HARROLD 5,000 Years of Life and Death in a North Bedfordshire Village

edited by David Ingham and Drew Shotliff

with contributions from Holly Duncan, Rowena Gale, Alison Locker, Mike Luke, Jacqueline McKinley, Richard Macphail, Mark Maltby, Gemma Martin, Ruth Pelling, Tracy Preece, James Rackham, Rob Scaife, Nick Shepherd, Anthony Walsh, Jackie Wells and Jen Wooding

illustrations by Cecily Marshall

Albion Archaeology Monograph 1 2012 Albion Archaeology Monograph 1

Published by Albion Archaeology St Mary’s Church St Mary’s Street Bedford MK42 0AS

Cover illustrations Front: excavation of a Roman crop-processing floor at Bridgman JoineryWorks Back: collared urn from Meadway and a selection of pottery from Priory Middle School

Designed and produced by 4word Ltd, Bristol Contents

Foreword iv

Contributors v

Introduction vii

Evidence for multi-period activity at the former Bridgman Joinery Works 1 Mike Luke and Tracy Preece

Prehistoric Ritual Activity and Saxon Settlement at Meadway 41 N. Shepherd, A. Walsh and J. Wells

Evidence for early medieval occupation and pottery production from Harrold Priory Middle School 77 H.B. Duncan, J. Wells and J. Wooding

Appendix 109

Bibliography 115 Foreword

Our village has seen great change and development in the last 15 years. While perhaps not universally welcomed, this has at least had the beneficial side-effect of shedding new light on the earliest phases of its history. It also reminds us that Harrold was once a dramatically different place to live in — a place that has always had to adapt to changing circumstances through the centuries. For the last 40 years, Albion Archaeology has been one of the region’s leading archaeological organisations. Following recent local government reorganisation, it is currently a trading unit within Central Bedfordshire Council. This monograph presents the results of three of its major excavations within the village. Albion has also carried out many smaller-scale investigations here, secured by planning conditions on developments as minor as individual house extensions. Of course, not all of these have yielded such exciting finds, but they do at least provide the opportunity to record our archaeological heritage before it is irrevocably lost to development. Nineteenth-century Harrold had an important leather-dressing industry, but perhaps less well known is its medieval pottery industry. Construction of the Middle School’s new science laboratory has produced the biggest assemblage of this shell- tempered pottery yet recovered from the village. When it closed its joinery in February 2000, Bridgman Doors Ltd was the biggest employer in Harrold and some 100 jobs were lost. The site was redeveloped for housing, but not before archaeologists had had the chance to demonstrate that even a former industrial site could preserve important evidence for Iron Age, Roman and Saxon Harrold. Similarly, on the Meadway housing development highly significant prehistoric and Saxon remains survived on the margins of former quarries where they could easily have vanished without record. Nowadays, preservation of our heritage has a higher priority than it did for previous generations. The Parish Council is, therefore, delighted to be associated with this important contribution to our understanding of Harrold’s past.

Harrold Parish Council Contributors

Holly Duncan Artefacts Manager, Albion Archaeology

Rowena Gale Wood anatomist

David Ingham Project Officer, Albion Archaeology

Alison Locker Fish bone specialist

Mike Luke Project Manager, Albion Archaeology

Jacqueline McKinley Senior Osteoarchaeologist, Wessex Archaeology

Richard Macphail Soil micromorphologist, Institute of Archaeology, University College London

Mark Maltby Zooarchaeologist, School of Conservation Sciences, Bournemouth University

Cecily Marshall Illustrator, formerly of Albion Archaeology

Gemma Martin Archaeobotanist, formerly of The Environmental Archaeology Consultancy

Ruth Pelling Archaeobotanist, English Heritage

Tracy Preece Formerly Project Officer, Albion Archaeology

James Rackham Environmental Archaeologist, The Environmental Archaeology Consultancy

Rob Scaife Palynologist, Southampton University

Nick Shepherd Freelance consultant, NS Projects (formerly Project Manager, Albion Archaeology)

Drew Shotliff Operations Manager, Albion Archaeology

Anthony Walsh Formerly Archaeological Supervisor, Albion Archaeology

Jackie Wells Finds Officer, Albion Archaeology

Jen Wooding Zooarchaeologist Figure 1: Location of sites in Harrold mentioned in this volume Introduction H.B. Duncan and M. Luke

‘The small amount of evidence left in the way of objects and features is just enough to establish the unpalatable certainty that at Harrold a site of archaeological richness and complexity has suffered almost complete annihilation.’ (Eagles and Evison 1970, 50)

This was Vera Evisons’s sad conclusion in her report on the dovecotes and other associated farm buildings. Evidence of the results of salvage recording that was undertaken during gravel village’s occupation in the medieval period has been identified extraction north of the village in the 1950s. A more immediate to the north of the parish church (HER 16113 and 16114), and testimony to the significance of the site is provided by the spec- a medieval pottery kiln (HER 1183) — part of an extensive tacular display of prehistoric and Saxon artefacts in Bedford and important regional industry — has been excavated within Museum. However, while much of Harrold’s archaeological the western half of the village (Hall 1972; see Fig. 1). The wealth has been lost, an even greater part may still survive. manor fell into disrepair between 1588 and 1612, and, despite Ironically, the opportunity and resources for its investigation a brief renaissance from 1630, evidence of it had all but disap- are now provided primarily by the mechanism of development peared by the turn of the 20th century. that was responsible for destroying so much without record Although numerous pieces of archaeological work have in the 1950s, with the archaeological remains now afforded been undertaken in Harrold, only two substantial excavations considerably stronger protection within the planning process. had been carried out in the village prior to those described in Such was the case for the three sites described in this volume, this volume. The first site (HER 64), to the north of the village, which were all excavated by Albion Archaeology (formerly was excavated by Edwards and Carey between 1951 and 1953 the Bedfordshire County Archaeology Service — BCAS). (Eagles and Evison 1970), whilst the second (HER 543), to the The reports on the three sites are presented individually, in east, was excavated by Dix (1980; 1981) between 1974 and line with how they were prepared; however, areas of common 1978. Further afield, Roman pottery and tile kilns were exca- ground in the introductory sections and appendices have been vated at Harrold Lodge Farm to the south-west of the village merged in order to minimise repetition. (Brown 1994). The work by Edwards and Carey revealed a late Neolithic/ early Bronze Age ritual landscape, comprising single and HARROLD multiple ring ditches with associated burials (urned and unurned cremations, and single inhumations). This was The village of Harrold lies in the eastern corner of the parish, succeeded by an Iron Age settlement, including possible eight miles north-west of Bedford. The parish is bounded to buildings, cobbled surfaces, hearths and ditched enclosures; at the south-east by the River Great Ouse, and to the north-west least one barrow and a separate inhumation may also date to by a wooded ridge that separates the Great Ouse and Nene this period. No Roman remains were discovered, but a Saxon catchments (Fig. 1). The land rises from c. 41m OD at Harrold settlement — occupied between the 5th and 7th centuries — Bridge to 106m OD on the ridge. The underlying geological was evidenced by pits and possible sunken-featured buildings strata comprise argillic brown earths (sandy loams that have (SFB). Thirteen burials were also identified as Saxon on the formed on the river terraces) with a substrate of alluvial valley basis of grave goods dating from the 7th to 8th centuries. gravels, which in turn overlie Great Oolitic limestone. Dix’s excavation also produced evidence of prehistoric The Great Ouse valley has been a focus for settlement since activity, with Beaker pottery and a ring ditch with a central the last Ice Age. The light, well-drained soils in conjunction burial. Here, however, the main phase of settlement began with the varied riparian environment are ideal for sustaining with a newly founded, late Iron Age farmstead with associated a mixed farming economy, while the river was once a major yard or field enclosures. This continued in use throughout the artery for trade, communication and the movement of people. Roman period into the 4th century, with middle Saxon wells Harrold has been one of the focal points along the river for this and a single SFB representing the final phase of activity. activity, with evidence for settlement dating back at least as far as the Iron Age, and funerary remains to the early Neolithic period. BACKGROUND TO THE EXCAVATION REPORTS The origins of the present village are thought to lie in the middle to late Saxon period (Bilikowska 1980; Albion The excavations at Meadway, Bridgman Joinery Works Archaeology 2000, 15). The Domesday Book of 1086 lists and Priory Middle School were all undertaken as the result Harrold Manor as answering for ten hides, land for sixteen of conditions placed, at the request of Bedfordshire County ploughs, woodland, and a mill (Morris 1977, 53.13); the Council’s County Archaeological Officer (CAO), on plan- location of the manor’s headquarters is uncertain, but it ning consent for development of the three sites. A new science was probably in the vicinity of the modern Priory Middle block, car park and access facilities were to be constructed at School. The priory after which the school is named existed the Middle School, while the other two sites were earmarked from the 12th century until the dissolution; again, its location for residential development. is unknown, but it is thought to have lain to the south of the Each site had previously been explored by trial trenching church. Harrold had a market during the medieval period and in order to assess its archaeological potential (BCAS 1997; functioned as a small town, whilst the manor had expanded Albion Archaeology 2002; Northamptonshire Archaeology in size and status by the early 1300s to include a chapel, two 2003). Although significant archaeological remains were viii ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY identified in each case, they did not warrant preservation in • Groups (G): more interpretative entities, e.g. a group situ, and it was agreed by the CAO that they could be dealt with of contemporary and morphologically similar pits. A by detailed archaeological excavation in advance of construc- decimal suffix is used to indicate fills associated with a tion, along with an earthwork survey at the Bridgman Joinery Group number, e.g. G10.1 is the infill of G10; Works. The CAO issued design briefs for each stage of work, • Land-use units (L): a collection of contemporary and stipulating the methods to be employed and the extent of the spatially coherent Groups, e.g. all the component parts fieldwork required. All three sites were excavated by Albion of a building; Archaeology (formerly BCAS): Meadway in 1998; and the • Phases: an agglomeration of Land-use units that are Bridgman Joinery Works and Priory Middle School in 2003. broadly contemporary, e.g. a series of enclosures and Upon completion of fieldwork, the results were briefly the features within them; summarised in an Assessment and Updated Project Design for • Periods: broad chronological divisions, e.g. Saxo- each site, which also established methodologies and research Norman, early medieval. priorities for a programme of detailed analysis (BCAS 1999; Albion Archaeology 2005a and b). Subsequent analysis of the The methods employed during analysis of the artefacts and contextual data enabled the creation of a phasing structure for ecofacts are briefly summarised in the Appendix, alongside each site, which is used to underpin the layout of the three a ceramic type series and combined bibliography for the reports in this volume. Each phasing structure employs some three reports. The full results of each stage of archaeological or all of the following units of hierarchy: work at the three sites are available in the archives, which are stored at Bedford Museum under accession numbers BEDFM • Sub-groups (defined by an ‘S’ or ‘SG’ prefix): indivis- 1999.200 (Meadway), BEDFM 2002.125 (Bridgman) and ible units of interpretation, e.g. the cut and primary fill BEDFM 2004.93 (Priory Middle School). of a post-hole; Evidence for multi-period activity at the former Bridgman Joinery Works Mike Luke and Tracy Preece

with major contributions by Gemma Martin, James Rackham and Jackie Wells, and other contributions by Rowena Gale, Alison Locker and Rob Scaife. Illustrations by Cecily Marshall

SUMMARY Between October 2002 and June 2003, Albion Archaeology undertook archaeological investigations ahead of a 2.3ha housing development on the site of the Bridgman Joinery Works in Harrold. Evidence for human activity from the early prehistoric to the modern periods was identified. Late Neolithic/early Bronze Age activity was testified by the presence of three small pits and a small residual flint assemblage. These provide a useful contrast to the majority of the evidence for this period from Harrold, which is dominated by monuments. The earliest firm evidence for settlement dated to the late Iron Age/early Romano-British period when a system of enclosures was established adjacent to an active stream channel. It seems likely that the enclosures continued in use as fields or paddocks into the Romano-British period because they were respected by a trackway. The latter appears to have been aligned on prehistoric monuments located outside the investigation area, suggesting that these were still visible in the landscape at this time. Away from the trackway, part of one of the earlier enclosures was utilised for crop processing — a drying oven and a stone-lined, sunken structure were built. The only evidence for early–middle Saxon activity was a single sunken-featured building, which fits the known pattern of dispersed settlement during this period. A cluster of Saxo-Norman pits was located adjacent to the earlier building, possibly indicating continuity of occupation. However, as with the subsequent medieval and post-medieval periods, the investigation area was located on the periphery of the developing village of Harrold. The southern part of the site was divided into enclosures during the medieval period, while the northern part fell within one of the village’s open fields. Although they were subject to minor amendments, the enclosures remained in use into the post-medieval period and were depicted on a map of 1797. The Bridgman Joinery Works were established in 1969 and closed down in 2000.

INTRODUCTION RESULTS OF THE INVESTIGATIONS Mike Luke and Tracy Preece Mike Luke and Tracy Preece

The investigations were undertaken within the site of the Phase 1: Late Neolithic/early Bronze Age activity former Bridgman Joinery Works and part of an adjacent (Fig. 3) paddock, on the north side of Harrold High Street (Fig. 1). The site was centred on SP 9512 5698 at a height of c. 46m OD, The earliest firm evidence for human activity comprised three and covered a total area of c. 2.3ha. dispersed pits L1. These were dated to the late Neolithic/early The archaeological potential of the site was first established Bronze Age on the basis of the fabric and form of pottery by a trial-trench evaluation in 2002 (Albion Archaeology recovered from them. 2002). At the time of evaluation, the site comprised partially cleared industrial land consisting of disused factory buildings, Dispersed activity L1 external hard surfaces and adjacent open land to the east and This comprised isolated pit G77 and a pair of pits G29, located west. Twelve of the fourteen trenches contained archaeolog- 55m apart. The fills contained small quantities of pottery from ical remains, dating variously to the Iron Age, Romano-British two early prehistoric ceramic vessels, which may date to the and medieval periods. These were similar to other remains that early Bronze Age. One pit also contained a fragmented antler had previously been found in Harrold, a summary of which is beam from a red deer. The fills of these features — light brown contained in the introduction to this volume. silty sand — were lighter in colour than those of later phases. As part of the subsequent mitigation strategy, an earthwork survey was undertaken of c. 0.5ha of denuded ridge and furrow earthworks in the north-west part of the development Phase 2: Late Iron Age/early Romano-British area, where they survived within a horse paddock (Fig. 2). The settlement (Fig. 4) remaining area, c. 1.4ha, was subject to open-area excavation between April and June 2003. During this period, an enclosure system was established to The site narrative below presents the results of the investi- the west of a stream channel L2, covering an area of c. 1ha. gations by Phase, describing the archaeological features and Two of the larger enclosures had entrances facing the channel, summarising key artefactual and ecofactual evidence. The while a possible drove-way between enclosures L5 and L6 latter is also presented in more detail in separate sections for provided access to the channel until it was blocked by a later the individual datasets. The appendix to this volume contains ditch. Enclosures L5, L6 and L7 were over 1,500m2 in size, a combined bibliography, ceramic type series, and summary of the largest of which (L7) appears to have been subdivided by analysis methodologies for all three sites. trackway L3 and to have contained two smaller enclosures L4 10 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Figure 2: All features plan EVIDENCE FOR MULTI-PERIOD ACTIVITY AT THE FORMER BRIDGMAN JOINERY WORKS 11

