historical the A second impetus to reconsider the early cholera epidemics could apply to any disease A History of Medical Bacteriology and Immunology “ 33 Transforming Plague: The Laboratory and the Identity of Infectious Disease,” Infectious of Identity the and Laboratory The Plague: Transforming The identity of disease has changed dramatically due to different (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1987). , ed. Andrew Cunningham and Perry Williams (Cambridge: Cambridge (London: William Heinemann Medical Books, Medical Heinemann William (London: The Cholera Years: The United 35 34 Even more so, the notion different 32 historical actor The 15 CEU eTD Collection University Press, 1992)42. 38 Knowledge: Constructivism and the History of Science 37 University Press, 1992), 7-8. 36 knowledge. scientific of origins social predominantly the emphasized persistently who strong-program, of the propagators side of the the to theory or actor-network the to fully adhere upon in from a distanced both takingperspective, ‘science’ and seriously.‘pseudoscience’ relationshipvisions between suchdisputing on as a topic should belooked causation disease the rather, but granted, for taken be not should science of development actual the words, other In are‘correct’. in eyes that contemporary theories from historical of disease, theories negated not interested injudging evaluating, epistemologically orsetting apart invalid bynow, and, postulate. called symmetry so wonder why Vienna is chosen as locality, since cholera epidemics occurred all over Europe in alloverEurope occurred epidemics locality, since cholera isas chosen whyViennawonder born. yet not inevitably this accept, radical are. stance of the consequences difficultas to is processes fact-creating of outcome in agency the have of share anequal nonhuman actors that claim Latour's micro-setting the In history. in science analyze can one in which laboratory, the such as context, a micro-social and context amacro-social emphasizing between a middleway cholera bacteria did bacteria cholera from the late nineteenth, early twentieth century. Epistemological flaws are thus unavoidable: the would I story bacteriologists inascribeof cholera-bacteria re-re-tell the 1831, were to agency to on cholera came about in the because cholera simply 1830-1850, on cameabout cholera Jan Golinski, Jan Golinski, Jan in: manner a succinct in described are camps two the between differences The Jan Golinski, Jan Within thefield of constructivism, in my iswhich approach mostly embedded, Ido not Besides questioning the necessity to research early cholera epidemics, one can also Making Natural Knowledge: Constructivism and the History of Science Making Natural Knowledge: Constructivism and the History of Science not have anyagency in by process several explanatory the which discourses 36 This has a couple of important consequences. First of of First am all,consequences. I important of Thishas a couple (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 10-12. bacteria , (Cambridge:, Cambridge (Cambridge: Cambridge as a scientific fact was 38 Making Natural For example, if I 37 Thereis 16 CEU eTD Collection 1983), 355-361. in 41 the human body and health to descriptions of the city’s development has been researched both in both researched been has development city’s the of descriptions to health and body human the Rise of Clinical Medicine,” Clinical of Rise physician GiovanniBattista Morgagni (1682-1771). Dora Weiner andMichael Sauter, “The City of Paris and the 40 Osiris 39 fosters. andillbecomes disease ifbody, patient are clogged, the they in the veins werelike greased streets well: dirty cities as to system natural of bodies’ the concept large scale. a on anatomy pathological exercise driveto the enforced whichgreatly anidea organ, in for example a particular body,the in located canbe physically causation ideadiseases the body.of that was the This system of the natural the was theconceptof supported, reformers early urban these theoretical assumption existenceurban spaceaslightly periodin later cameintoat 1840 and1860.One between Vienna, and thesis 1840.In this describeI shall howasimilarrelation betweenmedical specialists and nineteenth prominence and rose century to as influential roughly force between an 1820 political sanitary movement. It another. on one impact was of great lasting hadan often practice and location scientific wherebyboth arose, conduct andas science influence butalsoappliedcities, on urban policyconducted a large extent century, to nineteenth the since was,especially science For one, and development urban setting of scientific thehistorianprovides multipleresearch fruitful potentially approaches. The arepractical. and innature others aretheoretical some of inquiry:reasons these of location during the focus on Vienna anhistorical to reasons as areseveral There nineteenth good the century. Graeme Davison, “The City as Natural System: Theories of UrbanSociety in Early Nineteenth-Century Britain,” The idea that disease resides as it were inside a particular organ or part of the body is a concept from the Italian the from concept a body is of the part or organ a particular inside itwere as resides disease that idea The SvenDierig, Jens Lachmund and Andrew J. Mendelsohn, “Introduction: Toward anUrban History of Science,” The Pursuit ofUrban History ThePursuit 18 (2003), 4-8. A striking example of this relationship between scientists and the city was the British 39 Osiris to cities. Therefore, a particular relationship between the city city as context the between a particular relationship Therefore, cities. , ed. Derek Fraser and Anthony Sutcliffe (London: Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd, 18 (2003), 26. 40 The British sanitary movement eventually ascribed the 41 This transfer of ideas on 17 in CEU eTD Collection Osiris 44 43 of sewage and drainage systems and the reconstitution of of sewage in andthe drainage reconstitution of Vienna systems and cities, making use extensive of metaphors.organicist inevitability and teleological explanatory driven models arguingfor anatural pattern of growth theassumed criticized have strongly geographers social neo-Marxist especially 1980’s Since the they that lived and inovercrowded dampliving suburbs quarters, with lower quality houses. mostly falling ill cholerato epidemics, since they were prone to the disease, disregarding the fact 42 constitutive. mutually extent certain a to were development urban and science medical that growth. urban of pattern Paris. and London caseof the allocation were in fact allocation were discourses relationsthe different between social within groups the city and theirspatial century stream on urban Through urbanwas dominant. a persistent thought of growth ecological large groups of humanslived theirlives: cities. Inthe nineteenth and alarge part of the twentieth draw parallelsEurope to human body the between congestedspacesinwhich largest and the excellence city. the in institutions and of development impact the scientific infrastructure on the ithadVienna,a direct since in cholera of story in the element a central also but interesting, only not is space urban and medical theories between relation erect. The to be problematic more would barricades and easily Sven Dierig, Jens Lachmund and J. Andrew Mendelsohn, “Introduction: Toward an Urban History of Science,” Mark Gottdiener, Dora Weiner and Michael Sauter, “The City of Paris and the Rise of Clinical Medicine,” Clinical of Rise the and of Paris City “The Sauter, Michael and Weiner Dora 18 (2003), 5-6. For example, through the creation of so-called cholera hospitals, urban reform in the form It wasexactly in the period 1850that around Vienna the quicklybecame center in the field of pathological anatomy. In this era it was common practice all all it In thiswas common over era practice of in anatomy. field pathological the The Social Production of Urban Space naturalized 43 For instance, it was thought tobe normal that migrants in Vienna were 42 Streets needed to be wide and open, so that traffic could pass and consequently represented as the inevitable and inevitable the as represented consequently and , 2 nd ed. (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1997), 25-27. Bezirke Osiris [districts], Iargue 18 (2003). normal 44 par A 18 CEU eTD Collection 46 Minneapolis, 2000), 12. will bediscourses described. context of more localized the chapter third the In argumentation. Foucault’s Viennafollow Michel level, Ithus will Onthis of broad achallenge state. strength perceivedthe the posed to epidemic 1831-1832 of be central Iwill why show interests’, cholera of the state On be macro-level the will described. epidemics to the analysis and the way space was used in medical 45 relations. by butordered power- particular not-contingent, isitis simply neutral: nospace assumption that Although I think claimisradical this too prove, anddifficult Idoagreewithto underlyingthe actual the motivation behind many improvements sanitary or changes in the cityscape. economic relations between different medicalbetween andurban andstabilizingscience existingspace wasreconfirming social- classes in a given society,common in is urbanhistory and neo-Marxist assertion gender to approaches this relationship that to such an extent that this was Ibid, 8. Susan Craddock, 46 In the next chapter the relation between the research category population and population category research the between relation the chapter next In the City of Plagues: Disease, Poverty, and Deviance in San Francisco , (London: University of 19 45 CEU eTD Collection 48 (1948), 562–93. mention Michel Foucault's juxtaposition of on the one hand the age old concept of ‘the people’ it In makesthis state. context senseimplied having apowerful to was sizeable and growing healthyhave was population.healthyAustrian have texts, that a desirethe to aTo population body.of social the above all regularities and weaknesses reveal strengths, to thought level,were a population variables at numerous of measurement The rule. this to exception no was Empire Habsburg the and century nineteenth early eighteenth, in of late the important Europe becameincreasingly andpolicy measurement achieve amuch desired goal, namely a healthy andlong-living population. This category of capacity to states’ the weretesting perspective seenfrom this cholera epidemics The early whicha healthy population. conceptualizationthe wasequatedto essential state, a powerful of to was cameralism of theorists of of a couple thought economical political the that and emphasize 47 socialthe stability with societies of their panic-inducing disruptive, effects. a sensetesting in were cholera epidemics that Ackerknecht H. Erwin with Iagree Nonetheless, beyond look necessary to amerely concern humanitarian health the regarding individuals. of isit government, Austrian forconcern the of great wereasource epidemics firstcholera the with Habsburg its state health understand wasnocoincidence. inhabitants of the In to why order the of interest increased The policy. inpublic category important an into concern based family Chapter Two: the in Population of TheBirth Dorothy Porter, ErwinH. Ackerknecht, "Anti–contagionism between1821 and 1867," One of the interests expressed in eighteenth and early nineteenth political economical political early nineteenth and in expressed eighteenth One interests the of The main topic of is chapter this health developmentthe of individualas amostly or Health, Civilization and the State 48 (London: Routledge,2005), 49-51. Bulletin of the History of Medicine Kammer 47 But I alsoargue ButI 22 20 CEU eTD Collection 51 50 49 to importance central were of activity, commercial of inhabitants a political theavailable in andrealm natural connection resources with subsequent the of allocation spatial the therefore, on; employed are they territory allotted the with balance mere expansion of the population will not do the trick. The population needs to be in constant However, from the eighteenth century on there is a general understanding among cameralists that lives. behavior of and regulation their increased the accepting [treasury] with while gold, industriousness the their infilling through active actors realm, comprising economic the inhabitants those were population’ ‘the from rebelling, andprevented be regulated were to place. of governmenttook importance ‘the Whereas ‘the population’ asaconcept of people’ commoditieswith in the realm,its and hand other Foucault on the in According‘the population’. to from shiftmercantilism the strong to physiocracy, emphasis a parallel on shiftthe lowfrom people,wages to ofemphasizing peasants the and basically low prices of all could be derived. administrators, this resulted in normal, establishing an average, or numberfrom which norms of interpretative gaze the Distilled through province. region or in eachdistrict, epidemic it spreadingregistercities,through importantwas of to amount deemed casualties the an during from epidemics prevent to Especially surveys. statistical from gained information on based century. nineteenth early and eighteenth construed as peripheral areas in the realm. A very important motivation of and support statistical asperipheral inimportant Avery construed areas realm. the consequently norm, orterritoriesfrom poorer, resulted ingroups which usually the differedthe diversion was considered to be undesirable or even unhealthy. The creation of norms also Ibid, 63. Ibid, 323-324. Michel Foucault, One key element in the increased regulation of urban space was to establish norms, establish to was space urban of regulation increased in the element key One Security, Territory, Population 51 This average couldthan bemadenormative bymaking itnorm, afrom which 50 (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2007), 34-44. Staatswissenschaft [sciences of state] in the state] of [sciences Kammer 21 49 CEU eTD Collection 56 of theoreticians byseveral intentions uttered 55 the health and regulate/police to on how well-being plans and regulations ofset of policy to a thebut rather se, population per policing to not referred of It theEnglish. state to translated when confusion cause can meaning several has it since term this translate to not chose Ithus demeanor. and behavior populations’ ofthe regulation on the based ofgovernance aform to refers texts, in used were spellings 54 53 52 questioned. increasingly is also police medical versus health disciples. with juxtaposition Connected of the betweenliberal this, traditional concepts public idea the a dear of increasing pattern tomanyan ever and state, policing Foucaults’ regulating of letter. tothe executed Raeff’s Marc following assumed, was it recently Until territory. states’ the through circulating productivity) lastly, and regulation professionsof consequently the kindsof the and commodities food-commodities, ‘healthy’ proper activity spatial arrangements, populationthe of (high Austria in following:1749, the the number of able-bodied men, asuitable provision necessary of discipline of itspolicing comprised institutionalization after at universities in German andstates art, the Therefore, state. cameralist functioning of smoothly the construct mental idealized masses,Unruly epidemics disturbances and other imaginedof spaces stable an disrupted states. and monarch the for power international less of risk the implied this administration, rulers’ outdid the states such other as competitors, If balances. trade imperfect an of existence the sudden commoditiesbehaviorfixationleadthe of peoples and and theirawareness of to major challenge to states and theirbureaucracies. The challenge of creating an ideal of research was economic in origin. Exchange and spread of commodities through trade posed a Patrick E. Carroll, “Medical Police and the History of Public Health,” Marc Raeff, Marc Idecided not to translate this term in the text, since its meaning is ambiguous. Ibid, 325-326. Ibid, 64-66. To what extent did states’ actually succeed in realizing such an idealized regulated state? idealized regulated such whatan did succeedinrealizing actually extent To states’ The Well-Ordered Police State 55 However, this view isincreasingly challenged and accordingly so should (London: Yale University Press,1983). 53 Policeywissenschaften The Well-Ordered Police State 56 Medical History Policey/Polizey 54 were more or less exactly more or were 46, no. 4 (2002): 461-494. , since both , since , that the 22 52 CEU eTD Collection (1721-1772). George Rosen, mapped explored,completely and ultimately andknown controlled. spaces. He envisioned von Sonnenfels (1732-1817)andJohann Frank Peter (1745-1821). the city to Joseph Germans the as such bycameralists developed practice, executed strictly a necessarily be an organism, which in a mechanist manner could be 58 of medical decadesbeforein especially degrees the the themselves, medical practitioners 6) poisonous hazardsoccupational formining products, example 7)the checking lastly and of materials 5)possibly freshdrinks, hazardous especially products, suchasexplosives and form andstreets buildings, of forexample thedimensionsnewly of andfood 4) constructed atmosphere and possibly thus caused diseases, regulating 3) physicalthe environmentin of the and 2)nuisances poor the prostitutes, andgeneralsocial which thewould destabilize mood seven areas were: 1) the community, with a special focus on women and workers and specifically Patrick E. Carroll mentioned seven different topics and fields covered by Frank’s writings. These similar However, tothe moniker public health, 57 Austria’s to juxtaposed longerhold.According tothis view, British liberal the be health public ought to concept no does Empire Habsburg the and states German in the present exclusively in policy tendency Stereotypes wereusedEurope. semi-authoritarian a strongly power throughout of centralizing, exerting several of styles of state, the inhabitants achieve the level over control a to order of In century. nineteenth the of half first and eighteenth the of denominator common a was fact in and states European of several boundaries which was one crossed state of the safety and external internal andproblem stability construed the conceptThe connection of between the of population Peter Payer, Peter The term The Frank specifically out Frank specifically large groupsofin dangerthe pointed residing of people small medicinische Policey medicinische Der Gestank von Wien von Gestank Der A History of Public Health medicinische Policey was first used in 1764 by another German cameralist, Wolfgang Thomas Rau (Vienna: DöckerVerlag, 1997), 28. , assuming British policy was much less coercive. less much was policy British assuming , (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), 137. medicinische Policey 57 58 was more a set of ideas than The historian of medicine of historian The 23 CEU eTD Collection Policey Frank, Peter Johann mögen.” unterliegen sind, untergeordnet sie welchem Schicksale, endlichen dem spätesten am seyn, zu unterworfen Uebeln physischen zuvielen ohne solche, welcher nach befördern, zu Art eine auf Wohl körperliches deren aber besonders schützen, zu Beysammenwohnungen grösser Folgen 62 medicinische Policey called so of A system individuals. of behavior the control to able was it than easily, more necessarily be held cannot responsible. devoted to thelivingin conditions, the environment individuals which butfor reside, which they increasingly was Attention its of population. health wasresponsible forthe state the idea that underestimated. Central to his work was the concept of the 60 59 of birth The thelongevity increase population.the of information lifestyle,on housing,food-patternsthe clothing and of communities can be usedto point thesystematicout that and collectingto of first regular authors Frank oneof lives. the was their of parts intimate most the even in intervene necessary, when to, duty and right the have practical expression required of physicians. universities were of the idea that states’ are responsible for the health of their citizens and 61 “Eine Vertheidigungskunst, “Eine eine Lehre, dieMenschen und ihre thierischenGehülfen wider die nachtheiligen George Rosen, George Patrick E. Carroll, “Medical Police and the History of Public Health,” Peter Payer, Peter (Mannheim: 178) quoted in: PeterPayer, fates towhichfates they withoutare subjected, suffering manytoo ills.physical being be will and strengthened as a consequence,they shall head towards theirinevatble well- physical Especially the on a large scale. living of together consequences negative from humans protectin andtheirthe of to An ateaching packanimals defense, order art be cannot context for Austrian the of Sonnenfels importance earlier, the As stated Der Gestank von Wien von Gestank Der A History of Public Health Policeywissenschaft is the result of this logic, which Johann Peter Frank summarized as: (Vienna: DöckerVerlag, 1997), 23. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), 138-142. in Vienna in 61 60 Der Gestank von Wien The state Thestate was abletoregulate living this environment 59 Frank’s six books Frank’s six books listedof were regulations a (Vienna: DöckerVerlag, 1997), 24. Medical History Wohlfahrtstaat System einer vollständigen 46, no. 4(2002): 465. [welfare-state], the [welfare-state], 62 24 CEU eTD Collection 65 64 Lafayette,Purdue University Press, 1994), 181. in Habsburg the Monarchy,1748-63,” in 63 power, onethatwas not supposed to beopportunistic based upon power Machiavellian-like monarchical of constructability was the cameralists the of main concern forms, the earlier the of inSonnenfels from 1763.In that ofcameralism differed conceptions early,German northern foundedinbeenkind not alwayseasy in Halle. had first define.of chairthis The The 1727 to on theoretical andinhabitants. relationship betweenstate outlook the new realize the to educated elite, bureaucratic newly trained creation of for the responsible ideas indirectly attheof university andwho public wasthereby set taught this policy on Policey- undKameralwissenschaften bearing one at thetitle the Vienna, University of wasfounded From anewchair 1763 onwards homogenous, principalities. more consequently fields aforementioned in the and smaller, in much prominence to outsider was able to review them. no weresomuch valued, making data Economic that decision taxation. regarding process His teachingswere also undermined by factthatthe heallowed wasnot toasses policy the and endeavor in an Empire that was pregnant of different laws, economic regulations and legal codes. security order, the assurewelfarecommonwealth.of wasaproblematic and good the This to goal the with science, apractical as cameralism on there lectured He service. man forcivil several 1750-1754 years atthe 1771) was in Austrian the arguablycontext influential most the German cameralistin and spend predecessoran important field. in Prussian JohannHeinrich Gottlob samethe Justi (1717- The Ibid, 191-192. Ibid, 196. Grete Klingenstein, “Between Mercantilism and Physiocracy: Stages, Modes, and Functions of Economic Theory ofEconomic Functions and Modes, Stages, Physiocracy: and Mercantilism “Between Klingenstein, Grete This partially explains why 65 The difference between The difference Theresianum 64 State and Society in Early Modern Austria Kameralwissenschaften . Joseph von Sonnenfels. (1733-1817)wasthefirstperson , animperial academy founded toprepareyoung Staats - Staats [state and treasury sciences] first rose first sciences] andtreasury [state and Kameralwissenschaften 63 , ed. Charles W. Ingrao (West W.Ingrao Charles , ed. However, Sonnenfels had Sonnenfels However, was 25 CEU eTD Collection 67 University Press, 1995), 16-17. 66 regulations was issued.Having avery prediction reliable both of physicalthe condition and size inproduced form.a particular tosystematize In order an economic growth ever expanding setof whatbeproductivity werekind houses ranging to from shapeof the citizens, of to products of of issuedoing wasto this regulations onallelements thatcould haveanimpactthe on One income future way endeavor. was the of desiredrealized.the of outcome Thepredictability be could governance effective that so possible, as much as expectations present and results regularity in of behavior people. Themain purpose was shrinkto the future between distance and order creating by governance, good of accomplishment the simplify would that regulations of questioning legal but actions,was moreless completed of already status the or agoverningset and ‘happiness’ of inner population. the order by the symbolized treasury, The state and survive. wagewar,grow which in turn than could increase state, the theincomeof ruler to this relationship, ruler the shouldmake happy his subjects and wealthy. This would allow the maintain to between rulers and basedruled.order In a definite relationshippolitics, butone on relations with other states should relations with states other be formulated. how question the with and consequently with trade ithadpreoccupation acertain and people, land of maintenance the with concerned mostly was Germany northern in Cameralism Whereas legitimizing the authority of much ruler,the more but securing the futureexistence of state. the somuch its wasnot prime insubjectsand model with the concern relationship asymbiotic with Ibid, 19-20. Tribe, Keith Policey Strategies of Economic Order: German economic discourse, 1750-1950 during Sonnenfels’ time focused strongly on the creation and maintenance the creation Sonnenfels’ focused during strongly time and of on Kammer 67 Policing in this sense was not so much aimed at aimed much so not was sense in this Policing where the money wasinwas deposited, this (Cambridge, Cambridge 26 66 CEU eTD Collection equilibrium of equilibrium humanwas criminalized. behaviorin and This of conduct turn would diminish the imperilimaginedwouldof Anything state the health that common the good good. constituted identification on behalf of the individual citizen with the states’ interest: welfare, security and so goal the muchnot was securingthe andmaintaining of individual freedom, butrather the schools, as such institutions formative of creation the through citizens new of behavior eventual influenceto the attempt concerted In this science,education. and religion institutions of the measures. policy in interested prophylactic wasmostly theory cameralist Austrian nineteenth century early the pharmacies, of quackery various forms and regulating with mostly outlawing concerned of manifestations century eighteenth early the Whereas the of institutions social powerful the penetrate hadto morality Thisbe good’. achieved had of Thismoral a secureto installment the through dominant order. Sonnenfels’ solution for this problem was to stress the importance of protecting the ‘common 69 68 of in growth minimize, the if tocurtail invented and order possible, it was not clear when a moment of closure could be reachedindividuals comprising and thus influencingin the political body was theoretically developed. Since this project, new tools had to be point of administer,time. infinite Consequently to an orderand project protect, restrictthe this at another one from differentiated not were concepts two the since context, this in relevant likelihood of executing soundpolicy measures increased significantly. the information this with since monarchs, of interest inthe obviously was population the of Dorothy Porter, Ibid, 21. Good morals were supposed to be trickling down to the level of individual level through be the to the of morals down trickling Good supposed to were The fact that the control of the political body entailed control of the society is also society of the entailed control body political control the the of that The fact 69 Health, Civilization and the State (London: Routledge,2005), 53. medicinische Policey medicinische Stände 68 Policey [estates] in Prussia were based ordeals. and family. 27 CEU eTD Collection Macmillan, 1990), 160. 71 University Press, 1995), 23. 70 in ought tobementioned context. this Ludvico Antonia Muratori (1672-1750) thinker enlightenment Italian early prominent the of influence The II. Joseph of personality ‘benevolent’ the than origins had different this toleration it clearthat becomes toleration, Mariareign when (1740-1780), isof Theresa theprehistory due attention paidJosephinian to of wasmuch byreligious(1780-1790) more thanthe characterized towards minorities toleration II Joseph of reign the that thought is often it Although lands. Austrian the to it from circulated andnew knowledge less strict was censorship where aregion Empire, of the possessions Italian the were These governance. on theory innovative new, with Habsburgs the provided The secularization of medicalknowledge andcare only secondarily onindividualcondemned moral ethicalor grounds. andhomicide wereprimarily maximum tothea challenge states’ possible and profitand power maximum couldrevenue the state gatherfrom its Thus subjects. for example suicide, abortion 1750’s lostmonopolythey their on censorship,powerful a tool which was nowrelegated under be well. curtailed wasto as of monasteries importance thesize and Moreover, processions. diminishing rites and lookingsemi-superstitious included astark of naturally practice religious more inward- and genuine Thesearchfor a pastoral work. more towards Catholicism once toreorientHe wanted impact. had aprofoundideas Muratori of influencesthe Jansenism, the of H.M. Scott, Tribe, Keith Besides the influence of northern German cameralists, there was a second region wasasecondregion there which cameralists, northern German influence the of Besides It was especially the Jesuits who felt the direct impact of these new regulations. In the Enlightened Absolutism. Reform and ReformersLater in Eighteenth-Century Europe Strategies of Economic Order: German economic discourse, 1750-1950 70 (Cambridge, Cambridge 71 Combined with (London: 28 CEU eTD Collection that it was mostly the poorestbubonic inhabitants plague which spreadof the the of as aconsequence through appointed, was first againstcholera city countermeasures preferred the whothe fellcity. illFrom toearly most on diseases.it upon would decide sanitary commission which of the in havoc predecessor In city. 1679 the the was clear toIn the1708 administrators the causing inan disease epidemic caseof advisory board the important and asan personnel medical since itwas founded in ithad1365, functioned both as an educational center for the training of University Viennaof onlocal epidemicspolicy hasconcerning always Ever been significant. context of Habsburgthe its Empire’s existence, influencecapital. Throughout the of the orders, the second half of the eighteenth century was one of shifting power and responsibility. Catholic several and papacy the to in regards also estates, the to inregards grow state centralized not influencestandardized onlydid So inwhich language lectured. of professors the the moreover, became German institution. UnderJoseph the ViennaII, educational asastellar branding nameof the faculty drastically, medicine Hereformed the van Swieten (1700-1772). Gerard Dutch fromJansenist newly fierce reaction the appointed Vienna a triggered example, for at by University the professors borderline Jesuittraining.the provided of education arcane The administrative body had to go far beyond the borders of the Habsburg Empire to receive proper expanding in become states’ the wanted to active majority nobility that the of onwards, 73 72 being. into coming was state the of benefit the to power of shift significant a reality in orthodoxy, Catholic doctrine wassupporting official the state increased. though Even work onlocal focus the parish in 1760’sand curtailed the furthermore Theinfluence bannerthe of state. the was papacy of the Ibid, 170-174. Ibid, 162-166. The University of Vienna was to play an important role in the secularized educational 72 The universities were also subject to reform in reform TheuniversitiesFrom werealsosubjectto 1750’s.1730’s the 73 29 CEU eTD Collection 77 76 75 hadcentury. seventeenth the during thestate manyarmed conflicts due tothe infirmary for crippled andhandicapped soldiers, whom an were not uncommonin sight Vienna an construct to ideafirst, the was 1686. At back to can be traced state by the specifically modeled after the hospital general The mercenaries. asmedical entrepreneurs, andprivate hospitals motivated mostappropriated of responsibilitiesthe formerly dealtwith by a coalition of religiously pilgrims moving orwestwards. east- Christianity. In Vienna, most hospitals were originally nursing homes, resting places, for Like elsewhere in Europe, the origin of these early, medieval hospitals was strongly connected to 74 until and1804. Hequarantinedpatients greatly increasedled freshof amountthe water the to (1745-1821), whoserved as of director generalhospital the of diseases. kinds different andtreat diagnose howto doctors of teach new generations to wereused education. Patients and baseduniversity practice practical training for for aspace careand a space was usedboth as constructed before the hospitals some quite were there However, of disease. continuation the thwart to a fittingtherapy wouldbe attendedby their personal family Hewould or physician. diagnose them and prescribe and by university.the trained residents of poor the Ibid, 33. Ibid, 28-30. hospital. general as to onreferred here From Karl Heinz Tragl, Heinz Karl In the eighteenth century, especially during Joseph the Second’s reign, the Habsburg state The medical clinic got aserious quality boost with the appointment of Johann Peter Frank Chronik der Wiener Krankenanstalten Hotel-Dieu Vorstädte Allgemeines KrankenhausAllgemeines 74 in Paris, but the first intention to construct a public hospital run hospital a public construct to intention first the but Paris, in [suburbs] were provided with special doctors by special city wereprovided [suburbs] with council doctors the It was custom for richer inhabitants, that in case of illness, they 76 (Vienna:Böhlau Verlag, 2007), 26. 75 [general hospital] [general and professor of the medical clinic opened its doors in 1784. 77 The new hospital new The was 30 CEU eTD Collection University Press, 1995), 25. 82 Lafayette,Purdue University Press, 1994), 200. Adam forSmith example wasdelayed until nineteenth early the century. Vienna during the enlightened absolutism of Maria Theresa and Joseph II. The real impact of in medical knowledge middle century.the nineteenth of the of center class world the Vienna making anatomy, pathological with diagnosis precise combined flourish. medicine, second It of startingapproximately 1840,could around Vienneseschool called so the which on basis the laid they because mind, in keep to important are developments in Habsburg the Monarchy,1748-63,” in 81 University Press, 1995), 24. 80 79 78 policy. economic sound citizen andbetween state, relationship the on writing intellectuals contemporary butimportant most the of some not with the practicalSonnenfels himself received washaphazardvery and not Hewas acquaintedthorough. with quite gathering of data and be declineonly theresult. disorder could which could possibly state, a strongly organizingWithout government. properly regulated without outcome benevolent result in a Nations Adam juxtaposition remarkable with underpinning Smith’s preconceptions the formed bya necessary. This officials,state was from exerted above, a constantregulation a way that would allow them haveto some innate capacity self-regulateto their behavior. Rather, clearwithout what end.Opposed to is core atthe of liberalism, individualsconceived werenot in hospital and alsoexpanded the number of usedpatients foreducational ends. Keith Tribe, Keith Grete Klingenstein, “Between Mercantilism and Physiocracy: Stages, Modes, and Functions of Economic Theory ofEconomic Functions and Modes, Stages, Physiocracy: and Mercantilism “Between Klingenstein, Grete Tribe, Keith Ibid, 61-63. Ibid, 48. A great problem underlying the practice of thepractice problem underlying A great , which Sonnenfels had read and even cited. For Sonnenfels, there wasno possibility a of Strategies of Economic Order: German economic discourse, 1750-1950 Strategies of Economic Order: German economic discourse, 1750-1950 81 The main currents of modern economic theory were not widespread in widespread not were theory economic ofmodern Themaincurrents State and Society in Early Modern Austria 80 It is also worth noting that the education Policey was exactly the fact that itwas a task that fact the wasexactly 79 , ed. Charles W. Ingrao (West W.Ingrao Charles , ed. (Cambridge, Cambridge (Cambridge, Cambridge 82 Local nobility was nobility Local 78 Wealth of These 31 CEU eTD Collection Lafayette,Purdue University Press, 1994), 194. this of 1831-1832 severely uprooted imagined well body functioning social organized and and it parts in one body, obliged towork for the common good. A disease such as the cholera epidemic and of 1820.Theinhabitants a state principality or increasingly upon were looked as beinglittle and between inhabitants states between their the changinghighlighted relationship circa 1750 in Habsburg the Monarchy,1748-63,” in 83 data. obtaining information that could be collected was itself the subject toa form of censorship in the process of the Moreover, spread morewidely. was not but Joseph emperor II, future of the education didit. hadno in It access to bureaucrats by Common serve apurpose royal elite. the highest the hoarding of this newly data, acquired andpossiblyveryuseful information be was known only to inthe invested was andeffort much time Although became apparent. soon controversy great religions and so forth was of great interest to competing states, such as Prussia. For thismentalities, regarding of soil, peoples’ Thecompiled the collections data endeavors. Sonnenfels’ reason a tension. persistent this issue supporting acore was revenues state over Control Enlightenment. Austrian heartof the the layat freelymore exchange toa envisioned opposed tradition a between tension A constant earlier. decades some been had Justi as on, policy economic ofbase strong state to information of necessary gathering intheprocess very with similar obstacles was confronted regulationhave and dideconomics, Hewasoverburdened not avery with tasks successful arduous result. regarding of successfully task the a Sonnenfels, popularizing to start campaignconcerningmodern the movement Hence in theory. economical were commercial than they inrevenues, interested agricultural more of commodities and people, as Grete Klingenstein, “Between Mercantilism and Physiocracy: Stages, Modes, and Functions of Economic Theory ofEconomic Functions and Modes, Stages, Physiocracy: and Mercantilism “Between Klingenstein, Grete There was a second side to the problem that imperiled the practical use of Justi’s and 83 Thisinner tension of Austrian the isenlightenment remarkable, sinceit State and Society in Early Modern Austria , ed. Charles W. Ingrao (West W.Ingrao Charles , ed. 32 CEU eTD Collection those whothose wouldbreak the cordon. unemployed Furthermore, from individuals weredeported wereissuedinvolved, severeto punishments the diseased bureaucracy area.Besides extensive from healthy inthe the The on. separated from border border case the this checked stamped and be which hadto havesocalled health-certificates, from June persons to required 1831 on were possible carrier of disease. of carrier possible wasformentioned asa examplenever water of spreading while cholera, animals suspected were plague regulations. As a consequence of this etiological tradition, various types of clothes and throughout Russianthe Empire closely monitored was in Vienna.the epidemic the andspreadof onset the Consequently, domains. theHabsburg of most eastern the was province Galician asthe peripheral Empire Russian the with large border a shared Empire journey crossingwestwards, swiftly vastthe Chinese and Russian Empires. The Habsburg Verkehrsgegenstände, 556, box 4,Verzeichnis Q 556/831, 3832, 4-5. Contumaz Betreffend),” 18 July 1831, Wiener Stadt- und Landesarchiv, Main register Q, Sanitäts- und 84 difficult times tocome. From 1825 In summerthe of wereanxiously inCentral 1830, people Eastern Europe and awaiting the Initial reactionto state to the to epidemic. of Habsburg the initial these devoted reactions be will chapter of this part last form. The or in some way threat to this react to important was “Zweiter Auszug aus dem neue Entwurfe zu einer Pest-Polizei-Ordnung für die k.k. Staaten (Die Waaren- (Die Staaten k.k. die für Pest-Polizei-Ordnung einer zu Entwurfe demneue aus Auszug “Zweiter These initialThese the stop measures basedspreading bubonicto of cholera were oldthe upon Cholera morbus Cholera 84 Intensive bureaucratization of trade was a first effect: all goods and goods all effect: a first was trade of bureaucratization Intensive Cholera morbus , or epidemischen Brechruhr , started its 33 CEU eTD Collection completely futile in case completely andevencounterproductive of the cholera. be to out turned plague, bubonic the battle to effective mildly least the be at to proven had that 89 schüssensollten.” Ibid, 231. sie der vor Krankheit, jene beförderten und Preis Erkankungen häufigen Truppen verwendeten die hierbey gaben beengtendie Gemüther. Insbesondere gefährdetendieund Sperren denGesundheitszustandSchrecken und Furcht in den abgesperrten Orten, verbreiteten Sie zeigten. Drangsale herbeygeführten Krankheit die durch die selbst hierauf gegründetenVerfügungen und Anstalten hattenNachtheile im Gefolge, sich die weitunheilbringender, als 88 Polizeylichen Vorkehrungen flachen Lande, in Osttereich unter der Enns, in den Jahren 1831und 1832, nebst den dagegen getroffenen Sanitats- Austria with Italy: in the summer of 1832 they would all be abolished. cholera epidemic: the to regulations plague bubonic of application 87 556/830, 33990, 1-2. 