World Journal of Islamic History and Civilization, 2 (2): 66-86, 2012 ISSN 2225-0883 © IDOSI Publications, 2012

“Islamic Democracy” or Democracy in : Some Key Operational Democratic Concepts and Notions

Tauseef Ahmad Parray

Department of , Aligarh Muslim University (AMU), Aligarh, India

Abstract: Since the final decades of 20th century CE and especially in post 9/11 world, the question of compatibility between Islam and democracy-a hotly debated and discussed issue-has gained an impetus and has highly intensified. There are (mainly) two visions on this theme: (i) those who deny any connection between Islam and democracy; and (ii) those who argue that Islamic tradition contains a number of concepts, ideals, institutions and values which are essentially democratic (in nature). In this direction, this paper exposes and elucidates how some scholars have employed certain concepts from the Islamic tradition like , , Bay‘ah, Khilafah, Ijma, Maslaha and Ahl al-hall wa al-‘aqd-especially the first three-for conceptualizing a conceivable and feasible, possible and practicable foundation of democracy in Islam. In the final analysis, it is noted that throughout the Muslim world, majority of scholars accept the term ‘democracy’ and insist on consistency and compatibility between Islam and democracy albeit democracy here is conceived with certain qualifications and limits prescribed by Shari‘ah. It argues, by way of conclusion, that although “Islamic democracy” has been discussed very much (in theory), a “practical” Islamic democratic model has yet to emerge. This is still a challenge for Muslim political theorists (particularly) in the 21st century.

Key words: Islam Democracy Islamic democracy Democratic notions Shura Ijtihad Bay‘ah Khilafah, Ijma Maslaha Ahl al-hall wa al-‘aqd

INTRODUCTION (iii) Pakistani born Fazlur Rahman Malik; (iv) Tunisian Islamist leader Rachid al-Ghannoushi; and (v) Kuwaiti As the relationship between Islam and democracy is born American Law professor Dr. Khaled Abou El Fadl. a very complicated subject and is one of the most hotly It also provides a brief account of Western democracy, debated, deliberated and discussed issue that has gained from its origins in Greek to present day. This is followed momentum and has highly intensified in the post 9/11 by Comparative/Critical Analysis and finally by the world, it is in this direction that this paper-divided into Conclusion [1]. nine (9) sections in total (including the Introduction and Conclusion)-makes an attempt to provide an analysis- Islam and Democracy: an Introduction: Historically both brief and detailed-of the Islamic heritage and the speaking, different kinds of political systems existed process of democratization in Islam, to deliberate on some within the Muslim world-from the beginning of City-State key concepts on which Islam is interpreted and regarded of Medina, and from Umayyad (661-750), Abbasid as democratic in nature, such as Shura, Khilafah, Ijma, (750-1258) states to the modern era-and some of the Ijtihad, Bay`ah, Maslaha, etc. and provides a brief largest states were ruled by Sultans, such as the Ottoman introduction of some other concepts, that are regarded as (1281-1924), the Saffavid (1501-1722) and the Mughal the basis of Islamic political order (along with the above Empire (1526-1857). Even, in the present times-or more mentioned ones), such as , Risalah, Qiyas, Ra’y specifically in the second decade of 21st century, “there is and Ahl al-hall wa al-‘aqd. It is followed by the view- no single agreed-upon model of government”, as attested points (statements) and (re)interpretation of five to by the diverse examples of “Saudi Arabia`s prominent Muslim intellectuals of 20th and 21st centuries of conservative monarchy, Iran`s clergy-run state, Sudan`s the whole Muslim world, such as: (i) Abdolkarim Soroush and `s experiments with military-imposed Islamic of Iran; (ii) Egyptian born Allama (Dr.) Yusuf al Qaradawi; governments and the Taliban`s Afghanistan” to mention

Corresponding Author: Tauseef Ahmad Parray, Department of Islamic Studies, Aligarh Muslim University (AMU), Aligarh, India.

66 World J. Islamic History & Civilization, 2 (2): 66-85, 2012 a few only [2]. These states have faced the challenge of reform, but also of pluralism as well. It is regarded as the the socio-political changes after the modern “first Constitution of democracy in the history of transformations, but the relationship between Islam and constitutional rule” [5]. In other words, for modern politics has been “a major theme in these transformations” Muslim scholars, the constitution of Medina is hailed as [3]. From the final decades of the 20th century to present a precursor to modern constitutionalism and rule of law day “religious resurgence” and “democratization” are two equivalent to the Magna Carta and is often cited as “key of the major developments that came into existence in the precedent for constitutionalism, rule of law, collective first years of the 15th Islamic century and the final years of leadership and democratizing reform” [6]. the 20th century of CE [3]. The debate over democracy and Before going into details on this discourse, it is democratization in the Muslin societies, according to essential here, to throw some light on the concept of Zoya Hasan, “its definition and fundamentals, as well as Western democracy: from its classical model in the city- its impact on governments` domestic and foreign policies, state of Greece to the emergence-from the beginning of has continued for a long time”, but, as it has acquired an 17th and 18th centuries-and development (particularly impetus in recent years (especially from the events of during 19th and 20th centuries) of modern democracy into 9/11), this debate has now highly intensified [4]. many variants, both in theory and practice. In the discourse of Islam`s relation to democracy, such questions as ‘Is democracy compatible with Islam?’ Western Democracy: a Brief Historical Development: or ‘Is there any relation between Islam and democracy?’ There are many definitions and connotations of the term ‘What elements are present in Islamic tradition in the ‘democracy’ in the modern world. Democracy means service of democracy?’ ‘Are democracies really more different things to different people. Democracy is the most peaceful than non-democracies’? Above all, ‘Is comprehensive, most ancient and complex of all political democracy appropriate or desirable as a political system concepts. It is a variety of many things that evolved many for Muslim societies?’ are generally raised. different meanings during different ages: classical, Addressing these-and many other relevant- medieval and modern. The term democracy indicates a set questions, in the following pages, an attempt and of ideals and principles and a political system, a endeavor is made to illustrate that in the Islamic tradition mechanism for governance and a politico-legal culture. there are various concepts that provide an effective For some it is a political system that ensures political foundation for describing democracy in Islam (or “Islamic equality and self-rule; to others, it is a system that allows democracy”). In other words, Islamic tradition indeed the presence of equal opportunities and rights. So, in contains certain concepts that are relatively helpful in brief, no definition of democracy can embrace the vast understanding the Islamic perceptions of democracy. history which the concept connotes. Speaking of democracy and the notion of democratic Democracy literally means ‘rule by the people’. participation, however, does not mean that the word Although it is Greek in origin-derived from the Greek democracy is a Qura’nic term or a term explained in the ‘demos’, meaning ‘people’ and ‘kratos’ meaning ‘rule’-it . It only means that the Islamic legacy-cultural and came into through French in 16th intellectual legacy-contains key concepts and images that century. In the middle ages, during the Renaissance and show resemblance with the democratic principles and Reformation movements in Europe, Nicollo Machiavelli perceptions. There are many operational key concepts in (1469-1527), the Renaissance thinker, demanded the the Islamic tradition which provide evidence that the separation of state in his writings: The Prince and The Islamic system of government is democratic in the real Discourses [7]. Regarded as the first theorist of modern sense. These concepts are Khilafah (Man’s vicegerency), state politics, Machiavelli linked the case for forms of Shura (mutual consultation), Ijma (consensus of the elective government and participative politics to the community), Ijtihad (independent interpretive judgment), prospects of civic welfare and civic glory. Maslaha (public good/interest), Bay`ah (oath of During the 17th and 18th centuries three revolutions allegiance) and the notion of Ahl al-hall wa al-‘aqd took place in England, France and America-contributing (those who are qualified to unbind and to bind) and so on. a lot to the emergence of modern democracy. In other The Constitution of Medina-the principles of which were words, modern democracy started developing in the 17th based on holy Qur`an and Sunnah-is also interpreted not and 18th centuries. The Glorious Revolution of 1689 of only as a source of constitutionalism, democratizing England is regarded as the land mark in the history of

67 World J. Islamic History & Civilization, 2 (2): 66-85, 2012 democracy: because by this revolution the seeds of Thus, from the beginning of the democracy in Greece democracy were able to grow again for the first time in (in 4th century BC) to the revolutions of England, America Europe (West) since the Greeks. Thereafter, the American and France and from 19th century to the end of 2oth Revolution of 1776 (which stood for self-government as century, democracy has appeared in various forms the American colonies were not well-represented by the indicating that the concept of democracy has changed British parliament; thus making U.S. as the first example of and developed in the shade of variety of social, political a modern state to carry out the principles of democracy) and economic developments. and French Revolution of 1789 (which was the outcome of It is an established fact that there is no more suffering of the people under despotism of French universally accepted or clearly defined model of monarchs) led to the “Declaration of the Rights of man democracy-and as W. B. Gallie has called democracy an and of the citizen” which became the preamble to the “essentially contested concept” [10] -so throughout the world, scholars and common people are actively involved Constitution of France in 1791 [8, 9]. in the effort to create more effective democratic structure. In the 19th century, equality, freedom and fraternity In fact the term ‘democracy’ is capable of multiple became the watch-words of modern democracy and thus, interpretations and applications and the acceptance of its modern democratic ideas were shaped to a large extent contested nature, its diversity and dynamics of by ideas and institutions of medieval Europe, notably development, enables the recognition that there can be the emergence of “natural rights and political equality” alternative rival uses of the term ‘democracy’. during the enlightenment and the American and Same is the case with the Muslims. Throughout the th th French Revolution. In the 19 and 20 centuries, Muslim world, from North Africa to South and Southeast “representative parliaments, freely elected under Asia and from Middle East to Central Asia, Muslim universal franchise”, became the central institutions of scholars and thinkers are earnestly and vigorously democratic governments and in many countries, engaged in defining and interpreting democracy in Islamic democracy implied “freedom of speech and the press and traditions. They are involved in developing, defining and the rule of law” [8]. establishing a reliable and feasible Islamic democracy by In the emergence of modern democracy, various utilizing longstanding traditions and conceptualizations political thinkers played an important role. For example, of Khilafah (Vicegerency), Shura (mutual consultation), Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), John Locke (1632-1704) and Ijma (consensus) and Ijtihad (independent reasoning), Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) popularized the ideas Bay`ah (oath of allegiance)-the main key traditional of liberty and democracy. Hobbes and Locke`s theory of concepts of Islamic polity. ‘Social Contract’ aiming at to preserve Natural Rights and Rousseau`s theory of General-Will was a fillip to The Islamic Terminology and the Islamic Heritage: democracy. Charles Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755), There is diversity of voices that discuss and debate stood for the “separation of powers” to check autocratic “Islamic democracy”, relationship between Islam and rule. He distinguished between “the executive, the democracy or between the two systems of political legislature and judiciary” [7]. thought and compatibility and consistency between the But, as in the modern times, there are various two and various other sub-themes related to it. This interpretations of this definition and consequently diversity of voices include many groups such as proponents (supporters), opponents, Islamists, throughout the history political thinkers have defined modernists and some leading western scholars of democracy in their own perspectives resulting that contemporary politics. Muslim scholars today are there is no universally accepted or clearly defined debating the relationship of Islam to democracy; while model of democracy. Consequently, there are several many of them wish for greater political participation, the versions/variants and models of democracy which rule of law, government accountability, freedoms and the world has experienced throughout the history, human rights, there are many different ways to achieve from the city-state of Greece to present day-direct, these goals. In short, the interrelationship of Islam and indirect/representative, functional, parliamentary, democracy and the question of supposed compatibility or republican, federal, proletarian, liberal, industrial, etc. incompatibility between the two is debated among the models/variants of democracy. That is, democracy people ranging from those who “deny a connection has taken a number of forms, both in theory and between Islam and democracy” to those who argue that practice. “Islam requires a democratic system” [11].

