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Home , Chen Hengzhe, Hu Shih, Li Dazhao, New Culture Movement, Qian Xuantong, Wellington Koo

’s Revolution in Politics, Literature, Commemorating the Centenary of the

1919 – 2019

April – May, 2019 Hamilton Library Asia Collection 4th Floor

Presented by the Asia Collection & UH Department of History Sponsored by the Center for Chinese Studies & the at the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa Introduction to the May Fourth Movement

he was overthrown was caused by both external and internal fac- Th is movement was further galvanized by in 1911. Th e end of the imperial era tors. China had been targeted by imperialist large public protests on May 4, 1919, which led to a dynamic but also politically, powers for decades, and, despite its large size, were held in response to the unfavorable terms Tsocially, and culturally unstable era. Rather had a relatively weak diplomatic positions vis- of the that ended World than leading to an enduring liberal political à-vis the West and . Internally, China’s War I. Th e May Fourth Movement (or New system, the inaugurated an economy, social system, and cultural values Culture Movement) which began in 1919 grew era of alternate military dictatorship and weak were criticized as holding China back from to encompass a variety of rallying cries, among national leadership that experienced confl ict modernization and national strength. Hence them education, the embrace of and with its own provincial governments. China’s the call to create a “new culture” that could social progress, popular literacy, socialism, intellectuals and public leaders argued that kick-start China’s overall development. feminism, and . China’s failure to modernize more successfully Political Context of the May Fourth Movement

he May 1919 demonstrations had many During (1914–1918) China News of these events arrived in China in late points of inspiration, but the most joined the Allied side and sent some 140,000 April. On May 2, an editorial was published in a immediate context was the political non-combatants to support the war effort in large-circulation liberal newspaper announcing Tsituation in China following the implementa- . In 1915, Japan, which had stationed the disaster. On May 4, concerned students from tion of unequal treaties. Beginning with the first over 50,000 troops in Northeastern China, com- thirteen universities came together and Opium War of 1842, China was forced under pelled China to agree to a new unequal treaty, issued a declaration that “China’s territory may threat of military invasion and potential colo- the so-called 21 Demands, which included the be conquered but it cannot be given away. The nization to sign a series of unfavorable treaties transfer of German concessions in Shandong Chinese people may be massacred but they will with Western nations, including Great Britain, to Japan. The leadership of China at that time not surrender.” Some 4,000 students, includ- France, Germany, Italy, the , and agreed to most of the demands, including the ing many women, gathered that day in central Japan. These treaties gave extraterritorial juris- right of Japan to receive German territories. Beijing, in front of the southern entrance to diction for foreigners in China, and gave foreign During the Spring 1919 peace negotiations after the imperial city called Tiananmen, the ‘Gate governments control over profitable and strate- the end of World War I, Chinese delegates to of Heavenly Peace.’ They carried banners read- gically important railroads, mines, and commu- the peace talks lobbied their victorious allies to ing “Do away with the ‘Twenty-One Demands,’” nications infrastructure. Foreign governments regain sovereignty in Shandong. The Allied pow- and “Don’t sign the Versailles Treaty.” Students were also given the right to establish territorial ers backed Japan’s claims and in fact extended were beaten and arrested by police. Soon after, concessions in and Tianjin. Germany Japan’s rights to include control over railway people in cities across China launched sympa- by treaty was given the right to a 99-year lease lines in and right to Shandong in thy protests, demanding that the Chinese gov- of the coastal province of Shandong. perpetuity. ernment free imprisoned Beijing students and take action against imperialism, social conser- vatism, and autocracy. Intellectual Currents of May Fourth

he May Fourth intellectuals promoted cal experts. (Song Qingling’s maternal uncle, helped found the and science and democracy, women’s suf- Linson Edward Dzau or Cao Linsheng, 曹霖 the , and was a judge on the frage and equality, economic rights 生, 1895–1978, was also a member of the del- International Court of Justice in . No Tfor China’s poor majority, and the promotion egation as a secretary.) Five plenipotentiary formal instructions were given to the Chinese of a new literary language, based on vernac- delegates were authorized to sign on behalf of delegation as to whether they should endorse ular speech, that would allow greater literacy China’s government. Other well-known intel- the treaty. Ultimately they all refused to sign, and spread of progressive political ideals. lectuals like (梁啟超, 1873–1929) earning them wide public support from indi- were also present in Paris and communicated viduals and civic institutions in China who The proponents of the New Culture saw news of the negotiations to friends and jour- praised their patriotism. education and social progress as crucial rem- nalists in China. Indeed, it was Liang Qichao edies to China’s diplomatic weakness and Below is a telegram to the Chinese govern- who relayed to China news of the disappoint- endemic poverty. Their goal was to strengthen ment, via the Chinese embassy in Washington ing Shandong negotiations; his bulletins were China’s economy, social fabric, and interna- D.C., from American advisor to China John the basis for the May 2 essay that launched the tional standing through programs of pub- Calvin Ferguson ( 福開森, May 4 demonstrations. lic education. They hoped to engage China’s 1866–1945), former president of both masses through easily accessible texts and dra- The official delegation was led by China’s University and Nanyang University in Shanghai. matic graphic design. Minister of Foreign Affairs, Lu Zhengxiang During the negotiations, Ferguson updated the (陸征祥, 1871–1949), and had as its spokes- Chinese government regarding the position of The Chinese delegation to the Paris person (Gu Weijun 顧維鈞, U.S. officials as well as American public opin- Peace Conference included over sixty mem- 1888–1985), who later served as Ambassador ion, which was generally supportive of China’s bers, including military officers and techni- to France, Great Britain and the United States, position regarding Shandong. May Fourth and the Periodical Press