Figure 3: Phase 1: Late Neolithic/early Bronze Age plan and sections and L23. A number of the enclosure ditches had been re-dug between the ditch and stream channel L2. However, the or altered (L9), which suggests that they were utilised for moderate amount of domestic debris recovered from the more than one episode of occupation. ditches suggests that some kind of short-term or occasional Relatively few settlement features such as pits and post- activity took place there. The grain assemblages in ecofact holes were located within the enclosures, and the northernmost samples from the entrance terminals suggest this activity may enclosure L6 was devoid of any such features. However, the have been associated with the final stages of crop processing. quantity of contemporary domestic debris within the ditches suggests that some of the enclosures were associated with Enclosure ditches G5 and G6 Ditch G5 formed the northern boundary of the enclosure while ditch G6 occupation. formed that to the south. The ditches were c. 1m wide and up to 0.5m deep The pottery assemblage is consistently late Iron Age/early with V-shaped profiles (Fig. 4a). Romano-British in date. A moderate assemblage of animal bone was recovered, which is dominated by cattle, indicating Pits G28 Two pits G28, spaced 0.5m apart, were located just outside the enclosure’s that beef was the most important component of the meat diet entrance. One pit was sub-circular in plan, c. 0.4m in diameter and 0.15m at this time. Remains of spelt wheat and barley indicate that deep with concave sides and a flat base. The other was sub-oval in plan, 1.5m crop processing was taking place in the vicinity of enclo- long, 0.85m wide and 0.45m deep with a U-shaped profile. sure L4 and the eastern half of enclosure L7. The presence The lower part of a pedestal urn was discovered upright in the centre of the of hammerscale in samples associated with enclosure L5 smaller pit. However, it was not part of an in situ burial — it was incomplete, had a hole in its base and did not contain any cremated bone. suggests that iron-smithing was taking place on the site or nearby. Enclosure L5 Enclosure L6 Sub-rectangular enclosure L5 was located just to the south The northernmost enclosure L6 was defined by ditches G5 of enclosure L6, separated by a possible drove-way. It was and G6. Although part of its western boundary ditch was just defined by ditch G4 and wasc . 2,000m2 in extent. Its southern outside the excavation area, its full extent was approximately limit utilised the major east–west boundary ditch G8; the 1,440m2. On the eastern side, facing stream channel L2, was character of G8’s infill suggests the presence of a bank on a 9m wide entrance. The southern boundary of the enclosure the inside of the enclosure. On the east side, facing stream formed the northern side of a possible drove-way. channel L2, was a 15m wide entrance. No settlement-type features were identified within the Internally, the only evidence for activity comprised pits enclosure, although two pits G28 were located outside it, G30 and G32. The steep-sided profile of some of these 12 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Figure 4: Phase 2: Late Iron Age/early Romano-British plan and sections EVIDENCE FOR MULTI-PERIOD ACTIVITY AT THE FORMER BRIDGMAN JOINERY WORKS 13 pits suggests they may have initially been used for storage, Pit G11 but were later infilled with refuse. A moderate amount of Circular pit G11, in the centre of the enclosure, was 0.85m in diameter and 0.45m deep (Fig. 4m). domestic debris was recovered from the pits and ditches — most notably from southern boundary G8 in the case of Pits G33 the ditches. Despite the absence of evidence for structures, the Two oval pits G33 were spaced 3m apart in the eastern half of the enclosure. presence of house mouse in ecofact samples taken from the They were 0.6–0.9m long, c. 0.5m wide and no more than 0.2m deep, with pits suggests that there may have been buildings within steep, concave sides and flattish bases. the enclosure. The samples also indicate that residues from Pit G46 the final stages of crop processing were discarded into the Sub-rectangular pit G46 was located in the north-western corner of the enclo- pits. The main fills of these features comprised dark greyish sure. It was 2.2m long, 1.7m wide and 0.6m deep (Fig. 4h). brown silty sand; where primary fills were present, they were Two-post structures G44, G47 and G74 consistently lighter in colour. Near the western edge of the were three two-post structures located within 15m of each other. They comprised pairs of post-holes 1.5m or 3m apart. Enclosure ditch G4 The post-holes were c. 0.3m in diameter and no more than 0.25m deep, with Curvilinear ditch G4 defined the northern, eastern and western limits of the steep sides and slightly concave bases (Fig. 4i). There was no evidence for enclosure, measuring c. 1.5m wide and 0.5m deep (Fig. 4b and c). On the post-pipes or packing material. eastern side of the enclosure it narrowed to 0.8m and was 0.3m deep.

Major boundary ditch G8 Trackway L3 East–west ditch G8 was at least 90m long and continued beyond the western Enclosure L7 may have been subdivided by a north–south limit of excavation. This ditch represented a major boundary for several enclosures that were established both to its north and south. It was 1.6m wide trackway L3, comprising two parallel ditches G18 and G20 and 0.5m deep with an asymmetrical, concave profile (Fig. 4f). spaced 8m apart. Ditch G16 was perpendicular to these The primary fill of the ditch comprised orange-brown sandy silt with and may have been associated. The ditches contained small frequent gravel inclusions. It was located on the northern side of the ditch, quantities of late Iron Age/early Romano-British pottery, the suggesting its possible derivation from a bank on that side. majority of which came from G18.

Pit G30 Trackway ditches G18 and G20 An isolated, sub-circular pit G30 was located in the northern part of the enclo- Both ditches were at least 13m long and continued beyond the southern limit sure. It was 1.1m in diameter and 0.8m deep with a U-shaped profile and flat of the excavation area. They appeared to terminate to the north. Eastern ditch base (Fig. 4d). Although on typological grounds this feature is comparable to G18 was 1m wide and 0.25m deep, decreasing to 0.1m at the terminal (Fig. early–middle Iron Age storage pits, it contained late Iron Age/early Roman 4q). Western ditch G20 was 0.7m wide and 0.15m deep (Fig. 4u). pottery and a fragment of quern-stone. Ditch G16 Pits G32 Ditch G16 was 0.45–0.6m wide and 0.2m deep, with a similar profile to that Five circular pits G32 were located adjacent to the southern boundary of the of G20 (Fig. 4l). enclosure. They were 0.4–0.7m in diameter and 0.15–0.5m deep, with nearly vertical sides and either flat or slightly concave bases (Fig. 4e). One of the pits contained several large burnt stones and occasional flecks of charcoal. Enclosure L4 A small rectangular enclosure L4 measuring 230m2 in size Enclosure L7 was situated within enclosure L7. Its western, southern and 2 L7 was the largest ditched enclosure at over 3,000m in extent; eastern sides were defined by ditch G2, with a 3m wide its southern boundary was not visible within the excavation entrance facing the south-east; the major east–west boundary area. The major boundary ditch G8 defined its northern limit. ditch G8 defined its northern limit. The western side showed The eastern limit was defined by ditch G1, which respected evidence of having been re-cut (G70). The only evidence for stream channel L2, and its western limit was defined by ditch activity associated with the enclosure comprised four post- G7. No entrance into the enclosure was identified; it may have holes G50 and G52. The latter were located adjacent to the lain beyond the excavation area, or in one of the two loca- entrance and may have been part of a gateway structure. tions on the northern side of the enclosure where the ditch was The infill of the ditches defining the enclosure was mostly completely truncated by later features. The eastern half of the dark greyish brown silty sand. It contained moderate quan- enclosure may have been subdivided into a number of smaller tities of domestic debris, dominated by late Iron Age/early areas by L3, L4 and L23, although the situation is confused Romano-British pottery. This suggests that the enclosure was because these were on the southern limit of the excavation area. used for domestic activities, despite the absence of buildings Evidence of occupation within the enclosure comes from or structures. Charred plant remains from ditch G2 suggest the presence of four pits (G11, G33 and G46) and three two- that activities associated with crop processing were also post structures (G44, G47 and G74), along with the large taking place within the vicinity. quantities of domestic debris found in the enclosure ditches. An almost complete pottery vessel had been placed upside Enclosure ditch G2 and re-cut G70 down in ditch G1; however, it is likely that the vessel repre- Ditch G2 bounded three sides of the enclosure. It was mostly c. 1m wide and 0.55m deep, with a V-shaped profile (Fig. 4p). However, towards the south- sents the disposal of a broken item rather than an act of ritual east corner it widened to 1.5m and shallowed to 0.4m, with a more U-shaped significance. Charred plant remains found in pit G33 indicate profile. The western side of the enclosure ditch had been re-cut (G70) and that activities associated with crop processing may have been was c. 1.2m wide and 0.6m deep, with a similar profile. taking place in the eastern half of the enclosure. The main Post-holes G52 fills of these features comprised dark greyish brown silty Two post-holes G52 were located at the entrance to the enclosure and are sand; where primary fills were present, they were consistently interpreted as part of a gateway. They were 0.2–0.25m in diameter and lighter in colour. 0.2–0.3m deep (Fig. 4n).

Enclosure ditches G1 and G7 Post-holes G50 Eastern enclosure ditch G1 was c. 0.85m wide and 0.2m deep with a shallow Another two post-holes G50 were located 2m apart, one on either side of the U-shaped profile. Western enclosure ditch G7 was at least 1.6m wide and enclosure ditch, close to its south-western corner. They were 0.3–0.4m in 0.85m deep and had been re-cut on at least two occasions (Fig. 4g). diameter and were no more than 0.15m deep (Fig. 4k). 14 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Enclosure L23 for local woodland, or even shrubs or hedgerows. Organic The full extent of enclosure L23 and its relationship with material at the very base of the channel was dated to AD large enclosure L7 could not be determined, as only part of 10–140 (Beta 228370, 1920±40 BP). it lay within the area of excavation. However, it may have It is clear, therefore, that at least part of this channel was been a smaller enclosure like L4. There was a narrow entrance silting up during the late Iron Age / early Romano-British in the north-western corner of ditch G15, which defined the period. However, what is less clear is when it was formed western and northern sides of the enclosure; a post-hole in the and how long it remained open; it appears to have survived ditch terminus on either side of the entrance may have been as a hollow, at least, until the post-medieval period. The associated with it. Only a small quantity of domestic debris stream may have been replaced by a drainage ditch — just was found, so it is uncertain if this enclosure was used for outside the excavation area to the east — which survives to domestic activities. The main fills of these features comprised the present day. greyish brown sandy silt.

Ditch and post-holes G15 G15 comprised two post-holes and a curvilinear ditch which intersected with Phase 3: Romano-British activity (Fig. 5) ditch G8. The ditch was c. 0.6m wide and 0.15–0.3m deep, with concave sides and a flattish base. The post-holes were situated on either side of an Two foci of Romano-British activity L10 and L11 were iden- entrance into the enclosure that was less than 0.5m wide. tified within the excavation area. In the south-east corner, L10 was associated with agricultural processing and can be Alterations to the enclosure system L9 dated to this period by its ceramic asemblage and by archaeo- Whilst still remaining in use, the enclosure system was subject magnetic dating. This activity was probably contained within to minor alterations, and several of the ditches were re-cut. ditched enclosure L17. Some 120m to the north, two track- These changes have been collectively designated L9. ways L11 formed a junction. The trackside ditches contained The eastern boundary of enclosure L7 was re-cut at small quantities of Romano-British pottery. Although there least once (G76) and its western boundary at least twice is no direct evidence, it is possible that the Phase 2 enclo- (G71 and G72). Ditch G9 blocked off the eastern entrance sure system continued to exist, but was no longer a focus to the possible drove-way between enclosures L5 and L6, of settlement activity. The trackways, although on different and the eastern boundary of L6 was extended northwards. alignments to the earlier ditches, did not, at least within the Two further additions (G64) were made to the western and excavation area, truncate the enclosure system. In addition, southern boundaries of enclosures L5 and L6 respectively; the agricultural processing area was located in the north- these may have formed part of a new enclosure that would east corner of one of the earlier enclosures. Similarly, it have continued beyond the western limit of excavation. is possible that the stream channel survived, at least as a Moderate quantities of domestic debris were recovered from hollow, although no artefacts of this period were recovered all of the ditches, which were infilled mainly with greyish from it. brown silty sand. Where primary fills were present, they were consistently lighter in colour. Trackways L11 Re-cut G76 The two trackways L11 were each defined by two parallel The eastern boundary of enclosure L7 was re-cut on at least one occasion ditches, possibly with an external bank. They were on different (G76). The resultant ditch was c. 1.4m wide and 0.45m deep with a concave alignments, but their use of a shared southern boundary G13 profile. demonstrates that they were contemporary. The nature and Re-cuts G71 and G72 position of the fills of this ditch suggests there may have been The western boundary of enclosure L7 was re-cut along its entire length on a bank to the south. In both trackways, the northern ditch was at least two occasions (Fig. 4g). Both re-cuts were not as deep as the original much wider and produced a small assemblage of Romano- ditch. The first (G71) was c. 1.2m wide and 0.65m deep; the second (G72) British pottery. The ditches were mostly filled by mid brown was 1.7m wide and 0.55m deep. Both re-cuts became wider and deeper silty sand; where present, the primary fills were noticeably towards the south. lighter in colour. Ditch G9 NW–SE ditch G9 blocked off the eastern entrance to the drove-way between Trackway G10 enclosures L5 and L6 and truncated enclosure ditch G4 (L5). It was c. 1.2m This NE–SW trackway was defined by parallel ditches 7m apart. It extended wide and 0.45m deep (Fig. 4c). for over 57m, continuing beyond the excavated area in both directions. The northern ditch was c. 1.7m wide and 0.3–0.55m deep (Fig. 5a), whilst the Ditches G64 southern ditch to the north-east was 1m wide and 0.2m deep (Fig. 5b). It Two ditches, one aligned north–south and the other east–west, appear to have narrowed to 0.3m at its south-west terminal, where it was only 50mm deep. been later additions to the western and southern boundaries of enclosures L5 South-west of the junction with trackway G12, the southern side of the and L6 respectively. It is possible that they were part of another enclosure that trackway was defined by ditch G13 (see below). lay beyond the western extent of the excavation area. They were 0.7m wide and 0.2m deep, with shallow, U-shaped profiles. Trackway G12 This NW–SE trackway extended for over 15m, continuing beyond the limit of the excavation area to the south-east. Two ditches were revealed defining Stream channel L2 the northern side of the trackway, located 2m apart; it is unlikely that these were contemporary. The outer ditch was 1.4m wide and only 0.2m deep A stream channel ran north–south for more than 125m along near the junction of the two trackways (Fig. 5c), but had a steep, v-shaped the eastern edge of the excavation area. It was over 16m wide, profile and was 0.6m deep to the south-east (Fig. 5d). The adjacent ditch was continuing beyond the eastern limit of excavation. Where 0.8–1.05m wide and up to 0.3m deep (Fig. 5e). excavated, it was 0.5–0.9m deep with steep sides and a fairly flat base. It is uncertain if the channel contained a permanent Ditch G13 Ditch G13 defined the southern limit of both trackways. It was 0.55–0.85m or a seasonal stream. A core sequence was taken through its wide and 0.1–0.35m deep (Fig. 5f). Near the western limit of excavation, fills, the basal 0.3m of which was sampled for pollen. This the primary fills were concentrated against the south-east side of the ditch, indicated an open, agricultural environment with no evidence perhaps indicating the presence of an outer bank. EVIDENCE FOR MULTI-PERIOD ACTIVITY AT THE FORMER BRIDGMAN JOINERY WORKS 15