68 World J. Islamic History & Civilization, 2 (2): 66-85, 2012

This diversity includes many voices, i.e., there are than what differentiates them; that is, they believe in the many reactions to democratization in the Muslim world: reconciliation of Islam and democracy-they have different some, including “ultraconservatives and extremists”, perceptions about its precise meaning. In general, argue that Islam has its own mechanisms and institutions, however, democracy is taken as a form of government in which do not include democracy. Others believe that which sovereignty belongs to Almighty Allah; man is democracy can fully be realized only if Muslim societies considered to be His vicegerent; and decision making on restrict religion to private life; while as, still others every problem is characterized by mutual consultation contend that Islam is fully capable of accommodating and (Shura) and consensus of the community (Ijma), taking supporting democracy. Engaging in a process of reform, guidance from the Qura’nic verses like, 2: 30; 6:165; 4: 58; this (third group) argue the compatibility of Islam and 3: 159 and 42: 38. They argue that if by democracy is democracy by using the traditional meant a “system of freedom, justice, equality and human rights” then Islamic teachings already contain these Islamic concepts like consultation (shura) between values and systems [5]. In fact, these values are ruler and ruled, community consensus (ijma), public essential/basic to Islam. interest (maslaha) and ijtihad (the use of human As mentioned earlier, the diversity of voices on the reason to reinterpret Islamic principles and values issue is compelling and convincing. Throughout the and to meet the new needs of society). These Muslim world majority of the scholars argue that Islam is mechanisms can be used to support parliamentary in support of democracy and that Islam and democracy forms of government with systems of checks and are compatible. Some have broadened the argument to balances among the executive, legislative and insist that under the conditions of the contemporary judiciary branches [12]. world “democracy can be considered a requirement of Islam”. While some scholars bring “historically important According to some scholars [13, 14] the voices of concepts from within the Islamic tradition” together with Islam-democracy debate continue to be polarized in at the basic concepts of democracy as understood in the least three directions: secularist, rejectionists and modern world, many others view democracy as an reformers/reformists (i) Secularists, who argue in favor of “appropriate way to fulfill certain obligations of faith in a wholesale adoption of Western liberal system, believe the contemporary world”; and others see democracy as that Islam should be separated from politics; (ii) their main “hope and vehicle of effective political rejectionists, representing conservative and some radical participation” [11]. religious forces that adopt a negative view of any shape There are various scholars, Islamists, leaders and or form of democratic system, stress that democracy is political thinkers who have actively engaged in defining, a Western product and as such it has to be avoided at all discussing, debating Islam, its institutions, systems and cost. This group regards democracy as forbidden (haram) concepts vis-a-vis the modern challenges (and ‘Islam and and something which contradicts Divine Sovereignty; and democracy’ being one of them); and writing effectively on (iii) reformists, the third vision represents moderate voices Islamic doctrines, law, politics, science and economics. that argue for adopting a middle path. Some Muslim The Islamic Movements and its legacy produced intellectuals, academic scholars and moderate religious generations of reformers from Middle East to South Asia: leaders who believe that there is scope for reconciling from Jamal al Din Afghani, Abduh in the some Islamic universal principles with democratic political Middle East to Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and Muhammad order are championing this trend. Thus, indeed, in Iqbal in the South Asia. The major “founders of contemporary Muslim politics, argues John Esposito, Neo-revivalist movements” from the pioneers Islam has often been used “to legitimate” and justify (Hassan al-Banna, Mawlana Abu Ala Mawdudi and Syed various forms and systems of government, including Qutb) to present day movements constituting the “democracy and dictatorship, republicanism and “backbone of the second and third generation of Muslim monarchy” [13]. activists” across the Muslim world [13]. Those scholars who define democracy in Islamic This broad gamut-multiplicity and diversity-does perspective-the reformist or modernist trend, represented provide important insights into understanding the by those Muslim intellectuals, academic scholars and intricate, complex and complicated relationship between moderate religious leaders who believe that there is much Islam and democracy in the contemporary world. Despite in common in between what Islam and democracy share the great dynamism and diversity in contemporary Muslim

69 World J. Islamic History & Civilization, 2 (2): 66-85, 2012 political thought, certain concepts are central to the processes. In spite of freedom from the colonial political positions of the virtually all Muslims. In other oppression and subjugation, the Muslim Ummah words, contemporary Muslim scholars present certain (community) is still “struggling for its right-its concepts from within the Islamic tradition as the democratic right-to freely develop its polity, society and “operational key concepts to democracy” in Islam or economy” in light of its own ideas, values and ‘Islamic democracy’ [3]. aspirations [16]. Islamic legacy-history and tradition-provides a Ahmad further argues that Muslims struggle for the number of key concepts that explain the relationship right meaning of democracy and nothing more and less between Islam and democracy on the one hand and than its real meaning commenting that democracy provide the visions of what a just human society should means “rights of a people to self-determination and be, on the other. These (concepts) are the foundations for self-fulfillment”, that is what Islam and the Muslims have the Islamic perceptions of democracy. Despite the great been “striving for”, nothing more and nothing less [16]. dynamism and diversity among the contemporary John Esposito and John Voll in Islam and Democracy Muslims in terms of political views, there are certain [3] explicitly declare that the absolute Sovereignty and concepts that are regarded as the basis of political Oneness of God as expressed in the concept of Tawhid positions of virtually all Muslims. What fluctuates is the and the role of human beings as defined in the concept of “definition” and classification of the concepts-not Khilafah thus provide a framework within which scholars “recognition” and identification of the concepts have in recent years developed distinctive political themselves [3]. theories that are self-described and envisaged as being Mawlana Syed Abu Ala Mawdudi (1903-1979), a democratic. They involve special definitions and significant South Asian Muslim thinker and founder of recognitions of popular sovereignty and an important the Islamic revivalist organization, the Jama`at al-Islami, emphasis on the equality of human beings and the stated that the “political system of Islam has been based obligations of people in being the possessors of the trust on three principles, viz; Tawhid (Unity of Allah), Risalat of government and they represent important perspectives (Prophethood) and Khilafat ().” For him, it is in the contemporary global context of democratization. difficult to appreciate different aspects of the “Islamic In particular, “Islamic democracy is seen as affirming polity without fully understanding these three principles” longstanding Islamic concepts of consultation (Shura), [15]. consensus (Ijma) and independent interpretive judgment Professor Khurshid Ahmad (b.1932; Indian born (Ijtihad)”. These terms have not always been identified Pakistani scholar-activist), in his essay on Islam and with democratic institutions and have a variety of usages democracy theme explicitly declares that within the in contemporary Muslim discourse. However, regardless context of Islamic faith, culture, history and contemporary of other contexts and usages “these terms are central to experience there are clear lines of guidance which propose the debates and discussions regarding democratizations” a exclusive and distinctive political framework that can be in almost all the Muslim societies [3]. These concepts are described as true participatory, both in substance and central to and are very basis of Islamic democracy, spirit and capable of establishing a political order because. committed to the twin goals of ‘Adl (justice) and Shura (consultation), the real substance of operational Consultation [Shura], consensus [Ijma] and Ijtihad democracy [16]. He criticizes the despotic and arbitrary [independent reasoning] are crucial concepts for the rule, as he argues that there is “no contradiction between articulation of Islamic democracy within the Islam and essence of democracy”. Whatever despotic or framework of the oneness of God and the arbitrary rule exists in the Muslim lands is part of an alien, representational obligations of human beings. These foreign and imposed tradition. Islam and democracy are are the terms whose meanings are contested and “two sides” of the same coin. As such, democratic whose definitions shape Muslim perceptions of what processes and Islam would go hand in hand. represents legitimate and authentic democracy in an Democratization is bound to be a “stepping stone of Islamic framework.… [T]hey provide an effective Islamization”. The fulfillment and accomplishment of foundation for understanding the relationship Islamic aspirations would become possible only through between Islam and democracy in the contemporary the promotion and encouragement of democratic world [3].