he first modern Chinese periodical was first General Secretary until 1927. In 1915, for May Fourth protestors, who colloquially wel- started in 1864 in Hong Kong, with a started the magazine (Xin Qingnian 新 comed “Mr. Democracy and Mr. Science” 德先 two other publications established in 靑年 or La Jeunesse), which was published until 生和賽先生 to China. TShanghai in the 1870s. Further growth in Chinese the closed it in 1926. Other progressive periodicals of the era periodicals occurred after the Sino-Japanese War In addition to Chen, editors of the magazine include The Renaissance (Xinchao 新潮), pub- of 1894–95, when Chinese intellectuals estab- included some of the most famous intellectuals lished starting in 1918 by The Renaissance Society, lished journals to promote political and social of the era, including philosopher and diplomat whose members were Beijing students inspired reform, such as reformer Liang Qichao’s Shibao Shih (胡適, 1891–1962), fellow CCP founder by , Dazhao, and other progressives. 時報, founded in Shanghai in 1904. The period- (李大釗, 1889–1927), and modernist The Renaissance articles promoted Western polit- ical press that emerged during the May Fourth fiction writer (鲁迅, 1881–1936). New ical and social thought and encouraged China’s movement continued to showcase political, Youth is one of the most influential and represen- young people to embrace progressive politics. social, and literary concerns, including women’s tative publications of the May Fourth Movement. rights and political reform. Magazines dedicated to women’s issues In its first issue, published “Letter were also popular and gained wide reader- When the May Fourth movement began, a to Youth” (Jinggao qingnian 敬告青年), which ship. Numerous other magazines also focused number of new publications were instrumental encouraged young people to “be independent on a women’s readership and highlighted fem- in helping intellectuals communicate messages and not enslaved, be progressive and not conser- inist issues, like Jiefang huabao 解放画报 of political, social, and cultural change. One of vative, be in the forefront and not lagging behind, (Emancipation pictorial), an explicitly feminist the most well-known intellectuals of the era was be internationalist and not isolationist, be prac- magazine, whose inaugural issue was published the progressive educator and author Chen Duxiu tical and not rhetorical, and be scientific and not on May 4, 1920, to commemorate the May Fourth (陳獨秀, 1879–1942), who in 1921 cofounded superstitious.” Chen Duxiu’s advocacy of both demonstrations. the and served as its science and democracy was soon a rallying cry The Vernacular Literature Movement

n their efforts to reach a broad public, May collection Call to Arms (Nahan 呐喊). The col- blamed them for China’s supposed conservatism Fourth intellectuals promoted vernacular lection included Lu Xun’s masterpiece “The True and lack of technological progress. In 1923, literature or baihua wenxue 白話文學. For Story of Ah Q” (Ah Q zhengzhuan 阿Q正傳), wrote in The Revolution of ( Iexample, starting in 1918, New Youth published a comic account of a simpleminded everyman 漢字革命 Hanzi geming) that “the fundamental exclusively in baihua, as did The Renaissance unable to cope with either traditional or modern reform of the Chinese characters […] is to switch magazine. Other famous proponents of baihua social forces in China. to using to spell out Chinese characters.” included the poet and historian Chinese intellectuals in the early 20th cen- This radical plan failed, but its circulation (郭沫若, 1892–1978) and The Renaissance tury were committed to increasing popular lit- among intellectual circles was characteristic of the Society member (葉聖陶, 1894– eracy, via both reform of Chinese characters audacious and utopian spirit of the May Fourth 1988), who founded the first literary association as well as a radical transformation of the liter- era. By the 1950s, simplified Chinese characters of the May Fourth Movement and later served as ary style. Two of the most significant proposals and Hanyu pinyin 漢語拼音 romanization were Vice-Minister of Culture of the People’s Republic. to create a more accessible written script were adopted in the People’s Republic. Even in , Perhaps the most famous baihua writer was Lu the movements to simplify Chinese characters, where non-simplified (or “complex”) characters Xun, whose story “Diary of a Madman” (Kuangren and to create a Chinese writing system using remain standard, zhuyin fuhao 注音符號 pho- riji 狂人日記) was published in New Youth in the Latin alphabet. One of the key figures in netic symbols, also called (ㄅㄆㄇㄈ), 1918. The story tells of a man who sees the words the Latinization movement was which was first developed in the early 1910s by “eat people!” written in the margins of Confucian 錢玄同 (1887–1939), professor of literature at the government Commission on the Unification classics, a metaphor for how traditional culture is Beijing University. A noted iconoclast, Chen of Pronunciation, is still the standard transliter- said to devour young people. In 1923, “Diary of a described Chinese characters as “backward, diffi- ation system for the , as well as Madman” and other stories were reprinted in the cult to recognize, and inconvenient to write,” and non-Han ethnic minority languages. A Revolution in Women’s Lives — and Dress