86 Polizeylichen Vorkehrungen flachen Lande, in Osttereich unter der Enns, in den Jahren 1831und 1832, nebst den dagegen getroffenen Sanitats- again. became norm the imprisonment, such as asanitary cordon, breaching for punishments applicable previously disease, the inhalting was noteffective cordon the itbecame that After clear cordon or helpingdoso, andtheir would people to be commodities immediately executed. Austria October 1831.Since weremaintained the 27 upto 85 the crownlands. Ibid, 236-238. “Allein ungeachtet derHandhabung dieser Vorschriften, drang die Seuche unaufhaltsam weiter vor, unddie Joseph Johann Knolz, Wiener Stadt- und Landesarchiv, Main register Q, Sanitäts- und Verkehrsgegenstände, 556,box 3,Verzeichnis Q Joseph Johann Knolz, 87 Remarkably, itsnot refraining sanitary the criticism from commission was towards own Cordons vital destabilized of regions theeconomically undermined quiet and trade illness,of whereby a they supported disease they were supposed protectto us from. signs showed forces often [military] employed whereby inareas, closeddown conditions health imperil the thebarricades Specifically moods. peoples’ andcaptivate fright fear and They spread thedisease. accompanying fatal hardship the it pointingwas to as faced basedhereupon, and disadvantages caused, this decisionsthe institutions the and further, spreading continued the disease decrees, these of preservation of Regardless the 85 Even out inthough cholera broke late July, August cordonsin early 1831,the Darstellung der Brechruhr Epidemie in der k.k. Residenzstadt Wien, wie auch in dem Darstellung der Brechruhrr Epidemie in der k.k. Residenzstadt Wien, wie auch in dem (Vienna: Mayerund Compagnie, 1834), 226-229. (Vienna: Mayerund Compagnie, 1834), 224-225. th ofAugust anybody caught crossing a 89 Thecountermeasures 88 34 86 CEU eTD Collection presuppositions. this new gaveway model maintaining someof important concepts,while to disease how describe Ishall chapter next In the bystates. be taken to logical most countermeasure the cordons sanitary living were be thoroughlycleansedandof purified, would environment people 1679) formed thebasis etiological dominantof amongmedicalconcepts specialists. the Before early nineteenth century, theoriesthe when of English the physician Sydenham Thomas (1624- 90 conditions. particular under particular diseases were predisposed to who people region, sickening region to spread from air particlesthe diseaseswerecausedbyinanimate thatthrough disease. the Instead, spread necessary to peoplewas between contact physical nodirect implied that This contagious. not was cholera case in this diseases, that assumption the on based was theory This of disease. vectors ideamiasmatic of based the around nineteenth was century in early the theories popular particular commodities and people from a hygienic point of view. One of the dominant disease Dorothy Porter, There was a certain logic buttressing the decisions to instill sanitary cordons andcheck cordons sanitary toinstill decisions the logic buttressing There wasacertain 90 This theory already existed in Roman times and was revived in the eighteenth and eighteenth in the revived was and times in Roman existed already theory This Health, Civilization and the State (London: Routledge,2005), 82. 35 CEU eTD Collection verwendete Personale, zum Behufe die Gränzen der k.k. Oesterreichischen Staaten vor dem Staaten dieGränzender k.k.Oesterreichischen zum Behufe Personale, verwendete entitled1830, Publications preceding and during the firstepidemic didentail? this what consequences question:the did How on etiological discourses cholerabetween 1830and develop 1850and formulated be to can of answer 1848-1849, an another publishing thethirdepidemic after right Johann Romich,were specialists who on cholera, publishing one during the firstepidemic and Köstler A.L. by 1832 andbycomparing publicationsthe Viennese and cholera on doctors, two theepidemic lookingLower Austria.initially waythe the By at Empire of 1831- responded to they were composed by state owned institutions or organizations, such as the Sanitary Council of by medical personnel such as doctors working in so called cholera hospitals; or, alternatively, predominantly produced between andwere discourses 1850.These publications oncholera 1830 medical of the development analyses chapter This extraordinary. was cholera as such disease on several levels and possibleas a consequence, expansion of the Empire.thepopulation meantfilling anemployable population, the treasury allowingwith for taxes and importance An epidemicA healthy context. was Habsburg century ofthus nineteenth early havingthe and imperiling eighteenth late in the important medical the stability knowledge of the Empire on new Chapter Three: The Great Importance of ‘Tiny Organic Bodies’ An example of an early publication on cholera was an anonymous small handbook from handbook small anonymous an was cholera on publication early an of example An increasingly became of I describedhowpopulation concept the chapter In theprevious Instruction für die Sanitäts-Behörden, und für das fürdieSanitäts-Behörden,und bei denContumaz-AnstaltenInstruction für 36 CEU eTD Collection and andinspecting all peopleitsgoods crossing border followed swiftly. of Empire the borders all down the closing cordon, sanitary complete of construction The Death. of Black the outbreaks during were custom be that employed wereto tactics similar prophylactic largely Death.Therefore, many with Black mustthe qualities haveshared assumed thatCholera contagious. Relyingthe secondary sources, Austrianon who authors booklet composed the be likely disease the factto wasvery the that accepted authors Firstly,the cholera. versus taken were eventually countermeasures that of kind the supporting reasoning the understand for thespreadof disease.the responsible bedestroy deemedto how to by miasma describing the followed a chapter were directly These disease. the with contamination prevent to in order patients, cholera with contact direct have enoughwere unfortunate Empireinhabitants to those of who instructions the weregiven to hand one the remainedvague. On not, or contagious was cholera question whether on the reached Vienna or even the Empire's periphery. Notably,the position the author(s) of the booklet case it invades Austria, to stop its stop spread]. Austria,invades to case it 92 Verbreitung zu Hemmen,” (Vienna: Kaiserliche Königliche Hof- Staats-Aerarial und Druckerey,1830),2. herrschenden epidemischen Brechruhr (Cholera morbus) zu sichern, und im möglichenReiche Falle des Eindringens,Russischen ihre kaiserlich im der Einbruche dem vor Staaten Oesterreichischen k.k. der Gränzen die Behuse 91 outbreak of the against state Austrian andRoyal Imperial of the borders the protect to in order cordons, sanitary-officers personnel for the andfor the of sanitary inthe[Instructions erecting employed morbus) zusichern,undimmöglichenFalledes Eindringens, ihreVerbreitung zuhemmen (Cholera Brechruhr epidemischen Reicheherrschenden der kaiserlich Russischen Einbruche im Ibid, 4. “Instructionfürdie Sanitäts-Behörden, und für dasbei den Contumaz-Anstalten verwendete Personale, zum This in into tobe reveals severalissuesthatought document to taken account order Cholera Morbus , which currently prevails in Imperialthe Russian Empire, in and 92 91 The booklet was published well before cholera 37 CEU eTD Collection Verkehrsgegenstände, 556, box 4,Verzeichnis Q 556/831, 3832, 8. Contumaz Betreffend),” 18 July 1831, Wiener Stadt- und Landesarchiv, Main register Q, Sanitäts- und 95 94 93 and hospitals in norm the became research clinical After lives. of saving and losing the both nature explainshow it atmosphere thatair, possible andclimate were was for responsible held of fresh air This view and water. ambiguous relationshipof mankindhad the with forcesthe of heal,epidemic yet otherthe wasable air, qualities contaminated purifying through the to through an byspreading the population decimate sides: to onewascapable hadtwo manual.the Nature premises. escapehospitals, their be possibility the houses theirto broughtto or without quarantined and from forcibly removed be ill example, could people citizens. For individual of care of health the taking above interests, states' the protect to instructed foremost and first were specialists trained illness cases they whiletheepidemic of westwards. was moving encountered disease. the of spreading potentially eradicate suspected ‘miasmatic fumes’, to pulverized inorder upand were heated substances that thetwo andsulfur were Saltpeter a smoke-treatment. with commodities various the treating by followed required when measure, initial the was water and possibly even people whenpassingthe borders of Habsburgthe Empire. fresh Washingwith were occupied with during exertion maintenancethe measures an of and prophylactic epidemic. Commissare called cordons, sanitary creating for responsible individuals those to out the old the “Zweiter Auszug aus dem neue Entwurfe zu einer Pest-Polizei-Ordnung für die k.k. Staaten (Die Waaren- (Die Staaten k.k. die für Pest-Polizei-Ordnung einer zu Entwurfe demneue aus Auszug “Zweiter Ibid, 4. Ibid, 5-6. Moreover, physicians other statepersonnel and compelled reportany were to suspicious Additionally, methods were two and approved implemented todisinfect animals goods, Pest-Policey-Ordnung 95 94 One of the most dominant characteristics of etiological thought was present throughout present was thought etiological of characteristics dominant most the of One As a consequence of the assumed similarity between cholera and the Black Death, [districts-commissioners]. This was a new position in Vienna’s bureaucracy; they in anewposition This Vienna’s was [districts-commissioners]. [Plague- Policey -Regulation] from and1710 wasreprinted handed 93 In fact, medically Abtheilungs- 38 CEU eTD Collection starben.” Anton Zhuber, Anton starben.” Chlor reichlich versehen einsperrten, alles durchden Chlordampf empfingen und abgaben, dochan der Cholera wurden, indem Fabriks-Arbeiter mitten im Chlordampf an der Cholera erkrankten, und viele,die sich in Häuser mit 97 Cambridge University Press, 2000), 29. Druckerei, 1831), 17. 96 cholera inducing conditions. providingsince amore riskyenvironment, they conceptualized asbeingmorewere receptive to basically were areas lower residential of city.the in lower These parts the were located that those Zhuber made a clear distinction between buildings that were constructed at a higher altitude, and local Viennese physician Anton Zhuber: Empire’sthe neighbor. This lead attimes tosurprising such statements, as onemadethe by the itwas and some yearsalready for herequite waged thedisease this because was Russian Empire, in the cholera of observations to made were references since important, and common been have must disease the on transfers knowledge that literature from this becomes apparent It treatments. several recommended range and of proposals prophylactic a broad they of typically consisted written by practicingmustbeen epidemicthe and quite haveastir expected caused amongthe population. Mostly doctors in Austria, the vast majority of too much ‘vital life force’whom was needed torestore body’sthe balance, would deathbe inevitable. was that employeddisturbed so was humors of balance the when Only occurred. in intervention human no to little Vienna, incomparable healing tothe nature, which health powersof would restore in by itself, body the if skepticism”. No matter how precise the diagnosis of a disease, effective treatment of humans was wereappliedstatistics totherapeuticmeasures, thisaformled ambiguity to “therapeutic of “Dass der Chlorkalk vorder Cholera nicht schütze, beweissen mehrere Beobachtungen, die in Moskau gemacht Michael Worboys, Michael impregnating and surrounding everything with fume,chlorine still of died cholera. lockedin cholera. themselves up who Many people afterabundantly houses, their by Fabric madein surrounded chlorine fellillof fumes observations Moscow. workers chlorine-chalkThat not does offer any is againstcholera,protection provenby several numerous Sincepopular published in on scientific were cholera, publications 1830-1832 Spreading Germs: Disease Theories and Medical Practice in Britain, 1865-1900 Ermahnungs-Worte gegen die Cholera morbus (Vienna: K.K. Hof- und Staats-Aerarial (New York: 97 39 96 CEU eTD Collection University Press, 1986), 16-21. both banks of the Wien River. Three years later all channels leading water and filth from andhouses all from later both leading banks filth water WienRiver.Three years of the channels channels in constructed theepidemic 1831and1836,on after ended, two countermeasure, were allowing spread sewers waterall Vienna’smany filthy to As a the city.open over first cholera epidemic in 1831. Right before the epidemic broke out, the Danube flooded the city, miasmaticand produce would fear air.The badly air of smelling issue wasan acute during the highly hazardous, since it was an indication of fermentation and rot, an environment which could 99 5. Ibid, werde.” gemacht bewohnbar Arztes und die Hülfe der Polizei angesucht werden, damit die Wohnung, so vielsollen, braucht sich keiner besondern es thun Erinnerung. Ist dieses lässt, indessen nichtthunlich,heilsam so muss wenigstens und des Rath eines 98 smellthe of was aclearsign putrefaction of unhealthy conditions. identified by would avoidall who usetheir of smell sense to stinking individuals, areas since or be locationseasily could disease-inciting thatunhealthy, theory was consequence of this of miasmatic theory was nota recent development but had amuch older tradition in Europe. One and endemic inlower, wetter areas of town. As described in the previous chapter, the dominance models thatfocused ordisease-incitingpoisonous on be air,which was thoughtto more abundant disease miasmatic of logic the following was This officials. state of visits frequent to receptive bemore in to prone city, plots the were allocated higher more expensive afford the able to doctors and the police. As a consequence, the less wealthy strata of the society, who were not Alain Corbin, Alain werden vermieden Möglichkeit nach Kellern, in Erde, der unter Wohnungen dumpfe feuchte, tiefe, daher “Das Apparently,lower allocated plots in town ought to be frequented more by both the space. which house,the in so far as isthat possible, shallbe turned into ahealthy livableand at option, an thenot is this If veryif possible. be avoided leastshould cellars, as such earth, the thebelow consult of houses moist dark and allocated, a ist hatdeeply needreminder, aspecial not Whatdoctor does and the help of the police should be requested, by 98 TheFoul and the Fragrant: Odor and theFrench Social Imagination 99 Stench was thought to be (Cambridge: Harvard 40 CEU eTD Collection 13. (Cholera morbus), eine Predigt Zorciek, Wilhelm fürchten.” zu Gottes Zorn strebt? So lange wir unrein verdrängen zu und überall in Sünden Glaubens des Luft sind, reine gesunde, so die langewelche haben Unglaubens, des wir Luft Strafe verpestete die von Seiten Gott verdient, so lange haben wir den schaden, euch gelte diesenicht Drohung? Ihr saget, unsere Luftist rein und gesund – athmet ihr denn vonnicht allen 101 100 report for Berlin, during summer the of 1831. becouldnot controlled. TheViennese J.A. von physician Edler Reider composed an alarming that humanity enemy asan entity and of as anabstract adisease, hadas cholera characteristics of the inform Europe regionsof to other were produced booklets spread. However, itsstop be to measureshad as what kind to taken to states of between coordination wasno there priest WilhelmZorciek warnedhis in audience Stephansdom: the still bordersat the of Habsburgthe first Empire.During weeks the of epidemic,the Viennese the point that of time which wasat cholera, of topic deliveredthe on epidemic, the were heldduring insermons that link exemplified was disease. This more to sensitive madepeople degeneration waters in the city would neither be directly visible, nor smelled any longer. makingfilthy surethe constructions, by stone and river encapsulated to the also wereconnected “Oder glaubetihr etwa,christliche Zuhörer, ihr habet nichts fürchten,zu euch könne die Cholera morbus nicht Payer, Peter gradually, any that man unprejudiced becould deceited not byit, and many myof local epidemic condition.couldnot escape the conclusion that the disease was undergoingThe ametamorphosis into an development we every saw thecholera sothat gradually attentive physician and progressively develop, town local a In form. epidemic an into of disease thefear-inciting this of disease development the occured expect probably mostwe had to that such a type wasof constitution, disease prevalent so slow and progressed of the genius and here,whole the common our diseases of andcharacter The course so The cholera a epidemic framedinitially 1830-1832 was of Europe-wide as problem,but sinners, we have deserved punishment from God and we have to dread his anger. long As offaith? asweareunclean air clean healthy, tooustthe attempts everywhere healthy butdon’t– you breath from all sides the defiled airof unbelieve, which by the Cholera Morbus, this threat is not applicableyouyouOr do believe,dread, you have be thatcannot Christian audience, hurt nothing to to you? You say, our air is clean and In Vienna, moral condemnation was often part of theframing of causes of Moral disease. Der Gestank von Wien von Gestank Der (Vienna: Druck und Verlag der Mechitaristen-Congregations Buchhandlung, 1831), Buchhandlung, Mechitaristen-Congregations der Verlag und Druck (Vienna: (Vienna: DöckerVerlag, 1997), 61. Der Schrift zur Zeit der drohenden Gefahr einer verderblichen Seuche 100 101 41 CEU eTD Collection city was to be separated in small administrative units over which police-supervisors would police-supervisors which over units administrative in small be separated to was city were booklet inwhichtheir described. andmethods The page educational duties waspublished measures. On execution 18 proper the sanitary of the for were responsible of was theappointment government As mentioned earlier, of one firstthe policy measures putinto practice by Habsburgthe Organization of symptoms. sets sight, This was a way frameto several stages of disease, but also come to toterms with strange,first at leadintensifydeath. even to instability, or of to worse, were thought condition the diseased, the of mixture causes a mental in of consisted sudden or changes atmosphere, airthe pressure, Their another. into disease one from evolve to able diseases, of fluidity the both emphasized which time, the models of disease line with prevalent werein ideas von Reider’s Edler (Berlin: G. Reimer, 1831), 4. Reider, von Edler J.A. könne.” erlangen Eigenschaft contagiöse solche eine Verhältnissen und ansteckende Krankheit vielleicht im weiterenVerlauf, in denspätern Stadien, unter sicher nachtheiligenUmständen zurückgekommensind und höchstens dienoch aber ebenfalls irrigeMeinung festhalten, das diese ursprünglich nicht unserer Mitte nur auf diesemWege für wahrscheinlichund thunlich hielten, von dieser Ansicht zum grosserTheile Verbreitung und Verschleppung des Uebelsein durch Contagium Raum gaben, odergar seine Erscheinung in aufhört undschon jetzt viele meiner hiesigen Collegen, welche noch voreiniger Zeit der Möglichkeit der Seuche hierso in langsamerund allmählicher Fortschreitung dieser dass für vorurtheilsfreie MännerEntwickelung die jede Täuschungsahen Wir entschlüpfen. Einflüssen epidemischen aus Uebels des Ausbildung langsame diese konnte Arzte aufmerksamen etwas nur auch und keinem entwickeln sich stufenweise und allmählig Cholera die wir sahen Stadt Inhiesiger mussten. erwarten Wahrscheinlichkeit grosser mit Krankheitsform, oder Seuche verbreitenden Schrecken so grossen dieser, die Entwicklung wir dass Art, der von war Krankheitsconstitution 102 “DerGang und Charakter unserer gewöhnlichen Krankheiten undhier, der ganze Genius der herrschenden contagious properties. contagious obtain can environment, and conditions pernicious right the under development, perhaps in stage of contagious, later thisthat not disease,whichwasa originally the of disease midst, in noour longer hold this view.presence Atmost now they hold viewthe the erronous explain to way only the was that thought even and contagion, through spreading disease the of thepossibility considered somewho for time here, colleagues 102 Abtheilungs-Commissare [districts-commissioners], who th of July 1831 a seven Die Cholera zu Wien 42 CEU eTD Collection healthy parts parts of population. healthy the this small army of bureaucrats of wasinaccordance primary with the forduty days. housewouldthe This becloseddown 21 and doctors: a hospital to was transported however, patient leastIf the for 42days. at be closedwould down complete segregationinstilledimmediate have was whocould quarantine andthe house physician, aprivate afford to of the contaminated patientthe received helpfrom a doctorinside which hishouse, was for preferred option the those and the optionsavailable. If cholera, were house two with diagnosed inhabitanta of an In adoctor case lifestyle and of demeanor lesswell-off the inhabitants, whotypically insmallerhouses.resided citizens wealthier the words, In other to check any house in their district on cleanliness and order. In check In case a and in anyhouse to on wasdeemedto cleanlinessresidence order. their district Commissare 105 Individuengeleitet werde.” Ibid. geeignete Sections-Commissare der Geschäfte beschwelichen der Besorgung zur thatige, auf Wahl diese dass befindlichenHauser unter derLeitung der Abtheilungs-CommissareSection zu überlassen, dieser wobeyin der bloss dahin zuwirken ist, Eigenthumern den aber ist Individuums geeigneten hierzu des Wahl Die nehmen. zu wohnen, 104 Q 556/830, 28289, 2. 