70 World J. Islamic History & Civilization, 2 (2): 66-85, 2012

Thus, the above mentioned scholars as well as others presents a “unified view of the world and offers the vision accept Tawhid, Risalah, Khilafah, Shura, Ijma, Ijtihad, of an integrated universe”; and it is “a dynamic belief and Maslaha, Bay`ah and Ahl al Hall wa al ‘Aqd as the basis a revolutionary doctrine” [22, 23]. of Islamic democracy, i.e., these are the main operational key concepts of Islamic democracy as well as basic Risalah: Risalah (Prophethood)-or the “mission or principles of Islamic political system or order. In other ‘ministry’ of a Divine Messenger (rasul)”-is the second words, Shura, Ijma, Ijtihad, Maslaha and Bay`ah, are basic principle [18]. It means, in brief, that Muslims have regarded as the crucial concepts for the articulation of to accept Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) as Allah’s last Islamic democracy within the framework of Tawhid and Messenger and that obeying his Uswah al Hasanah or Khilafah. Ideal Conduct (Qur`an, 33: 21) and ‘Sunnah’ is obligatory for every Muslim after the Tawhid (4:59). Prophethood The Foundations of “Islamic democracy”: An refers to the belief that God reveals His Will to the Introduction of some Islamic Democratic Notions: Shura, humans through “specific individuals recognized as the Ijtihad, Bay`ah and Ahl al Hall wa al ‘Aqd: In this human agents involved in implementing the Islamic section, Shura, Ijtihad, Bay`ah and Ahl al-hall wa al- message (the Second human agency is ‘caliph’)” [18]. ‘aqd-the crucial concepts that are regarded as the most Risalah is the medium through which the Law of God has important, essential and basic to democracy in Islam-are been received by the Muslims. analyzed. Also an introduction-very brief and concise-of other concepts is also provided [17]. Khilafah: Khilafah (Caliphate, Vicegerency, or representativeness) determines both the actual status of Tawhid: Tawhid-the acknowledging of the Unity of man in Islam as well as shapes the socio-political order of Allah, the Indivisible, Absolute and the sole Real– is the society. The Qur’an, al-Baqarah (2): 30 (“Lo! I am the co-ordinal, basic and fundamental principle of about to place a vicegerent”), referring to Adam (AS) as Islamic life meaning that Absolute Sovereignty and the embodiment of the fitrah, or primordial norm and Ultimate Authority belong to Him (Qur’an, 25: 2) [18]. al-An‘am (6): 165 (“For He it is Who has appointed you The modernist Pakistani Muslim intellectual Fazlur vicegerent over the earth”), referring to Solomon [Prophet Rahman [19] holds that this doctrine “is central to the Sulaiman] as Caliph-and teaches that God has given the Qur'an-without which, indeed, Islam is unthinkable”. earth as a trust to mankind [18]. For Mawlana Mawdudi, Similarly, Ismail Raji al-Faruqi [20] writes that at “the core Khalifah (or vicegerent), as mentioned in holy Qur`an 2: of the Islamic religious experience... stands God Who is 30, is the person unique and Whose will is the imperative and guide for all men's lives.” Al-Faruqi presents Tawhid as the essence of who exercises the authority delegated to him by his religious experience, the quintessence of Islam, the principal and does so in the capacity of his deputy principle of history, of knowledge, of , of aesthetics, and agent. Hence, whatever authority he possesses of the Ummah, of the family, of the political, social, is not inherently his own, but is derived from and economic and world orders. Tawhid is the basis and heart circumscribed by, the limits set by his principal. of Islam`s comprehensive worldview: “All the diversity, A vicegerent is not entitled to do what he pleases, wealth and history, culture and learning, wisdom and but is obliged to carry out the will of his master. If the civilization of Islam is compressed in this shortest of vicegerent were either to begin thinking himself the sentences-La ilaha illa Allah [There is no God but real owner and to use the authority delegated to him Allah]” (Italics added) [21, 3]. in whatever manner he pleased, or if he were to Moreover, for Professor Khurshid Ahmad, who is acknowledge someone other than the real owner as one of the dominant figures of Islamic resurgence in the his lord and master and to follow his directions, these present era, the comprehensive guidance of Islam and its would be deemed acts of infidelity and rebellion [24]. integral relationship with to all aspects of life are rooted in the doctrine of Tawhid-the bed-rock of Islam. It is a Furthermore, Mawlana Mawdudi`s interpretation of “revolutionary concept” and points to the “supremacy of Khalifah, as mentioned in holy Qur`an 6: 165, is as the law in the cosmos”; and being a dynamic doctrine, it follows:

71 World J. Islamic History & Civilization, 2 (2): 66-85, 2012

This statement embodies three important truths: During the 19th and 20th centuries, significant efforts First, that human beings as such are vicegerents of have been taken by scholars to broaden the God on earth, so that God has entrusted them with conceptualizations of consultation and this is associated many things and endowed them with the power to with the advocates of Islamic democracy (i.e. the Muslim use them. Second, it is God Himself Who has created democrats). differences of rank among His vicegerents. … Third, Shura is regarded as the main key element and the all this is indeed designed to test man [25]. very basis of democracy in Islam. Sadek Jawad Sulaiman (an Omani intellectual), who accepts the compatibility of Thus, from Islamic point of view, Muslims see democracy and Shura on the grounds that Shura, as a themselves as God`s representatives with a divine concept and a principle, does not differ from democracy mandate to establish God`s rule on earth in order to create in his ‘Democracy and Shura’, writes: a “just society”. Khilafah is the other name of the God`s Both Shura and democracy arise from the central trust/amanah (Qur`an, al-Mai’dah, 5: 4) and is one of the consideration that collective deliberation is more basic principles of Islamic political order as well as a basic likely to lead to a fair and sound result for the social principle/concept in the development of Islamic good than individual preference. Both concepts also democracy, amplifying democracy in several ways: for assume that majority judgment tends to be more example, Khilafah is bestowed on the entire group of comprehensive and accurate than minority judgment. people, the Ummah (community) as a whole and is not As principles, Shura and democracy proceed from restricted to few individuals; i.e., it is a kind of popular the core idea that all people are equal in rights and vicegerency. This made Mawlana Mawdudi [26] to call the responsibilities. Both thereby commit to the rule of political system of Islam as a “perfect form of democracy”- the people through application of the law rather than the rule of individuals or a family through autocratic as perfect as a democracy could ever be and proclaimed decree. Both affirm that a more comprehensive that Khilafah as popular vicegerency is the point where fulfillment of the principles and values by which democracy in Islam or the “real foundation of democracy humanity prospers cannot be achieved in a non- in Islam” [27]. Secondly, there is no discrimination of race, democratic, non-Shura environment [29]. colour and language in sharing the personality of the state. In Islamic society, there is no place for dictatorship He regards democracy and Shura as synonymous in or authoritarianism of any person or group (as everyone conception and principle, although they may differ in is Khalifah). Mawlana Mawdudi in this regard, writes, details of application and appliance, on the basis that Islam seeks to set up on the one hand, this “superlative both Shura and democracy reject and refuse. (degree of) democracy” and on the other it has put an end to that individualism which militates against the health of Any government lacking the legitimacy of free the body politics [27, 28]. elections, accountability and the people's power, through the constitutional process, to impeach the Shura: The principle of Shura (generally translated as ruler for violation of trust. The logic of Shura, like the mutual consultation or consultative decision-making) in logic of democracy, does not accept hereditary rule, Islamic political thought refers to deliberations conducted for wisdom and competence are never the monopoly with the aim of collecting and discussing different of any one individual or family. Likewise, Shura and opinions on a particular subject in order to reach a democracy both reject government by force, for any decision. It is not only interpreted as the source of rule sustained by coercion is illegitimate. Moreover, democratic ethics in Islam, but is regarded (by some) as an both forbid privileges-political, social and economic- alternative for describing democracy in Islam context. claimed on the basis of tribal lineage or social That is, it is interpreted as the very basis of democratic prestige. government in Islam. The term Shura-an act, an idea, a Shura and democracy are thus one and the same social technique and a political institution-is central to the concept. They prod us to find better and better Islamic democracy and is the very basis of it. It is a direct realizations of the principles of justice, equality and outcome of the theory of vicegerency and the basic spirit human dignity in our collective socio-political of Islamic society. experience [29].

72 World J. Islamic History & Civilization, 2 (2): 66-85, 2012

Shura (consultation) is a basic principle in all spheres persons in any given society are equal in human and civil of Islamic political and social systems. It is also “essential rights. Second, those public issues are best decided by for the proper functioning of the organs of the state, its majority view. And third, that the three other principles of overall activity and Islamic identity” [5]. Muhammad justice, equality and human dignity, which constitute Hamidullah places consultation in a generally accepted Islam’s moral core are best realized, in personal as well as framework. He argues that the “importance and utility of public life, under Shura governance [35]. consultation [Shura] cannot be too greatly emphasized. Shura thus becomes first and foremost key The Qur’an (3: 159, 27: 32, 42: 38, 47: 21) commands the operational concept and element in the relationship Muslims again and again to take their decisions after between Islam and democracy, or in other words, the very consultation, whether in a public matter or a private basis of Islamic democracy. one”[30]. John L. Esposito regarding the importance of The Constitution of Medina-which was based on the Shura, writes: principles of Qur’an and Sunnah-is the “first Constitution The necessity of consultation is a political of democracy in the history of constitutional rule” [5]. consequence of the principle of the caliphate of human The Islamic scholars agree that the principle of Shura, or beings. Popular vicegerency in an Islamic state is reflected consultative decision–making, is the source of democratic especially in the doctrine of mutual consultation (Shura). ethics in Islam; in other words they tend to conflate Shura The importance of consultation as a part of Islamic with the modern concept of democracy. Thus the concept systems of rule is widely recognized [31]. of Shura is central to the Islamic democracy and is the Quoting these statements in Islam and Democracy, very basis of it. It is direct outcome of the theory of Esposito and Voll claim that consultation is an important vicegerency and Shura is the “basic spirit of Islamic operational concept and element with regard to the society”, which runs through its veins, its organs, relation of Islam with democracy. Particularly, during the institutions and associations in general [36]. 19th and 20th centuries, “there have been significant efforts”, they argue, “to broaden the conceptualization of Ijma: Ijma (Lit. “Assembly” or consensus) is another consultation and this is associated with advocates of important operational concept regarding democracy. The Islamic democracy”. For them, in this perspective, “Shura foundation for the validity of Ijma is the often cited thus becomes a key operational element in the (Prophetic saying) that Prophet Muhammad relationship between Islam and democracy” [3] (Italics (pbuh) stated, as stated in al-Tirmidhi: added). The importance of Shura is best understood only “Never will Allah make my Ummah (Community) when we look back to the political system of Prophetic era agree on a wrong course” or “My Community will and of Khulfa-i-Rashidin period and a thorough study of political system of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) and of the not agree upon an error” [32]. first four caliphs reveals that the system was truly democratic in spirit-as discussed in the previous Ijma is a consensus, expressed or tacit, on a question chapter-because its political technique was common of law. Along with the Qur’an, Hadith and Sunnah, it is consultation and election of representatives and that in basis which legitimizes law [18]. form it was representative. These constitute the essential Shura and Ijma (consultation and Consensus) are and integral features of an Islamic State. frequently seen as the basis for Islamic democracy in [32] states that Shura caters for the modern times. Ijma played a ‘pivotal role’ in the continuous temporal legislation of our social existence; development of Islamic law and contributed significantly and Swiss born Muslim intellectual Tariq Ramadan [33] to the corpus of the law or legal interpretation [3, 31]. while describing the institution of Shura in general terms, In the modern times, Muslim thinkers have imbued the describes it as “the space which allows Islam the concept of consensus with new possibilities. It is in this management of pluralism”. Ramadan also refutes the view way that Louay M. Safi reaches the conclusion that the of some ulema and thinkers from the “traditionalist and “legitimacy of the state depends upon the extent to which literalist schools of thought” who argue that the state organization and power reflect the will of the “democratic system (not a Qura’nic concept) does not Ummah”, for as classical jurists have insisted, the respect Islamic criteria (the criteria of shura)” [34]. In the “legitimacy of the state institutions is not derived from words of Sadek J. Sulaiman, the Shura principle in Islam textual sources but is based primarily on the principle of is predicated on three basic precepts. First, that all Ijma” [37].