Figure 5: Phase 3: Romano-British plan and sections

Agricultural processing area L10 (Fig. 6; Pl. 1) Drying oven G69 (Fig. 7) A focus of agricultural processing activity was identified in Drying oven G69 comprised a keyhole-shaped feature with a circular stokehole at its south-west end and an adjoining flue. The stokehole was 1.3m the south-eastern part of the excavation area, adjacent to the wide with a concave base, while the flue was 1.15m wide and 3.7m long stream channel. In terms of structures, it comprised a drying with a flat base (Fig. 7c). Both sides of the flue were lined with horizontal oven G69 and a sunken, stone-lined structure G49 (Pl. 1). In limestone slabs, bonded with yellow-white clay. Similar clay was used to line addition, an earlier, more tentatively identified processing the base of the flue, as well as the sides and base of the stokehole. The base of the structure at the south-west end of the flue, in front of the stokehole, feature G78 was partially truncated by G49. These structures comprised flat limestone slabs set in clay, all of which had been subject to were dated by the presence of Romano-British pottery; drying intense heat. It is therefore likely that the main heat source was situated in oven G69 was also subject to archaeomagnetic dating. The this area. Samples taken for archaeomagnetic dating (Pl. 2) produced esti- lower fills of all these features contained a high quantity of mated date ranges for the last firing of AD 120–180 (95% confidence) or AD charcoal. Ecofact samples suggest that these structures were 300–440 (95% confidence). The lower fills of the flue comprised an ashy deposit with frequent charcoal associated with different stages of crop processing — mainly flecks within a dark grey silty clay matrix. The stokehole and the upper part of spelt wheat but also barley and emmer. 16 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Figure 6: Close-up plan of crop-processing area L10, with sections

of the flue were infilled with a mix of charcoal flecks, burnt mortar, limestone to be derived from the superstructure of oven G69. Ecofact sample 41from and clay that contained two nails (RAs 12 and 13). Ecofact samples produced the main fill contained quantities of spelt wheat and barley. grain assemblages of spelt wheat, emmer wheat, oats and barley, with a pref- Curving around the northern and western sides of the structure was a gully. erence for oak and ash to fire the oven. It was only 0.2m from the edge of the structure and is therefore likely to have been associated. It consisted of two segments, 1m and 3m long, and was Cobbled surface G82 (Fig. 7) c. 0.25m wide and 50mm deep (Fig. 6b). It is uncertain whether the c. 1m A cobbled surface was located around the stokehole of drying oven G69. It gap between the segments had been deliberately created, or was the result was at least 2m by 1m in extent, continuing beyond the limit of excavation. of truncation. The surface comprised tightly packed cobbles within a sandy silt matrix. Possible processing feature G78 (Fig. 7) Sunken, stone-lined structure G49 (Fig. 7; Pl. 3) On the eastern side of G49 was an irregular, linear feature G78, which may Located 3m to the north-west of the drying oven was a sunken, stone-lined represent the remains of another processing structure. It was 2m long, 0.8m structure G49. It was sub-rectangular in plan with a rounded edge to the wide and 50mm deep with a steep, concave profile (Fig. 7b). The base was north. It was 3.35m long, 2.6m wide and 0.45m deep, with a flat base (Fig. lined with light grey-green clay, overlain by dark orange-brown sand. The 7a). The base and sides were lined with 70mm thick light green grey clay. final infill comprised grey-brown clayey sand with frequent charcoal flecks Large, unworked limestone slabs were set into this clay. The slabs on the and fragments of fired clay. Ecofact sample 40 contained moderate quantities base of the structure were laid flat on top of the clay. On the sides, they were of spelt wheat grain and glume bases. set on end at 20–30 degrees from the vertical. Neither the clay nor the stones showed any evidence for in situ burning. Possible ditched enclosure L17 (Figs 5 and 6) Overlying the slabs was a deposit G49.2 of dark grey-brown clayey silt that contained frequent charcoal flecks. However, the main fill was very mixed The agricultural processing area was bordered to the north by and comprised charcoal-rich soil, stones and large quantities of fired clay. ditches G3 and G14, the latter of which respected the curve Given the absence of any evidence for in situ burning, the latter is more likely of sunken, stone-lined structure G49. These ditches may have EVIDENCE FOR MULTI-PERIOD ACTIVITY AT THE FORMER BRIDGMAN JOINERY WORKS 17

Figure 7: Close-up plans of crop-processing structures G49, G69 and G78, with sections formed the north-western side of an enclosure, the rest of Building L12 which lay beyond the limit of excavation. The two ditches The presence of moderate quantities of contemporary pottery were separated by a 4.5m wide entrance, in the middle of and animal bone within sunken-featured building G21 suggests which was a post-hole. A small quantity of Romano-British domestic activity. However, the position of the building in the pottery was found in dark deposits within ditch G14, where it corner of the excavation area makes it impossible to deter- was closest to G49; the features were otherwise filled by mid mine whether or not it was part of a larger settlement. greyish brown silty sand with occasional flecks of charcoal. Sunken-featured building G21 Ditch and post-hole G3 Building G21 was roughly square in plan with rounded corners. It was 3.8m NE–SW ditch G3 was visible for 6m, continuing beyond the limit of exca- long, 3.3m wide and no more than 0.2m deep, with a flat base (Fig. 8e). It vation to the south-west. It was 0.5m wide and 0.1m deep, with a concave had two gable post-holes located centrally, 3.5m apart, which were c. 0.7m profile. The opposing terminals of this ditch and G14 created an entrance, in diameter and 0.45–0.65m deep (Fig. 8g and h). Within the interior of the in the middle of which was a post-hole that is likely to have been associated building were three smaller post-holes, c. 0.3m in diameter and 0.15–0.3m with it. deep, with U-shaped profiles (Fig. 8f). Two were adjacent to each other and close to the southern edge of the building, while the other was situated close Ditch G14 to its northern edge. Curvilinear ditch G14 terminated to the west, forming part of a 4.5m wide The sunken-featured building and its post-holes were filled with a single entrance with ditch G3, while to the east it was obscured by later infill deposit of light greyish brown silty sand, which contained occasional flecks deposits of the stream channel. It was 0.5m wide and 0.2m deep (Fig. 6a). of charcoal and burnt stones.

Phase 4: Early–middle Saxon settlement (Fig. 8) Phase 5: Saxo-Norman pitting (Fig. 8)

The only feature that could be dated to this period was a sunken- Evidence for activity during this phase comprised fourteen featured building L12. It was located in the south-western part pits, which were concentrated in the south-west part of the of the excavation area, near where a group of late Iron Age/ excavation area. They were located immediately to the north early Romano-British two-post structures had existed in Phase of the early–middle Saxon building, but the significance of 2. Its infill contained a moderate assemblage of early–middle this is uncertain. The majority of the pits produced domestic Saxon pottery. In contrast to the earlier phases, the animal bone debris, including fairly large quantities of Saxo-Norman assemblage is dominated by pig and the charred plant remains pottery from the southernmost ones. Pig is still the domi- by bread wheat, suggesting changes in the agrarian economy. nant species in the animal bone assemblage, and the cereal 18 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Plate 1: Agricultural processing area L10, looking south-west. Scales 1m

Plate 2: Taking samples for archaeomagnetic dating of drying oven G69 EVIDENCE FOR MULTI-PERIOD ACTIVITY AT THE FORMER BRIDGMAN JOINERY WORKS 19

Figure 8: Phases 4–5: Early–middle Saxon and Saxo-Norman plans and sections 20 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Plate 3: Sunken, stone-lined structure G49, looking north-east. Scale 1m assemblage demonstrates that bread wheat and barley were Pits G41 being processed, together with rye. Domestic fuel was iden- Two oval pits G41, spaced 8m apart,were 1.25–1.7m long, 1m wide and 0.45m deep, with nearly vertical sides and flat bases (Fig. 8d). The upper fills tified — mainly ash and oak — along with other species of both pits contained charcoal flecks. perhaps from coppiced woodland or hedgerows. Pits G42 Two oval pits G42 were located 6m apart. They were 1–2m long, 0.6–1.55m Dispersed cluster of pits L22 wide and 0.4–0.5m deep, with steep sides and flat bases (Fig. 8c). The main Fourteen pits were spread across a 50m by 20m area close to fills contained frequent flecks of charcoal. the western limit of excavation. They were circular, oval or Pit G43 sub-square in plan, 0.6–2m in diameter and were under 0.5m Isolated pit G43 was sub-oval in plan, 2m long, 1.3m wide and 0.55m deep, deep. Spatially, there was a cluster of nine to the north (G36, with steep sides and a flat base. G37 and G53), with five more dispersed examples (G41, G42 and G43) to the south. Pits G53 Two pits G53 were sub-square in plan, 1.4–2m wide but only 0.3m deep, with The pits were mainly filled with dark greyish brown silty nearly vertical sides and flat bases (Fig. 8b). sand; where present, their primary fills were lighter in colour. The pits mainly to the north contained deposits weathered Phase 6: Medieval enclosures and open fields (Fig. 9) from their sides, while those to the south contained darker deposits with flecks of charcoal and moderate quantities of Within the investigation area, medieval activity was represented domestic debris, including pottery. A richer assemblage of by enclosures to the south, nearest to the present-day High charred plant remains was also recovered from the southern Street, and a series of furrows to the north. The hollow of the pits. infilled stream channel may also still have been present at this Pit G36 time. The furrows indicate the location of one of the settlement’s G36 was the northernmost pit. It was circular, 0.85m in diameter and 0.2m open fields, and were on the same alignment as the enclosures deep, with nearly vertical sides and a slightly concave base. to the south. L18 was the largest of the three enclosures, and was situated to the north of the two smaller ones. A single pit Pits G37 A cluster of six pits G37 was situated within an area c. 10m in diameter. They was identified in enclosure L18, while enclosure L14 contained were circular in plan, 0.6–1.9m in diameter and 0.3–0.5m deep. All of the pits two parallel ditches. The majority of the features assigned to were similar in profile, with steep sides and flat bases (Fig. 8a). this phase contained small quantities of early medieval pottery. EVIDENCE FOR MULTI-PERIOD ACTIVITY AT THE FORMER BRIDGMAN JOINERY WORKS 21

Figure 9: Phase 6: Medieval plan and sections 22 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Enclosure L18 The extent of the surveyed ridge and furrow earthworks This probably rectangular enclosure was over 2,230m2 G83 is indicated on Figure 2. They were aligned NE–SW and in extent. It had been re-dug in the post-medieval period, were consistently c. 8m apart. A small number of sub-surface making its precise form uncertain. The western boundary was linear features G57 were identified during excavation, on defined by two ditches G24 and G25, which may or may not exactly the same alignment and spacing as the earthworks. have been contemporary, whilst the northern boundary G80 was only identified in one location. Internally, the enclosure Hollow L2.2 contained a single pit G63. With the exception of ditch G80, The enclosure ditches ran parallel to the largely infilled these features all produced sherds of medieval pottery, with stream channel — which had existed from at least the late the majority coming from ditch G25. Iron Age/early Romano-British period — and did not cross it. Therefore, it is likely that the channel survived as a hollow Northern enclosure ditch G80 in this phase. Its upper fills contained moderate quantities of The enclosure’s northern ditch was identified in only one location, where it was at least 0.75m wide and 0.35m deep (Fig. 9a). It had been truncated on early medieval pottery and animal bone. its south-west side by a post-medieval ditch.

Western enclosure ditch G25 Phase 7: Post-medieval fields (Fig. 10) Ditch G25 defined the western side of both this enclosure and L13. It was c. 1m wide and 0.3m deep (Fig. 9b). Evidence for activity during the post-medieval period was Western enclosure ditch G24 concentrated in the southern half of the excavation area, Ditch G24 was parallel to ditch G25, but c. 2m to the east. It was 0.7m wide nearest the present-day High Street. Larger fields L15 and and 0.25m deep (Fig. 9c). The ditch became much smaller to the south-east, L16 replaced the early medieval enclosures, retaining a where its apparent terminus was probably the result of truncation. similar alignment; field L15 contained a series of post-holes, Pit G63 aligned in several rows, and a small area of pitting. The hollow Circular pit G63 was the only feature identified within the enclosure. It was L2.3 left by the former stream channel is likely to have been 0.6m in diameter and 0.2m deep (Fig. 9d). completely infilled by this time, as one of the field ditches appeared to cross it. Moderate quantities of post-medieval Enclosure L14 pottery and artefacts were found in the ditches. However, Enclosure L14 was located to the south of enclosure L18 and 2 the fills were not particularly different from those within the was at least 600m in extent; its southern and eastern bounda- medieval ditches. Cattle have become the dominant species in ries lay beyond the limit of excavation. It was bounded to the the animal bone assemblage. west by ditch G19 and to the north by ditch G27. No entrances could be identified and the only features within the enclosure Field L15 were two ditches G26, which appear to have formed subdivi- Field L15 replaced early medieval enclosure L18. It utilised sions. The ditches were filled by a mid grey-brown silty sand the northern and southern boundaries of L18, which were which contained only a small quantity of artefacts, suggesting re-dug as G54 and G55, but it was longer on its east–west that the enclosure probably did not have a domestic function. axis, measuring at least 4,450m2 in extent. Four pits G45, G65 Enclosure ditches G19 and G27 and G66 and a series of post-hole alignments G34 and G56 lay Ditches G19 and G27, which defined the western and northern sides of the within the field. Moderate quantities of post-medieval arte- enclosure respectively, both continued beyond the limit of excavation. G27 facts and pottery were found in several of the features, while was truncated by a post-medieval ditch in places. The ditches were c. 0.9m a small amount of material appeared to have been dumped wide and 0.35m deep (Fig. 9e and g). into the largely infilled hollow of the former stream channel. Parallel ditches G26 The post-holes did not contain any datable artefacts, but their Two parallel, NE–SW ditches G26 were located within the enclosure, spaced alignment parallel with the northern side of L15 suggests that 7m apart. They were c. 0.45m wide and no more than 0.15m deep (Fig. 9f). It a post-medieval date is most likely. is possible that they were furrows, although no others were identified within the southern half of the excavation area. Southern field ditch G54 Ditch G54 defined the southern side of the field. Itwas c. 1m wide and 0.2–0.4m deep, with an irregular, asymmetrical profile (Fig. 10c). This ditch Enclosure L13 truncated medieval ditches G25 and G27. This probably rectangular enclosure was located adjacent to enclosure L14. It was at least 600m2 in extent; its southern Northern field ditch G55 boundary lay beyond the limit of the excavation area. Its The northern side of the field was defined by ditch G55, which continued northern boundary was defined by the same ditch as L14, beyond the southern limit of excavation. It was c. 1.2m wide and 0.5m deep, with an irregular, asymmetrical profile (Fig. 10b). although G27 was mostly truncated by a post-medieval ditch in this enclosure, surviving in only one segment. The Post-hole alignments G56 western boundary was defined by G25, as was L18, and it Twenty-three post-holes G56 ran for a distance of 65m on a NE–SW align- shared its eastern boundary with enclosure L14. There was no ment, c. 7m to the south of ditch G55. They appeared to comprise the partial evidence for any internal activity, and an entrance could not remains of at least four separate rows, possibly representing fences or a horti- cultural structure. The post-holes were 0.4–0.6m in diameter and 0.2–0.4m be identified. deep, with nearly vertical sides and either flat or concave bases. There was no evidence for post-pipes or associated packing. Open fields L24 The evidence for the open fields comprised a small number Post-holes G34 of sub-surface features, interpreted as furrows, and the earth- Twenty-seven post-holes G34 were located over an area of 12m near the western edge of the excavation area. They were 0.4–0.6m in diameter and works in the north-west part of the investigation area. No 0.25–0.45m deep, with nearly vertical sides and either flat or concave bases. direct dating evidence was recovered for the setting-out of There was no evidence for post-pipes or packing. It is likely that these post- this field system. holes were associated with post-holes G56. EVIDENCE FOR MULTI-PERIOD ACTIVITY AT THE FORMER BRIDGMAN JOINERY WORKS 23

Figure 10: Phase 7: Post-medieval plan and sections

Pit G45 comprised a mix of limestone slabs and ceramic building material within Oval pit G45 was 1m long, 0.7m wide and 0.25m deep, with concave sides dark greyish brown silty sand. It covered an area c. 1.7m by 1.1m, and was and a flat base. It contained post-medieval artefacts and the skeleton ofa 0.25m thick. sheep, which was complete except for the skull. Field L16 Pits G65 Field L16 was located to the north of field L15. It was at Two pits G65 of differing form were located c. 10m apart. One was an elon- 2 gated oval in shape, 2.1m long, 0.7m wide and 0.35m deep, with nearly least 3,000m in extent, continuing beyond the limit of the vertical sides and a flat base. The other was square in plan, 0.55m wide and excavation area. Its northern boundary was defined by ditch 0.2m deep, with nearly vertical sides and a slightly concave base. G23, which was dug through the infilled hollow of the stream channel, demonstrating that this was no longer a feature of Pits G66 Two adjacent. sub-oval pits G66 were truncated by the southern boundary the landscape. The southern boundary was defined was share of the field. They were c. 1m long, 0.5m wide and 0.3m deep, with concave with L15. No internal activity were identified, and no artefacts sides and flat bases. were recovered.

Dumped material G79 Northern field ditch G23 A small quantity of dumped material, including post-medieval pottery, Ditch G23 was at least 60m long, continuing beyond the limit of excavation was located 8.5m from the north-east end of field boundary ditch G54. It to both east and west. It was c. 0.55m wide and 0.25m deep (Fig. 10a). 24 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Hollow L2.3 Phase 8: The Bridgman Joinery Works (Fig. 11) It is likely that the final infill of the hollow left by the former stream channel had occurred by this period. Not only did its Numerous sub-surface features associated with the former uppermost fills contain artefacts of this period, but at least one joinery works were identified. The majority occurred within of the field ditches crossed it. the location of the factory buildings shown on the 1994 OS map, but only a few correlated with the actual walls. Despite the site’s extensive former industrial use, the modern remains had relatively little impact on the survival of earlier archaeological features.