1831,WienerStadt- und Landesarchiv,Main register Q,Sanitäts- und Verkehrsgegenstände, 556,box 3,Verzeichnis 103 be bigger. to tended of houses insix totwenty six theandsuburbs, to housesin one theinner city,where houses allinformation to the directly reported preside, who Ibid, 6. selbst Section der in die Individuen, jenen aus zwar und Bürgerschaft, der aus sind Sections-Commissare “Diese “Instructionfürdie in derStadt und in denVorstadten Wiens aufzustellenden Abtheilungs-Commissare,” 18 July individuals are elected into the office of section-commissioner. office of the into elected are individuals is and make have appropriate sureactive, to They by regulated district-commissioners. the sections, in their houses the in own they property the on based is individuals, should assuch, elected individuals those and from citizenry the are These section-commissioners reside in the district and ought to take control. The election of the suitable In order to establish this segregation, administrative personnel had the duty had right and the duty the personnel toestablish administrative segregation, In order this had to appoint alocal 103 Inside the different administrative units of the city, the 105 Sections-Commissare of the city were appointed to check and regulate the Abtheilungs-Commissare [Section-Commissioners]. 104 . A unit. consisted Abtheilungs- 43 CEU eTD Collection regular hospital, the personnel consisted of doctors, wardens, cleaners, a gatekeeper and nurses. wardens, agatekeeper cleaners, doctors, of consisted personnel regular hospital, the their homes. Each of Vienna’sfor the poor who could notafford to have private doctorshospitals attending them in the safe familiarity of had a capacity lastresort the be healed, could wherepatients spaces designated were the hospitals battles. The of eighty to a hundred Thedesign epidemic. wasbased of military hospitals used on these hospitals during warsor patients. Like a stop the to measurein campaign the important was an hospitals cholera of The construction Cholera Hospitals widethe epidemic. spreadof the made for implicitly they also responsible occupied members by less were of the Vienna, wealthy ascribing of the likelihood onto contraction theshabbydisease houses which were usually could incitingknowledge environments be could thesethus By and by avoided disease people. be common to considered spaceswere of pathological The characteristics spaces. pathological who were often mentioned as beingmore receptive to epidemics, were put towork to clean these 3, Verzeichnis3, Q 556/830,28019, 2 Wien, 20 July 1831,WienerStadt- und Landesarchiv,Main register Q, Sanitäts- und Verkehrsgegenstände,556, box 107 106 nearby swamps. or moisture with combined spaces, of these characteristics small living spacesandfilth moisture nearbycombined with or swamps were thethree main during because epidemics,in. unhealthy they of lived density environment the people,of High Individuals residingin such incitingdisease spaces were thought tobe prone tocontamination as whatprocess kindto spaces were of deemedtobeunfitfor living during anepidemic. formeda large making of whichtobasis ‘spatial the a certain decision extent the pathology’ be toodirty safelyto live in,the inhabitants would be removed from their property. Kaiserliche und Köningliche Sanitäts- und Approvisionirungs-Commission für die k.k. Haupt- und Residenzstadt Ibid, 3. 107 The unemployed, 106 Therewas 44 CEU eTD Collection rooms and care offered to patients,rooms andresponsibility offeredbutultimate to care with municipal resided the up of set the concerning say hada also specialists Medical hospitals. in the offered services patients. of behalf made the on anycosts of registration correct the especially concerns, bureaucratic published for householders the of cholera hospitals, of most pageswerewhich devoted to A manual was andattention. care utmost the with them inneedand treat of patientcare element of subordination, an indicated Although atthis time. Empire wasenvisioned the elite bureaucratic the and of inhabitants between relationship the patriarchal how of indication clear isa terminology This the householders of the hospital were also obliged to take in any 111 Sanitäts- und Verkehrsgegenstände, 556,box 4,Verzeichnis Q 556/800,35086. 110 556/830, 28591. 109 Q 556/830, 28289, 2. 1831,WienerStadt- und Landesarchiv,Main register Q,Sanitäts- und Verkehrsgegenstände, 556,box 3,Verzeichnis 108 find new staff had innursing. experience that mustit washuge,to have been difficult horribleside-effects with disease unknown completely quicklypressure to personnel abundantrecruit forto tend who patients justcontracted a the Since wasa‘morality certificate’. of doctor, that besides hospitals, constructed newly the jobs apply in to for vacant any the of The only treasury. requirement anyincome the for generate not and money Empire the cost only would They hospitals. inthe stay their during made costs’ kinds of patients whowould endupin publiccholerathese hospitals, able werenot refund to the the so homes, in their them attending doctor a of services the afford not could patients poorest be registered. to had cost possible every since present, also were unit administrative The number of people working at these hospitals is unknown. A small pharmacy and an Ibid, 1-6. Q, register Main Landesarchiv, und Stadt- Wiener Cholera-Spitales,” eines Hausvater den für “Instruction Wiener Stadt- und Landesarchiv, Main register Q, Sanitäts- und Verkehrsgegenstände, 556,box 3,Verzeichnis Q “Instructionfürdie in derStadt und in denVorstadten Wiens aufzustellenden Abtheilungs-Commissare,” 18 July The heads of cholera hospitals were commonly referred to as to referred commonly were hospitals ofcholera The heads 111 Clearly the most pressing concern was to not overspend on the caretaking and caretaking the on overspend not to was concern pressing most the Clearly 109 Hausvater [householder]. 108 Only the Only 110 45 CEU eTD Collection few authors who published twice on cholera in a short timeframe – the difference between both between difference –the short timeframe in a oncholera whopublished twice few authors big epidemicaffecting Empire the Habsburg in Firstof 1831-1832. all, hewas one of very the books Vienna some on during topic already. first the the time two quite for werepublished His in working been had who doctor experienced an he was that besides him, about is known Little Discourses on disease be foundhavebeen arenotto andmust existence totheirrare today. clues practical instances Such city. the of inhabitants wealthier usually healthy, the of houses the conditions private spaces into temporary hospitals wouldhave implied the poor to enter measure. under the emergency worst an as of needy, the for houses their open to Vienna of citizens full by the 21 556/830, 29572. 114 Q, Sanitäts-register und Verkehrsgegenstände,box 556,4, Verzeichnis Q556/831,3832. (Die Waaren-Contumaz Betreffend),” 18 July 1831, Wiener Stadt- und Landesarchiv, Main 113 112 duty.medical personnel on Otherwise, the doors of the hospital opened only to transport the bodies of the dead and to letin enteringafter hospital, the they by unless, diagnosedashealthy were medical the personnel. all. The cholera hospitals were closed off to the public and patients did not have the right toleave no at rights little to hand,had other the on Patients, change. make other or some more patients governmentand sanitary dependenton the in in approval commission’s case wantedtotake they government. Wiener Stadt- und Landesarchiv, Main register Q, Sanitäts- und Verkehrsgegenstände, 556,box 5,Verzeichnis Q “Zweiter Auszug ausdemneue Entwurfe zueiner Pest-Polizei-Ordnungfür k.k.Staaten die Ibid, 5. One of the first authors on cholera in Vienna was the Viennese physician A.L. Köstler. A.L. physician Viennese the was Vienna in cholera on authors first the of One 112 st of September 1831, compelling the municipalthe issue the arequestto to authorities September 1831,compelling of Householders andthe were by rest of staff the appointed municipal the 113 Even though the hospitals had a bad reputation, all of Even badhad the hospitals reputation, a though all them of were 114 Making 46 CEU eTD Collection als als ihr,Kleinmüthige nur sterbenderan.’” Ibid, 13. sey machtiger Krankheit die das nicht, ‘Glaubt sagte: Umgebung seiner zu welcher verdankte, Kaisers des Willen festen dem allein Seuche der von Befreyung keine Peking das hinzu, er fugte beweis Als sey. ihr vor sicher Gemüth unverzagte das imGegentheil leben, Unmaßigkeit und Unsauberkeit in welche wahlt, Menschen solche sie nur da um so mehr Raum, je ungewöhnlich mehr Menschen nur sie Reiche hinwegrasse; übrigens ihrem kenne die Seucheverschaffe Opferihre wohl, Krankheit diese denn kenne, Maßregeln vergleichen keine China in man das erklärte, wobey dieser besprechen, zu Vorsichtsmaßregeln getroffenen der wegen sich um Oberbeamten, chinesischen einen mit Unterredung eine Kiachta zu Gränzzolldirector russische der hatte näherte, Gränze russischen 116 zweckmäßig zu behandeln 115 cholera.on topics andalso many on exchange knowledge larger,with was becoming a world that area to testimony texts Köstler’s level. medical specifically and ascientific on also but apolitical, on only not – Empire hierarchy in the the of occupied Vienna thecentral position reaffirms eastern This crown-land. based hisin of on poorestandmost Galicia,the own largest, observations cholera Empire’s patients throughout 1830’s.the Even though he was active in he hisVienna, drafted publications topic. on the publications of note previous whiletaking disease of the by his observations accumulated own months. several than more been have cannot publications “Merkwürdig ist in dieser Hinsicht fölgende Geschichte: Als in Jahre 1827 sichdie Cholera der Chinesisch- A.L. Köstler, A.L. from it.’ from believe is illness the more you powerful are,since than with littleonly die those courage Don’t liberation of disease: forthe the foremost and first steady will Emperor’s thank the moods high.theirprove To his theChinese statement, remarkedBeijing that ought to whoto those keep in excessasopposed plaguethe were living unclean andprey who to fell people those only well: its victims knows disease the way, By the sense. made little explained why werenosimilar measuresthere inChina, empire becausethe wassobig it He a Chinesecolleague. with measures precautionary the on hadKiachta adiscussion in customs-officer Russian the border, Chinese-Russian the approached 1827 cholera year inthe When history: following the mentioning is worth it account into this Taking many by consulted been have must Köstler inVienna, a district-doctor as function his In Anweisung sich gegen die epidemische Cholera zuschützen, und dieselbe beyihrem Beginn 116 (Vienna, Mörschner und Jasper, 1831), 27. 115 He combined knowledge Hecombined 47 CEU eTD Collection 119 Sanitätsmassregeln immer alsMuster für andere Staaten aufgestellt.” Ibid, 20. ihrer Unterthanen väterlichbesorgte Regierungen,und insbesondere wurden die in Österreich bestehenden 118 117 disease. tothe morebecome predisposed significantly bystanders would ‘cholera’ topatients andtheirfamily since itwas assumed this cause could panic and these etiological theory. From 1832 onwards, doctors were advised not to disclose the diagnosis heartof his important upon itthe second wasvery since disease. element touched This fearby the hetempercaused the wanted to Secondly, from threat. the sufficiently themselves families of nature on the so thatcouldshare hismeticulouscholera, protect observations to he wanted Firstly, disease. the on publication initial his with mind in goals two had Köstler of bestEurope: ruler wasthe wasmostcapablehis its Austrian was convinced ofbattling disease,because the that state own from its diseaseinBangladesh, long Europe where the started pandemic travel to 1817. Köstler its colonies India Kingdom, and United from spread through knowledgethe on was cholera the heldoften focus becauseit primary that isinteresting assumption This counters eastern cholera. with dealt had state Chinese the versus Russian the how on aware thus was Köstler Polizeylichen Vorkehrungen flachen Lande, in Osttereich unter der Enns, in den Jahren 1831und 1832, nebst den dagegen getroffenen Sanitats- ill. the of condition the deteriorate inciting healthy inthe or disease swingsof weresuspected since mood dangerous, Joseph Johann Knolz, “Was zurAbhalthung des Contagiums vonLändern und Städten gethanwerden soll, dafür sorgen für das Wohl Ibid, 13-14. measures taken inmeasures taken Austria serve asamodel for otherstates up to look to. is that the fashion. Especially its inafatherly wellbeing the citizens of about concerned government the by done is contagion the halt to cities and lands in is done What Darstellung der Brechruhr Epidemie in der k.k. Residenzstadt Wien, wie auch in dem (Vienna: Mayerund Compagnie, 1834), 361. 119 This was potentially 118 117 48 CEU eTD Collection individualization of both disease and therapy. Conveniently,absolute it to wasled it only that thefact doctor is the who was disease and body the of understanding contemporary with connection to the way diseasein hadgreatconsequences category predisposition of the dominance The sick asaresult. could be accounted for balance of system and a person afragiledisturb become were ablecould this and necessary to by doctors. Its most dramaticthings, difference that the body among category other presupposed, was acomplicated that affected. It werenot and others and health wereill became people particular during epidemics, explain why,especially was usedto This concept part of one fragile system. Influences fevers.replacing previously fever,present upon this system seasonal be latest the might cholera in that Britain medicine of men some among conclusion the ledto which season, year or the of times particular with be associated to thought example for were epidemics Some individual. inan diseases feversand of onset causethe were able to factors separate some quite theories contemporary to according since process, very complicated fever an individual had contracted, was the first step to ascribing an effective therapy. This was a category fevers.A wide range feversof was thought toexist, and correct diagnosis of the type of from disease in the regard different this thatnot was cholera of disease, the understanding In their patterns. pathological related common stomach rangeof broad a encompassed medics contemporary in belief of the which cholera, of toother,endemictypes opposed and deadly. be dangerous especially was considered to that type disease of the particular 54-55. 121 Cholera 120 Margaret Pelling, Margaret A.L. Köstler, (Vienna, Mörschnerund Jasper, 1831), 8. Besides these factors, Köstler also employed the important category of category important predisposition. of the Köstler employed also factors, Besides these A lethal form of cholera Köstler described was thesocalled was Köstler described A lethal form cholera of Aus der Erfahrung geschöpfte Andeutungen zur Erkenntniss und Behandlung der Epidemischen Cholera, Fever and English Medicine 1825-1865 121 (London: Oxford University Press, 1978), cholera epidemica 120 It was , a 49 CEU eTD Collection 123 122 age. of genderor place, regardlessandhaving patient, cure the medicine thus onespecific whichcould one causal agent medicine: socalled wasthe idea pernicious Especially the applicable disease one of universally Competitors on were accused market narrow. of the quackery. became increasingly drug schooling, medical by institutionalized profession, medical the of dominance epistemological the necessary capable of the thismedicine.assessing therapy etiological through Thus and reasoning within them. within erupted that appearance andchangesof patients body of the observing byclosely diagnosed differencesin soil to and leveltemperature, moisture. thedisease Nevertheless, of could only be importance great Köstlerattributed possible. be evadedwhenever could these conditions so that The general conditions that would render people sensitive to disease were to be establishedcholera. notapply only to andthisout did broke epidemics were common where inall places that first, circumstances the establish to thus was epidemic the of understanding the to Central diseases. Underlyingabout. hisis theory theidea thatthistype of cholera could evolve out of other cholera] was to determine under what circumstances the feared the circumstances determine what cholera] under wasto CholeraEpidemischen publication cholera. goal his The howcitizens against describing canprotect themselves of earlier onwards] start the from iteffectively treat to how and Beginn zweckmäßigzu behandeln Ibid, 3-7. Ibid, 15-16, 26. In Anweisung sichgegendieepidemischeCholerazuschützen,unddieselbebeyihrem Anweisung Aus der Erfahrung geschöpfte Andeutungen zur Erkenntniss und Behandlung der zur und geschöpfteAndeutungen Erkenntniss der Erfahrung Aus 123 122 [Hints derived from derived[Hints from experience torecognize onhow epidemic and treat Universal were strongly drugs withassociated quackery. [Direction on how [Direction to protecthow on oneselfepidemic against cholera Köstler was writing for a lay for alay audience, waswriting Köstler cholera epidemica could come could 50 CEU eTD Collection 124 Köstler. hoped patterns, epidemic disease brokeout,by mapping these variables, two itwould perhaps be possible predict to future the where place and time the on concentrating By diagnosis. establish aswift to becould used disease, in this incase cholera, all its symptoms and complexities, identifying a main type which inregularity disease chaos the the Like cholera caused. Sydenham he on observing focussed methods of discover English the Köstler Sydenham Thomas physician tried(1624-1689), to Akinthe by be to threecategories. these ofinspiration. explained could source using Diseases 125 not that surprising exercise their craft. to lose right the that wouldimmediately doctors the fingers) with stomach such pressure was feeling (including the through compulsory the the pulse and pressing touchingpatients of exerted onto doctors themselves in the coming faceof didtoqualifiedprovide epidemic.If the doctors not adequatecare take care of all patients:strengthen to inorder evenmoney wood or food, to receive were poor the Moreover, cholera. as compulsory by law toprovide for doctors any care whowas to being of person suspected ill of people in careof andittaking wasdoubleddisease, insize made infirmaries personnel was of the a possible outbreak to as apreparation in 1831: measures weretaken concrete Two was inknown it earlier descriptions mostlyof cholera that ravaged among stratum. thissocial itpart of since population, the mostly poorest the towards aimed wereinfact countermeasures of observations. desiredoutcome the its wasthe effects, to vulnerable easilybecause conditions underwhich many became spread an would epidemic people Polizeylichen Vorkehrungen flachen Lande, in Osttereich unter der Enns, in den Jahren 1831und 1832, nebst den dagegen getroffenen Sanitats- Dorothy Porter, Joseph Johann Knolz, In Köstler’s work the Hippocratic trio of airs, waters and places was clearly a great wasclearly andplaces waters airs, of trio Hippocratic the work In Köstler’s Special attention was devoted to the poor from the early stages in 1831 onwards. The first Health, Civilization and the State Darstellung der Brechruh Epidemie in der k.k. Residenzstadt Wien, wie auch in dem (Vienna: Mayerund Compagnie, 1834), 239. 124 The establishment of an epidemic constitution, the (London: Routledge,2005), 55. 