73 World J. Islamic History & Civilization, 2 (2): 66-85, 2012

On this basis, ‘Ijma can become both the legitimation Taha J. al ‘Alwani points out that from the second and the procedure of an Islamic democracy, or in other hijri century until the present day, the reality, the words Consensus offers both the “legitimation of Islamic essence, the rules, the conditions, the premises, the democracy and a procedure to carry it out” [3]. M. means and the scope of Ijtihad have remained a source of Hamidullah says that Ijma need not be static as it offers debate engaging some of the Islamic world’s greatest “great possibilities of developing the Islamic Laws and theologians, scholars of al-‘usul and fuqaha [41]. adapting it to changing circumstances” [30]. Ijtihad is one of the several fundamental Islamic Ijtihad: Ijtihad (Lit. “Effort”) is another operational concepts to have been misused, misrepresented, or concept of major importance related to the relationship misunderstood by Muslims. Because of the danger of between ‘Islam and democracy’. Ijtihad is applied to misuse, Ijtihad has always been a “controversial concept” those questions which are not covered by the Qur’an and and the need of the hour is to “interpret Ijtihad in such a Sunnah, that is, neither by established precedence way that it can be used to justify the results” [3, 41]. (taqlid), nor by direct analogy (qiyas) from known laws [18]. Ijtihad is regarded, by many Muslim thinkers, as the Qiyas and Ra’y: Qiyas (Literally “measure”, “scale”, or key to the implementation of God’s will in any given time “exemplar” and hence “analogy” or juristic reasoning) or place. Prof. Khurshid Ahmad presents this position communicates same or near same meaning of Ijtihad. clearly, when he argues that Qiyas is the “principle” by which the laws of the Qur’an and Sunnah are “applied to situations not explicitly God has revealed only broad principles and has covered by these two sources of religious legislation” endowed man with the freedom to apply them in [18]. every age in the way suited to the spirit and Ra’y (Literally “Opinion”), is a “legal principle” that conditions of that age. It is through the Ijtihad of the personal opinion of the jurist, which is “last resort” that people of every age try to implement and after Qur’an, Sunnah and precedents have been apply divine guidance to the problems of their times exhausted in resolving a legal issue” [18]. It is also used [38]. by the jurists to communicate the individual meaning of the term Ijtihad. Virtually all Muslim reformers and reformist intellectuals of the 20th century and of contemporary Bay‘ah: Bay‘ah (literally “a pact” or “an oath of fealty or era show enthusiasm for the concept of Ijtihad, allegiance” or ‘Consent’), in a very broad sense means the Allama Iqbal, Khurshid Ahmad, Taha Jabir al ‘Alwani act by which “a certain number of persons, acting and Altaf Gauhar being few of them. M. Iqbal one of the individually or collectively, recognize the authority of major figures in modern times, called (in 1930s) for “the another person”-a ruler, a king, or an emir/amir transfer of the power of Ijtihad from individual [18, 42, 43]. An important principle of the constitution of representatives of Schools to a Muslim legislative Medina was that Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) governed assembly” [39]. the city-state of Medina by virtue of consent of its In the context of modern world, the advocacy of citizens. This constitution “established the importance of Ijtihad is described by Altaf Gauhar in the following consent and cooperation for governance” and the words: principles of “equality, consensual governance and pluralism” are beautifully enmeshed in it [44]. In Islam power flows out of the framework of the During the early period of Islamic history, the Qur’an and from no other source. It is for Muslim process of bay`ah was an important institution that Scholars to initiate Universal Ijtihad at all levels. The sought to formalize the consent of the governed. faith is fresh; it is the Muslim Mind which is The early Caliphs practiced the process of bay`ah after befogged. The principles of Islam are Dynamic; it is rudimentary forms of electoral colleges had elected the our approach which has become static. Let there be Caliph, in order to legitimize the authority of Caliph. fundamental rethinking to open avenues of The bay`ah, speaking etymologically, have two exploration, innovation and creativity [40]. principal aims which differ both in their scope and nature:

74 World J. Islamic History & Civilization, 2 (2): 66-85, 2012

The first is essentially that of adherence to a doctrine their behalf in appointing and deposing a caliph or and recognition of the pre-established authority of another ruler” [45, 46]. It is a “title given to the religious the person who teaches it. It is in this sense that the scholars, political leaders and intellectuals who have the bay’a was practiced in the relations between authority and influence in the society and the Muhammad and his newly acquired supporters (holy government” [36]. Or ‘those who untie and fasten, that is, Qur`an: Qur`an, 43 (xlviii): 10, 18; 60 (lx): 13). In the forbid and enjoin; eminent authorities in matters of same sense, but with a more restricted purpose, the jurisprudence’ and in the opinion of Emmanuel Sivan: bay’a served simply to recognize the pre-established “Membership in this select group is determined by authority of a person and to promise him obedience. learning, virtue and devotion to the application of the Such was the case with the bay’a effected in favor of Shari`a. Given their age-old opportunism, few ulema a new caliph whose title to succeed has been qualify for membership. It is Ahl al-Hall wa-l-`Aqd, not established by the testamentary designation (‘ahd) parliament or the High Court, who should pass judgment of his predecessor. upon the compatibility of existing laws and clarify moot In the second sense the principle aim of the bay’a is points in the Shari`a and apply it to new issues” [47] the election of a person to a post of command and, in (Italics added). This concept is interpreted diversely by particular, the election of a Caliph, when a promise of scholars. It is a concept that was introduced in the classic obedience is implied. It was thus that the first Caliph, Islamic political literature and is increasingly referred to in Abu Bakr (r. 632-34 CE), was designated by bay’a of the recent times. Such groups of notables in the Muslim the so-called assembly of Sakifa/Saqifa (8 June 632 society are obliged to carry on several roles, the most CE); and the same invariably applied on all important of which is to choose the Muslim ruler. Al- subsequent occasions that the seat of the Caliphate Mawardi and Ibn Taymiyah along with other classic fell vacant and no successor designated by other scholars of political theory in Islam admit the importance means existed [42]. of the notables and their role in choosing the ruler. In medieval political theory, their main function was to “offer In the legal nature, the bay`ah is as a “contractual the office of caliphate to the most qualified person and, agreement”: on the one side there is the will of the upon his acceptance, to administer to him an oath of electors, expressed in the designation of the candidate, allegiance (bay‘ah)” and, in modern political thought, which constitutes the “offer” and on the other side the according to Wael B. Hallaq, the title. will of the elected person which constitutes the “acceptance”[42]. Thus, the bay’ah is an act perfected ahl al-hall wa-al-‘aqd has gained particular solely by agreement; and its form remains the same in significance. The title is now intimately connected both its roles-that of election and that of simple offer of with an expanded meaning of the concept of shura, homage. a term … [meaning consultation and deliberating] on In the modern times, the “process of nomination” political matters, including the appointment of a followed by elections can serve as a necessary caliph. In nineteenth- and particularly in twentieth- “modernization of the process of bayah”; and replacing century political thought, the ahl al hall, through the it with ballots makes the process of pledging allegiance medium of shura, speak[s] for the full community “simple and universal”. Therefore, in the present times, [46]. the elections are “neither a departure from Islamic principles and traditions nor inherently un-Islamic in any The Tunisian reformist, Khayr al-Din al-Tunisi form” [44]. The Qura`nic verses, like 4: 59, 3: 159 and 42: (d. 1889) equates this title with a European-style 38, also recognize the authority of those who have been parliament, while as the Egyptian (d. 1935) chosen as leaders and in a sense deputizes these entrusts them powers to elect and depose rulers by virtue consensual rulers. of their influential status on the community and of their mutual consultation. For Rida, the ruler becomes Ahl al-Hall wa Al-‘Aqd: Ahl al-hall wa al-‘aqd, “those subservient to ahl al-hall, who expresses through their who are qualified to unbind and to bind” are the consultation the will of the community on matters of representatives of the Muslim community “who act on public law and policy [46].

75 World J. Islamic History & Civilization, 2 (2): 66-85, 2012

Moreover, an investigation of the arguments of of contemporary reformist Islamic thought, with special several Islamic scholars about the nature of the group of emphasis on questions concerning the nature of Islamic notables and their duties makes it clear that elections of government, the importance of democracy and tolerance the Muslim ruler through ahl al-hall wa al-‘aqd is a and respect for human rights [48]. Soroush sees no system that abides by the conditions and guidelines laid contradiction between Islam and the freedoms inherent in down in and Sunnah and overcomes several of the democracy, because for him, “democracy” is not a flaws that will be presented to be found in the traditional concept necessarily connected with , which he democratic mechanism. accuses of excess relativism that may lead to secularism Thus, Shura, Ijtihad, Bay`ah and the concept of Ahl and theism, or a political reality where anything and al-hall wa al-‘aqd provide an effective foundation for everything is “subject to referendum and debate and … understanding the relationship between Islam and nothing has a solid and an a priori ‘foundation’” [49]. democracy. To put in other words they provide the basic Rather, it is a “method of harnessing the power of the concepts for understanding the relationship between rulers, rationalizing their policies, protecting the rights of Islam and democracy in the contemporary world and an the subjects and attaining the public good” [49]. In other “effective foundation” to build an Islamic basis for words, it means that democracy rests on and promotes the democracy. These are the terms whose meanings are same moral values as religion, namely justice, courage and contested and whose definitions shape Muslim moderation. Democracy then provides the checks and perceptions of what represents legitimate and authentic balances agreed upon rationally and religion, as the democracy in Islamic framework. These are the concepts bulwark of morality, guarantees the smooth functioning of for the articulation of Islamic democracy. Presently there democracy [48, 49]. are various scholars who are sincerely devoted to the For Soroush, Islam and democracy are not only Islamic political issues; they are sincerely in search of “compatible, their association is inevitable”. In a Muslim resurgence of Islam and have been engaged in a lively society, one without other is “not perfect” [50, 51]. debate on Islam and modernity (e.g., the outlook of Islam For him, the only form of government that does not on democracy, equality, human rights, minority and transform religion into an ideology or obstruct the women’s rights). growth of religious knowledge is a democratic one. He does not identify democracy with a particular Contemporary Muslim Intellectuals on Islam-Democracy Western culture as a foreign force to be resisted. Compatibility: In this section, views of some of the He considers democracy a form of government that is Muslim intellectuals of contemporary era –who are compatible with multiple political cultures, including earnestly engaged in a lively debate on Islam-democracy, Islamic ones [52]. as pointed out earlier as well-are discussed, in support He believes that the will of the majority must shape of the “crucial” and key concepts of “Islamic democracy”. the ideal Islamic state and that Islam itself is evolving as In no way is this list (of the scholars/intellectuals) a religion, which leaves it open to reinterpretation: sacred sufficient, for there are a diverse number of intellectuals- texts does not change, but interpretation of them is living both in East and West-from North Africa and always in change because the age and changing Middle East to South and Southeast Asia and from conditions in which believers live influence Europe to America-that are earnestly engaged in understanding. He offers philosophically the compatibility discussing and debating the Islam-democracy theme. of Islamic rationality with freedom and democracy, laying Five influential and prominent voices that are discussed more stress on the concept of freedom [53]. here are: (i) Abdolkarim Soroush (b. 1945, Tehran, Iran); In an interview with Shargh Newspaper, Iran (ii) Yusuf al Qaradawi (b.1926, Egypt); (iii) Fazlur Rahman (December 2003), he said that when he speaks about (1919 –1988, Pakistan); (iv) Rachid al-Ghannoushi (b. 1941, democracy, it is “democracy as the rejection of tyranny”, Tunisia); and (v) Khaled Abou El Fadl (b.1963, Kuwait). or in other words, democracy as “an anti-tyranny theory”; that is “what politics we should opt for that will allow us Abdolkarim Soroush (b. 1945, Tehran): Soroush is one freedom of choice” [54]. of the prominent reformist intellectuals and most In another interview with the same newspaper in important Shi`a theologians of recent times. His prolific 2004, in reply to a question regarding the ‘elections and wide-ranging works (oeuvre) covers most of the areas process’, he answered:

76 World J. Islamic History & Civilization, 2 (2): 66-85, 2012

[D]emocracy is not summarized in the elections and He stresses that as “Islam is not democracy and democracy has its own constituents. Democracy is democracy is not Islam”; therefore, Islam should not be not realized merely with a high voter turnout. attributed to any “principle or system”, because it is Democracy is made up of the legislature, judiciary unique in its “means, ends and methodologies”. He does and the executive powers. We need an efficient, wish that Western democracy be “carried over to us neutral and powerful judiciary in order to have clean [sic. Muslim lands] with its bad ideologies and values” elections [55]. and in order to integrate it into the Islamic comprehensive system Muslims should add some values and ideologies For Soroush, democracy is both a “value system” [58]. But, at the same time, he sees the tools and and a “method of governance”. As a value-system, it guarantees created by democracy as being very close to respects human rights, the public's right to elect its the political principles of Islam, as he argues: leaders and hold them accountable and the defense of the public's notion of justice. As a method of governance, [T]he tools and guaranties created by democracy democracy includes the traditional notions of separation are as close as can ever be to the realization of the of powers, free elections, free and independent press and political principles brought to this earth by Islam to freedom of expression, freedom of political assembly, put a leash on the ambitions and whims of rulers. multiple political parties and restrictions upon executive These principles are: Shura [consultation], good power. Soroush argues that no government official should advice [al-Nasiha], enjoining what is proper and stand above criticism and that all must be accountable to forbidding what is evil [amr bil maruf wa nahy ‘an the public. Accountability reduces the potential for al-munkar], disobeying illegal orders, resisting corruption and allows the public to remove, or restrict the unbelief and changing wrong by force whenever power of, incompetent officials. Democracy is, in effect, a possible [58] (Italics added). method for “rationalizing” politics [52]. As reported by The Muslim News, al-Qaradawi Allama (Dr.) Yusuf al Qaradawi (b.1926, Egypt): (in a 2006 conference in Istanbul, ) said: “The Al-Qaradawi-an eminent Islamic scholar of the present era Muslim world needs democracy. It wants democracy. But and the “global” mufti-has spoken in favor of democracy it should be real democracy and not just democracy by in the Muslim world and need for reform of political name only”. For him, democracy has done some good climates in the Middle East specifically. Al-Qaradawi not things. “It [i.e., democracy] has saved humanity from only notes that the Muslim state is based on the best despots and dictators who act like gods. The details principles of democracy; but even argues that in the should be left to the people. Let them decide for Muslim system, as is the case in the Western one, the themselves”. nation elects its ruler and the ruler cannot be imposed on He, however, argues that democracy in the Muslim the nation [56, 57]. world would be different from that of Western countries, In his book Priorities of the Islamic Movement in the because of the reason that “in Islam there are some fixed Coming Phase [58] Al-Qaradawi has revealed that Islam principles that cannot be changed. But there are some does not allow any kind of autocracy or monarchy. things where the people can call for change, depending Arguing that Islam unlike democracy is a complete code on the time and place” [59]. of life, which encompasses many more vital issues of Al-Qaradawi also suggests that nothing prevents human needs, he maintains that democracy is consistent Muslims from adopting ideas or practical solutions from with Islam and the fundamental rights prescribed in Islam non-Muslims, as exemplified by the Prophet’s adoption of can be ensured through democracy, on the condition that the Persian trench techniques in battles [56, 57, 60]. it must be within the limits of Islamic law. He considers it Dr Qaradawi, as quoted in ash Sharqh al-Awsat a duty of Islamic movements to oppose all the systems Newspaper (5 February, 1995) boldly argues: “He who against Islam. He writes: says that democracy is disbelief; neither understands Islam, nor democracy” [61, 62, 63] (Italics added). It is the duty of the Movement in the coming phase to stand firm against totalitarian and dictatorial Fazlur Rahman Malik (1919 –1988): Fazlur Rahman- rule, political despotism and usurpation of people’s Pakistani born professor of Islamic thought at the rights. The Movement should always stand by University of and McGill University and an political freedom, as represented by true, not false, expert in -has dealt with the theme of democracy [58]. democracy in Islam in a historical context. He referred to

77 World J. Islamic History & Civilization, 2 (2): 66-85, 2012 the case of the first caliph, Abu Bakr, who was chosen by instead of being developed in later Islamic political the elders from both the Muhajirun and the Ansar and theory. This was despite the Quran`s clear endorsed by the community and acknowledged that he injunction: ‘Their [i.e., the community`s] affairs shall had received his mandate from the people who asked him be decided through their collective or mutual to implement the Qur`an and Sunnah [64]. In Rahman`s discussion’ (Q 42: 38). Indeed, shura came to mean opinion, this “clearly establishes that the Islamic State that one man, the ruler, would ‘consult’ such persons derives its sanction from the Islamic community and that, as he thought appropriate and then execute his will. therefore, it is completely democratic” in nature, but as No wonder, then, that it required real heroic courage democracy can take (and throughout history has taken) to speak out the truth before an autocratic ruler! various forms and, thus, can be direct or indirect, For the shura and the role of the community in the parliamentary or presidential, liberal or constitutional, decision-making process explicitly enjoined by the depending on the prevalent social and political conditions Qur`an vanished into thin air [66]. [64] (Italics added). Given Islam`s underlying egalitarian ethos, Rahman In his ‘Major Themes of the Qur`an’, Fazlur [65] accepted the notion that governments must be based Rahman recalls that Shura is instituted by the Qur`an for on “popular will through some form of representation” Muslim community to carry on their collective business and does not think that “the adoption of modern (government). For him, Qur`an asks. democratic institutions” to be “un-Islamic”. However, drawing attention to the fact that the masses of Muslims [Muslims] to institute Shura (a consultative council are illiterate, he pointed out that it is not easy “to or assembly), where the will of the people can be implement democracy under such circumstances”. expressed by representation. Shura was a pre-Islamic Moreover, in view of the desire and need for “rapid democratic institution which the Qur`an (42: 38) economic development, which is a common problem in the confirmed. The Qur`an commanded the Prophet under-developed-countries, including all the Muslim himself (3: 159) to decide matters only after countries”, what is needed, is a strong government consulting the leaders of the people. But in the capable of a high degree of centralized planning and absence of the Prophet, the Qur`an (42:38) seems to control of economic development. Therefore, Rahman require some kind of collective leadership and reaches the conclusion that from the Islamic point of view, responsibility [67]. “there can be no harm” in having ‘strong men’ at the helm of affairs in underdeveloped countries, “provided that, at Rachid al-Ghannoushi (b. 1941, Tunisia): the same time, the spirit of democracy is genuinely and Al-Ghannoushi-the Islamic leader of Tunisian Islamic gradually cultivated by the people” [65]. Tendency Movement now called the Renaissance Party For Rahman Shura-the collective decision-making- (al-nahda)-is another prominent voice of political prescribes that Muslims must decide ‘their affairs by pluralism and democracy, whose thought has been mutual consultation and discussion’ (42: 38), which could conditioned and transformed by multiple influences: only be done by the participation of the community in the “Islamic traditions, the experience of the failures of Arab affairs of the government [66]. For him, although this nationalism and socialism, life under an authoritarian could be achieved “through the election of government, the influences of leaders, movements and representatives”, but this concept had been “distorted events in other Muslim countries and the experience of into consultation by the ruler of such people who he exile in the West” [21]. His thought reflects a masterly thought worthy”. “This distortion”, Rahman continues, understanding of Western and Islamic philosophies and “occurred at the advent of Khawarij and as a reaction to a genuine concern for “reconciling the basic tenets of their ultra-democratic stand.” Looking at the concept of Islam with modernity”. He holds a “non-traditional” view Shura, in a historical development-from its practice in pre- on a number of issues [68]. His intellectual contribution Islamic Arabia-Rahman argues: and political activism have gained him prominence within the Islamic movements of 20th and 21st centuries. The institution of shura, the collective decision- He acknowledges democracy as among the positive making council through which the elders of a tribe contributions or accomplishments of the West. arrived at decisions concerning momentous issues of Like other Muslim intellectuals and leaders (who support peace and war in pre-Islamic Arabia, was stifled Islam-democracy compatibility), Ghannouchi sees no

78 World J. Islamic History & Civilization, 2 (2): 66-85, 2012 contradiction between democracy and traditional Islamic He advocates an Islamic system that features tenets such as Ijtihad, Ijma, Bay`ah and Shura, which majority rule, free elections, a free press, protection of governs the relationship between the political authority minorities, equality of all secular and religious parties and and the people. He has been in agreement with the view full women’s rights in everything. Islam’s rule is to that the system of democracy is a direct consequence of provide the system with moral values [50]. a particular western experience. Perceiving democracy as Recently, in an interview with Mahan Abedin-an not merely a method of government but also as a academic and journalist specializing in Islamic affairs-(30 philosophy, to him, Muslims don`t have any problem with Jan 2011) [71] Ghanouchi, among other things, revealed democratic institution, but with the secular and his views regarding Islam-democracy compatibility and nationalistic values behind democracy. Islamic democracy his preference of “Islamic democracy” over “Caliphate” is distinguished from other systems by its moral content as a political model for Muslims living in 21st Century. as derived from the Shari`ah [68]. The following two Q&A`s of the same interview are In an attempt to find a historical link between worthy to quote (here): development of Western democracy and Islam, Ghannouchi maintains that democratic notions and liberal Mahan Abedin - You are widely regarded as a democratic values were derived from medieval Europe, reformist in the international Islamist current. In which in turn was influenced by Islamic civilizations. In an your interview with Al-Jazeera on 22 January you interview with London Observer (19 January, 1992), he appeared to categorically reject the Islamic argued that democracy offers the means to implement the Caliphate in favour of democracy. Is this the Islamic ideal today: “Islam, which enjoins the recourse to culmination of your reformist Islamist thought? Shura (consultation)… finds in democracy the Rashid Al-Ghannouchi - This is the authentic and appropriate instruments (elections, parliamentary system, realistic position. The notion of Khilafah (Caliphate) separation of powers, etc.) to implement Shura” [69, 21] is not a religious one as some groups claim. It reflects (Italics added). a period of time. Ijma (consensus) provides the basis for participatory Mahan Abedin - Is your embrace of democracy government or democracy in Islam. He believes that strategic or tactical? democracy in the Muslim world as in the West can take Rashid Al-Ghannouchi - It is strategic. Democracy is many forms. In an interview with Esposito and Voll crucial to dealing with and reconciling different and (5 February, 1993) he revealed that he (himself) favors a even conflicting interests in society. Islam has a “multiparty system of government” [70, 21]. strong democratic spirit inasmuch as it respects Ghannouchi categorically rejects theocracy or “the religious, social and political differences. Islam has rule of mullahs”, maintaining that government in Islam never favoured a monolithic state. Throughout their “embodies a civilian authority whose political behavior is history Muslims have objected to the imposition of answerable to public opinion” [70, 21]. Regarding the a single all-powerful interpretation of Islam. Any relationship of democracy to Islam, in the same interview, attempt to impose a single interpretation has always he maintains that. proven inherently unstable and temporary [71].