Figure 11: Modern features overlaid with outline of factory buildings shown on 1994 OS map EVIDENCE FOR MULTI-PERIOD ACTIVITY AT THE FORMER BRIDGMAN JOINERY WORKS 25

POTTERY Late Neolithic/early Bronze Age (Phase 1) Jackie Wells The three pits in L1 yielded less than 1% of the total pottery Introduction assemblage. Pit G77 contained fourteen body sherds (51g) from a quartz- and flint-tempered vessel with fine combed decora- Excavation produced 1,782 sherds (31.4kg) of pottery, repre- tion. The sherds are small, with an average weight of 3g, and senting 901 individual vessels, in fifty-seven fabric types. A moderately abraded. They derive from a vessel whose walls representative sample of the pottery has been illustrated (Fig. vary in thickness from 4mm to 11mm. The combing (Fig. 12, 12). The pottery was grouped by chronological period and by P1) is reminiscent of decorative elements occurring on early phase (Table 1); this provides the structure for the following Bronze Age Beakers, and it is possible that the sherds derive discussion, which considers the materials that were character- from such a vessel. The fragmentary nature of the pottery, istic of the assemblage from each principal phase, with spatial however, precludes positive identification. Isolated finds of analysis of the finds’ provenance where appropriate. Bronze Age pottery comprising Collared Urns and a Bucket The assemblage displays a wide date range, spanning the Urn are known from other excavations in Harrold (Eagles and early Bronze Age to the 20th century. The greatest pottery Evison 1970, 21; Shepherd et al., this volume). An undiagnostic concentrations came from features assigned to Phase 2 (late sherd of coarse flint-tempered pottery (46g) derived from pits Iron Age/early Romano-British), which produced 57% of the G29 and has been broadly classified as early prehistoric in date. total assemblage (by sherd count). Approximately 11% of the pottery derives from Phase 8 (modern), and is not considered in the following discussion. Late Iron Age/early Romano-British (Phase 2)

Features assigned to Phase 2 yielded 57% of the total pottery assemblage. This comprises 1,019 sherds (23.6kg), representing 434 vessels, the majority comprising pottery

Phase L Land-use unit description Pottery periods Total No. EBA LBA / LIA / Romano- Saxon Saxo- Medieval P-med Modern EIA early RB British Norman

1 1.2 Secondary infill of post-holes 2:97 2:97 and pits L1 2 2.1 Infill of stream channel L2 2:75 1:21 3:96 3.2 Infill of ditches L3 5:424 1:18 2:5 8:447 4.1 Primary infill of enclosure L4 1:42 1:42 4.2 Main infill of enclosure L4 51:3023 1:9 6:65 58:3,097 4.3 Tertiary infill of enclosure L4 70:4079 1:130 71:4,209 5.1 Primary infill of enclosure L5 11:437 11:437 5.2 Main infill of enclosure L5 38:836 3:112 1:5 1:3 43:856 5.3 Tertiary infill of enclosure L5 2:17 2:17 6.1 Primary infill of enclosure L6 0*:7 0*:76 0*:83 6.2 Main infill of enclosure L6 52:2664 2:176 54:2,840 6.3 Tertiary infill of enclosure L6 2:80 2:80 7.1 Primary infill of enclosure L7 4:142 4:142 7.2 Main infill of enclosure L7 123:7949 7:403 130:8,352 9.1 Primary infill of enclosure 0*:80 1:140 1:220 alterations L9 9.2 Main infill of enclosure 33:2285 2:54 1:67 36:2,406 alterations L9 23.2 Main infill of post-holes and 2:143 2:143 ditches L23 3 10 Agricultural processing area L10 3:15 2:19 5:34 10.2 Secondary infill of processing 9:119 14:341 23:460 area L10 11.2 Main infill of trackway L11 1:26 2:99 1:12 4:137 11.3 Tertiary infill of trackway L11 1:195 1:195 17.2 Main infill of ditched enclosure 6:46 4:517 10:563 L17 4 12.2 Main infill of sunken-featured 4:122 22:584 1:19 1:4 28:729 building L12 5 22.1 Initial silting of pits L22 1:2 28:390 29:392 22.2 Secondary infill of pits L22 1:2 1:16 3:51 92:945 8:86 105:1,100 6 2.2 Secondary infill of stream 24:230 24:230 channel L2 14.1 Infill of ditched enclosure L14 1:4 5:57 6:61 18.1 Infill of ditched enclosure L18 3:27 1:36 1:2 14:133 8:74 4:21 31:293 7 2.3 Final infill of stream channel L2 1:17 6:390 1:11 4:69 2:38 14:525 15.1 Infill of field system L15 12:83 23:667 9:114 43:864 2:97 1:2 421:22,553 47:2341 29:995 126:1,391 80:954 31:741 15:173 751:29,147

Table 1: Pottery seriation table (vessel count and weight in g, excluding unidentified material) 26 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Illustration No. Fabric type Description L No. G No. Context Phase P1 X01 Vessel 1.2 77.1 1817 1 P2 F06B Jar 7.2 1.2 2218 2 P3 F09 Bowl 7.2 1.2 2218 2 P4 F07 Vessel 4.2 70.2 2223 2 P5 F07 Large jar 4.2 70.2 2223 2 P6 F07 Bowl 4.2 70.2 2267 2 P7 F05 Jar 4.2 70.2 2267 2 P8 F07 Jar 4.3 2.3 2279 2 P9 A23 Vessel 12.2 21.1 2047 4 P10 A16 Vessel 12.2 21.1 2041 4 P11 A16 Jar 2.3 48.5 1627 7 Figure 12: Selected pottery in the late ‘Belgic’ Iron Age tradition. Approximately 46% such as Clapham (Tilson 1973), Stagsden Bypass (Dawson of the material is tempered with grog or grog/sand (fabrics 2000) or Biddenham Loop (Luke 2008). The provenance of F06A/B/C and F03/F09 respectively). Shell/grog- and shell- grog-tempered fabrics is unknown. tempered fabrics (types F05 and F07/F24) constitute 51% of The vessels represent a standard range of domestic pottery, the material. The latter may represent the earliest (1st century characteristic of the region as defined in Thompson’s Zones AD) products of the Harrold kilns (Brown 1994), although 7 and 8 (1982, 15–6). Selected examples are shown in Figure some may derive from other kiln sites known in the vicinity, 12 (P2–8). Most of the vessels are wheel-thrown; a small EVIDENCE FOR MULTI-PERIOD ACTIVITY AT THE FORMER BRIDGMAN JOINERY WORKS 27 proportion are handmade with a wheel-finished shoulder comprises horizontal grooves, rilling and vertical combing. and rim, and a number are entirely handmade. The latter The assemblage suggests a low-status rural site, although the are mainly shell-tempered storage jars and some lid-seated presence of a small quantity of samian ware and a white ware vessels. Wheel-thrown forms include everted and bead-rim vessel from the Verulamium (St Albans) region indicates that jars, cordoned and necked jars, lid-seated jars, neckless jars, the community was not entirely isolated. a pedestal urn and a possible strainer. Decoration comprises The Phase 3 assemblage is generally more fragmented horizontal and vertical combing, horizontal grooves, cordons, than the Phase 2 material, evidenced by a low average sherd burnishing, incised motifs, and fingernail and/or fingertip weight of 14g and vessel to sherd ratio of 1:2. The majority of impressions. Vessels are generally well-made, and the inci- the assemblage is associated with agricultural processing area dence of manufacturing faults is low. A number of sherds, L10, principally the secondary infill of sunken, stone-lined mainly shell-tempered types, are sooted, indicating their use structure G49 and ditch G14, which yielded 491g and 563g as cooking pots. Curation of vessels is evidenced by two of pottery respectively. Eight sherds (332g) derived from the grog-tempered body sherds with drilled post-firing holes to main and tertiary infill of trackway L11. facilitate repair. Intrusive material comprises thirteen sherds of Saxo- Seventeen vessels (978g) datable to the early Romano- Norman or early medieval date, weighing 31g. British period comprise shell-tempered wares (fabric R13) and a single fragment (2g) of central Gaulish samian (fabric R01A). Intrusive material of Saxon, Saxon-Norman and Early–middle Saxon (Phase 4) early medieval date (306g) constitutes the remainder of the Phase 2 assemblage. The low quantity of post-Romano- Sunken-featured building L12 yielded 3% of the total British pottery suggests the Phase 2 deposits were largely pottery assemblage. This comprises forty-nine sherds (729g), undisturbed, despite the generally fragmentary nature of the representing twenty-eight vessels. The pottery comprises material (average sherd weight 23g) and the fact that only a undecorated wares broadly datable to c. AD 450–850, in a relatively small number of vessels are represented by more range of quartz-rich (types A16, A18, A15, A23) and organic- than single sherds. rich fabrics (types A01, A19), at least some of which are likely Significant assemblages derived from the main and tertiary to have derived from local glacial drift deposits. The pottery, infill of ditched enclosures L7 and L4, which contained 8.4kg which is hard-fired, handmade and, in almost all cases, and 7.3kg of pottery respectively. The main of ditch G1 within entirely reduced, is comparable with that recovered from L7 yielded eight sherds (1.2kg) from a grog/sand-tempered earlier excavations in Harrold (Eagles and Evison 1970, 46; jar and eleven sherds (1.7kg) from a large, shell-tempered Albion in prep.). The surfaces of most examples are untreated storage vessel, the latter comparable with products from kilns apart from simple hand-wiping. Vessel rims are either everted at Stagsden Bypass (Slowikowski 2000) and Biddenham or upright. Diagnostic forms are a jar and two bowls (Fig. 12, Loop (Wells 2008b). The composition and condition of the P9–11). Four residual Roman sherds (122g) and two intrusive assemblage show little variation between periods of primary post-Saxon sherds (23g) were also identified. The material is and subsequent infilling. This is demonstrated by the pres- highly fragmented, with a low vessel to sherd ratio of 1:2 and ence of eleven sherds deriving from the same shell-tempered low average sherd weight of 15g. However, the low quan- vessel (182g) in the main and tertiary fills of L4 (G2.2 and tity of residual and intrusive material indicates the relatively G2.3). Two further cross-contexts comprising thirteen sherds undisturbed nature of the discrete Saxon deposits. from two separate vessels (138g) were found in the primary and main infill of enclosure L6 (G5.1 and G5.2). The presence of such cross-contexts suggests the features may have been Saxo-Norman (Phase 5) infilled over a relatively short period of time. Twenty-seven base and lower body sherds (533g) from The Phase 5 features, all within pit group L22, yielded 15% a grog-tempered pedestal urn were recovered from pit G28 of the total pottery assemblage. This comprises 268 sherds (L6). The vessel is not thought to represent an in situ burial. (1.5kg), representing 134 vessels. The material is highly fragmented, with a low vessel to sherd ratio of 1:2 and average sherd weight of 6g. Most sherds are abraded and, in some Romano-British (Phase 3) instances, leached. The majority comprise shell-tempered, wheel-thrown vessels in the St Neots-type tradition (fabric Phase 3 features yielded 5% of the total pottery assemblage. B01) and its variants (fabrics B01A/B/C and B04), broadly This comprises ninety-eight sherds (1.3kg), representing forty- datable from the mid-9th to early 12th centuries. Diagnostic five vessels. There exists a degree of overlap and continuity forms are bowls with inturned rims and simple everted- between the Phase 2 and 3 assemblages, evidenced by the rim jars. A small proportion have sooted exteriors and two continued presence of late ‘Belgic’ Iron Age grog-tempered vessels have an internal white residue, possibly representing wares, which constitute 35% of the Phase 3 assemblage. an accumulation of limescale. Fine wares are represented by The Roman pottery is broadly datable to the 1st–3rd centu- twenty glazed sherds (156g) of 10th–12th-century Stamford ries and is characterised by shell-tempered wares (type R13) ware (type C12), a regional import from Lincolnshire. The and sand-tempered, reduced coarse wares (types R06B/C/D latter, used principally for tablewares, provides a marked and R07B), locally produced for domestic use. The former contrast to the dominant utilitarian kitchen wares of the constitute the majority of the Roman pottery and are recog- St Neots-type tradition. Six sherds (18g) of Iron Age and nisable products of the Harrold Lodge Farm kilns (Brown Roman pottery and eight medieval sherds (86g) respectively 1994). Forms are restricted to lid-seated jars and bowls and comprise the residual and intrusive components of the Phase their derivatives, jars with everted and undercut rims, large 5 material. storage vessels, plain-rim bowls, a dog dish, and a miscel- The majority of the assemblage was recovered from laneous vessel with a pedestal base. Decoration is rare and pits G41, which contained 1kg of pottery. Five separate 28 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY cross-contexts (sixty-six sherds in total), recorded between CERAMIC BUILDING MATERIAL the primary, secondary and tertiary fills of G41, suggest the Jackie Wells features may have been infilled over a relatively short period of time. Brick and tile

Roman Early medieval (Phase 6) Four shell-tempered tegula (roof tile) fragments (472g) and five pieces of brick (608g) were recovered from features The Phase 6 features yielded 5% of the total pottery assemblage. assigned to Phases 2 and 3 (Table 2). Two abraded brick This comprises 82 eighty-two sherds (584g), representing fragments occurred as residual finds in post-medieval field fifty-five vessels. The pottery is generally abraded and frag- system L15. Shell-tempered building material is likely to mented, with a low average sherd weight of 7g and vessel to be a local product of the Harrold Lodge Farm kilns (Brown sherd ratio of 1:1. The majority of the assemblage comprises 1994). The tegulae range in thickness from 22mm to 25mm. shell-tempered vessels of 12th–13th-century date (fabric All are abraded, and one example from the primary fill of pit B07), which may represent products of early medieval kilns G3, L5.1 has a sooted surface. Bricks occur in both sand- and within the village (Hall 1972; Shepherd et al., this volume). shell-tempered fabric types (see the appendix to this volume), A number are cracked and distorted due to poor firing, and and are highly abraded. They range in thickness from 30mm may perhaps represent seconds or wasters. Vessel forms are to 55mm. wheel-thrown jars/cooking pots with everted or square rims, and bowls with square rims. Single undiagnostic sherds (total Post-Roman weight 8g) of 13th–14th-century Lyveden and Potterspury Thirty-nine sand-tempered fragments of late or post-medieval ware (fabrics B09 and C10 respectively) were also identified. flat roof tile, a nib tile, and two pieces of brick (total weight Both derive from kiln sites in Northamptonshire. The majority 1.4kg) were recovered. The majority derived from ditches of the assemblage is associated with ditched enclosure L18. G54 and G55, associated with field system L15, Phase 7. Five residual late Iron Age and early Roman sherds (67g) and Although unabraded, the assemblage is highly fragmented thirteen intrusive post-medieval/modern sherds (197g) were (average fragment weight 35g). Roof tiles range in thickness also identified. from 12mm to 15mm, and several examples have mortared surfaces and edges, indicating use. All have roughened undersides, indicating their manufacture in a sanded mould, and the Post-medieval (Phase 7) upper surfaces of a few examples bear marks consistent with scraping of the clay to produce a uniform thickness. Features assigned to Phase 7 yielded 3% of the total pottery assemblage. This comprises fifty-one sherds (1.4kg), repre- Daub and fired clay senting 57 vessels. The material is fairly fragmented, with Introduction a low vessel to sherd ratio of 1:1 and an average sherd Approximately 360 fragments, weighing 41.4kg, were weight of 27g. The majority of the pottery is datable to recovered from features of late Iron Age, Roman, Saxon, the 17th–18th centuries and comprises lead-, iron- and tin- Saxo-Norman and post-medieval date (Table 3). Seven fabrics glazed earthenwares (types P01, P03 and P33 respectively), were identified, with coarse shell- and sand-tempered types and Staffordshire slipware (type P30). Early post-medieval predominating (see the appendix to this volume). vessels are represented by single sherds of Cistercian ware (type P12) and German stoneware (type P25). Recognisable Overview forms are mainly large bowls and dishes. The majority of the Over 90% of the total assemblage derives from the Phase assemblage derived from the infill of ditches G54 and G55 3 sunken, stone-lined structure G49, L10.2. Nine percent (field system L15), which yielded 662g and 346g of pottery derives from Phase 2 enclosures L4–L7 and L9, and the respectively. Residual material constitutes 22% of the Phase remainder comes from sunken-featured building L12, Saxo- 6 assemblage, and comprises a range of pottery dating from Norman pits L22 and post-medieval field system L15. The the late Iron Age, Saxon, Saxo-Norman and early medieval assemblage represents secondary deposition of occupation periods, the majority deriving from infilled hollow L2.3. material, and, with the exception of the fragments from the