he movement by Chinese women elite women had largely abandoned tra- trim physique of the modern, athletic, and to achieve cultural, political, and ditional garments of embroidered hip- or romantically adventurous modern woman. economic equality was a crucial knee-length jackets and trousers as well as, Th eqipao became widely popular in the Telement of the . most famously, the bound foot with its del- 1920s and, ironically—given that it was a Women were at the forefront of the May icate embroidered shoes. Instead, young thoroughly modern garment—increas- Fourth demonstrations and continued to women with “natural feet” preferred the ingly came to symbolize Chinese tradi- play leading roles in progressive politics. short jackets and skirts favored by female tional attire. Women’s education, a rallying cry for pro- students as well as the qipao 旗袍, a one- In the 1920s, the typical qipao was made gressives in the late 19th century, led to piece dress. with one piece of fabric for the front, back, increasing participation of women in all Qipao (also called ) have and sleeves. A more modern qipao style areas of modern life. Women joined the asymmetrical front openings and are fre- has shoulder seams, with set in sleeves professions, became leading writers and quently embellished with piped seams, made from another piece of fabric. In both social critics, and were important political contrasting collars and trim, and knot- Chinese and Western fashion in the 1920s, fi gures. ted closures. Unlike traditional women’s women’s clothing styles were straight in an Th e question of “what a modern Chinese clothing in China, which hung loosely H-line shape, and less fi tted in the waist woman should wear” was an important around the body, qipao were typically more area. and tangible related issue. By the 1920s, form-fi tting. Th ey could accentuate the

Women Writers

n addition to revolutionizing their Th rough the works of these women of political, social and cultural transforma- appearance, women increasingly authors, modern readers can be connected tion in China, including the fi rst vernacu- actively participated in various social to their inner world, perceiving their joys, lar fi ction writer (陳衡哲), Iand political arenas during the May pains and wonders, discovering their romantic writer (盧隱), revolution- Fourth era. Women authors as a special understanding of female identity, feminism ary activist Shi Pingmei (石評梅), feminist group came onstage advocating women’s and emancipation. Despite their diff erent rhetorician, writer and translator Bing Xin insights on topics ranging from home to literary styles and political views, their (冰心), left -wing writer (丁玲), nation, and their emergence changed the writings as a whole refl ect a unique female and politically liberal novelist Xiao Hong landscape of modern . perspective that should not be overlooked (蕭紅). “Th eir work was neither a continuation of when examining the course of moderniza- traditional Chinese women’s writing nor a tion in China. Several prominent women *Wang, Bo. (2005). Inventing a Discourse of Resistance: Rhetorical simple transplantation of Western feminist authors have been selected here to show- Women in Early Twentieth-Century China (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Th eses. (305026095) literature” (Wang, 2005).* case various female narratives in this time

Th e Feminist Movement & Women’s Social Conditions

he May Fourth Movement as a When the modern Chinese feminist domestic sphere. Th ey became journalists, whole took as its goals modern- movement fi rst began in the late 19th educators, offi cials, doctors, and entertain- ization, national strength, and century, the ideal woman was said to be ers. Th ey worked in factories and offi ces. Tcultural and social development. Women a “good wife and loving mother” (xianqi Th ey enjoyed a growing consumer culture played key roles in this movement, both liangmu 賢妻良母). Th is was originally that targeted their desires for entertain- as members of society, and also as intan- a Japanese formulation that promoted ment, social connection, and beautifi ca- gible symbols of China’s development. women’s education in order to raise more tion. Th e ideal of love marriage and sex- Many intellectuals argued that the role of educated children. By the 20th century, ual fulfi llment became much more com- women in Chinese society was a barom- the feminine ideal became the “mod- mon. However, women’s options were still eter of the nation’s degree of moderniza- ern woman” (modeng funü 摩登婦女) signifi cantly limited by traditional social tion as a whole, and in order for the nation who was more likely to pursue education norms as well as limited opportunities for as a whole to make progress, the social and careers outside the home. Indeed, work, education, and political access. conditions of women deserved special whether through choice or fi nancial neces- consideration. sity, Chinese women increasingly left the Women & Modernity