If democracy is meant the liberal model of Furthermore, writing on the legality of participating government prevailing in the West, a system under in non-Muslim regimes, al-Ghannoushi [72, 57] points to which the people freely choose their representatives a Muslim’s duty to advance whatever Muslim goals are and leaders and in which there is an alternation of within his power to advance. Independence, development, power, as well as all freedoms and human rights for compatriot solidarity, public and individual political the public, then the Muslims will find nothing in their freedoms, human rights, political pluralism, independence religion to oppose democracy and it is not in their of the judicial system, freedom of the press, freedom for interests to do so anyway. [21, 69, 70]. and for da’wah activities-a prospect of promoting these obliges Muslims to participate in He believes that once the Islamists are given a the establishment of a secular democratic regime, in chance to comprehend the values of western modernity case the establishment of a Muslim one is not possible. such as democracy and human rights, they will search In “Participation in Non-Islamic Government”, Ghanoushi within Islam for a place for these values where they argues for democratic power sharing as a non-violent “implant them, nurse them and cherish them” [50]. means to effect a transition to Islamic rule. For example,

79 World J. Islamic History & Civilization, 2 (2): 66-85, 2012 the following statements from the same essay prove this: For Abou El Fadl, in today`s world a just and merciful Power-sharing in a Muslim or a non-Muslim environment government is one that protects the basic human rights becomes a necessity in order to lay the foundations of the and protecting them must be “re-analyzed in the light of social order. This power-sharing may not be based on current diversity of human existence”. In particular, he Islamic law. … [But] on … shura, … as to prevent calls for the rights of free speech, association and the evils of +dictatorship, foreign domination, or local suffrage. In other words, his central argument is that anarchy [73]. democracy offers the “greatest potential for promoting justice and protecting human dignity, without making God Dr. Khaled Abou El Fadl (b.1963, Kuwait): Abou El Fadl-a responsible for human injustice or the degradation of professor of law at the UCLA School of Law (USA) where human beings by one another” [75]. By recognizing the he teaches Islamic law, immigration, human rights, human responsibility for articulating, executing and international and national security law and is a prolific adjudicating that government, divine sovereignty remains author and prominent public intellectual on Islamic law intact. and Islam-is another prominent proponent of “Islam’s He, finally, reaches the conclusion that democracy is basically democratic and pluralistic ethos as well as an appropriate system for Islam because it both expresses Islam`s protection of basic human rights” [74]. the special worth of human beings-the status of In his Islam and the Challenge of Democracy (2004), vicegerency-and at the same time deprives the state of [75] Abou El Fadl examines the foundational texts of Islam any pretense of divinity by locating ultimate authority in and argues that Islam is not only compatible with the hands of the people rather than the Ulema. Thus, for democracy but that Islamic values can best expressed Abou El Fadl, the issue of human rights is closely related today in constitutional democracies that protect to arguments in favor of pluralism and democracy. individual rights-that is, liberal democracies. Thus, in considering the compatibility of Islam and In his analysis, Islamic tradition is not only pluralistic democracy, notes Dr Muqtedar Khan, one must recognize but incorporates a number of concepts comparable to that it is “false to claim that there is no democracy” in the those of modern democracies as well; and one of them is Muslim world. At least 750 million Muslims live in need for consultation in government (Shura) -a concept democratic societies of one kind or another, including based on Quran and Sunnah; and second is the concept , Bangladesh, India, Europe, North America, of ba`yah (pledge of allegiance). Israel and even Iran [76]. Moreover, there is little historical Abou El Fadl offers a further argument in support of precedent for mullahs controlling political power. Thus democratic forms of government: that the Qur`an has the explanation of why so many Muslim countries are not charged human beings collectively to implement its democratic lies in historical, political, cultural and principles. He acknowledges that some Muslims reject the idea of democracy on the basis of the belief that God is economic factors, not religious ones and in the words of the sole legislator. But he argues that it is “a fatal fiction”, Asghar Ali Engineer, “the absence of democracy in which is totally “indefensible from the point of view of Muslim Countries is not on account of Islamic teachings Islamic theology”, because such arguments pretend that or incompatibility of Islam with democracy but due to host some human agents have “perfect access to God’s will” of factors, historical, political and cultural” [77]. [75]. But, from a global perspective, writes Esposito and As justice and mercy are among the Qura’nic Voll [3] it is evident that the “efforts of Muslims to principles, in his view, Muslims collective responsibility develop an authentic and viable democracy” have great is to establish governmental structures that promote these significance. The efforts to utilize longstanding concepts/values. In other words, to the extent that a “traditions and conceptualizations of consultation and social order (government) is successful in establishing consensus” reflect concern to create more effective forms justice and mercy, it reflects divine sovereignty. Thus the of participatory democracy. Moreover, the development determining characteristics of a government reflecting of “democratic institutions and practices across divine guidance or sovereignty is not its legislative significant cultural boundaries” over the millennia, in the structure; rather, “principles of mercy and justice are the opinion of Esposito and Voll, it seems at least possible primary divine charge and God’s sovereignty lies in the that the “forces of globalization” will not eliminate fact that God is the authority that delegated to human wars but will make it possible for different “experiences beings the charge to achieve justice on earth by fulfilling of democratization” to assist and influence each the virtues that approximate divinity” [ 75]. other [3].

80 World J. Islamic History & Civilization, 2 (2): 66-85, 2012

Professor Khurshid Ahmad’s argument/statement- In the support of these arguments of Mawlana added as a footnote to Mawdudi`s discussion on Mawdudi, Khurshid Ahmad– who sees the co-ordinal “Political Theory of Islam”-makes it clear that Islam is difference between the two on the basis of concept of compatible with democracy but when it is defined as sovereignty-writes: “form of organization”, not as a “philosophy”. He emphasizes that it must be clearly understood that The Islamic State is different from a secular democracy as it is diametrically opposed to the Democracy as a ‘philosophy’ and democracy as a concept of Sovereignty of the people. Allah the ‘form of organization’ are not the same thing. In the Supreme Law-Giver and the Shari’a[h] is the law of form of organization, Islam has its own system of the land. Within the framework of the Shari’a[h], new democracy [“Islamic democracy” or “theo- problems are faced and their solutions worked out democracy” as propounded by Mawdudi]…. But as [by way of Ijma and Ijtihad]. This represents the co- a philosophy, the two, i.e. Islam and Western ordinal difference [16]. democracy, are basically different, rather opposed to each other” [22]. The Islamic Political order is based on the concept of Tawhid and seeks its flowering in the form of popular Mawlana Mawdudi-one of the most influential vicegerency (Khilafah) operating through a ‘mechanism thinkers of South Asia-held that Islam constitutes its own of Shura, supported by the principles of equality of form of democracy, for which he coined the term “theo- people, rule of law, protection of human rights including democracy” (i.e., divine democratic government), laying those of minorities, accountability of rulers, transparency emphasis on the concept of Khilafah, but he of political processes and an overriding concern for justice in all its dimensions: legal, political, social, concentrated on the relationship between divine and economic and international. The Shari’ah provides the popular sovereignty. Arguing that democracy as broad framework within which the people under one commonly understood is based exclusively on the umbrella of Divine Guidance participate in developing a sovereignty of people, Mawdudi [26] concluded, from the civil society and its institutions, including all the organs view-point of political philosophy, that Islamic state is of state [16]. “the very antithesis of secular Western democracy”. For It is evident, now, that all aspects of human life him, the main differences between Islamic and Western including governmental/governance system require first democracy are on the basis of concept of Sovereignty, the submission of the people and those who govern them law and on the basis of absolute authority-ness: to the ultimate Sovereignty of the law outlined in the Qur’an and Sunnah. Also, the role of Shura (consultation) Of course, what distinguishes Islamic democracy is central to Islamic governance or system of government from Western democracy is that while the latter is in all of this there are features of Islamic governance based on the concept of Popular Sovereignty the which resemble Western forms of democracy and other former rests on the principle of Popular Khilafah. features which give the system its Islamic Identity [5]. In Western democracy, the people are sovereign, in Allama Iqbal also makes a distinction between Islamic Islam Sovereignty vests in God and the people are democracy and the democracy of the West on this basis His Caliphs or representatives. In the latter [Western] of sovereignty. Iqbal, as quoted by A. Aleem Helal also the people make their own laws (Shari’ah) in the supports, to some extent Mawdudi`s distinction between former [Islamic] they have to follow and obey the Islamic and Western democracy, when he says that what laws (Shari’ah) given by God through His Prophet. distinguishes the In the [Western] one the government undertakes to fulfill the will of people; in the other [i.e., Islamic] the Islamic democracy from the democracy of the West government and the people who form it have one and is that in an Islamic democracy, sovereignty is vested all to fulfill the purpose of God. In brief, Western in a democratic Caliph or President, while in the democracy is a kind of absolute authority which Western democracy sovereignty is vested in the exercises its powers in a free and uncontrolled Parliament. Thus while Islam recommends a manner where as the Islamic democracy is democratic Caliphate or a Presidential form of subservient to the Divine Law and exercises its government, the political thinkers of West have authority in conformity with the injunctions of God recommended a parliamentary form of government and within the limits prescribed by Him [26]. [78].