125 It is It 51 CEU eTD Collection 127 126 lands as in microscopy Great Britain lotgained a of popularity, resulting in numerous new theories regarding the origins of disease was an important development. Inboth the German leading asaninnovative instrument to microscope During useof the the period1835-1845the Microscopic vision,macroscopic consequences protected. be hadstrata to upper wealthier the which from disease of being dens imagined as weredistricts behaviour which was partiallyimmoral spread disease their ill to though dueto people, biaswhowere a certain towards the initial cause of their sickness. area. inaparticular letting people not at aimed was more of a district It also reveals how thewhile enclosure lettingout, mostly not people focused on theplaces barricading Also, barricades. poorer suburbs by muchguarded, whereas less receiving thorough protection thepoorer a were heavily was inner The wealthy Vienna of city was present. inwealth protecting the population based on acertain divergence by of Nonetheless, people. the state, well-being care of taking the alwaysfulfil.enforce hadnot made regulations They for toresponsible to willing the were and a differentintorole, theywere one doctors it pressured also century: in thenineteenth medicine authority. medical of professions’ the importance with cholera.qualified specialists, they were the only Thisones who were allowed to officially diagnose somebody was a direct consequence of the cholera epidemic: a strong rise in the Ibid, 241. Ibid, 359-360. These examples provide insight into an into neglected sideof role insight often of provide These changing the examples 126 127 These measures revealed measures These 52 CEU eTD Collection 130 einen Somnambulen 129 1970), 8-12. reality. existing andobjectively irrefutable with a solid, make in accordance skill to observations 128 could berecorded. Rennweg of who commonlyexpressedby suffereddescriptions symptoms disease. from those the precise and methods of diagnosis heal cholera, to several therapies presented text the disease, Starting widespreadmiracleto cholera.the firm not the with to trust a curesagainst warning a sleepwalker]. of manifestation Aeußerung einenSomnambulen his Johann the wakeof doctor the cholera1848-1849 published the of Romich Viennese epidemics In in Vienna. cholera on theories of formulation the on impact an had also developments These couldpublications onthose tiny be magnifyinganimalcules that observedunder glasses. the since itwas through large publicize to onany observationsremarkable made their in during hospitals, work especially Romichimportance of medical hadtothetext public the duty emphasized at the professionals during the firstepidemicnoticeis of to significant1831-1832. It his thatin introduction the to eyes, similarwritten books of somethingsome authors the him from of which distinguished withhave many contact hadregular his andobserved thediseasehis with of colleagues own must medical profession, of the general state into the informed have Hemustwell been doctors. Ibid, V. Johann Romich, W. D. Foster, Die Vorzüglichsten BehandlungsartenDie Vorzüglichsten derCholeranebst der merkwürdigenhöchst Romich was working as a doctor in one of the cholera hospitals in Vienna, the one at to be precise. Besides, he was a member of the Viennese A History of Medical Bacteriology and Immunology Die Vorzüglichsten Behandlungsarten der Cholera nebst der höchst merkwürdigen Aeußerung (Vienna: Leopold Sommer, 1850). 130 their Making a correct diagnosis, was reserved for those who had the unique eyes that eyes 129 remarkable most a to next treatments, cholera principal [The The first fifty pages covered a wide variety of related topics of variety fifty awide covered pages Thefirst treue Beobachtung [true observance] of phenomena of reality (London: William Heinemann Medical Books, Medical Heinemann William (London: collegium [college] of [college] 128 53 CEU eTD Collection Gedanke ist wohl auch der letzte, welcher so viele Kranke nach Jenseits begleitet.” Ibid, 12. Ibid, begleitet.” Jenseits nach Kranke so viele welcher letzte, der auch wohl ist Gedanke tröstende dieser und zu retten; ihn ist, Stande im noch wäre, schwarz ganz wirklich schon erauch wenn welches, der Cholera durch einen rationellen Arzt aus dem Grunde nicht beachtet, weil ereinMittel zu besitzen glaubt, Mittels sich einer gewissenSorglosigkeit überlät, und die günstigstenMomente zur noch möglichenBekämpfung 131 withhe called what beinginfected water of danger the mentioned explicitly Romich was remarkable, wasthat however, What choleraunique qualities epidemics. to wasnot its tranquillizing through rebalance thebody able to being natural water Theidea pure, of water. Accordingly, Romich authority,providingstop of effective capable therapies to developmentthe of cholera. described severalmore hopeless, according to Romich.successful Doctors were imaginedeven were to be thepatient the sole of resourcechances the of rationaldoctor, the of eye rational the of therapies.intervention the Without The first he mentioned was cold professional professional, as and publishingan author cholera on wasreconfirminghis position a as medical asa the wason handone active He likeRomich. toprofessionals competitors direct pamphlets, advertisements andmouth-to-mouth rumors. Unqualified medical entrepreneurs were successfullybrand via to for entrepreneurs provided products their thereckless opportunity epidemic acholera sense a wide In this to audience. a largescale were sold at that medicaments popularized bullets, magic medical of enterprise commercial the condemning by book his fashion, opened Romich this disease. In properobservation the of tothe skillof connected “Wie viele Familienbeklagen nicht denVerlust ihres Brotgebers, welcher im Besitze eines solchenAnticholera- The establishment of The and of doctors establishmentinevitably professional the position physicians was of turning black; and this consoling thought was often the last they had, which led them into them led hereafter. the which had, they last the often was thought consoling this and black; turning were they when even them save could which medicine a obtained have to convinced possibility consultingof during arational doctor the most pressing since times, they were after obtainingsuch an anti-choleramedicine. heed Theydidnot take of necessity the and How many families do not mourn the loss of their breadwinners, who became careless who had privileged access to crucial whohad accessto privileged medical knowledge. 131 Choleragift [cholera 54 CEU eTD Collection einen Somnambulen 135 Cambridge University Press, 2000), 41. 133 132 poison]. 134 the therapeutic measures taken in the Viennese cholera hospitals were based on fighting were basedon in cholera hospitals measures Viennese taken the the therapeutic from theorist antiquity, Galen 129-199/217). (A.D. based dominantly humoral by the during inspiredmedical present on theory 1830’s, Greek the William blood Harvey’s theory of madein transmission and the kindof 1628 were that theories not properly blood the through transport veins of patients. This refers backtoa mixture of therefore which not would innerorgans of several by irritation wascaused Disease irritability. idea of inwasthe in of sway One these still 1850. were apparently that ondisease theories cordons. sanitary likelyRomich sanitary most supported measures andrecommend would not installment the of best prophylactic measure beto taken against cholera according tothis logic and thus shows how contagious: prevailing the possibility rot andof ferment waste to organic in spacewas public the essentially based changesin ofpatients theblood on and assumedcholera wasnot that fermentation leadcontamination andand than toadisease. could air, being in absorbed of blood the victims where itwas causepoisoning to through substancesforfor responsiblespecific itsflowing each diseases: poison, disease own through the Liebig, According of it matter. air,contagious spread through to consisting of poisonous inchemist who Liebig Justus (1803-1873), 1830’s the hisnewconceptnature expounded of the possibility. This was a strong indication that Romich was aware of the work of the German Johann Romich, Dorothy Porter, Ibid, 14. Michael Worboys, Michael Other therapies mentioned by Romich consist of a range of medicines that indicate 132 The danger of Thebywaterwasthus mentioned diseasethe of danger explicitly spreading asa Health, Civilization and the State Die Vorzüglichsten Behandlungsarten der Cholera nebst der höchst merkwürdigen Aeußerung (Vienna: LeopoldSommer, 1850), 15. 134 Spreading Germs: Disease Theories and Medical Practice in Britain, 1865-1900 (London: Routledge,2005), 84. 135 Romich was aware of the fact that most of 133 Liebig’s disease theory was theory disease Liebig’s (New York: 55 CEU eTD Collection 138 20. ausweichenkann: habenSie auch das Opium, welches in der ‘Wiener Zeitung’ so gelobt angewendet?” wird, Ibid, 137 136 so highly recommended by ‘Wienerthe Zeitung’?” way impulse the to of public.the evade Hecannot question:the you did also try opium, whichis became popularduring thelate1840’s.“Duringmust such doctor the terrible times, often give andbe colonies, where found other in the In drugwasto abundantquantities. Vienna the drug by According prescribedRomichcontext. inIndia this wasregularly physicians English the to abundant, was leftbehind. or beinfected to that wasperceived blood letting out bleeding, inwhich one practice, medical old a centuries meanta breakfrom andthisrecognition measure be aneffective perceived to longer wasno bleeding realization, of As this aconsequence cholera-poison. ephemeral the thedisease: of thecause diagnose not could but cholera, of symptoms uncanny particular itself by purging itself from poisonous elements. Human intervention of the disease and healing and disease the of intervention Human elements. poisonous from itself purging by itself healing of becapable inherently perceivedto was body the considerations, these of consequence body. entire the over disease the spreading blood, the into poison cholera the absorb to poisons andstarting ahealing If process. be halfway, would this stopped itforcewould the body was seen by Romich as a part of the healing process, a symptom of the body cleaning itselfloss of gargantuan from amounts of moisture from thebody was the result of these symptoms, but this large, regular quantities of opium: excrements and vomit wouldno longer escape the body. The health. patients’ Viennese doctors,sinceit was considered tobeineffective andpossibly even detrimental the to Ibid, 21. nicht Frage der er weil nachgeben, Publikums des Drange dem oft sehr Schreckenszeit so einer in muss Arzt “Der Ibid, 16-19. The last explicitly mentioned medicine was opium,a new kind of indrug theAustrian Two of the most prominent symptoms of cholera were largely stopped as of effect were largely stopped a side mostcholera symptoms of Two of prominent the 136 137 Opium was not a favorite medicine of 138 As a 56 CEU eTD Collection 139 was thususedagent by him for thefirst time. peculiar by choleraa wascaused signified that thatRomich whatbutwas was idea remarkable in1850, innovative an such not was This poison. cholera the by poisoned more was environment their others: than disease the to victims more had city a in areas some how explained This humans. plants beand whichwould earth or the absorbedingroundwater, by laterbeconsumed through short time, which it after was absorbedfog and by ripe.dew, would It to than drop ground the in Romich’s narrative. Initially, he believed cholera would spread through air, but only for avery written during thefirst epidemic in 1831-1832. Miasmatic theory still heldimportant position an cities or from state to state could not be ignored. Romich’sdebatable question contagiousness.of how cholera The question spread among populations, text differs in this matter from those ofdisease spreading Non-contagious local of universally, regardless conditions. environmental This opened the wayfor the theoretical of possibility once producingmedicines would that work health. based and modelsdisease of orpredisposition used previously atmospheric contradicted the that possibility The could changenot another, from intoone butwere specific, was uniqueentities, gaining ground. diseases that idea in medical The had theory. developed changes that several important to points wasKöstler’sprocess minimal. When compared thus to from 1830’s,Romich’s the texts text Ibid, 23. One of the most pressing matters concerning One 1850still highly pressingmatters wasaround most the cholera of the poison, unique to the disease. The concept of specificby unique diseases caused conceptof one disease. the The to unique poison, same disease could make from very different areas of the world ill, also 139 57 CEU eTD Collection einen Somnambulen 142 Johann Romich, Romich completely deleted any reference to sleepwalking and instead fully focusedon hiswriting oncholera. 141 140 makeimpliedremarkable statement in to livinginside 1849.It tiny that that werepresent entities likelyfound,of carriers disease. be the could corpuscles] organic bodies or cholera patients established that in several tests the same kind of “organische Körperchen” of [small excrements the of research microscopic collaborated their through who unknown), death and birth of andFrederick(date Brittan William BritishBudd (1811-1880) doctors, referred totwo of plagiary. accusations possible avoiding of somehow importance havebeenthe cholera could introduce new on narrativeforto second knowledge use structure the explanation of odd this disease. the of analysis unorthodox in 1850, his, justify a way to was likely, this Most state. Romich claimed hegained newinsightsby these questioningin asleepwalker hypnotic akindof bubonic plague at first sight, but cholera was clearly in need of a transmitter. In a veryas was the case with the another person, from to one oddcontagious directly not diseasethe was way, to noticeHe wasinasense that spread. cholera causalchainof how right a surprisingly accurate meticulous observation as a doctor employed in a Viennese cholera hospital, Romich constructed infectingfor watermeant consumption, in resulting the spread of Amazingly,cholera. through disease. from the suffering of patients excrements human in contained was agent cholera the how stated he explicitly is that text Romich’s of aspect purifythough this was to treatment very obviously not water innovative the well developed, it bymixing salt Even from with and fresh, coldwater. water rock poison acquired freshly the Johann Romich, This interpretationof mine is supported by factthe that in the second edition of book, the published in1866, Ibid, 24. The recommended way to prevent cholera from spreading was to cleanse and purify the Directly after the mentioning of the sleepwalker as a source of information, Romich Neueste Beobachtungen über die epidemische Cholera Die Vorzüglichsten Behandlungsarten der Cholera nebst der höchst merkwürdigen Aeußerung (Vienna: LeopoldSommer, 1850), 25. 140 He connected this to the possibility of (Vienna: Carl Gerold, 1866). 142 This was verya 141 58 A CEU eTD Collection 145 Fungi,” 144 Medical Bacteriology andImmunology 143 time. atthat Europe Romich, working adoctor in whatis tobeoften supposed oneof mostthe conservative areas of by re-represented and used was consciously text controversial exactly this that remarkable Budd’s hardly discoveries serious inBritainit makesany received attention Greatmore even alike. looked found same they werethe inall patients, as those nearby water: the cholera of excrements in the found organisms tiny that certainty with establish to impossible them it asofyet to by Besides, according fungi.was caused instead disease a kindof was the that claimed who of physicians, British college of the by sub-committee cholera the accepted were not Brittan of discoveries The were criticized. microscope, of a usage by the discovered also in ringworm. namely body, thehuman the inside disease a human for responsible Britishdirectly context was a microparasite it that was proven amicroscope by using time first for the discovery that claimsmagazines articlesspread continent, the so for relatively quickly around example that in 1839 the of specificitymedicalmagazines, specialists viaspecialized communicating such as related British discoverieson the madeby physiciansof importance two revealed thegrowingthe to particular disease all to newplaces thecontinent. over cholera the poison carrying vectors, miasma, theairof flowed aspart through animalsthat sametiny werethe these stated that to be the possibility that cholera might be contagious, a highly debatable statement at the time. Romich for also allowed It ill of disease. the make people more to wereable patients body cholera the of George Rosen, George William Baly and William W. Gull, “The Cholera Sub-Committee of the College of Physicians, on the Cholera This discovery was made by a Swiss professor of medicine, Johan Schoenlein: W. D. Foster, TheLancet The fact that Romich based some of the most relevant pieces of information in his book his in information of pieces relevant most the of some based Romich that fact The A History of Public Health 9(November3, 1849): 493. 145 (London: William Heinemann Medical Books, 1970). 7. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), 262-264. The Lancet The A History of 144 . Through such . Through 143 Thefactthat However, 59 CEU eTD Collection credibility throughout the middle decades of the nineteenth century, the microscope. In microscope. middle his the decadesof nineteenth the article the credibility century, throughout physiology Bristol the at Medical School. He usedatool which was much gaining epistemic of these contributors was the aforementioned Frederick Brittan, a lecturer in general anatomy One and publications. in their cholera of agent causal the and medium the combine did who U.K. the in working doctors other were there year, in same the However, was novel. spreadthat disease the which through medium the as water on emphasis his was It water. in the entities living the disease spread, not its cause. Also, he did not exclude the possibility miasma:of which by medium the on focus placed he only Notably, disease. of models miasmatic from away 146 of importance the on insistence Snow’s of cesspools. that which and might wellsboil water be avoidregularly, or with mixed usingcontaminated water wash hands to he Therefore recommended water. medium: one through spread predominantly cholera that insisted Snow oncholera. from writings earlier aspect in onesignificant epidemics of 1849 andin 1854 London and Bristol. 1849 he In published abook which differed during of onset the a physician cholera andspreadof researched the those whoJohn Snow, Debatable specificity 466-469. John Snow, “On the Mode of Communication of Cholera,” The observations by donotattributeSnow much animalcules,causal agency to ororganic mouth, might be swallowed. way as the sporesbe asafine wafted in same might when dust, organicforthe partof faeces, dry, the the of cryptogamicaltogether preclude the possibility itsof being transmitted a short distanceplants, through the air; not does indicated heremalady mode the of contracting the that beobserved, It should or the germs of animalcules, and entering the The most famous publications on cholera from the nineteenth century are most likely still likely most are century nineteenth the from cholera on publications famous most The 146 The London MedicalGazette pure water, meant one step further step meant one water, , September 9-10, 1849, 60 CEU eTD Collection 149 148 Medical Gazette 147 suspiciousdisease. bodies andthe those between he actually kind observing of was the question Brittan what connection raised cholera patients, such environment as typhus. one that is fundamentally different from other diseases that spread easily in the urban society. British medical tothe results Report ofaSeries Microscopical InvestigationsonthePathologyofCholera thisis time mentioningthe of an majority published around from texts of vast the apart Brittan of this publication Whatseparated instrument, all researched cholera patients had one common denominator. the of lenses the under that he discovered observation, precise more ever of instrument an trouble.”the myof have statements been andcan beto be demonstrated true falseor by whowill anyone take be borne inmindthatthey mereare putforwardand asfacts, opinions, andthat validity the not Ibid, 531. Ibid, 530. Cholera,” of Pathology the on Investigations of Microscopical Series of a “Report Brittan, Frederick unlike any of product: that itthe couldnot be the latter seemed evidentknown at once from the fact that they were healthy effectand or mightitbe andagent, ascause whether ascertain I wished to cholera, or morbidin with have bodies), appearance, I termed annular some manner essentially connected elements Havingof the body, or secretions, thus and as led to consider of excrement and vomit in ‘bodies’ the of kind same the across coming After repeatedly these bodies (which, from the characteristic of their have some essential relation to the disease. the to relation essential have some must and patients, cholera of evacuations the to peculiar were bodies these that inference necessary the to led thus was I and abounds; disease the where in districts so prevalent diarrhea choleric severe of cases in the present were they that by diseases, other bodies didexist these (fig.nor could not 4), meet them I with in the fluid of motions stools typhus and solid in healthy that found I cholera. from free patients from obtained with others compared specimens series,and Iexamined the this While collecting 148 , September 21,1849, 530-542. Infact,Brittan came toasurprising conclusion. By employing the microscope as essential relation 147 “I lay the following facts before the profession. It must It profession. the before facts following the lay “I 149 , the reframing of cholera asa , hepresentedhis specific The London disease, 61 CEU eTD Collection mistaking the so called cholera cells for very found fungi mistaking cells forbread.common very the of socalled kinds cholera inparticular errors, hadmadeclumsy microscopy-enthusiasts provincial three the them, that repeating and experiments A the of checking after announced recognized.committee British physicians facts. observe thus and from themselves’ reality of incapable distancing who were non-scientists by unattainable laboratory, the of fabric fact-producing the of outside unattainable data microscopes, linked one found presenceof the bodies lensesspecific to of the under disease, a became cholera time, same at the Yet in the atmosphere. cholera of agents observe to claimed he since example, for theory his in present much very still was theory Miasmatic theories. Brittan's text combined elements of old discourses on disease etiology with new discoveries and into Schwann's introductionreminiscent microscopy in ofthe cellmetaphor of Theodor 1840. cells, of be interms observed to hethought of cholera agents thecausal framed Brittan his discoveries. merely but registering his research, with discoveries,position hetried himself to asbeingan objective not observer, involved personally with the aid inquiry of especially as was employed, an instrument microscope the unless unattainable one of the rational but scientists, surrounding reality the of mere registrations as his observations described Brittan gaze of the professional scientist. To boost the validity of his 152 151 150 Wachstum der Thiere und Pflanzen TheodorSchwann, Ibid, 541. Ibid, 533. Initially, the research undertaken by Brittan byBrittan and the Initially, colleagues not BuddandSwaynewas research his undertaken inferences. their draw may myself, as well would wish them to stand alone as a fixed and demonstratedlestbroughtmight forward, I distract attention bydoing from so them,and becauseI truth, from which others, as On this account, also, I have studiously avoided giving any opinion at all on the facts atmosphere, &c. of places where cholera was rife. was wherecholera &c. of places atmosphere, seemed probable from they were introduced and wouldwithout, bemet in with the they were found inthevomited apparently matters in early stage of itdevelopment, MikroskopischeUntersuchungen über Übereinstimmungdie inder Struktur und dem (Berlin, 1839). 