Phase L No. Description Roman Post-Roman Total 2 3.2 Infill of ditches L3 1:8 1:8 4.2 Main infill of enclosure L4 1:190 1:90 5.1 Primary infill of enclosure L5 1:263 1:263 5.2 Main infill of enclosure L5 1:117 1:117 6.2 Main infill of enclosure L6 1:129 1:129 7.2 Main infill of enclosure L7 2:258 2:258 9.2 Main infill of enclosure alterations L9 1:96 1:96 3 11.3 Tertiary infill of trackway L11 1:19 1:19 6 2.2 Secondary infill of stream channel L2 1:7 1:7 18.1 Infill of ditched enclosure L18 4:253 4:253 7 2.3 Final infill of stream channel L2 1:10 1:10 15.1 Infill of field system L15 2:1,440 36:1,213 38:2,653 11:2,520 42:1,483 53:4,003

Table 2: Brick and tile quantification (fragment count and weight in g) EVIDENCE FOR MULTI-PERIOD ACTIVITY AT THE FORMER BRIDGMAN JOINERY WORKS 29

Romano-British drying oven and sunken, stone-lined struc- L10, while the latter was noted elsewhere on the site. The ture, cannot be directly associated with the use of the features fragments have an average weight of 186g, although one from which it was collected. piece weighing 2.5kg was recorded. The daub pieces range in Fragments from eight handmade clay slabs occur in both thickness from 40mm to 100mm and many retain impressions shell- and grog/sand-tempered fabrics, the majority deriving of circular wattles, 30mm–50mm in diameter. Several have from the tertiary fill of Phase 2 enclosure ditch G2, L4.3. finished surfaces and/or edges, and one sand-tempered piece They range in thickness from 20mm to 40mm and have has a possible 40mm-wide lath impression. They are thought finger-smoothed surfaces and edges. One example is knife- to represent components of the drying oven’s superstructure. trimmed and has three finger impressions on the underside. The majority of the smaller fired clay fragments are - amor Several pieces deriving from one slab have sooted and burnt phous and lack diagnostic features. surfaces. Ceramic slabs are relatively common finds from sites of late Iron Age/early Romano-British date, e.g. Stagsden Bypass (Gentil and Slowikowski 2000, 88), Biddenham REGISTERED ARTEFACTS AND OTHER BULK Loop (Slowikowski 2008), Shefford (Luke et al. 2010), and FINDS Wilstead (Luke and Preece 2010), although their function Jackie Wells remains unclear. It seems likely that they represent prefab- ricated components for structures such as hearths, ovens or Introduction kilns. The investigations produced a total of twenty-four registered Agricultural processing area L10 artefacts, comprising iron, copper alloy, ceramic, antler and Approximately 212 pieces of daub and fired clay, weighing stone objects, and small assemblages of vessel glass, clay pipe 39.4kg, derived from sunken, stone-lined structure G49 and worked flint (Table 4). Selected objects are illustrated in (32.5kg), possible processing feature G78 (6.9kg) and drying Figure 13. The following text discusses the artefacts by cate- oven G69 (9g). The majority of the assemblage occurs in gory, within which the material is divided into broad terms, a roughly made fabric, tempered with coarse fossil shell; which are discussed (where appropriate) in chronological coarse, sand-tempered pieces constitute the remainder. The order. A catalogue of registered artefacts is provided at the former occurs exclusively within features associated with end of each category.

Phase L No. Description Daub/fired clay Slab Total 1 1.2 Secondary infill of post-holes and pits L1 214 214 2 4.3 Tertiary infill of enclosure L4 808 1,313 2,121 5.1 Primary infill of enclosure L5 1 1 5.2 Main infill of enclosures L5 203 312 515 6.2 Main infill of enclosure L6 12 12 7.1 Primary infill of enclosure L7 511 511 7.2 Main infill of enclosure L7 129 297 426 9 Later alterations and re-cuts to enclosure 1 1 9.2 Main infill of enclosure alterations L9 106 106 3 10 Agricultural processing area 416 416 10.1 Primary infill of processing area L10 9 9 10.2 Secondary infill of processing area L10 39,011 39,011 4 12.2 Main infill of sunken-featured building L12 5 5 5 22.2 Secondary infill of pits L22 11 11 7 15.1 Infill of field system L15 3 3 41,440 1,922 43,362

Table 3: Daub/fired clay quantification (weight in g)

Phase L No. Description Artefact Summary 2 2.1 Infill of stream channel L2 Ferrous slag (63g) 4.3 Tertiary infill of enclosure L4 Antler cheek-piece (RA4; Fig. 13); flint blade (RA5); worked flint (10g) 5.2 Main infill of enclosure L5 Quern-stone fragment (RA17; Fig. 13); clay pipe stem (3g) 5.3 Tertiary infill of enclosure L5 Iron object (RA16) 6.2 Main infill of enclosure L6 Ceramic loom-weight (RA14; Fig. 13) 7.2 Main infill of enclosure L7 Iron horseshoe (RA1); worked flint (14g) 3 10.1 Primary infill of processing area L10 Iron nail (RA10) 10.2 Secondary infill of processing area L10 Iron nails (RAs 12, 13, 24); millstone fragment (RA19) 11.2 Main infill of trackway L11 Quern-stone fragments (RA20) 4 12.2 Main infill of sunken-featured building L12 Iron nail (RA3) 6 2.2 Secondary infill of stream channel L2 Worked flint (3g) 14.1 Infill of ditched enclosure L14 Copper alloy belt buckle (RA2) 18.1 Infill of ditched enclosure L18 Iron nails (RAs 9, 18); vessel glass (365g); clay pipe stem (1g) 7 2.3 Final infill of stream channel L2 Iron nail (RA11); vessel glass (7g); clay pipe stem (1g) 15 Ditched enclosure Clay pipe stem ×2 (2g) 15.1 Infill of ditched enclosure L15 Iron nails (RAs 6, 8, 21, 23); iron bolt (RA22); clay pipe stem ×7 (40g); copper alloy wire-wound headed pin (RA7); vessel glass (907g); worked flint (4g) 16.1 Infill of ditched enclosure L16 Iron nail (RA15)

Table 4: Summary of registered artefacts and non-ceramic bulk artefacts 30 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Figure 13: Selected artefacts: beehive rotary quern (RA17), antler cheek-piece (RA4) and loom-weight (RA14)

Discussion of a medieval horseshoe and post-medieval vessel glass, clay tobacco pipes, a belt buckle and a copper alloy pin. The small size of the assemblage allows only limited conclusions to be drawn regarding the character and date of activity Fasteners and fittings at the site. Typologically datable artefacts are indicative of Nineteen incomplete iron timber nails were recovered from Iron Age, Romano-British, medieval and post-medieval features of Romano-British, Saxo-Norman, medieval and activity, and compare broadly with the date ranges provided post-medieval date. All have flat, rounded, square or rectan- by the more prolific pottery assemblage. The residual worked gular heads and tapering rectangular-sectioned shanks, and flints are indicative of limited early prehistoric presence in are likely to represent general-purpose carpentry nails. The the vicinity, whilst the Iron Age and Roman artefacts attest lack of typological variation between nails through all periods to settled occupation, with evidence for domestic activities, means they are generally only datable by association with grain processing and weaving. Perhaps the most interesting other artefacts. Ten examples derived from drying oven G69 object is the antler cheek-piece (RA4, Fig. 13), which is one and sunken, stone-lined structure G49, L10 (Phase 3). The of the finest examples of this artefact type recovered to date in lengths of the more complete examples range from 75mm Bedfordshire. Post-Roman activity is attested by the presence to 84mm, suggesting these may be Manning Type 1B nails EVIDENCE FOR MULTI-PERIOD ACTIVITY AT THE FORMER BRIDGMAN JOINERY WORKS 31

(1985, 134), usually the prevalent form on Romano-British channel L2 yielded an undiagnostic lump of ferrous slag, sites. Two examples have clenched tips, indicating use. A weighing 63g. Its appearance suggests it may be a residue single nail derived from the Saxon sunken-featured building from the smithing process, although this cannot be demon- L12, two examples from medieval enclosure L18 and six strated with any certainty. examples from post-medieval enclosures L16 and L15. The latter also yielded an incomplete iron bolt with screw threads RA14 G6.1, L6.2, Phase 2, Fig. 13. Ceramic loom-weight. Complete pyramidal loom-weight with square base and top and central perforation. Fine buff (RA22), of 19th-century or later date, which may be intrusive. sandy fabric. Height 79mm, weight 254g.

Household items Personal Items Pieces of two quern-stones (RAs 17, 20) and a millstone An incomplete post-medieval cast copper alloy belt buckle (RA19) were identified. Approximately half an upper stone (RA2) was an intrusive find in medieval enclosure ditch G26, from a beehive rotary quern (RA17, Fig. 13) was recovered L14. An incomplete copper alloy wire-wound-headed pin from the main infill of late Iron Age/early Romano-British (RA7) of 16th–17th-century date was recovered from post- pit G30, L5.2. The object is made from quartz conglomerate, medieval pit G45, L15.1. Such pins were used for fixing likely to derive from the Forest of Dean, Gloucestershire. women’s headdress and generally for securing clothes, as ‘Beehive’ querns represent the earliest type of rotary querns, well as for pinning papers and other sewing uses (Biddle and introduced during the Iron Age as a successor to the saddle Barclay 1990, 560). quern (Watts 2002, 27; Eagles and Evison 1970, fig. 10), Ten pieces of clay tobacco pipe stem (43g) derived from before being superseded by flat rotary forms following the post-medieval enclosure ditch L15 and the final infilling of Roman conquest (Buckley and Major 1990, 117). RA20 the stream channel L2.3. Two small fragments, each weighing comprises abraded, undiagnostic quern fragments manufac- less than 3g, were intrusive finds in medieval enclosure ditch tured from imported lava, originating from either the Mayen L18 and late Iron Age/early Romano-British enclosure L5. quarries of Germany or from French lava outcrops found Measurement of stem thickness and bore diameter suggests a near Volvic (King 1986, 94). The fragments derived from the 17th–18th-century date for the artefacts. Romano-British trackway ditches G10, L11.2. Their association with Roman pottery suggests they may be of similar date, RA2 G26.1, L14.1, Phase 6. Copper alloy belt buckle. Complete bar and although this cannot be demonstrated with any certainty. partial frame from a cast D-shaped (?) buckle. Width 27.9mm. The infill of sunken, stone-lined structure G49, L10.2, RA7 G45.1, L15.1, Phase 7. Copper alloy pin. Wire-wound head moulded yielded a portion of millstone. The object is made from coarse into a spherical shape (diameter 1.6mm), circular-sectioned drawn-wire Millstone Grit, likely to derive from the Pennines (King 1986, shank (diameter 1.1mm). Tip missing. Length 26.4mm. 86). The association of RA19 with an area of agricultural processing is of interest: circumstantial evidence for the use Horse equipment of drying ovens to prepare grain not just for storage, but also The tertiary fill of Phase 2 enclosure ditch G2, L4.3, yielded for milling is provided by the frequency with which Roman an incomplete antler cheek-piece (RA4, Fig. 13), for use millstones and querns occur in their vicinity (Morris 1979, 18; with a leather bit. Similar cheek-pieces are known from the Watts 2002, 62). This is demonstrated locally at Haynes Park, prehistoric period onwards in both Europe and Asia (Roes where four querns or millstones were found within 20m of a 1960, 68–72). Comparable Roman examples of mid to late drying oven (Luke and Shotliff 2004, 120). 1st-century date are known from excavations in Colchester, Sixty-three vessel glass sherds (1.2kg) were recovered Essex (Crummy 1983, 105; fig. 109/2538; Crummy 1992, from features assigned to Phases 6 and 7, in particular post- 223; fig. 6.22/201), and at Dragonby, Lincolnshire, (Taylor medieval ditch G54, L15.1, which contained fifty-three and May 1996, 359–60; fig. 14.9/114). A portion of iron fragments. The majority comprise wine bottle body and base horseshoe branch (RA1) datable from the mid-14th century sherds, broadly datable to the 17th–18th centuries. The rim, onwards was an intrusive find in late Iron Age/early Romano- neck and part of the shoulder of a pale green glass flask or British enclosure ditch G8, L7.2. phial of similar date were also identified. The glass survives in variable condition, although most sherds are iridescent and RA1 G8.2, L7.2, Phase 2. Iron horseshoe. Portion of a branch, broken both ends; one rectangular nail hole with remains of nail in situ. Heavily corroded. laminating to some degree. Length 80.2mm, width 29mm.