81 World J. Islamic History & Civilization, 2 (2): 66-85, 2012

A Comparative/Critical Analysis: The foregoing anyone elected through universal suffrage? And once it assessment of the Islam-democracy debate along with an exists, what should be the mechanism of its operation? assessment of some key operational concepts of “Islamic These questions need to be answered by these and other democracy” reveals that the Muslim thinkers are engaged scholars, policy makers/political analysts and activists, in a pursuit to develop an Islamic form of democracy. who have spent much time in debating Islam-democracy They have attempted in the recent past and are attempting discourse in theory. It is now time to offer practical frame- (in present as well) to develop it by taking help of some work of this theory: how an “Islamic democracy” will work Islamic concepts, institutions, values, norms and ideals in a Muslim country? This is still a challenge for Islamic that emphasize the equality of people, the accountability political theory as well as responsibility of Muslim of leaders to community and the respect of diversity and political theorists in the 21st century. other faiths. These are ideals fully compatible with modern It may also be argued that the obstacles to conceptions of democracy. They agree that the principle democracy in the Muslim world are both “ideational and of Shura-mutual consultation or consultative decision- material”. While political activism and even revolutionary making process based on two Qura’nic verses (3: 159 and change may become necessary to establish democracy, 42: 38)-is not only the source of democratic ethics in Islamic democratic theory must pave the way to political Islam, but also that these verses express clearly the view change in order to remove ideational barriers first. Thus, that an Islamic government cannot help but be if an authentic Islamic democracy has to emerge, then it consultative, democratic and divinely inspired. Precisely, must first become an aspiration in Muslim minds and must what they argue, at least theoretically, is that Islam and dominate their discourse; and once the idea exists, the democracy are indeed compatible (on many grounds). form can follow. Theoretically, there is no doubt in this argument, but here arises an important question: If the envisioned CONCLUSION “Islamic democracy”-mainly based on the concept of Shura-is established as an alternative to any model of Taking the above discussion into consideration, that Western democracy-say liberal, representative, there is no reason at all why, in the modern age, one parliamentary, etc.-in an Islamic country, what will be the should object to the adoption of certain democratic structure and practice of this system? The problem is that procedures, as the Islamic tradition in fact contains certain there is lack and insufficiency of literature on the practical key concepts like Shura, Khilafah, Ijma and Ijtihad that framework/implementation. Scholars have, no doubt, been can be used to conceptualize an authentically Islamic earnestly engaged in discussing the Islam-democracy program of democracy. More the same, several democratic compatibility on the theoretical grounds, but at the same values and principles like freedom, justice, equality and time, they have paid either less attention or no human dignity are not only in harmony with the Islamic consideration at all to the practical aspect of this teachings, but are embedded in the primary sources of compatibility or alternative system of government. Islam and its law. In other words, while coming to the practical aspect, one In fact, the term ‘democracy’ is liable to multiple finds neither any guidance nor any direction. There seems interpretations and applications, a fact that leads to the to be a “missing link” in turning “political theory” into a recognition that there can be alternative uses of this term. “political programme”, or rather in turning Taking advantage of this liberty, majority of these conceptualizations of the ideal government into details. scholars see no problem in accepting the term democracy What is needed at this stage of this debate is a when conceived in a particular Islamic perspective. “connecting link” that will turn this political theory of There is no surprise, then, that throughout the Muslim “Islamic democracy” into a “political programme”-into an world, from North Africa and Middle East to South and “Islamic model of democracy”. Otherwise, there will be no Southeast Asia, various scholars and public intellectuals other choice but to emulate and imitate, or to adopt any are actively engaged in defining ‘Islamic democracy’ with Western model-liberal democracy, representative model, the help of above mentioned traditional concepts of parliamentary model, etc. Islamic polity. Especially the principle of Shura (mutual There are also crucial questions that are obscured or consultation) is the chief source of democratic ethics in are not addressed at all. One such issue is the structure of Islam and it may be regarded as an alternative for the Shura body. Should it be comprised of experts or of describing democracy in Islamic context.

82 World J. Islamic History & Civilization, 2 (2): 66-85, 2012

The views, definitions, statements and arguments Finally, I would like to end this essay by these words presented by these scholars establish that there is of Professor Khurshid Ahmad [16]-whose view-point is complete harmony and consistency between Islam and almost similar as of Karolia (as mentioned above) [79]- the supposedly true democracy. The advocacy of when he writes: As Islam’s guidance is absolute, democracy by these Muslim intellectuals may not be seen universal and eternal, it has been left to the Ummah to as an imitative adoption of modernity, rather it appears to develop different forms, institutions and mechanisms of be a creative envisioning of the Islam principles of governance/political setup suitable to different socio- freedom, equality, justice and human dignity in the historic conditions. A variety of governmental forms and modern situation. For, these scholar maintain that the arrangements are possible within this dynamic framework notion of democratic participation is inherent in Islamic of Islam. Some of these systems/models have been tradition, which is ordained by the holy Qur`an and experienced in the past. New experiments and practiced by the holy Prophet (pbuh) himself and the arrangements can be made today and tomorrow by righteous Caliphs (Khulfa-i-Rashidun). Our study also implementing them in a particular Muslim society/country. reveals that the nature of Islamic concepts (especially This is the beauty and potential of Islam and its law, Shura) and their relation to democracy requires a great intellectual and cultural legacy. This has been the deal of further reflection. Moreover, there is much in distinctive feature of the Muslim historical experience Islamic sources and tradition that is favorable to making spread over more than fourteen centuries. democracy the vehicle for delivering the products of Islamic governance, such as social justice, economic REFERENCES welfare and religious freedoms. There is, however, a need for more rigorous, pressure-free and wide-spread 1. My various papers and articles-on the theme of discussions and debates within Muslim communities on Islam-democracy compatibility-have been published the need for and nature of good self-governance. Last, in various journals and in order to ignore the but not the least, Islam is not a barrier and obstacle to but repetition here, I have confined the discussion to few a facilitator and supporter of democracy, justice and “key concepts” and “few” personalities/Intellectuals tolerance in the Muslim world; and these issues need to only. Those concepts, which have not been be reflected more seriously and, therefore, more and more discussed much (in my earlier writings), like Muslims must include in the process, in order to make this “Bay`ah” and “Ahl al Hall wa al-Aqd” and the theoretical reflection itself a “Shuratic process”. But, at intellectuals like Abdolkarim Soroush, Yousuf al- the same time, it must not be forgotten that there is more Qaradawi, Fazlur Rahman, Rachid al-Ghanouchi, in Islam than Shura-as the above discussion reveals as Khaled Abou El Fadl etc. are here emphasized. well-when it comes to reflecting over the nature of good Therefore, it is understandable here that many of the governance and best polities. prominent intellectuals, who have written much Furthermore, Islam and democracy are compatible for extensively on this theme than others, have been the reason that there are various institutions and ignored. See, for example: (i) Tauseef Ahmad Parray, mechanisms, models and forms of government/ “Democracy in Islam: Views of Several Modern arrangements possible in Islam. In the words of AbuBakr Muslim Scholars”, in American Journal of Islamic Karolia of South Africa [79] there are many forms of Social Sciences (AJISS), USA, 27(2), Spring 2010, democracy and each country can determine their own pp: 140-148; (ii) “Democracy in Islam: Views of political destiny and embrace the various characteristic Modern Muslim Scholars” in The Roundtable, that will be suited to them. Muslims have a rich history special issue on “Islam and Democracy”, Institute of and tradition that will lend itself to look ahead and make Political Economy, University of Asia and the Pacific, mature choices for political activity. Thus, Muslims today Philippines, 9(2): 2011-2012, pp: 4-10; (iii) can “embrace [those] forms of democracy [that are more “Operational Concepts of Islamic Democracy: compatible with Islam] and tomorrow they could very well Khilafah, Shura, Ijma and Ijtihad”, in Journal of develop ideas for post democracy” that is “a social just Humanity and Islam, , 1(1): April 2011, and egalitarian society that is governed by moral and pp: 11-27; (iv) “Allama Iqbal on Islam-Democracy righteous people that work towards peace with justice.” Discourse: A Study of his Views on Compatibility Being rich in tradition, Muslims should develop a political and Incompatibility” in Islam and Muslim Societies- framework, “re-organized and re-constructed and that A Social Science Journal, India, 4(2), June 2011; (v) includes the idea of democracy” as well [79]. “Islam-Democracy Discourse in 21st Century: Views of

83 World J. Islamic History & Civilization, 2 (2): 66-85, 2012

2 Indo-Pak Intellectuals-Prof Khurshid Ahmad and 16. Ahmad, K., 2000. Islam and Democracy: Some Asghar Ali Engineer”, in Encompassing Crescent, Conceptual and Contemporary Dimensions. In The (Magazine), New York, (2) July 2011; and (vi) Muslim World, 90: 1&2. pp: 19-20, 14, 2, 10-11. “Mawlana Abul Azad and his Views on Islam 17. The reason for making this discussion confined to a & Democracy”, Azad Academy Journal, Lucknow, few concepts, with reference to a limited number on India, xxvii (6), June, 2011, pp: 37- 40. intellectuals on the theme only has been explained in 2. Esposito, J.L., 2002a. Unholy War: Terror in the Name the note 1 above. of Islam. New York: Oxford University Press, p: 153. 18. Glasse, C., 1989. Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. 3. Esposito, J.L. and J.O. Voll, 1996. Islam and London: Stacey International, pp: 400, 336, 84, 182, Democracy. New York: Oxford University Press, 325, 331, 69. pp: 4, 32, 27, 29, 31, 28, 30, 32. 19. Rahman, F., 1980. Major Themes of the Qur'an. 4. Zoya, H., 2007. Ed. Democracy in Muslim Societies: Minneapolis, Minn.: Bibliotheca Islamica, pp: 83. The Asian Experience. Jointly published by: Sage 20. Al-Faruqi, I.R., 1982. Tawhid: Its Implications for Publications (Pvt. Ltd) [New Delhi, California, Thought and Life. Kuala Lumpur: IIIT, pp: 5: 10-11. London and Singapore] and Observation Research 21. Esposito, J.L. and J.O. Voll, 2001. Makers of Foundation (ORF), New Delhi, pp: 11. Contemporary Islam. New York: Oxford University 5. Khattab, S. and G.D. Bouma, 2007 Democracy in Press, pp: 29, 117, 114. Islam (New York: Routledge, pp: 32, 40, 91-2, 18-9, 27. 22. Ahmad, K., 1967. The Religion of Islam. Lahore: 6. Blankinship, K.A., 2001. The Constitution of Medina. Islamic Publications, pp: 6-7, 160. In Medieval Islamic Civilization-An Encyclopedia 23. Ahmad, K., 1977. Ed. Islam: Its Meaning and (Ed.) Meri, J.W. Routledge, I: 171. Message. London: The Islamic Foundation. pp: 29-31 7. Held, D., 2006. Models of Democracy. 3rd ed. UK: 24. Mawdudi, S.A.A., 1988. Towards Understanding the Polity Press, pp: 40, 65, 67. Qur`an, English translation of Tafhim al-Qur`an 8. Democracy, 1994. In The New Encyclopedia (Trans. & Ed.) Zafar Ishaq Ansari, vol.1. (Rep. 2004) Britannica, 15th ed. (Chicago: Encyclopedia New Delhi: Markazi Maktaba Islami, pp: 59-60. Britannica, Inc. [1768]), 10: 9-10. (Explanation of the verse 2: 30) 9. Sharma, J.P., 1993. World History-New Horizons. 25. Mawdudi, S.A.A., 1989. Towards Understanding the Delhi, Low Price Publications, pp: 81-83. Qur`an, English translation of Tafhim al-Qur`an 10. Gallie, W.B., 1964. Philosophy and the Historical (Trans. & Ed.) Zafar Ishaq Ansari, vol.1. New Delhi: Understanding. London: Chatto and Windus, Markazi Maktaba Islami. p:299 (Explanation of the pp: 158. verse 6: 165) 11. Esposito J. L. and Voll, J.O., 2001a. Islam and 26. Mawdudi, S.A.A., 1967. Islamic Way of Life. (trans) Democracy. In Humanities, 22: 6, Nov/Dec. 2001. Khurshid Ahmad. Delhi: Markazi Maktaba Islami, Available online at http:// www.neh.gov/ news/ humanities/ 2001-11/islam.html (as accessed on pp: 41, 159, 44-5. 15/03/2010). 27. Mawdudi, S.A.A., 1991. Islami Riyasat (Islamic 12. Esposito, J.L., 2002b. What Everyone Needs to Know State). New Delhi: Islamic Book Foundation, pp: 140. About Islam? New York: Oxford University Press, 28. Regarding the concept of Khilafah as a basis for pp: 159. democracy in Islam, here it may be pointed out that 13. Esposito, J.L., 1999. Contemporary Islam: extensive references have been made of the works Reformation or Revolution. In The Oxford History of or/and views of Syed Abu Al`a Mawdudi (d. 1979, Islam, Ed. Esposito, J. L. New York: Oxford one of the prominent South Asian Muslim thinker, University Press, pp: 675: 680-1. the founder of Jama`at Islami) for the reason that he 14. Jawad, H., 2010. Islam and Democracy in the Twenty- is the only scholar among his contemporaries who First Century. In Marranci, G. (ed), Muslim Societies utilized the concept of Khilafah as a basis for the and the Challenge of Secularization. London: interpretation of as well as basis of democracy in Springer, pp: 65, 67, 69, 70. Islam. 15. Mawdudi, S.A.A., 1967. Islamic Way of Life, trans. 29. Sulaiman, S.J., 1998. Democracy and Shura. In Khurshid Ahmad. Delhi, Markazi Maktaba Islami, Kurzman, C. (Ed.) Liberal Islam: A Sourcebook. New pp: 40. York: Oxford University Press, pp: 98.