151 150 152 62 CEU eTD Collection November2, 1849, 746. epidemic and mentioningthe miasmatic of influencing factors the spread of cholera areclearly inan of factor intensity the important asan climatic conditions to references Especially cholera. focuseddisease, on butwas employed method the by in diseaseitself. agent spreadingthe describe Snow didnot further. agent “cholera the of the asa cholera poison” could communicate body individual whose presence infected andthe main of of an presence water factors: the two to spread disease way the he attributed Rather, location. a given of altitude by the necessarily diddisease by Snow believe spread it not water. could spreadbyair,orwasinfluenced Pathology andModeofCommunication ofCholera article, second Snowpublished a MedicalGazette. London the of pages monthsthe on specialists. medical by justified be could claims stronger laboratories, or institutes research- own their with in societies themselves organizing By claims. their of validity epistemic support the argument to astrong of kinds science different of practitioners science offered of institutionalization the Indeed, argumentation. his strengthen to by Swayne used also was society microscopy a of membership The origin. or nature animal-like their to relating terms in were still described by Swayne as cholera cells, fungi or cholera poison. microscope, help the of the with scrutinized bodies the Notably, results. research microscopic 154 862. 153 the in of annals continue debate the the feltto compelled weeks after Swayne this publication, Two John Snow, “On the Pathology and Mode of Communication of Cholera,” In: of Cholera,” Communication of Mode and Pathology the “On Snow, John Joseph Griffith Swayne, “The Cholera Fungi and Uredo,” London MedicalGazette In Romich’s text there were still many elements to be found from the older discourses on lasting place several took debate lively on a cholera, firstpublication After Snow’s . In its issue of the 2 The London Medical Gazette nd of of November 1849,he defended his own , in which he further elaborated how the how elaborated further he in which , The London Medical Gazette 153 They were notframed , November2, 1849, 859- 154 On the On , 63 CEU eTD Collection Albers die Cholererzeugen, vernichten.”und Ibid, 32. Greser Reale, Heidler, Wiedemann, Esquirol, [sic], Butt Dietl, Brittan, Dr. nach welche Körperchen, entdeckten er inSubstanz genommen wird, die organische Faser zerstört, auchdie äussert zarten, bloss durch das Mikroskop157 zu hat.” Ibid, 28-29. bestanden Cholera wodie gefunden, Menge hinreichender in überall Körperchen diese [sic] W.Butt Dr. welchen bestimmte Medium, und erhalten es theils durch das im Zimmer stehende Trink- theils durch das Brunnenwasser, in Ausgüsse sich bloss in einerdie GrubeKanälen an Mangel sammeln, wowegen Häusern, und in wird; so stets gelüftet nie fast eine und feuchtezusammenleben, Luft bilden, Menschen wo viele suchen sie das zu ihrer Fortdauer stagnirende, mit Feuchtigkeit geschwängerte Luftschichte finden,eine wie in tiefliegenden,feuchten Körperchen wo und diese engenund Räumen, verbeiten, Weltgegenden allen nach Flüsse der Richtung der in meist Körperchen organischen giftigen diese welche sein, zu Träger die scheinen Feuchtigkeit überhaupt und Nebel Erddünste, Sumpluft, weiss. Ganges-Strome dem aus Cholera der Geburt die welcher ziehen, Zweifel in nicht derjenige 156 einen Somnambulen 155 from specialists ordinary the onlooker. noticestriking to the rise of microscope asa inquirythe tool of and atool medical demarcating did changenot much when 1830’s the are Romich’s comparedfromtexts to textitis 1850, spreading cholera of danger the somehow eradicate to methods the recommended Even though found in a particular kind of house, where spatial pathology thrived. be was to inwater, well so survive could that small organisms the cholera, of carriers tiny the from 1830’s. the previously similar discourses described tothe “Das Kaltwasser, welches die Calciumwirkung in ihrer Reinheit einschliesst, kann eben so wie der Ässkalk, wenn Ässkalk, so wieder eben kann einschliesst, Reinheit inihrer Calciumwirkung die welches Kaltwasser, “Das wird trägt, derselben Verbreitung zur Mitschuld höchste die Epidemie der Zeit zur Trinkwasser das nun “Dass Johann Romich, Esquirol, Wiedemann, Heidler, Reale, Greser and Albers produced the cholera. the and Albersproduced Greser Reale, Heidler, Wiedemann, Esquirol, be discoveredcan only that ones the ones, delicate extremely the also throughfibers, organic the destroys bulk, the microscope, in whentaken justlike hasin pureeffect, quicklime, its calcium The coldwhich water, which according to Dr. Brittan, Dietl, Butt [sic]. had prevailed. cholera wherever abundance, drinkingwaterthese air, findmedium,particlesin for their seek existencewhich continous aparticular they moist always is there consequence a as where a pit, in together come sinks together and almost no fresh air comes in,and there, layers of air,such as damp spaces, many narrow wheredeeply allocated, and live people in houses where due to a lack canalswell-water, the flowing in all directions of world.the Wherever these particles foundin moist shelter rivers mostly through be the organic particles, poisonous these disseminated to carriers, which seem moisture and fog earth, the from filth Swamp-air, river. Ganges in of cholera birth the about knows who by anyone be doubted not will epidemic, the of spread the in whichThat drinking the during water the currentepidemic times is especially responsible for Dr. Butt [sic] observed these particles in Die Vorzüglichsten Behandlungsarten der Cholera nebst der höchst merkwürdigen Aeußerung ,(Vienna: LeopoldSommer, 1850), 26-29. 156 155 The fertile reception awaiting Thefertile reception 157 64 CEU eTD Collection Cambridge University Press, 2000), 4. 158 Choleragift contextthe spread, in Viennese used by the to medium disease the (water) pathological andagents spreading process it. WhereasJohn most devoted Snow attention the to of cholera was by that it1850 was described as a particular disease, with its own, unique inthe framing changes important most of the One twenty years. inthose place didtake changes medicaments some thatpromised of instantprotection bullets’, and healing However, cholera. terms there was still houses damp,filthy,where lower inhabited Intherapeutic classesresided. the and densely streets a constant need those still disease were the contract to be easier to thought itwas where spaces pathological to warn of the description The dominantly. less population albeit present, still were theory miasmatic of Elements 1850. not to trust the and between 1830 change not significantly did aspects theoriescholera on important In some so called ‘magic sanitary measures or urban urban constructions. or measures sanitary in changes in significantly result not did disease of causes and processes on predominantly based of toaframing andresults cholera based on symptoms from conceptions disease change The water. into air the from dissolve quickly would that particles miasmatic via initially water supply to the city for example, if the diseasefresh- increase the to decision to the irrelevant spread itwas sense In a cholera. of conception changed through contaminated water alone, or by a continued, however,similarchapter, next supported the urban construction of processes in argue AsIwill urbanconstruction. directly or inplanning spatial not new resultof did cholera newAt this conceptualization firstsight, the water. contaminated through predominantly cholera, of spread the for wasresponsible a bacterium Koch, that by namely Robert of proven causality Michael Worboys, Michael A synthesis between these two would later in the century develop to the theoretical chain theoretical the to develop century in the later would two these between A synthesis [cholera poison] received most attention.most received [cholera poison] Spreading Germs: Disease Theories and Medical Practice in Britain, 1865-1900 158 Nevertheless, one important change did occur. Afterimportant change one Nevertheless, occur. did eigenthümliches (New York: 65 CEU eTD Collection 159 important. more became population, for the whole valid diseases, of particular treatment in importantframework, whileimportance having this the of astandardized and specialized contracted place of body,a patients’ was the disease disease, singularity unique tothat the disregarding or the exactitpossible precisely was also wasaspecificrecognizing disease, symptoms cholera to define time a patient got ill. Considerations of space and time were less Ibid, 30. 159 66 CEU eTD Collection ‘common enemy’, in the form of a disease, we have only relatively recently encountered in the encountered recently relatively only have we a disease, of form the in enemy’, ‘common dealing trafficin with disease, sanitary affairs and by reality,aboutbroughtgeneral. This a commissions local of kinds all and states between communication international fostering in regulateintended public to health programs. found newto UnitedBritain organizations States, forand the exampleGreat encouraged, to thegrowing tohave desire a more national coordinated health public which policy, contributed clearly disease the level Onanational continents. across traffic and of trade increase prospectsthe regarding uncertainty a similar having of realization This overcome. to challenges ofsimilar survivingvery had officials state and specialists medical disease, same the by caused problems same the epidemic consensusdiseases on the question if cholera was contagious to begin with. But by being noconfrontedwas was After all,there this question. to answer form definite time any of wasatthe there that with to a large bigepidemics, the itwas howthedisease question isspread, although an thinkto anachronism extent brought enemy,challenge,how the or diseaseimagined was andframed.During dependingtimesof on about similarlarge problem, of a very with world the parts confronted They characteristic. important by the great 161 1981), 28-50. 160 state-borders. of resultingpolitical in atightening excellence disease as the context in theEuropean epidemics cholera the preceded had Death The Black Chapter Four: Cholera as a Catalyst of Change George Rosen, George LeRoy Ladurie, Emmanuel Since the beginning of the nineteenth century, these epidemics were an important catalyst important werean epidemics these century, nineteenth the of beginning Since the Cholera was not the first disease that visited all European states with visited effects. horrifying Cholera notthe first allEuropean diseasethat states was that triggered a quick and direct countermeasure in the form form in countermeasureof the cordons, andsanitary direct triggered aquick that A History of Public Health The Mind and Method of theHistorian (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), 254. 161 160 Moreover, the two diseases’ shared one shared diseases’ two the Moreover, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Chicago of University (Chicago: par 67 CEU eTD Collection nineteenth century such as typhus, but above all, cholera. As a new disease, cholera led to aform the of diseases epidemical the to predecessors important ways in several were onwards, from spreading seventeenthplaguethe mid fourteenth to the Europe over epidemics century world.the Obviously, was this notaproblem to unique nineteenththe century. The multitude of the gloomier side effects of the great increasein traffic ofboth humans and commodities all over one of an was level to epidemic endemic an from diseases rise The particular migrants. of poor andinflux Theywereto copewith municipal responsibility bureaucracies. states of great the of be the predominantly would resolving the and developments these of result the were challenges urbanareas. migratinginmobility, New to people rural growing numbersof from resulting social increase of great wasthe developments of these side effect An important region. to region and urbanization, even though tempothe by variedwhich processes these greatly from occurred affair A European something like a World Health Organization, but this was not always the case. is thatthere itforWe granted take andcitizens. states’ of European conglomerate helpless and a powerless in resulting effects, decimating their have lost least seam to they at and respected, 1981), 83. 162 capacity fashion to destinythe mankind.”of itslost in modern times, has trade gradually, and of expansion evilconcomitant asthe disease “Unification by as they just for thecholera nineteenth century do Europe. of epidemics early make today sense almostcentury, twentieth the anyepidemic of Roy when Ladurie, to applied form of AIDS or new forms of influenza. Thus the words of French Emmanuel LeRoy Ladurie, Emmanuel Two important developments in the European in Two important developments nineteenthindustrialization European the were century The Mind and Method of theHistorian 162 Even though epidemic diseases are still feared diseasesarestill epidemic Even though (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Chicago of University (Chicago: Annales school historian school Le 68 CEU eTD Collection 165 164 1851-1894,” was finally tobeimplemented drafted, by only France, Portugal and Sardinia. Europe. After months ofnegotiation and mounting frustration a universal detailed convention in bringing diplomats, nobility in Paris together 1851, and specialistsfrom medical all over supply of fresh-water. the and canalization as such infrastructure, urban of construction the on policy systematic more a led to indirectly which among medical for as professionals correspondence acted a catalyst actually disease the in In Vienna, particular. in cholera and general of diseases contagiousness possible and origin the concerning explanations different by extent significant a to thwarted was which process, problematic and aslow was disease against globe of the unification the that successfully. implement to impossible practically were regulations such that a realization led to cordons, classic concernwith protection borders that manifestedthe itof self in sanitary enormous The halt wasrecognized. spreadof disease the further the developto strategy to acommon invelocity over spacesandspreading inbodies. patients’ by its characterized was adisease It diseases. epidemic other to ascompared shorter significantly its symptoms,was to succumbing and possibly disease between the period contracting 163 disease”. against of internationalization, which historian the HuberlabeledValeska “the unification of globe the Ibid, 457-461. Ibid, 456. Valeska Huber, Valeska Because of the rapid spread of cholera over vast parts of the world, awareness of the need TheHistoric Journal 164 As a consequence the first international sanitary conference on cholera was held was on cholera conference sanitary international first As the a consequence “ 163 The Unification of the Globe by Disease? The International Sanitary Conferences onCholera, Conferences Sanitary International The by Globe Disease? ofthe Unification The Cholera traveled much faster than previous pandemics had done and the and done had pandemics previous than faster much traveled Cholera 49, 2 no. (2006),454. 165 This showed 69 CEU eTD Collection One of One of waysthisthe wasachieved wasthrough ascribingnumber agrowing judicial of powers medical entrepreneurs. number of vis-à-vis great the doctors trained professionally legitimacy of number of diseases, agreat against therapies had had effective inprescribing medicalspecialists limited success it was not easy Becauseof was hithertomicroscope. the asIhaveinthe previous chapter, process, described the until the middle employedbein Oneof needed challenged and market instruments to the this discredited. of the nineteenthmedical on the of competitors anumber of disease, origin cause the and especially regarding century, specialists, medical of claims dominant increasingly the legitimize to order In tointimate. less justify the 166 lostits importance in the establishment of sound diagnosis and therapy. by and patientsregistered in sufferingthe doctor, of ageof patient the medical clinical research as less was basedonsymptoms anddiagnosis andprocesses their causes reframed to according develop.Because diseases started were andto doctor between patient relationship reformulated anditsstate inhabitants, asIdescribedin In two. chapter decadesbetweenthe 1820and 1860,a the between relationship on theories cameralist to back be traced could realm the of inhabitants eighteenth century. The intellectuallate since the wereeducated where medical personnel best the in Central placeEurope was the origins of the state-centeredthemselves as rational expertsconcern of health and disease. with Vienna, thethe center of healththe Habsburg Empire, of the specialists ofmedical reorganization and The professionalization Thomas N. Burg, The new relation between the doctor and the patient was notably less empathic and much and was notablyand less patient the empathic The newdoctor between the relation During the first half of nineteenth the doctorscentury, wereincreasingly presenting “Sieches Volk macht siechen Staat” (Vienna: Praesens 1994), 22-23. 166 70 CEU eTD Collection commissions were allowed take to autonomous decision and action themselves without notifying similar localized which on occasion only The specialists. medical of solely consisted which highest medical in Habsburg was,authority Medicalthe the Empire since 1851, Commission, the consequence, In on. moment this from significantly grew specialists medical of authority caused by 1848revolution,the healing body social metaphorically the both and literally. consternation political the after integration social of a kind foster would specialists medical the that was authorities the of intention The organization. political cities’ the in positions influential wide medical regulations. for Empire- overseeing Commission, responsible a Medical of bythecreation was strengthened 170 169 168 167 provinces. the throughout leaders commission local sanitary appoint to able he was by decree and Vienna be from to had sanitary in developments Vienna. and rights to the Sanitary Commission,belonging to the municipal authorities, responsible for all the cholera epidemic of 1848-1849, in 1850 cholerathe 1848-1849, epidemicof of wake the In in Vienna. profession medical the changed developments new century nineteenth the of half second in the but 1850, until significantly change not did knowledge and science locality. given a in practitioners medical of registration responsible for production the medicallya vastof set of statistical such relevant as data, proper Ibid, 68-70. Ibid, 66-67. Ibid, 60. Ibid, 59. On the municipal level, district doctors and professors of medicine became more became medicine of professors and doctors district level, municipal the On From 1773 onwards the head of all sanitary employees and commissions in the Empire in the commissions and employees sanitary all of head the onwards 1773 From 168 From 1819 onwards, the district medical officers were also were medical officers district the From 1819onwards, 167 offentliche Gesundheitspflege offentliche 169 In general the organization of medical of organization the Ingeneral [publichealthcare] 170 The 71 CEU eTD Collection (Vienna: Böhlau Verlag, 2004), 66-67. Wissenschaften,” 172 171 cause of of make exact the diagnosis to autopsies inconducting experience and whoused hiseye scientist, and precise meticulous of wasthat a reputation and self-representation His example. for comparison by anatomical inside body,diseasesbethe located pathological that could prime exponenta was anatomist pathological a ofAs Empire. the Habsburg in the specialist secondmedical renowned most school of Viennese medicine,During the 1850’s and 1860’s Rokitanskya prominent becamemember of academythe and the which was based so. do to first the was one of von Rokitansky on anatomistranks.