RA17 G30.2, L5.2, Phase 2, Fig. 13. Rotary quern fragment. Quartz conglom- RA4 G2.3, L4.3, Phase 2, Fig. 13. Antler cheek-piece. Tapering, hollowed erate. Approximately half an upper stone of beehive type. Flat-topped with antler fragment, with a 7mm-diameter drilled perforation completely piercing a ‘waisted’ feed pipe, asymmetrically positioned. Smooth, worn grinding the piece and set 17mm from the widest end. This would have functioned to surface with a depression round the bottom of the feed pipe, probably to anchor the reins and mouthpiece. The other side of the perforation has an assist the movement of grain outwards. Diameter c. 295mm, height 150mm. inset section, around which cut marks are visible. A second perforation of similar diameter is drilled at the top of the widest edge. The object is broken RA19 G49.3, L10.2, Phase 3. Millstone fragment. Millstone Grit. Portion towards the narrower end, and appears to be well polished, possibly the result from centre retaining part of spindle perforation; underside roughly dressed. of wear. Length 86.5mm, maximum diameter 22.7mm. The object is plugged Thickness at spindle 135mm. with a small hollow antler or bone ‘insert’ which has a drilled central perforation c. 6mm in diameter, and may have been intended to strengthen the larger RA20 G10.2, L11.2, Phase 3. Lava quern fragments. Seven pieces retaining piece. Length of insert 37.9mm, maximum diameter 12.1mm. no diagnostic traits or surfaces. Weight 61g. Worked flint Crafts and Industry The flint assemblage comprises seven flakes and two blades, The fill of Phase 2 enclosure ditch G6, L6.2, yielded a weighing 36g. One flake is possibly notched, and one of the complete ceramic, pyramidal loom-weight (RA14, Fig. 13), blades (RA5) is retouched. The flints survive in good condi- datable to the Romano-British period. The object would have tion, are of ‘fresh’ appearance and are well struck. One blade been used to tension the warp on a vertical warp-weighted is entirely patinated. The raw material appears to be gravel- loom during the weaving process. The Phase 2 infill of stream derived. All are residual, occurring in features containing Iron 32 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Age and later material, the majority deriving from Phase 2 Phase enclosure ditch G2, L4.3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Cattle 112 4 12 9 2 38 Sheep/goat 1 86 1 27 4 2 15 ANIMAL BONE Sheep 6 1 2 (1) James Rackham Pig 31 42 16 2 16 Horse 26 (1) 2 9 Quantification and preservation Dog 1 2 8 (1) Dog/fox Cat 1 During the identification and cataloguing of the assemblage, Carnivore 1 3 multiple pieces of the same bone or a partial skeleton were Red deer 1 noted as a single record. This has resulted in 1,009 bones’ Rabbit 1 being recorded from an assemblage of 1,823 bone fragments. Chicken 6 1 Goose 2 The majority of the material is reasonably well preserved, Unid. bird 1 1 with only a few bones, particularly those from Phase 1, Field vole 5 1 2 showing evidence of erosion and pitting. Water vole/rat 1 Vole 1 House mouse 2 Mouse 3 1 Provenance Rodent 2 1 2 1 Shrew 1 1 1 Although the bone concentrations were not particularly Frog/toad 5 2 1 5 3 high, material was recovered from deposits in all the phases Unidentified 29 1 23 4 4 (Table 5). However, the bulk of the material derives from the late Iron Age/early Romano-British period (Phase 2). Within Table 5: Animal species by phase (fragment count), both this phase, cattle are the most common species, closely hand-collected and sieved followed by sheep/goat. It also has the highest proportion of horse bones from all periods. In the early–middle Saxon Sheep/goat and Saxo-Norman (Phases 4 and 5) periods, pigs are more In contrast to the cattle bones, several of the sheep bones numerous than the other species. By the post-medieval from Phase 2 and Phase 4 (early–middle Saxon) derive from period (Phase 7) cattle have again become dominant in the animals slaughtered while juvenile or immature. An imma- bone assemblage. ture sheep skeleton was also buried in post-medieval pit G45. A few small fish (see below) and bird bones were recovered Unfused epiphyses are more common on the sheep bones than from Phases 3 and 5. While the bird bones may be derived fused epiphyses, and include a number of lamb bones. The from natural deaths, the small fishes are likely to be dietary limited data suggests a particularly high immature slaughter waste. in the Saxon period. In contrast to the cattle, the sheep jaws show a dominance of adults and young adults represented in the assemblage; only two of the twelve Phase 2 loose teeth Species present and jaws indicate immature sheep. These contradictions between the post-cranial bones and The identified species are listed in Table 5. Ovicaprid the dentitions make interpretation of the data particularly remains were recorded as sheep/goat throughout except difficult. However, the younger sheep cull suggests that meat where horn cores were recorded. No bones identifiable as and milk may have been more important than wool, while goat are present. Among the species, cattle remains are traction and breeding stock may have had importance for the the most abundant, followed by sheep/goat, pig, horse and cattle. dog. Of these, partial skeletons of horse, sheep and dog were identified. The small size of the assemblage has only Horse allowed general conclusions to be drawn about the species Thirty-six fragments of horse were identified, the majority representation in each period. of which derived from late Iron Age/early Romano-British features. All the horse bones appear to derive from adults Cattle except one unfused humerus shaft from a small foal, which Cattle bones are the most commonly identified species in indicates that the occupants were breeding horses on the site. all the phases, with the exception of the Saxon period. The No butchery marks were observed on the bones, although most epiphyseal data indicates that the Phase 2 (late Iron Age/early are fairly fragmented. The horses are therefore most likely to Romano-British) cattle bones derive primarily from adult have been used for riding or traction, with no evidence that animals, although one bone indicates an immature beast. Only they were eaten. in the post-medieval assemblage are bones of calf present. In contrast, several jaw fragments with partial dentitions show Pig that young and immature animals were slaughtered in the late Pig was found in all phases except 1 and 3. They are consistent Iron Age/early Romano-British period. At least 30% of the with their traditional role as meat producers, showing a young sample is from immature or younger animals, and at least two and immature age profile in both the late Iron Age/early calves are represented. The sample size prohibits comment Romano-British and early–middle Saxon periods, with only on the later phases. The adult cattle from Phase 2 were prob- one adult female among the bones and teeth. ably used for draught, breeding, meat and hides, although The highest percentage of pig bones was recovered from the proportion of immature animals indicates slaughter of the early–middle Saxon sunken-featured building L12, indi- younger stock for meat. cating that by this period pigs had become the most numerous EVIDENCE FOR MULTI-PERIOD ACTIVITY AT THE FORMER BRIDGMAN JOINERY WORKS 33 of the domestic animals. The limited evidence suggests this CHARRED PLANT REMAINS pattern continued into the Saxo-Norman period. Gemma Martin

Dog Discussion The majority of the dog bones were recovered from deposits dated to the early medieval period (Phase 6) or later. Most of Phase 2: Late Iron Age/early Romano-British the bones were associated with partial skeletons. An adult dog The cultivated species identified are typical of the late Iron skeleton was found in post-medieval ditch G55, while part Age/early Romano-British period, with frequent occurrences of a modern dog skeleton and a fox or small dog were also of spelt wheat and hulled (six-row) barley, and traces of identified. emmer wheat (Table 7). A small number of oats were observed in ecofact samples 5, 9 and 31 from enclosures L4 and L6. Domestic Fowl These two enclosures, along with pits and a ditch within L5, Nine bones were identified as belonging to domestic fowl. contained sufficient material to characterise the composition The occurrence of goose bones in the Saxon sunken-featured of the assemblages, and it seems that there are generally more building is consistent with other assemblages of this date. weed seeds to cereal grain and very little chaff. These remains The earliest chicken remains come from the Saxo-Norman may represent cleaning residues, although the quantities of assemblage. grain recovered from enclosure L4 and nearby pit G33 are underestimated due to the high proportions of semi-quantified Wild species fragmented grain. If this is the case, the cereal component A fragmented antler beam of red deer was recovered from could in reality outnumber the weed seeds, which suggests one of the late Neolithic/early Bronze Age pits. Frog/toad was that activities associated with crop processing were taking identified in the majority of the phase assemblages, and bones place within the vicinity of enclosure L4. of various rodents were also found. Bones of house mouse Samples from pit G30 (L5) contained small archaeobot- were found in ecofact samples taken from the late Iron Age/ anical assemblages, with the cereal components primarily early Romano-British pits G30 and G32 (Phase 2). consisting of fragmented grain, with a little wheat and slightly more barley. They produced the greatest concentration of chaff from the Phase 2 samples, mostly that of a glume FISH BONE wheat species such as emmer or spelt. In addition, the assem- Alison Locker blage contains two fragments of hazelnut shell likely to be food residues, whilst the small numbers of identifiable weed A few small fish bones were recovered from late Iron Age/ seeds include goosefoots, black bindweed, docks, and small early Romano-British and Saxo-Norman deposits (Phases 2 leguminous seeds. It would appear that pit G30 was receiving and 5). All of the bones were recovered from ecofact samples. domestic waste, including some crop-processing residues, Identified species include eel (Anguilla anguilla), herring although the densities are too low to allow the reconstruction (Clupea harengus), pike (Esox lucius), dace (Leuciscus of the activities related to crop processing or food production. leuciscus), Cyprinidae and perch (Perca fluviatilis) (Table 6). Pits G32 contained concentrations of fragmented grain The herring vertebra in Sample 3 has been burnt black. All similar to those found in the ditch fills of enclosure L4, the fish bones are small, the largest being from an eel basioc- although with more identifiable barley to wheat grains, as cipital from a fish of approximately 40cm (after Libois et al. well as seemingly more weeds to grain. Large numbers of 1987). Dace was identified from a very small pharyngeal in Chenopodiaceae (goosefoots/oraches), some knotgrass, black Sample 13 and perch (tentatively) from a very small vertebra bindweed and dock (possible sheep’s sorrel), small grasses close to the tail in Sample 39. and vetch/pea characterise the weed assemblage. These may The late Iron Age/early Romano-British samples contained constitute cleaning residues from the final stages of crop freshwater fish such as eel, pike (a small individual), perch processing which were discarded into the pits after burning; and cyprinids that could have been caught in local rivers, they represent further evidence for domestic activity. streams and ponds. In the Saxo-Norman samples, the pres- Samples from the ditch termini in enclosure L6 contained ence of herring, as well as freshwater cyprinids, indicates an assemblage that could be derived from the later or final contact and trade with coastal areas. stages of crop processing. It is dominated by wheat, including spelt wheat, with a greater ratio of weed seeds to grain, and only traces of wheat chaff. The weed seed assemblage is dominated by Chenopodiaceae (including oraches) as well as a high number of black bindweed. The former are species that tend to be associated with the fine-sieved residues from Phase 2 2 5 5 5 5 processing grain prior to storage or final processing for food L No. 4 5 22 22 22 22 Group 2.3 30.1 41.2 41.1 41.2 53.1 preparation. In contrast, the larger seeds that are similar in Sample 5 39 3 6 10 13 Total size to the prime grain, such as black bindweed, tend to be Eel 1 1 picked out by hand from the final cleaned product, possibly Herring 1 1 1 3 on a piecemeal basis prior to immediate preparation for Pike 1 1 consumption (Van der Veen, 1989). Dace 1 1 Cyprinid 1 2 3 Perch 1 1 Phase 3: Romano-British Indet. 1 2 1 1 3 8 Ecofact samples were taken from drying oven G69, sunken Total 3 2 3 3 2 5 18 stone-lined structure G49 and possible processing feature G78 (Table 8). Unfortunately, the samples from G78 were Table 6: Fish bones identified in ecofact samples partially contaminated with the first flot (<1ml) of sample 41 34 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

L No. 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 4 9 9 Group 30.1 30.2 30.2 32.1 32.2 5.1 5.2 5.2 5.2 6.1 6.1 33.1 2.3 9.0 9.1 Sample number 39 38 37 8 7 30 31 32 35 36 9 1 5 34 33 Cereals Triticum spelta L. spelt wheat 4 16 13 10 T. cf. spelta spelt wheat? 1 10 T. dicoccum/spelta emmer/spelt wheat 1 Triticum sp(p). wheat 3 4 2 7 2 13 14 22 8 cf. Triticum sp(p). wheat? 3 Hordeum vulgare L. (hulled) six-row hulled barley 1 7 3 1 1 Hordeum spp. L. (hulled) hulled barley 5 15 1 31 14 9 Hordeum spp. barley 7 2 2 4 4 6 3 cf. Hordeum sp. barley? 3 4 2 Avena sp(p). oat 4 2 2 Cerealia indet. 2 4 2 3 6 2 detached coleoptiles cereal frags >2mm 17 31 34 44 3 22 1 79 115 71 3 15 cereal frags <2mm* ** * **** * **** **** Cereal chaff Triticum spelta glume bases 1 2 T. cf. spelta glume bases 2 T. cf. dicoccum glumes bases 1 Triticum sp(p). glume bases 3 1 10 3 1 4 1 1 Triticum sp. rachis — free-threshing Hordeum sp(p). rachis 1 Wild species Ranunculus sp. buttercup-type 1 Chenopodium sp(p). goosefoots 2 1 1 12 1 2 1 5 2 Atriplex sp(p.) oraches 39 84 3 3 Chenopodiceae goosefoot family 30 1 64 Stellaria media (L.) Vill. common chickweed 1 7 Persicaria sp(p). knotweed 2 cf. Persicaria sp. knotweed? 1 Polygonum aviculare agg. knotgrass 2 5 Polygonum spp. knotgrass type 2 1 Fallopia convolvulus (L.) A. black bindweed 2 5 40 6 Love Rumex cf. acetosella L. sheep’s sorrel? 1 Rumex sp(p.) docks 2 2 1 1 2 3 4 cf. Brassica sp. cabbage/mustard type? 1 Vicia/Lathyrus/Pisum spp. 0.5 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 (2–4mm) Vicia/Lathyrus spp. (<2mm) 2 4 0.5 3 0.5 1 1 9 Medicago/Trifolium spp. medick/trefoil 6 Fabiaceae indet. small indet. legumes 1 1 2 2 Galium aparine L. cleavers 1 Bromus sp. brome 1 1 Poaceae indet. small indet. grasses 1 1 3 2 1 2 2 indet. 7 3 1 1 16 3 2 3 15 1 13 1 Type A’ seed not formally identified 11 5 Other indet. fruit stone frags (with charred attached flesh) 3 1 Corylus avellana L. hazelnut shell frags 1 1 Other plant remains** Amorphous organic material charred fruit flesh? + Total 45 24 22 4 159.5 8.5 70 4 5.5 19 281.5 48 94 3 10 Grain (excluding fragments) 15 10 7 0 41 3 59 1 2 5 56 41 38 3 4 Cereal chaff 4 1 10 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 7 0 4 0 1 Weed seeds 26 13 5 4 115.5 5.5 11 3 3.5 13 218.5 7 52 0 5 Ratio 1 (glumes:glume wheat emmer/spelt wheat — — — — 0.30 — — — — — 0.38 — 0.40 — — grain) Ratio 3 (weed:grain) — — — — 2.82 — 0.19 — — — 3.90 — 1.37 — — Total quantified items per litre 2.25 1.33 1.10 1.33 8.86 0.53 3.89 0.22 0.31 1.06 15.64 5.33 3.13 0.17 0.50

*frequency: 1=1–10; 2=11–50; 3=51–150; 4=151–250 **abundance: +=present; ++=common; +++=abundant; s= sprouted grain Table 7: Frequency of charred plant remains from Phase 2 samples EVIDENCE FOR MULTI-PERIOD ACTIVITY AT THE FORMER BRIDGMAN JOINERY WORKS 35 from G49. The three samples from the primary and tertiary chaff appears chiefly to have been associated with the tertiary fills of G49 were also cross-contaminated. Despite this, it has fills of G49 and G78. The chaff is exclusively that of glume been possible to gain some meaningful information from these wheat species, with rachis and glume bases of spelt positively botanical assemblages. The two samples from G49.3 have identified, as well as rachis of emmer and possible emmer been considered together, with caution. Part of the flot from glume bases. G49.1 remained uncontaminated, although it is incomplete. The weed seed assemblages are small, and, when taking The cereal grain assemblages predominantly consist of into account the quantities of fragmented grain present spelt, which are conspicuously concentrated in the tertiary in most of the deposits, there is consistently more grain to fills of drying oven G69. Wheat grains, identified as possible weed seeds, particularly in the tertiary fills of drying oven emmer wheat, are also confined to these fills, as are traces G69. This suggests that most of the crop contaminants had of oat. Barley forms a very minor component of the cereal already been removed by sieving, including the larger seeds assemblages, with traces present in sunken stone-lined struc- similar in size to the prime grain. Small numbers of seeds ture G49 and again in drying oven G69. A small proportion of common fumitory, large grasses (including those identi- of the spelt grains from G49 and possible processing feature fied as ‘oat/grass’) and docks, which are similar in size to the G78 are germinated. In addition, small numbers of preserved cereal grains, may represent contaminants persisting in the detached coleoptiles (sprouted embryos) were noted in G49 grain, which are normally removed by hand during the final and G78, while none were recorded from G69. stages of cleaning. Goosefoots/oraches, common chickweed, While the bulk of the cereal grain was concentrated in the black bindweed, small leguminous seeds and small indeter- tertiary fills of drying oven G69, the majority of the cereal minate grasses were present in the fills of sunken stone-lined

Group 49.1 49.3 49.3 78.3 78.3 69.2 69.2 69.3 69.3 Sample number 43 41 42 40 40/41 26 29 27 28 Cereals Triticum spelta L. spelt wheat 6 10 (3s) 14 (8s) 2s 846 453 T. cf. spelta spelt wheat? 2 5 2 102 46 T. cf. dicoccum (schrank.) Schubl. emmer wheat? 40 12 Triticum sp(p). wheat 1 22 1 28 53 cf. Triticum sp(p). wheat? 10 Hordeum spp. barley 1 cf. Hordeum sp. barley? 1 4 Avena sp(p). oat 6 Avena/Poaceae oat/grass 16 Cerealia indet. 7 28 detached coleoptiles 3 3 12 cereal frags >2mm 34 34 24 4 79 25 ***** ***** cereal frags <2mm* ** *** ** **** *** ***** ***** Cereal chaff Triticum spelta glume bases 56 20 179 13 36 3 T. spelta rachis 9 5 16 T. cf. dicoccum glumes bases 54 19 17 3 1 T. cf. dicoccum rachis 2 4 Triticum sp(p). glume bases 1 316 142 197 40 2 24 4 chaff frags* ** ** ** * * Wild species Fumaria officinalis L. common fumitory 1 Chenopodium album L. fat hen 1 4 Chenopodiceae goosefoot family 5 Stellaria media (L.) Vill. common chickweed 1 Caryphyllaceae pink family 1 1 Fallopia convolvulus (L.) A. Love black bindweed 2 Rumex sp(p.) docks 1 2 1 Vicia/Lathyrus/Pisum spp. (2–4mm) 1 Vicia/Lathyrus spp. (<2mm) 1 Fabiaceae indet. small indet. legume seeds 1 5 cf. Sheradia arvensis L. field madder? 1 1 Galium aparine L. cleavers 1 Poaceae grasses 6 Poaceae indet. small indet grasses 16 1 5 3 1 indet. 7 1 2 3 1 frags* * * Total 2 496 199 448 83 11 3 1142 582 Grain (excluding fragments) 1 29 7 14 5 6 2 1074 570 Cereal chaff 1 437 186 413 56 2 0 60 8 Weed seeds 0 27 3 9 22 3 1 8 4 Ratio 1 (glumes:glume wheat grain) emmer/spelt wheat — 71.00 18.10 28.07 14.00 — — 0.06 0.02 Ratio 3 (weed:grain) — 0.93 0.43 0.64 4.40 — — 0.01 0.01 Total quantified items per litre 0.50 55.11 22.11 49.78 9.22 3.67 0.33 114.20 32.33