84 World J. Islamic History & Civilization, 2 (2): 66-85, 2012

30. Hamidullah, M., 1969. Introduction to Islam, new and 46. Hallaq, W.B., 1995. Ahl al-Hall wa al-‘Aqd. In enlarged edition. Gary, Ind.: International Islamic OEMIW. I: 53. Federation of Student Organizations. pp. 100: 130. 47. Sivan, E., 1995. Eavesdropping on Radical Islam. 31. Esposito, J.L., 1991a. Islam: The Straight Path, 3rd ed. In Middle East Quarterly (MEQ), II(1): 13-24; also New York: Oxford University Press, pp: 149, 45, 83. available online at http:// www.meforum.org/ 237/ 32. Asad, M., 1961. The Principles of State and eavesdropping-on-radical-islam (as accessed on Government in Islam (Barkley and Los Angeles: 20/01/2012). University of California Press, pp: 43(3): 38. 48. Markis, G.P., 2007. Islam in the Middle East: A Living 33. Ramadan, T., 2000. Islam, the West and the Tradition.USA, UK, Australia: Blackwell Publishing. Challenges of Modernity. London: The Islamic pp: 186. Foundation, pp: 81. 49. Sadri, M. and A. Sadri, 2000. Trans., Ed. and Intro. 34. Ramadan, T., 2004. Western Muslims and the Reason, Freedom, & Democracy in Islam: Essential Future of Islam. New York: Oxford University Press, Writings of Abdolkarim Soroush. New York: Oxford pp: 158-9. University Press, pp: 151: 148. 35. Sulaiman, S.J., 1999. Shura principle in Islam. 50. Wright, R.B., 2003. Two Visions of Reformation. Available online at http:// www.alhewar.com/ In Larry Diamond, et al. (Ed.s) Islam and Democracy SadekShura.htm (as accessed on 25/06/2010). in the Middle East. Baltimore: John Hopkins 36. Fahd, O., 2006. Redefining Islamic Political Thought: University Press, pp: 230: 229. A Critique in Methodological Perspective. New 51. Wright, R.B., 1996. Two Visions of Reformation. In Delhi: Serials Publications, pp: 9: 228. Journal of Democracy, 7(2): 64-75. 37. Safi, L.M., 1991. The Islamic State: A Conceptual 52. Vakili, V., 2001. Abdolkarim Soroush and Critical discourse in Iran. In Esposito and Voll, Makers of Framework. In American Journal of Islamic Social Contemporary Islam, pp: 150-176. Sciences (AJISS), 8(2): 233. 53. Kamrava, M., 2006. Introduction: Reformist Islam in 38. Ahmad, K., 1976. Islam: Basic Principles and Comparative Perspective. In The New Voices of Characteristics. In Khurshid Ahmad (ed.), Islam: Its Islam: Reforming Politics and Modernity-A Reader. Meaning and Message. London: Islamic Council of Ed. Kamrava, M. New York and London: I.B. Tauris. Europe, pp: 43. pp: 4. 39. Iqbal, A.M., 1986. The Reconstruction of Religious 54. Shargh. 2003. Democracy and Rationality, An Thought in Islam. Edited and Annotated by M. interview with Abdolkarim Soroush. Shargh, Daily Saeed Sheikh, 2nd ed. Lahore: Iqbal Academy Newspaper. Iran. December 2003. Translated by Pakistan and the Institute of Islamic Culture, Nilou Mobasser. Available online at pp: 45: 83. http://www.drsoroush.com/English/Interviews/E- 40. Gauhar, A., 1978. . In Altaf INT-20031200-1.htm (as accessed on 12/03/2011. Gauhar (ed.) The Challenge of Islam. London: Islamic 55. Soroush, A., 2004. Democracy Is Not Summarized in Council of Europe, pp: 307. Elections. Interview with Shargh, Daily Newspaper. 41. Al ‘Alwani, T.J., 1991. Taqlid and Ijtihad. AJISS, Iran. No. 109, 7 January. Available online at 8: 1. p: 129. http://www.drsoroush.com/English/Interviews/E- 2 42. Tyan, E., 1960. Bay‘a. In Encyclopedia of Islam (EI ), INT-20040107-Sharq_Newspaper.html (as accessed New Edition, (Eds) H. A. R. Gibb et al. Leiden: Brill. on 15/03/2011) I: 1113. 56. Al-Qaradawi, Y., 2001. Min al-Dawla fi -Islam. 43. Nakhleh, E.A., 1995. Bay‘ah. In John L. Esposito (ed), Cairo and Beirut: Dar al-Shuruq, pp: 3(6):37-8. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic 57. Shavit, U., 2010. Is Shura a Muslim Form of World (OEMIW). New York: Oxford University Press. Democracy? Roots and Systemization of a Polemic. I: 205-6. In Middle Eastern Studies, 46(3): 349-74. pp: 353: 56. 44. Khan, M.A.M., 2009. Islamic Governance and 58. Al-Qaradawi, Y., 2010. The Islamic Movement at Democracy. In Shiping Hua (ed) Islam and Political and World levels. Chapter 4 of his Priorities Democratization in Asia. Amherst, NY: Cambria of the Islamic Movement in the Coming Phase. Press, pp: 22. Available online at http://www.witness-pioneer.org/ 45. Gibb, H.A.R., 1960. Ahl al-Hall w’al-‘Akd. In EI2. vil/ Books/ Q_Priorities/ch4p1-1.htm# (as accessed I: 263-4. on 25/09/2010)

85 World J. Islamic History & Civilization, 2 (2): 66-85, 2012

59. Al-Qaradawi, 2006. Muslim world needs democracy. 72. Al-Ghannoushi, R., 1994. Hukm Musharakat al- In The Muslim News (Monthly Newspaper, United Islamiyyin fi Nizam Ghayr Islam. In ‘Azam al-Tamimi Kingdom). 08 July. Available online at http:// (ed.) Musharakat al-Islamiyyin fi al-Sulta. London: w w w . m u s l i m n e w s . c o . u k / n e w s / Liberty for the Muslim World, pp: 16-17. news.php?article=11311 (as accessed on 05/09/2010) 73. Al-Ghanoushi, R., 1998. Participation in Non-Islamic 60. Al-Qaradawi, Y., 1977. Al-Khasa’is al-‘Ama lil-Islam. Government. In Charles Kurzman. Liberal Islam. pp: Cairo: Maktabat Wahhaba, pp: 39. 89-95. Originally published as: Ghanoushi, R., 1993. 61. Al-Qaradawi, S.Y., 1995. Ash Sharqh al-Awsat The Participation of Islamists in a Non-Islamic Newspaper London. 5 February. Government. In Azzam Tamimi (Ed.) Power-Sharing 62. Khan, M.A.M, 2006. Introduction: The Emergence of Islam? London: Liberty for Muslim World an Islamic Democratic Discourse. In Islamic Publications, pp: 51-63. Democratic Discourse: Theory, Debates and 74. Sonn, T., 2009. Voices of Reformist Islam in the Philosophical Perspectives. Ed. Khan, M.A.M. UK: . In Reformist Voices of Islam- Lexington Book Inc, pp: xi. Meditating Islam and Modernity, Ed. Hunter, S. T. 63. Hoffman, M., 2007. Democracy or Shuracracy. In New Delhi: Pentagon Press, pp: 276. Islam in Transition: Muslim Perspectives. Ed. John 75. Abou El Fadl, K., 2004. Islam and the Challenge of J. Donohue and John L. Esposito. 2nd Ed. New York: Democracy. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Oxford University Press, pp: 296. First published in Boston Review and is available 64. Rahman, F., 1967. Implementation of the Islamic online at http://bostonreview.net/BR28.2/abou.html Concept of State in the Pakistani Milieu. In Islamic (References are made of the online version). Studies, vi(3): 207. 76. Khan, M.A.M., 2002. Compatibility of Islam and 65. Rahman, F., 1970. Revival and Reform in Islam. In Democracy. In United States Institute of Peace Cambridge History of Islam (ed) John P. Holt et al. (USIP) `s Special Report on Islam and Democracy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. II: 654. Washington D.C., 93: 4. 66. Rahman, F., 2000. Revival and Reform in Islam: A 77. Engineer, A.A., 2004. Islam: Challenges in 21st Study of Islamic Fundamentalism. Edited and with an Century. New Delhi: Gyan Publishing House, pp: 214. Introduction by Ebrahim Moosa. Oxford: Oneworld 78. Helal, A.A., 1995. Social Philosophy of Sir Publications, pp: 162: 75. . Delhi: Adam Publishers and 67. Rahman, F., 1999. Major Themes of the Qur`an, 2nd Distributors, pp: 285. Ed. Kuala Lumpur: Islamic Bok Trust, pp: 43. 79. Karolia, A., 2010. Islam and Democracy: Political 68. Rachid al-Ghannouchi, 2006. In Alam, M. M., et. al. thought towards post-democracy. (Unpublished The 100 Great Muslim Leaders of 20th Century. New research paper, Study of Islam Program, University Delhi: Institute of Objective Studies. pp: 97-8: 99. of Johannesburg (UJ), South Africa), October 2010, 69. London Observer. 1992. 19 January pp. 1-21, p: 19. Available online at http:// 70. Rachid Ghannoushi, 1993. Interview with Esposito, J. www.nuradeen.com/ wp-content/ uploads/ 2011/ 10/ L. and Voll, J.O., 5 February. London. IslamAndDemocracy-Political Thought Towards 71. Abedin, M., 2011. Tunisia: the advent of liberal Post Democracy.pdf (as accessed on 10/11/2011) -an interview with Rashid Al-Ghannouchi. 30 January. London. Avaialble online at http://religion.info/english/interviews/article_516.s html (as accessed on 28/10/2011).

86