(1804-1878) famous Carl The the principletheir enter to specialists medical allow to decided academy the of members the place, taking was revolution the and,as hectictime of period this during Sciencesembraced Academy of after turmoilthe following revolutionary the of events 1848. changed this academy, elitist the enter to allowed not were specialists medical initially Although fear significantly of ferment. revolutionary centers possible of thwarted out of creating new institutions was and societies of foundation Metternich the of regime conservative the 1847. The firstrequest found to such a society was already made in 1837, butundertheauspices founded in Sciences, Academy of Austrian Royal the was be observed, could force as a political oflocal,independence the state. vis-à-vis urban authorities’ and ableindividualsindependently could who act and swiftly, which as aside-effect more led to made sense, since cholera was predominantly an urban problem, requiring administrative bodies city. or village a hit epidemics cholera when was commission main the consulting or Felicitas Seebacher and Stefan Sienell, “Carl Freiherr von Rokitansky und die Kaiserliche Akademie der Akademie Kaiserliche die und Rokitansky von Freiherr “Carl Sienell, Stefan and Seebacher Felicitas Ibid, 73-75. Freedom Freedom learningwas akey the membersof knowledgeof thatthe and principle A prominent society, in which the rising status A prominentand influence institutionalizedinsociety, rising status whichthe science of Carl Freiherr von Rokitansky (1804-1878): Pathologe – Politiker – Philosoph , ed. Christine Otter 171 This 172 72 CEU eTD Collection 174 173 possible. humanly as as precise death 176 Pathologe –Politiker – Philosoph 175 Verlag, 2004), 152. Freiherr von Rokitansky (1804-1878): Pathologe –Politiker – Philosoph urban context. science. with along discussed were andarts politics where meeting places, aspolitical functioned at times societies scientific Austria, where nosuch modern parties aspolitical thing inour understanding of term the existed, professionals biggestfield.inmedicineincludingthe authorities of of – some and professors students, of consisted barricades the on fighting regiments the of half almost fact, medical specialists wereamong biggest the toparticipatein groups revolution the of 1848. In andas medicine as practice a social science. linked specifically Rokitansky for example, for houses.During inMarch 1858 the Sciences Academy of alecture overcrowded ledRoyal to on social insociety, problems houses suchasalack for of poor, which constructed the properly andreporting observing actor, a political scienceas medical the wayheenvisioned the logic to 177 Verlag 2004), 148-149. Freiherr von Rokitansky (1804-1878): Pathologe –Politiker – Philosoph involved in a similar way as Rokitansky and the Viennese society involved Viennese inasimilar wayasRokitansky society did.and thedoctors’ of knownVirchow (1821-1902)is of example abetter a medicalscientist became who politically Rudolf specialist medical German Theliberal of areas Europe. in other thesametime around slums. health,tackling tookplace Similar suchasovercrowded of problems public developments increasingly haveclaimed to thepowertoinfluence public policy in urban by centers, targeting Peter Urbanitsch, “ZwischenRevolution und Konstitutionalismus: Rokitansky’s Weg indie Politik,” Ibid, 70. Peter Urbanitsch, “ZwischenRevolution und Konstitutionalismus: Rokitansky’s Weg indie Politik,” Feinde?,” Virchow und Rokitansky “Waren Andree, Christian Ibid, 154. In practice, outside of theoretical books, medicine was highly politically charged as it medicine charged washighly books, politically of theoretical In outside practice, , ed. Christine Otter (Vienna: Böhlau Verlag, 2004), 83-102. 177 Scientific societies could thus also acquire a political role in an in role political a acquire also thus could societies Scientific 173 During the latter part of his career he also applied this he alsoapplied partofhiscareer latter During the Carl Freiherr von Rokitansky (1804-1878): , ed. Christine Otter (Vienna: Böhlau , ed. Christine Otter, (Vienna: Böhlau 175 176 In Austria, In fact, in Carl Carl 174 73 CEU eTD Collection 183 182 178 science. medical in existing specializations medical dispersed more between ever bynow widely the foster communication to was founded The organization Wirer von Ritter Franz founders, which was purely first the medical scientific association its in of kind Vienna. zuWien derÄrzte und KöninglicheGesellschaft Austrian led In 1837itand especially Viennesecontext. thefoundingthe to the of Part grassroots, part state organized new policies 181 Ärzte in Wien 1837-1987 einverstandenwaren und dessen mögliche Ausführung sie mirübertrugen.” Karl HermannFakultätsmitglieder Spitzy, anwesenden dem alle mit Vereines, solches eines Bildung zur Vorschlag den daher ich machte Fakultätsversammlung öffentlichen nächsten der Bei können. zu beraten Zeitperiode bedrängten jener Verhältnisse lebhafteste Bedürfnis, einen ärztlichen Verein zu bilden,um uns in demselbenkollegialisch über dieso wichtigen 180 Brandstätter, 1987), 9. Spitzy, Hermann Karl posses: to rumored were a lifetime on the discovery,subsequent exploitation and recognition of the healing qualities the springs of Bad Ischl 179 and project, animpressivethe Wirervon florints. sum donated 2000 of members werepaying a yearly 1200Florinsfee. invested Secondly, provincial authorities the in of Vienna. University the faculty of with affiliated medical weresomehow itsthe general members majority the hospital the and of were invested by were provincial the government Ibid, 29. Hermann Spitzy, Karl Hermann Spitzy, “Vordem Ausbruch derersten Choleraepidemie in Wien imJahre 1831 fühlte ich mit mehreren Kollegen das spent and career medical successful and a long after nobility lower Austrian of the member a became Wirer Von Statuten und Geschäfts-Ordnung der k.k. Gesellschaft der Ärztezu Wien The cholera epidemic of 1831-1832 had one important indirect in consequence important the The had 1831-1832 one cholera epidemic of The Viennese Doctors’ Society was sponsored by three different actors. First of First Society bythree differentof actors. The Viennese Doctors’ all, was sponsored the presentagreed and they made me forrealizingresponsible idea. the facultymeeting, I proposed the foundation of such a society, towhich all faculty members most during pressing topicsimportance, of a repressivetime. At nextpublic the strong desire to found a doctors’ society. In the society, we could advice each other on the Before the first cholera epidemic in Vienna in 1831, I, with several colleagues felt the Gesellschaft der Ärzte inWien 1837-1987 (Vienna: Christian Brandstätter, 1987), 10. Gesellschaft der Ärzte in Wien 1837-1987 179 (1771-1844) phrased it: 182 Gesellschaft der Ärzte inWien 1837-1987 inhelp in to 1841, in the association order raising [Imperial and Royal Viennese Doctors’ Society] Doctors’ Viennese Royal and [Imperial (Vienna: Christian Brandstätter,1987), 11. (Vienna: Christian Brandstätter, 1987), 9. 181 (Vienna: Carl Ueberreuter, 1847), 5. Its members met in the aula of 183 (Vienna: Christian 180 Another 450florints 178 Gesellschaft der As one of its Kaiserliche 74 CEU eTD Collection 189 188 187 186 185 32. 184 medical scientific debate in Vienna, under the aegis of the Viennese Doctors’ Society. of climate a thriving of creation the to contributed all middle-class the and state the nobility, members of the note that is to but interesting a novelty, not of course were essay competitions form of an essay.in the year, the throughout Themade discoveries winnermedical interesting most in their send was to encouraged eligible to receive a prize ofinmedicine city was the hold practicing anyone to created competition: essay ayearly one hundred florints. Scientificenough existcapital its of to interestthe savings provided. In this way, enoughfundscould be diagnoses, newly developed therapies and in epidemics newly current diagnoses, city. therapies developed the of ordinary disease the out topics such as concerning findings latest exchange their meeting and a general get at together groupswereexpectedto members various monthlythe of basis,On a andtherapy. hygiene pathology, pharmacology, mentioned: wereexplicitly groups different Four in equally were all structure. organization’s who the represented medical specializations, several of representatives between increase the communication to was founded It concentration. since itimpossible almost save for physicians conduct was few regular very and doctors to society. by bethe membersof conducted could the pathological research wherechemical- hospital, general at the laboratory its own Wirer,had society the to thanks library magazine, and reading room. strengthen the growth of medical knowledge in Vienna, the society also founded its own Ibid, 15. Hermann Spitzy, Ibid, 5. Ibid,, 12. Ibid, 9. Statuten und Geschäfts-Ordnung der k.k. Gesellschaft der Ärztezu Wien The society center importantThe of can beseen asan society knowledge production and Gesellschaft der Ärzte inWien 1837-1987 187 The library started functioning in 1842. (Vienna: Christian Brandstätter,1987), 12. (Vienna: Carl Ueberreuter, 1847), 31- 189 186 This was a big step, abig was This 188 To facilitate and facilitate To Since 1841and 184 185 75 CEU eTD Collection Comp., 1848), 393-394. cholera-epidemie', 192 16. 191 Cambridge University Press, 2000), 20-21. 190 throughout the Habsburg Empire and its capital. by cordons sanitary cholera creating further spreadof the tothwart when attempted inthey 1831, heConsequently, was theVienneseaware of hadin limitedthe success epidemic the tackling in cholera-hospital Vienna. months attheGumpendorfer was for three over working his observations. He based this remarkable theory on his experiences early in his career, when he 1848, which was causedbythe thatsame disease had hitbadly inVienna so 1831,according to 1847- of cholera epidemic Moscow the by on Society reporting Doctors’ warned theViennese he Moscow in hygiene in public specialized official an as Working Moscow. in policy hygiene for responsible official ranking high a included, was A.Spiro specialist medical trained Viennese andmedicine be can the observedpages throughout of In magazine. the 1848 anarticle bythe science of internationalization The presented. and collected was topics medical widely diverse inactor its city,the publication the inof especially after journal since 1844, which of knowledge society. the of premises’ the at organized readings or attend lectures allowed to also were were allowed toaccess the reading room and library and after asking permission to the chairman, a For negligiblemodestand concentration and knowledge fee, exchange. production, outsiders of opencenter itwas arelatively Therefore, society. the members of the with could exchange initiatives, the society also had a keen eye on the knowledge thatforeign medical specialists century. nineteenth athome the during laboratory research independent A.Spiro, 'Sendschreiben andie k.k. Gesellschaft der Ärzte in Wienüber diejetzt Russlandin herrschende Michael Worboys, Michael Statuten und Geschäfts-Ordnung der k.k. Gesellschaft der Ärztezu Wien As mentioned earlier, the Viennese Doctors’ Society started to become influential to an started Society Doctors’ Viennese the mentioned As earlier, Zeitschrift der k.k. Gesellschaft der Ärzte zu Wien der Ärzte Gesellschaft der k.k. Zeitschrift Spreading Germs: Disease Theories and Medical Practice in Britain, 1865-1900 , band 2. (Vienna: Kaulfuss Witwe Prandel& (Vienna: Carl Ueberreuter, 1847), 14- 190 On top of these (New York: 191 192 76 CEU eTD Collection besonderer Rücksicht aufWien 195 194 erfüllte.”395. Ibid, Indicationen die vorhandenen Fall einzelnen jeden die für Behandlung, die symptomatische erschien Zweckmässiger liessen. Stich im immer fast Praxis der in fussend, Theorien erdachte auf die, Methoden, specifischen sogenannten durchgemacht,und neue ausgedacht, aber erheblichen ohne alle Besonders Erfolg. verderblichsich zeigten die Auch indieser Epidemie wurdenfast alle Behandlungsarten, die in derfrüheren angepriesenwurden, wieder 193 urbanthe example, fieldbetween in political 1860.For 1840 and 1857 society the a published Society Viennese Doctors’ the and Paris, London as in such cities institutions Viennamostly significantly, wasexpanded but togetrid of andfilth. rain system of canalization the of 1831, epidemic cholera first the of aftermath In the importance. Viennesethe doctors' society the1850's.Thisduring wasalready for several decades atopic of it. from died eventually peoplemostfell ill of and cholera where both Moscow areas of residential water-infested damp, observations specialists from London to Moscow often agreed on: it was according to Spiro Spiro’s onethe Europe. betweenadviceof medical supported throughout practitioners near disease, a poison which spread by means of water. individualized therapy, in London specialists were focusing on the transmittersymptom-based, of a an unique preferring still clearly were specialists medical in Moscow Whereas spread by medical andthe specialistsin Moscow London was the sameduring epidemic. its the origins different of how opinion the reveals juston by and cholera This statement Spiro Franz Innhauser, Ibid, 397. “Die Behandlung dieser noch immer rätselhaften Krankheit hat leidersehr nur geringe Fortschritte gemacht. The dominance of sanitary theory enhanced bycommunication only The was inthiscase of theory sanitary dominance in each individual case, based on indications. basedon available individual the in case, each alwayslet you down. Symptomatic treatments seemed beto more effective, they satisfied by in supported imaginary almost which methods, called practice theories, specific the so were pernicious success. Particularly significant without again, through were gone treatments devised newly and praised previously all almost epidemic, this during Also The treatment of diseasethis mysterious still made hasunfortunately very little progress. The preoccupation with healthy water provision was one of pickedupby provision was keytopics of the one healthy water The preoccupation with Über Retiraden, Pissoirs, Senkgruben und Canäle insanitätspolizeilicher Hinsicht mit 194 (Vienna: Carl Gerold’s Sohn, 1857), 15. 193 became active on active became 195 Like similar 77 CEU eTD Collection 200 199 198 197 besonderer Rücksicht aufWien 196 system. forcanals toan in peoplenextto Vienna houses living open insmall sewage connected live disposal waste howunhealthyit partially andbypointing constructions, policies out to was persuadeissue civil the to to and attempted London, Innhauser newadministrators canalization andmore strictly public regulated health policies. By Vienna comparing Parisextensively andto of better toconvey society madeof importance Vienna the by attempt doctors’ a persistent the ofVienna, Innhauser. Franz district-doctors responsible of the one special print of a long article which was printed earlier in the pages of its magazine, written by that by that extending by infrastructure the sanitary means of construction the canalization, toilets of individualswarnings to whodidheed not their for call clean housing. medical of legislative in power authorities city,the by issue them allowing and to punishments increase level the a desirable to was up to standards maintaining sanitary failureof chronic more civilized. and cleaner andwere thus fresh-water of large amounts accessto all hadimproved who London, and of Berlin,that Paris intoxicating inhabitants. gassesfrom separate poisonous hydrogen-sulfide to and ammonia inexample order necessary, 1850’s. Theinstallment of andtoilets closed in systems drainage every homeViennese was for late in the alive much very still was theory miasmatic how of example is an text the history, From medical considerations, economical perspective the of butpredominantly arguments. on Ibid, 27. Ibid, 8. Ibid, 7. Ibid, 5. Franz Innhauser, Political pressure was exerted by comparing Vienna’s outdated sanitary infrastructure to infrastructure sanitary by Vienna’s outdated comparing wasexerted Political pressure 197 The argumentation employed by Innhauser was partially based on medical basedon waspartially by Innhauser employed Theargumentation Über Retiraden, Pissoirs, Senkgruben und Canäle insanitätspolizeilicher Hinsicht mit 198 (Vienna: Carl Gerold’s Sohn, 1857). 199 One of the proposed solutions to resolve Vienna’s 196 The small book was part of 200 Innhauser argued also 78 CEU eTD Collection in 1862of interests. serve thecities’ political and economic beusedto could recommendations policy their implementing and knowledge medical in investing how show to a way also Itwas economicinterests. to clearly connected how werestill sciences of medical the indication wasmore than a strong arguments byeconomic dominated was climax narrative Innhausers’ Thatsachen, welche die Erfahrung längst constatirt, eine weise Staatskunde schon längst anerkannt hat, Thatsachen, hat, anerkannt längst schon Staatskunde weise eine constatirt, längst Erfahrung die welche Thatsachen, Wohlstand und dadurch mittelbarAllgemeines den auch auf Lebensweise, die die auf intellectueleBequemlichkeit, und sittliche Gesundheit, auf Bildung einer Wasserversorgung Bevölkerung eine reichliche den übt – das sind Zusammenhanginnige derBewässerungsverhältnisse mit der Gesundheitspflege überhaupt, dergünstige Einfluss, 203 202 201 Consequently, rural tobehealthierareas weredeemed to urban life. the asopposed health. overall a society's of of a benchmark status the to waselevated water fresh plentiful andand Clean New York Constantinople. Paris, comparisons with in bydrawing Vienna health of public assessedthe conditions life.critically Schauenstein medicalization urban the of during 1830-1860couldinfluence have a direct onurbaninfrastructure,is but an also example of Society. howthe shows in Thepublication ofthemedicalprofessionalization Vienna sciences Schauenstein, was a professor at the University of Vienna and secretary of the Viennese Doctors’ could be boosted, by using human excrements as fertilizer for example. industry disposal, waste both Viennese the and agriculture separation from other of urine the “Die Wichtigkeit, welche der Reichthum an nutzbarem Wasser für eine grosse dichtbevölkerte Stadt hat, der hat, Stadt dichtbevölkerte grosse eine für Wasser annutzbarem Reichthum der welche Wichtigkeit, “Die Adolf Schauenstein, Ibid, 12 and 34-36. Another example of the social and political engagement of the society was the publication enterprisefor the common butalsogood, agod-pleasing work. and isof establishment andthe gratitude admiration, a source not only a charitable which surrounds in every lavender, Orientthe with water-source asignof religious and hadbeen planted, eagle world-dominating romans’ the standing wherever admire, and thatwestill aquaducts confirmed waterworks facts a long ago,by enormous time the are confirmed by arefacts that an experience these of intellectual education a population- lifestyle, generalthe the prosperity and theindirectinfluencefor it exercises thereby on moral the and convenience health, on has supply water ample an influence the favorable in general, care health and conditions irrigation between connection intimate has wealth city, thatthe water The importance of populated foradensely the usable Die Wasser-Versorgung Wiens Die Wasser-Versorgung Wien's [The Supply Water Vienna].of (Vienna: Carl Ueberreuter, 1862). 