*frequency: 1=1–10; 2=11–50; 3=51–150; 4=151–250 **abundance: +=present; ++=common; +++=abundant; s= sprouted grain Table 8: Frequency of charred plant remains from samples associated with structures in Phase 3 crop-processing area L10 36 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY structure G49 and possible processing feature G78, and may analysis was undertaken to assess the character of fuel used represent fine-sieved residues, again from the final stages of in the Romano-British drying oven, and the economic use crop processing. of woodland resources in both phases. Ecofact samples 27 The compositions of the major crop constituents from and 29 were taken from the Phase 3 drying oven G69, while G49 or G78, although principally derived from the tertiary samples 3 and 15 were from the Phase 5 pits G41 and G42. fills, suggest that they were not drying ovens. Their assem- The results are shown in Table 10 and are discussed by phase blages appear to have derived from fine-sieving undertaken below. to remove the glumes and remaining small weed seeds. The assemblages probably derive from the intentional burning of the waste product from the final processing of the crop, while Discussion the grain rich assemblage from G69 is more typical of the accidental burning of a crop being dried in the drying oven. Phase 3: Romano-British Samples 27 and 28 were obtained from the upper infill of the Phase 4: Early–middle Saxon flue and stokehole of drying oven G69. They show a strong Sample 2 was taken from the sunken-featured building G21. preference for oak (Quercus sp.) and ash (Fraxinus excelsior) The Saxon period saw an important transition in the types of to fire the oven and include fast-grown sapwood. The structure crops cultivated, from wheat crops dominated by spelt in the of a larger fragment in sample 28 is consistent with origins late Iron Age and Romano-British periods, to bread wheat. from wider round-wood, i.e. more than 50mm in diameter. This is reflected in the assemblage from the primary fill of the sunken-featured building, with bread wheat type, hulled Phase 5: Saxo-Norman barley and oats present. The trace of chaff of a glume wheat Samples 3 and 15, obtained from pits G41 and G42, included species (such as emmer or spelt) is anomalous and may be the two largest deposits of charcoal. Sample 3, the larger residual or re-worked, or perhaps reflects some residual mate- of the two, consists almost entirely of narrow round-wood, rial in the seed corn. Remains of spelt or emmer wheat rarely predominantly hazel (Corylus avellana) but also field maple occur in Saxon or later deposits, as it does not seem to have (Acer campestre), ash (Fraxinus excelsior), the hawthorn/ continued to be cultivated much beyond the Romano-British Sorbus group (Pomoideae), blackthorn (Prunus spinosa) and period. oak (Quercus sp.). The more intact fragments of hazel stem are nine and eleven years of age. Growth rates were rather Phase 5: Saxo-Norman variable and not particularly characteristic of coppice growth. The samples taken from pits L22 show a definite change from Thin fragments of bark are also present. spelt wheat to bread wheat type and the introduction of rye, typical of the Saxo-Norman period. Hulled barley (including six-row barley) and oats are present in varying quantities, POLLEN although wheat is the most dominant (Table 9). Despite the Rob Scaife absence of the diagnostic chaff, it is likely that the oats were cultivated. Pits G37 produced the lowest density of remains, Introduction and methodology suggesting that the intensity of domestic activity was not great, and activities relating to crop processing, storage or Pollen analysis was carried out on the sediment fills of stream consumption associated with G37 were sparse. channel L2 (Fig. 4), which was sampled by a hand-auger. In contrast, the samples from G41 were the richest and The core sequence is shown in Table 11. The pollen samples contained a large, apparently clean, mixed grain assemblage were taken at 5cm intervals through the basal 30cm of this dominated by bread wheat type, but also containing hazelnut sequence; a sample was also taken from the basal few centi- shell and the probable remains of fruit. The assemblages indi- metres of the slightly organic silts at 62–79cm for radiocarbon cate that domestic waste from different activities was being dating. deposited within the features. Also present are field gromwell and stinking chamomile, which are both frequently associated with arable land. Other species identified occur in small Discussion (Table 12) numbers and broadly indicate open waste ground or grassy areas, whilst the legumes identified as ‘vetch/pea’ may also The basal fills of the stream channel were dated by radio- be crop contaminants. carbon determination to the early Romano-British period: Pits G42 and G53 contained mostly wheat, including AD10–140 (Beta 228370, 1920±40BP). A diverse range of bread type, with barley and oats in small amounts. No cereal taxa were identified in the pollen, dominated by herbs, with chaff was recovered, and the small weed assemblages of few trees and shrubs. The dominant herb types are grassland/ goosefoots, vetches/peas, small leguminous seeds and inde- pasture and include Poaceae (grasses), with Ranunculus type terminate grasses provide extremely limited economic or (buttercups) and Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain) also ecological information. important. Evidence of arable agriculture comes from cereal pollen, with occasional herbs which may come from arable/ disturbed ground. CHARCOAL On-site vegetation is represented in the sediments from the Rowena Gale stream channel, and marsh plants include Cyperaceae (sedges; 10–15%), Typha angustifolia/Sparganium type (bur reed and/ Introduction or reed mace; peak to 28%), Iris and Alisma (water plantain). The only fully aquatic taxon present is Lemna (duckweed). A small assemblage of charcoal was recovered from Romano- Only a very small numbers of trees and shrubs are present, British and Saxo-Norman features (Phases 3 and 5). Charcoal including Betula (birch), Pinus (pine), Quercus (oak), Alnus EVIDENCE FOR MULTI-PERIOD ACTIVITY AT THE FORMER BRIDGMAN JOINERY WORKS 37

Phase 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L No. 12 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 Group 21.1 37.2 37.3 37.3 41.1 41.2 41.2 42.2 53.1 Sample number 2 12 11 14 6 10 3 15 13 Cereals T. cf. spelta spelt wheat? 20 T. aestivum sl. bread-type wheat 2 1 65 6 136 4 9 T. cf. aestivum sl. bread-type wheat? 3 54 4 Triticum sp(p). wheat 2 3 1 1 1 87 5 Triticum/Hordeum spp. wheat/barley sp. 3 3 H. vulgare L. (hulled) six-row hulled barley 11 Hordeum spp. L. (hulled) hulled barley 3 12 69 Hordeum spp. barley 13 98 1 cf. Hordeum sp. barley? 3 19 1 Avena sp(p). oat 3 5 2 22 3 cf. Avena sp. oat? 5 21 Secale cereale L. rye 22 cf. S. cereale L. rye? 4 4 1 Cerealia indet. 2 2 34 3 3 cereal frags >2mm 13 8 4 65 251 32 620 21 26 cereal frags <2mm* ** **** ** ***** *** **** Cereal chaff Triticum sp(p). glume bases 2 1 Triticum sp. rachis — free-threshing 2 1 2 Hordeum sp(p). rachis 4 cf. Secale cereale rachis 2 chaff frags* * * Wild species Chenopodium sp(p). goosefoots 2 1 2 3 2 1 Chenopodiceae goosefoot family 2 Silene sp. campion 1 Fallopia convolvulus (L.) A. Love black bindweed 1 Fumaria officinalis L. common fumitory 1 Rumex sp(p.) docks 4 1 3 cf. Rumex sp. dock? 2 cf. Malva sp. mallow? 2 Vicia/Lathyrus/Pisum spp. (>4mm) vetches/pea 1 Vicia/Lathyrus/Pisum spp. (2–4mm) 7.5 1.5 6 1 2 Vicia/Lathyrus spp. (<2mm) 7 2 2 Medicago/Trifolium spp. medick/trefoil 2 Fabiaceae indet. small indet. legumes 1 2 Lithospermum arvense field gromwell 11 Plantago lanceolata L. ribwort plantain 1 5 Anthemis cotula L. stinking chamomile 1 5 4 Centaurea sp. knapweed 1 Compositae indet. daisy family 1 Carex spp. sedges 3 Cyperaceae sedge family 1 Poaceae grasses 3 3 Poaceae indet. small indet. grasses 5 1 3 2 3 3 indet. 1 2 10 10 10 2 frags* * ** * Other Pomoideae pear/apple/whitebeam 6 Corylus avellana L. hazelnut shell frags 1 2 1 indet. nut frags 1 Other plant remains** Amorphous organic material charred fruit flesh? + Total 18 16 7 2 155.5 38.5 667 27 24 Grain (excluding fragments) 13 3 4 1 107 14 597 17 20 Cereal chaff 2 0 0 1 2 1 8 0 0 Weed seeds 3 13 3 0 46.5 23.5 62 10 4 Ratio 2 (rachis:free-threshing grain) barley — — — — — 0.36 — — Ratio 2 (rachis:free-threshing grain) bread-type wheat — — — 0.03 — 0.01 — — Ratio 3 (weed:grain) — — — 0.43 — 0.10 — — Total quantified items per litre 0.6 0.53 0.23 0.07 3.89 2.03 83.38 1.35 1.20

*frequency: 1=1–10; 2=11–50; 3=51–150; 4=151–250 **abundance: +=present; ++=common; +++=abundant; s= sprouted grain Table 9: Frequency of charred plant remains in the Phase 4 and Phase 5 samples 38 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Phase 3 3 5 5 Romano-British period. The assemblage from the Phase 4 L No. 10 10 22 22 sunken-featured building L12 would suggest that this open Group 69.3 69.3 41.2 42.2 environment continued on into the early Saxon period. Sample 27 28 3 15 In the Saxo-Norman period, ecofact samples 11 and 12 Acer — — 1 3 taken from the secondary and tertiary fills of pits G37 suggest Corylus — — 13r cf. 3 a change in the local environment between these two fills. Fraxinus 14 22 1r — Pomoideae — — 4r 2 The secondary fill G37.2 might indicate a period of shrub Prunus — — 1 — and woodland regeneration in middle to late Saxon times. Its Quercus 15s — 1h 1h, 2s/r assemblage is dominated by woodland taxa, with Carychium Total 3 2 3 3 tridentatum abundant and Discus rotundatus and shells of Vitrea sp. frequent. The unquantified assemblage from the Key: h=heartwood; r=round-wood (diameter <20mm); s=sapwood (diameter unknown) tertiary fill, in contrast, contains a fauna indicating open grassland, with only one woodland taxon represented. This Table 10: Charcoal in Phase 3 and Phase 5 samples suggests a change from scrub or woodland habitat to an open environment, although the evidence for a previously open Depth (cm) Description Material environment in the Saxon period suggests that this results may be anomalous. 0–20 Iron-mottled, grey, slightly sandy silty colluvium clay 20–24 small calcareous stones in sandy clay colluvium matrix DISCUSSION 24–32 Yellow-mottled bluish grey silty clay alluvium — Mike Luke and Tracy Preece, incorporating the conclusions overbank flooding? and opinions of all contributors 32–50 bluish grey slightly sandy silts with shell stream silts fragments 50–62 dark grey silts stream silts Despite some disturbance from the buildings and infrastruc- 62–79 dark grey slightly organic sandy silt stream silts ture of the Bridgman Joinery Works, archaeological evidence 79–80 calcareous yellow sandy gravel channel floor for six chronological periods of human activity was recovered. The earliest evidence is from the late Neolithic/early Bronze Table 11: Core sequence from stream channel L2 Age (Phase 1), although the first definite settlement was established during the late Iron Age/early Romano-British period (alder) and Corylus avellana type (most probably hazel). (Phase 2). The nature and distribution of activity during the Ferns are poorly represented, with only occasional Equisetum Romano-British (Phase 3), early–middle Saxon (Phase 4), (horsetail), Pteridium aquilinum (bracken), Dryopteris type Saxo-Norman (Phase 5), medieval (Phase 6) and post-medieval (typical ferns) and Polypodium (polypody fern). (Phase 7) periods suggest that the site was on the periphery of The pollen record is consistent with the Romano-British settlement foci located outside the investigation area at those date obtained from the base of the stream channel. The envi- times. For the later periods, the main area of settlement would ronment was open and agricultural, with no evidence for local have been adjacent to the present-day High Street. woodland or even shrubs or hedgerows. However, the pres- The following section, organised chronologically, discusses ence of the latter is not not precluded, as these tend not to the significant aspects of the evidence for each period. be well represented in pollen spectra. Grassland, probably pasture, was dominant in the area adjacent to the channel. However, there is also some evidence of cereal cultivation, Late Neolithic/early Bronze Age activity with cereal pollen present throughout, along with pollen of weeds of cultivation. Whilst this most probably comes directly An isolated pit and a pair of pits, located 55m apart, contained from cultivation at some distance from the site, it must also be pottery sherds of which some have fine combed decoration remi- considered that the pollen may be from secondary derivation, niscent of decorative patterns on Beakers. One pit contained a i.e. from pollen liberated during crop processing (threshing fragmented antler beam from a red deer; it exhibits no chop and winnowing). The Phase 3 drying oven and associated marks, although it is clearly possible that segments were features would have offered a source for such pollen. removed for working, as was quite common in this period, e.g. Biddenham Loop, Bedfordshire (Maltby 2008, 118). Although no flint was recovered from these features, seven flakes and MOLLUSCS two blades were found in late Iron Age/early Romano-British James Rackham features c. 25m from one of the pits. The flints survive in good condition, are of ‘fresh’ appearance and are well struck. Mollusc shells were identified in ecofact samples from late Evidence for settlement during this period in Bedfordshire Iron Age/early Romano-British (Phase 2), early–middle and the wider region is not common (Luke 2007, 39; Brown Saxon (Phase 4) and Saxo-Norman (Phase 5) deposits (Table and Murphy 1997, 14–6). The majority of the sub-surface 13). evidence is in the form of individual or clustered small pits The Phase 2 samples are dominated by molluscs typically (Luke 2007, 39). The Bridgman pits were small (average found in open grassland environments. A few shells of wood- diameter 0.91m) and shallow (average depth 0.27m), with land, marsh and aquatic habitats are also present. The latter bowl-shaped profiles, and are similar to those at Biddenham were found in the samples from channel L2, and a stream is Loop (Luke 2008, 87 and table 5.2). The Biddenham Loop indicated by the presence of Lymnaea peregra. has been described as a ‘monument complex’ (Malim 2000, A small assemblage of snails was found in the Phase 3 80), but many of the pits investigated in the area have been processing feature G78. These continue to indicate an open interpreted as evidence for occupation deliberately situated environment with some areas of woodland and marsh in the away from the monuments (Luke 2008, 20). The Bridgman EVIDENCE FOR MULTI-PERIOD ACTIVITY AT THE FORMER BRIDGMAN JOINERY WORKS 39 Table 12: Pollen diagram for the lower deposits of stream channel L2 Table 40 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Phase 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 5 5 L No. 2 2 2 4 5 6 6 6 6 7 9 10 10 10 12 22 22 Group 48.1 48.1 48.1 2.3 30.1 5.1 5.2 5.2 6.1 33.1 9.1 69.3 78.3 49.3 21.1 37.2 37.3 Sample number 16 18 25 5 39 30 31 32 9 1 33 28 40 41 2 12 11 Ab/div 4/3 4/3 2/2 5/2 4/3 4/2 4/2 3/2 5/2 4/2 4/2 5/2 5/2 3/2 5/3 5/3 5/2 Hydrobia ventrosa + Open country Cecilioides acicula ++ ++ + ++ ++++ + ++ + ++++ ++ +++ + ++ + ++++ +++ ++ Helicella itala 7 3 + 7 + + 14 5 8 + 16 + Helicella sp. + + + + + + + + 5 Candidula gigaxii 1 Vertigo pygmaea 11 2 2 + + 8 2 + 2 1 2 Vertigo sp. + + + 2 2 + Pupilla muscorum 15 2 + 1 + + + 2 + + 3 + 18 5 + Vallonia costata 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 Vallonia excentrica 21 16 + + 8 + + + 14 + 14 + 5 + 16 9 + Vallonia pulchella 6 4 1 2 5 1 1 Vallonia sp. 26 28 6 9 7 21 21 6 Catholic Trichia hispida 24 33 + + 13 + + 17 + 13 + 20 + 45 17 Trichia plebia type 4 Cepaea nemoralis 2 Cepaea hortensis 3 Cepaea sp. 1 1 1 6 Arianta arbustorum 5 Cochlicopa lubrica 5 1 1 1 Cochlicopa lubricella 3 1 Cochlicopa sp. 3 1 + + 5 + 2 6 Shade-loving Discus rotundatus 2 1 1 + 1 33 + Carychium tridentatum 7 1 2 1 110 Clausilidae + 3 Vitrea sp. 2 + 1 30 Nesovitrea hammonis 1 1 Aegopinella nitidula 1 + 6 Aegopinella pura 2 2 21 Oxychilus alliarus 2 Oxychilus sp. 1 + 1 1 10 Acanthinula aculeata 1 3 Spermodea lamellata 1 Punctum pygmaeum 1 2 1 4 Marsh Carychium minimum 4 3 1 3 1 1 1 22 Carychium sp. 1 + + + + 89 Vertigo substriata 1 Vertigo antivertigo 1? 1 Vertigo angustior 1 2 + 2 Succineidae 1 1 Oxyloma pfeiferi 2 + + + Lymnaea truncatula 7 + 2 4 Aquatic Lymnaea peregra 24 Anisus leucostoma 26 + + Planorbis laevis 1 Planorbis contortus Pisidium sp. 1