203 202 The author, Adolf 201 Thefactthat 79 CEU eTD Collection 205 204 gemeinnütziges Unternehmen, sondern als einfrommes, gottgefälliges Werk erscheinen lässt.” Ibid, 1. religiöserAchtung umgibt unddie Errichtung eines Brunnens zuöffentlichen Gebrauche nicht nur als Römerseinen weltherrschenden Adler aufgepflanzt hatte, und imOriente jeden lavenden Quell mit dankbar deren Anerkennung die Wasserwerkeriesigen und Aquädukte schuf,die wir nochjetzt dort bewundern, wo der entitled work, undertaken by a group of sixteen prominentmen two years earlier before he wrote his book. This water-pipe by and system. itaqueducts spread constructed a newly lastly water from newly or Danube, from the filtered water wells, werementioned: sources water Three construction. constructed reservoirspopulation. This increasewould also the influence of medical specialists on cities’the future outside of the a citypurpose: that wouldto convince deliverThe bookletthe was waterdirected city at the municipal byadministration,council the city council of Vienna,to andenlarge served the provision of water to Vienna's growing the group was group the trained was clearly inmedicine, this while health.a concern public of of Members measures infields such as canalization and city Consequently,enlargement. only a minorof part groups: andanother devisingpractical one of consisted of oneon analysis workingthe water two city council,in order to asses and possibly improve the water quality of Vienna. The commission the to of recommendations set new formulating of a purpose with the conducted study large scale init. metals and minerals of observed undermicroscopes, which made possibly water for consumption,unfit amount butthe Lebende thierischeOrganismen policies had little to do with our contemporary understanding of disease etiology. It were isadvised anachronistically Unlike bysome, andnot implemented. what argued thesesanitary the Ibid, 8. Ibid , 7-14. Schauenstein based his recommendations and observations partially onthework partially his andobservations basedrecommendations Schauenstein Das Wasser in und um Wien 205 [living animal organisms], as Schauenstein called them, called Schauenstein as organisms], animal [living [The Water In and Around Vienna], was the first 204 The last option was 80 CEU eTD Collection Geräthschaften, Bewässerungzur derWiefen und Gärten und zuvielen anderen Zwecken.” Ibid, 1. KochenderSpesen, zum Reinigen des körpers und zu Bädern, zum Waschendes Weisszeuges und der genügt esdem Menschen nicht mehr,genug Wasser zum Getränke zu haben; man bedarft davonweit mehrzum ….. Bei demgegenwärtigen Stande der Civilisation,wie er wenigstens in Europe fast durchgehends erreicht ist, abgeben, da die Verwendung derSeife alsReingungsmittel immer andie Mitwirkung des Wassers gebunden ist. der herrschenden Bildung angesehen; aber derWasserverbrauch muss ein noch besseres Massfür die Cultur 208 207 206 the police,nobility, administrators of the city and architects also had their say. in water designated for designated consumption. in water livingraised tiny mostbe concerns. consideredorganisms Nonetheless, werealso undesirable to that become drinking to water possibly designated inthewater substances levelthe unhealthy of the nineteenththe century diminish not did these problems. Thisissue was specifically addressed by of andsufficienthousing proper in city.the The greaturbanization of process secondthe half of problem housing, housesof proper namely of overcrowded a lackand concept the due rooms to and open sewers. In the first half of the nineteenth century, such factors, as rivers,cesspools weredisease-inducing living poor in the to that closeproximity an extra elementidea the on based wasmostly was attached housing poor of concern to this the Initially, cholera. on texts in spaces and problem bad poor referred tothe housing of the description of pathological the of conditions I theprevious chapter century. In nineteenth influencethe their grewduring and this training The influencemedical of specialists bigwas traditionally where inurban centers they received civilization. of hallmark a time this by became “Mit Recht hat ein berühmter deutscher Gelehrter die Grösse des Verbrauches von Seife als sicheren Massstab sicheren als Seife von Verbrauches des Grösse die Gelehrter deutscher berühmter ein hat Recht “Mit Ibid Das Wasser in und um Wien , 12. other purposes. other the food, washinglinen of water and utensils, to the meadowsandgardensmany andfor sufficient to have enough water to drink; people need itmuch more for state of cookinghascivilization, been asit inmostis itlongerreached of no parts Europe, their the since amountof …. Atthe issoap appliedmeans present of onwater. depended cleaning, asa aculture, of development the of assessment better even an be must used water levelreliable of andnorms; measurementof amount butthe of education presentthe Rightfully so, a famous German scholar has considered the amount of soap used as a 208 (Vienna: k.k. Hof- und Staatsdruckerei, 1860), IV-V. 207 The sheer amount of water available for consumption 206 By 1860, it was 208 81 CEU eTD Collection population grew from 13% of the total city inpopulation 1830, to 23% in 1857. of 346 905people,800,7%. agrowth 38 515,to population,the mostly consisted which ofpoormigrants, lived in suburbs.the These grew from partof 673 865,while thepoorer inner grewwith 158,9% to population city livingin richer, the from37,5%, 231 049to317768. became. of city the inhabitants the destitute powerful and rich, while one thefurther wentaway from in there, poorerandgeneral, the more these conditions asaprimedisease, causeof suchasfresh-water infrastructure andlack of a urban overcrowding did notreflect the class-based hierarchy of society. medical Even though identified theories change untilchange to lay-outit continued since changed.not much, of the did Vienna structure However, the 1860’s. The core of Vienna was made up of the smaller businesses were active in city. the wereactive businesses smaller wouldtrade immensely grow innecessarily Vienna.Largefabrics were not butmany there, absolutely and relatively, presenceof the small entrepreneurs andtheir small industry scale and century, nineteenth the city.in In the wasresiding elite andaristocratic of administrative the survival functioningand wholethe of Empire Vienna that wasdoingpart well, asignificant since 213 212 211 210 Wien 1848 bis 1914 209 health policy. public of instances concept, the understand aswenow someof first, basically the andcomprised andorganizations specialists medical Ibid, 37. Ibid, 36. Ibid, 51. Ibid ,30-31. Peter Feldbauer, However, the really significant change took place between 1820 and 1875. The 1875. 1820andbetween place change took significant really the However, (Vienna: Verlag für Geschichte und Politik, 1977), 212. Stadtwachstum und Wohnungsnot: Determinanten unzureichender Wohnungsversorgung in 212 211 210 Between population 1800 and 1830the grew with With the growth of population, Vienna’s social 213 The relative part of the poor suburb 209 It was quite literally vital for the 82 CEU eTD Collection the city city the were not improving.While the population grew rapidly, amount the of newly constructed which holdcholera firsttook in and Vienna,Europe living conditions for poorest the segments of specialists social decadesin the andIndeed,exactly during critics alike. economic of conditions medical contemporary by made claims the support to seems evidence all Retrospectively, in anunhealthy fashion disregardand to the common good out of lazinesssheer andapathy. small flats predominantly in the new tenement houses. They were assumed to have chosen to live conditions inhabitants wasascribed to of poorer the city the livinginsuburbs numbers in great living only problem the quarters. exacerbated overcrowded of sufficiently in by resolved 1850. Both qualitative and quantitative terms governmentregulations recognized between 1830 and 1850as disease,den’s butof housingthe situation was not 216 215 214 solved. was never heightbuildings of and thebroadness the of streets, problem newof constructing enough houses lackfinancing, of suitable and affordable ground and new hindering regulations in flexibility the since left nineteenthinadequate century never early the Vienna and to duringthat century. Due solveinmade 1857,anattemptwasto thehousing-deficiency existed problem. problem This downhousing fortake With glacis 1830’s. projects oldusethe the city walls decision the and to the since residential areasexisted overcrowded of an abundance of awareness even though andnumber grewdue society. observe of living The unhealthy large quarters to scalemigration, control desire to than on a strong concerns, pragmatic basedmore on werequite likely suburbs sprawling the systematize somehow to issuemore regulations to necessity the and overcrowding Ibid, 217-218. Ibid, 127. Ibid, 58-59. These numbers convey one important information: the fact that fact of that concerns the the information: oneimportant convey These numbers In the latter half of the nineteenth century, the responsibility for these substandard living substandard these for responsibility the century, nineteenth the of half latter the In 214 Overcrowded suburbs and cold, improper houses Overcrowdedimproper suburbs cold, and were consistently 215 216 83 CEU eTD Collection poorly poorly suburbs.constructed of improvement and a reconstruction cause it did nor areas, residential cities’ in the change couple of cholera epidemics in 1836 and cause not 1831-1832, 1848-1849did a significant first the Even up. went rent-houses of prices average the while slower, significantly grew houses 84 CEU eTD Collection 218 217 other diseases. or cholera,contract easyto in itwas which spaces, inducing asdisease framed Both during 1830’s the damp andfilthy and 1850’s,overcrowded, the areas were residential the same. largely pathological of spaces remained conceptions changed between 1830 and1850, framing itbecomes clear eventhough of 1831 andtheepidemicof the cholera 1848-1849, that indoctors Vienna andhad extensive experience practical with cholera during the epidemic of people related in to space. urban interpretations by dominated andcomparisons ofmedical considerations, andhow theories they However, I changing briefly medical nineteenth while only the throughout century, referring to discourses. opted for versusneither interpretation have of anti-quarantine toapolitical quarantinethe I could debate stuck of and books poems. in letters, epidemics, initial cholera the these approaches.Like the cultural historian Olaf Briese, Icould have focused on the cultural origins and impact of Instead, historical byapproachtothe have been epidemics. a very cholera problem of different dominated the could Thenarrative and authorities. municipal state of from perspective the interests economic majority and theory medical of association the and specialists medical of engagement political the of this workinmy This answer‘knowledge production’. resulted to question,a broad emphasizing research was have such thisrelationship analyzed usingconcepts ‘population’, ‘pathologicalas space’ and developments following in chapters between introduction, 1850.In I 1830 and the Vienna the Conclusion Peter Baldwin, Briese, Olaf By comparing two authors, Köstler and Romich, who were both practicing as active both whowere and Romich, Köstlerauthors, two By comparing urban and cholera between was relationship the what question the with started thesis This Angst in den Zeiten der Cholera Contagion and the State in Europe, 1830-1930 (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 2003). (New York: Cambridge University Press,1999). 217 Orakin Peterto Baldwin’s approach 218 85 CEU eTD Collection also functioned as a catalyst for scientific communication in the medical world, both on the local the on both world, medical in the communication scientific for a catalyst as functioned also ideas.canbe cholera that liberal It of argued such ahotbed couldas foundations be controversy, diminishing. Austria as such liberal, very as described be of hardly can which context thein apolitical also But ideology. 1840’s, the Ackerknechttrust attempted to draw attention to the crossroads of diseasein etiology and politicalthe effects liberalism, more with nature open-minded of disease,was associated contagious which that sanitarybelievenot inthe did political the whothose to stance of political opposed conservatism, as cordons inequating believenature the of quarantine with disease contagious the measures andsubsequent had versuscontagious idea could By nineteenth was not duringthe remainsuch acentury. persuasive cholera, wasimplications and tohim, which,according presuppositions cholera whythebelief explained that thisvery day. to influential paperon cholera singlemost the Ackerknecht, famous the historian of medicine and life sciencespublishedis what likely most individuals’ health,its enlarging receptivity awideto variety illnesses.of an greatly diminish can environmental circumstances that shared commonly the assumption be based on to remained miasmatic theories since diseases, particular with spaces pathological of nospecificity was There disease. acertain with contamination possible the to sensitive Epidemiology Ackerknecht's Classic 1948 Essay, ‘Anticontagionism between1821 and 1867,” 219 specific how shows spaces, in such pathological be contracted could also diseases other The factthat Alexandra Minna Stern and Howard Markel, “Disease etiology and political ideology: revisiting Erwin H In politically conservative environments, scientific and other kinds of societies or societies of kinds other and scientific environments, conservative politically In indeedCholeranineteenth force century. apowerful H. was the during 1948,Erwin In diseases were not yetlinked diseases not to were 38 (2009): 31-33. specific spaces that were deemed to makemore people were deemed to spacesthat 219 International Journal of He highlighted the political Hehighlighted 86 CEU eTD Collection knowledge its production laboratory,through knowledge its exchange through physical social scientific society could have Society Doctors’ Viennese the The example of foreign audience. domestic and several functions in an urban publishing magazines, they localoffered scientists astage presentenvironment.to their research a results to It could be a centernineteenth century, enabled of bythefoundation scientific societies By and organizations. of intensifiedmanner organized wasadevelopment that middle during the the decadesof Britain. in Great conducted bymicroscopic research supported werepractically theories these but air, contaminated of instead water, contaminated as reframed theoretically cholera of main transmitter was the andfesterinto drop to wet other damp ground, the cesspools Thusnotonly environments. or air, by spread defyingfutile initially which after sanitary cordons, tiny the organisms for responsible epidemics would would body patients’ the in conditions pathological cause could conditions environmental personal right the andcaused Tiny which organisms under poisons. byspecific being andtheory diseases ideaof the miasmatic specific between formed asynthesis was Instead, theories. miasmatic abandoning immediately in researchers result not did This observations. bynew wasrejuvenated cause of diseases, bea could thattiny organisms trope standing in example. magazinesfor by articles with another, each other’s one reading whoshared of through insideamultitude actors their knowledge created networks, scientific theories on the etiology of disease were not always strongly politically motivated, but couldbe it scientificthe became itshowattention from and apparent politicalthe networks, to world the shifting By congresses. sanitary through level international an on and Vienna of level The fact knowledge could that beexchangedbymedical in specialists a swiftand magnifying with microscope longBy such the applying instruments glasses, as two the shows how a shows 87 CEU eTD Collection definitely in for definitely localized becameincreasingly houses patients (around with cholera 1850’s the and 1840’s the throughout cordons sanitary that fact The interests’. state supporting always not installmentof versus quarantines informed werealsodiseases, bymedical theories were which of clinical research is difficult to refute, this logic andreasoning, we though even think wedo. thesis analyzed why radical minds of livedpeople who acouple of us,and before centuries by doingso wefailgrasp to their measures such as theideas inthe current our of werun placing account, risk intothe aretaken ‘successful’ theories only If world. contemporary the shaping on had they impact the analyze can historians false, or discarded asobsolete ideas now thatare or theories scientific scrutinizing By canalization. suchas of phenomena, urban particular times growth rapid comprehend suddenand at the better to us allows it as science’; ‘failed into research continuing of importance the to testimony is It a movements. health of hallmarks early public great later as identified were but of disease, inhabitants of Vienna. Thesesanitary measures were predominantly based miasmatic on theories tothe fresh-water supply of in constant the increase and agreat toilets of particular construction influenceprofound on construction the of inurban infrastructure, form the of the canals, a exert they ininterfere so,wereable to andsucceedingin doing policies urban attempting to medicine men in acquired secondself-confidence of half the By nineteenth the century. of growing the of exemplary were specialists, medical of hand in the residing authority political scientific pamphlets,1850’s. whowrote inwhich arguedfor growingauthors Theseveral they became ontheurban level problemsactor debate nature, apolitical the of a scientific during a center of knowledgespace in form the of a library and reading room on and top of throughthat the pages itsof journal dissemination. But the Viennese doctors’ society, initially created to Even though Michel Foucault’s assertion that political power was instrumental to the rise the to instrumental was power political that assertion Foucault’s Michel though Even 88 CEU eTD Collection cellars and moisture-rich rooms, remained a issueserious in Vienna’s cityscape. averagethe lifespan of Viennesethe inhabitants. Poor housing though, with damp overcrowded, lengthened indirectly, they, that likely quite is it and conclusions right the to led theories wrong the century: nineteenth the of paradox big the was This disease. of theories miasmatic on based predominantly werethus taken, Effectivecountermeasures weremostly completed. projects improved the health inhabitants.of By quarter last the of nineteenth the century, these sanitary that the supply plentifulof fresh-water toevery house and the enclosure of open sewers certainly likely known, itseems not are disease wide epidemical aEuropean as cholera of disappearance limitedseverely previous the compared epidemics. to precisethough the cause(s) Even of the housing wasnotsolved during nineteenth the century. resolved. Overcrowded not problem inmedical identified was theories authorities core grew, one influenceEven medical of policy though municipal professionalsthe on urban the of Vienna’s policy recommendations,interests remained central argumentationto the used tojustify issuingof the medicallynew based such as the economic Essentially, changed. cholera also against taken kind of countermeasures the disease, construction of canals,forimportant With asmoothly functioning state. European medical changethe of theories of or the enclosure increasingly became longer distances over commerce Ongoing ona population. effects cholera’s of open sewers. andcommerce fearof the flowoutweighed bytrade of eventually of a continuous commodities importance the how shows regions, or countries entire of down closing the of instead example), Nonetheless, the last noteworthy noteworthy in of lastNonetheless,in Vienna outbreak 1873andcholera the occurred was 89 CEU eTD Collection Cholera.” of thePathology on Investigations Microscopical of of a Series “Report Frederick. Brittan, Fungi.” on Cholerathe Baly, William, and William W. Gull. “The Cholera Sub-Committee of the College of Physicians, undQ, Sanitäts- Verkehrsgegenstände,box 556, 4, Verzeichnis Q 556/831,3832. undLandesarchiv,Main register Wiener 18July Stadt- Betreffend.).” 1831, Waaren-Contumaz “Zweiter aus Auszug dem neue für(Die k.k.Staaten zueinerPest-Polizei-Ordnung Entwurfe die Vienna: Kaiserliche Königliche Hof- und Staats-Aerarial Druckerey, 1830. Hemmen.” zu Verbreitung ihre Eindringens, des Falle zu möglichen im morbus) und (Cholera sichern, Brechruhr epidemischen herrschenden Reiche Russischen kaiserlich im Personale, verwendete bei Contumaz-Anstalten zum fürunddas den Sanitäts-Behörden, “Instruction die Behuse die Gränzen derVerkehrsgegenstände,box 556, 3, Verzeichnis28289. Q556/830, k.k. Oesterreichischen undSanitäts- Q, undLandesarchiv, Abtheilungs- register Main July Stadt- Commissare.”, 18 1831,Wiener aufzustellenden Wiens Vorstadten in den und Stadt in der die für “Instruction Staaten vor dem EinbrucheQ, Sanitäts-register und Verkehrsgegenstände,box 556,4,Verzeichnis Q556/800,35086. der und Landesarchiv, Main WienerStadt- eines für Cholera-Spitales.” “Instruction Hausvater den Primary Sources Bibliography ihrem Beginnzweckmäßig zubehandeln Köstler, A.L. 1834. Sanitats-PolizeylichenVorkehrungen den dagegengetroffenen Lande, inOsttereichauch indemflachen unter der Enns,indenJahren 1831und1832,nebst Knolz, Joseph Johann. Sanitäts- und Verkehrsgegenstände,box 556, 3, Verzeichnis Q556/830,28019. Wien,undund Stadt- Residenzstadt Landesarchiv, Q, 20July 1831,Wiener register Main Kaiserliche undKöningliche und Sanitäts- für Approvisionirungs-Commission k.k.Haupt- die Wien Hinsicht mitbesondererRücksichtauf Franz. Innhauser, Edler von Reider, J.A. 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