Table 13: Molluscan taxa recorded from the ecofact samples pits also occurred in the vicinity of a monument complex features, the quantity and nature of domestic debris (including (Luke 2007, 41; Luke 2008, fig. 2.4) but were locatedc . 100m 23.6kg of pottery) suggests that the enclosures represent a from the nearest known monument (Fig. 14). Little else can be farmstead. Although no structures were found, the recovery said about the Bridgman pits other than that there is nothing of clay slabs indicates the presence of hearths, ovens or kilns. ‘special’ or unusual in their artefact assemblages. Similar slabs are quite common on sites of this period, e.g. Stagsden Bypass, Bedfordshire (Gentil and Slowikowski 2000, 88) and Biddenham Loop, Bedfordshire (Slowikowski Late Iron Age/early Romano-British 2008, 236). Other artefacts indicative of occupation include a ‘beehive’ quern and a cheek-piece. Introduction The most extensive evidence for occupation on the site dates The enclosure system to this period, with the establishment of an enclosure system. The enclosure system extended for more than 1ha, continuing Despite the absence of significant numbers of settlement-type beyond the excavation area to both west and south. All the EVIDENCE FOR MULTI-PERIOD ACTIVITY AT THE FORMER BRIDGMAN JOINERY WORKS 41

Economic basis of the settlement The animal bone from the late Iron Age/early Romano-British settlement is dominated by cattle, followed by sheep, with pig of lesser importance. It is likely that mixed farming, usual for this period (Hill 1995b, 60), provided the economic basis for the settlement. The cattle are largely adult and were probably used for draught, breeding, meat and hides. In contrast, the identification of immature sheep suggests that meat and dairy products were more important than wool. This phase produced the largest assemblage of horse bones, and the occupants appear to have been breeding horses on site. The fish bone assemblage includes freshwater species such as eel, pike, perch and cyprinids, which could have been caught locally. Their presence is interesting because other contemporary settlements in similar proximity to water courses, e.g. Biddenham Loop, Bedfordshire, have not produced evidence for fishing. Possible reasons that have been suggested for this are that landowners controlled the exploitation of wild resources, or that ‘rivers were considered taboo areas’ (Luke 2008, 64). The charred plant remains indicate that the main arable crops were spelt wheat and barley, with traces of emmer and oats.

Romano-British

The excavation area did not contain any evidence of domestic habitation for this period. At first sight, this appears to support Dawson’s suggestion that in Bedfordshire ‘the number of [Romano-British] occupation sites fell in comparison to the late Iron Age’ (Dawson 2007, 74). However, it is more likely Figure 14: Location of Bridgman late Neolithic/early Bronze that the focus of settlement shifted beyond the limits of the Age pits in relation to Harrold monument complex excavation area, probably to the south. Two distinct areas of activity were identified — trackways to the north and a crop-processing area to the south. Given the identified entrances were adjacent to stream channel L2, the way the trackways avoided the earlier enclosure system (see line of which the enclosures clearly respected. There is no Fig. 5), it is likely that the latter remained in use, perhaps as evidence for a similar enclosure system or contemporary fields. A level of continuity between the two periods is also activity to the east of the channel within the HM519 exca- seen in the pottery assemblage. However, there is no firm vation (see Fig. 1; Albion in prep.). The enclosures were evidence for Romano-British activity on the site beyond the maintained over time, with a number of the ditches being late 2nd century, although there is circumstantial evidence re-dug. In addition, the drove-way between enclosures L5 and that the main trackway may have continued to function into L6 was eventually blocked off. the early–middle Saxon period (see below). The concentration of domestic artefacts within enclosure L4 and the eastern half of L7 suggests that these were the Trackways settlement foci. This appears to fit a settlement form identi- The junction between two trackways, defined by parallel fied by Dawson for this period where ‘the habitation area ditches, was identified within the excavation area. They were is surrounded by several, possibly focused, enclosures’ assigned to this period on the basis of a small quantity of (Dawson 2007, 67). The northern enclosures (L5 and L6) pottery, although, as stated above, they appear to have been and the western part of L7 are therefore likely to have been aligned to respect the earlier enclosure system. It is also of associated mainly with livestock management. This may interest that if the alignment of the SW–NE trackway were explain the presence of a drove-way between L5 and L6. projected into the area of the 1950s investigations (Eagles and A similar layout of enclosures and a drove-way was identi- Evision 1970), it would respect a number of Bronze Age ring fied within the contemporary farmstead at Harrold Pit, Odell ditches. This might suggest that the latter were still visible in (Dix 1980; 1981), 300m to the east (Fig. 15). At another the landscape at this time. contemporary site — Norse Road, Bedford — Edgeworth The trackways were on the wrong alignment to have has suggested that the enclosures and even the whole settle- been drove-ways leading onto the river’s floodplain, as seen ment may have been utilised only on a seasonal basis, as at Farmoor, Oxfordshire (Lambrick and Robinson 1979, flocks or herds were moved onto the floodplains of the River 139) and Biddenham Loop, Bedfordshire (Luke 2008, 63). Great Ouse (Edgeworth 2001, 18). Although it is believed However, the main trackway may have been part of a local that permanent rather than seasonal occupation occurred routeway, similar to those known elsewhere in Bedfordshire at Bridgman and Harrold Pit, they were both situated in (Simco 1984, 65–9; Dawson 2007, 72). It may have connected excellent locations to exploit the upper terrace pastures and different farmsteads on the higher ground away from the floodplain. floodplain, as was the case on the Biddenham Loop (Luke 42 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Figure 15: The Bridgman late Iron Age/early Romano-British enclosures compared to the Odell Pit enclosures

2008, 62–3). Simco has noted that some ‘local’ routeways dryer 200 at Bancroft, Milton Keynes (Williams and Zeepvat had discontinuous ditches, e.g. the Cople/Willington ‘road’ 1994, 83, 86 and fig. 45). (Simco 1984, 65–6), and were only bordered by ditches where The absence of cross flues is presumably explained by this was necessary, e.g. in areas of fields or where drainage the presence of strategically placed holes which would have was required. This would fit the evidence from the Bridgman drawn the hot air either into the upper chamber or directly out Joinery Works very neatly. of the drying oven via a chimney. Although there is no direct evidence, the floor of the oven is likely to have comprised Crop-processing area timber planking, possibly lined with clay to prevent it from Drying oven G69, sunken stone-lined structure G49 and struc- catching fire (Partridge 1989, 39). The relatively small quan- ture G78 were located within 5m of each other, suggesting tity of daub and fired clay recovered from this structure is that they were associated with the same activity. Although curious and in contrast to most other excavated examples, drying ovens are fairly common on Romano-British sites, e.g. Bancroft, Milton Keynes (Williams and Zeepvat 1994, their association with other structures is much rarer. Morris 86) and Haynes Park, Bedfordshire (Luke and Shotliff 2004, records sunken structures similar to G49 found adjacent to 120). However, the large volume found in the adjacent struc- drying ovens at Welton Wold, Humberside and Whitton tures may have been deliberately dumped there when the 2, South Glamorgan (Morris 1979, 18 and fig. 15). He also oven’s superstructure was dismantled. records non-stone-lined sunken structures at Godmanchester, Cambridgeshire and Langton, North Yorkshire (Morris Date 1979, 27). In addition, they are known at Catsgore, Somerset Although archaeomagnetic dating was only able to indicate (Leech 1982, fig. 25). The structures and botanical evidence that the last firing occurred in the date range of either AD120– from Bridgman suggest that L10 was a crop-processing area, 180 or AD300–440 (at 95% confidence), the absence of later although the precise function of the stone-lined structure is Romano-British pottery makes the former date more likely. uncertain. Morris (1979, 20) has suggested that T-shaped drying ovens had their origins in the 2nd century AD, with more complex Drying oven G69 (Fig. 16) forms appearing in the 3rd or 4th centuries AD. He also Nature argues that the majority of drying ovens belong to the later Drying oven G69 comprised a keyhole-shaped feature, period. However, there is growing evidence for 2nd-century 3.7m long, the sides and base of which were lined with clay. ovens, such as Bridgman, Bancroft (Williams and Zeepvat Limestone slabs were also used in horizontal bonding courses 1994, 83, 86) and Haynes Park (Luke and Shotliff 2004, 120), in the sides and as a single layer at the base between the stoke- and, based on the latter, it is clear that their developmental hole and the flue. The heavily burnt stones and clay between sequence may not have been as straightforward as Morris the stokehole and the flue indicate the position of the main fire. suggests. Similar structures have been discovered on numerous sites in Britain but, unlike G69, the vast majority are T-shaped in Evidence of use plan (Morris 1979, 5–22). As Figure 16 shows, the Bridgman The Bridgman drying oven contained charred spelt and example is similar in form to corn dryer 1 at Foxholes Farm, emmer wheat grains, with significantly smaller quantities of Hertfordshire (Partridge 1989, 34–5 and fig. 16) and corn glumes, chaff and weeds. This indicates that most of the crop EVIDENCE FOR MULTI-PERIOD ACTIVITY AT THE FORMER BRIDGMAN JOINERY WORKS 43

Figure 16: The Bridgman Romano-British drying oven G69 and similar ones at Foxholes Farm, Hertfordshire and Bancroft, Milton Keynes contaminants had already been removed by sieving, as part Milton Keynes (Williams and Zeepvat 1994) and Farmoor, of the processing sequence, before the grain was placed in Oxfordshire (Lambrick and Robinson 1979). The location of the oven for drying. Drying may have been undertaken prior the Bridgman oven — away from contemporary habitation to storage — a fully processed crop is less susceptible to and on the edge of fields — clearly fits this pattern. spoilage by germination or insect attack — or to harden the grain prior to milling, as soft grain can clog querns (Van der Sunken, stone-lined structure G49 (Fig. 17) Veen 1989, 303). Nature Other functions have been suggested for these ovens, Sunken, stone-lined structure G49 was sub-rectangular, e.g. the de-husking of spelt wheat or the malting of grain 3.35m by 2.6m in extent, with rounded edges to the north. (Lambrick and Robinson 1979, 103–4). The small proportion Limestone slabs set in clay formed a flat floor or basec . 0.45m of germinated spelt grains and the small quantities of detached below the top. On the sides, similar slabs were set at an angle coleoptiles from oven G49 probably represent natural spoilage of 20–30 degrees. rather than the deliberate germination of grain for malting. Drying ovens may, of course, have served multiple functions Fills and botanical evidence (for further discussion see Luke and Shotliff 2004, 120). Although the primary fill of G49 contained frequent charcoal Circumstantial evidence for the use of these structures flecks and the main fill contained large quantities of fired to prepare grain not just for storage, but also for milling, is clay, there was no evidence on the clay or stonework for in provided by the frequency with which quern-stones and mill- situ burning. Therefore, this structure is not interpreted as an stones occur in their vicinity (Morris 1979, 18; Leech 1982, oven; much of the material in its main fill is likely to have fig. 58; Luke and Shotliff 2004, 120). It is therefore significant derived from the dismantling of the nearby drying oven G69. that a portion of millstone was recovered from the adjacent The botanical evidence from G49 chiefly comprises glume stone-lined structure G49. bases and small amounts of weed seeds. This suggests that semi-cleaned assemblages were fine-sieved, in or near this Location structure, prior to storage or consumption. According to Morris (1979, 18), most drying ovens were located within buildings. However, a growing number have Comparable structures been identified in more isolated locations, away from domestic Several similar stone structures were identified at Catsgore, occupation and within or adjacent to fields, e.g. Haynes Somerset, where they were interpreted as storage bins (Leech Park, Bedfordshire (Luke and Shotliff 2004), Bancroft, 1982, 29). Bin F358 was at least 1.75m square, and featured 44 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Figure 17: The Bridgman Romano-British sunken paved structure G49 and similar ones at Catsgore, Somerset and Peartree Farm, Bedfordshire lias slabs on the sunken floor (Fig. 17). However, in contrast Morris also describes structures at Halstock, Dorset and to G49, the sides were vertical and coursed (Leech 1982, Huntsham, Herefordshire (Morris 1979, 17 and fig. 16) that 69 and fig. 64). Bin F295 was c. 1.5m by 3m with a sunken have some similarities to the Bridgman example. However, floor of lias slabs, c. 0.4m deep, and had sides of sloping lias unlike G49, they had plastered sides and/or opus signinum slabs (Leech 1982, 41 and fig 26). Although lacking a curved floors and were, as Morris says, clearly built to hold water. side, this structure is very similar to G49 (Fig. 17). In addition, it too was located next to a drying oven. Another similar Function structure was identified in isolation at Peartree Farm, south Given the proximity of the drying oven and the concentra- of Bedford (BCAS 1995). It was c. 4m square, with lime- tion of crop residues, it is likely that G49 was associated with stone slabs set in clay forming a fairly flat surface at a depth processing in some way. However, its precise function is of c. 0.1m. However, no evidence survived for sloping slabs uncertain. A number of interpretations are possible: around the structure’s sides (Fig. 17). Morris refers to rectangular sunken floors at Godmanchester • Storage bin. This was Leech’s (1982, 29) interpreta- and Langton which he suggests could have been used for tion of the function of similar structures at Catsgore. threshing (Morris 1979, 27). They were not stone-lined, but At Bridgman, it is possible that a bulk storage facility did have solid floors. Morris believed the rounded corners was required for grain, either before or after drying. at Langton would have been ‘useful for sweeping clear’. The location of G49 in the vicinity of the drying oven The sunken rectangular floors at Welton Wold, described by but far enough from it to avoid risk of accidental fire Morris under the heading ‘hand threshing’, were attached to may support this interpretation. Alternatively, covered drying ovens, and their sides were lined with turf walls. He bins may have been required for the short-term storage suggests that the latter ‘provided a low wind break behind of grain when it rained, or just after the completion which winnowing could be controlled’ (Morris 1979, 27). of threshing or sieving. The curving gulley may have EVIDENCE FOR MULTI-PERIOD ACTIVITY AT THE FORMER BRIDGMAN JOINERY WORKS 45

functioned as a drain to prevent the stored product from a more extensive settlement. The building was located within getting wet. However, vertical sides would seem more c. 7m of one of the re-cut late Iron Age/early Romano-British appropriate for a storage bin than the sloping ones at (Phase 2) enclosure ditches G7, but otherwise does not appear Bridgman (Fig. 17), as in the case of F358 at Catsgore to have been associated with earlier activity. The presence of (Leech 1982, 69). domestic debris, including pottery, suggests that it was more • Threshing floor. Morris summarises what Roman than just an isolated farm building. authors tell us about these in the Mediterranean and Evidence for rural settlement in this period within describes some possible British examples: threshing Bedfordshire is now becoming more extensive (Edgeworth floors feature a hard surface ’to deter weeds and small 2007, 91), although it often takes the form of isolated build- animals, to avoid mud or dust, and to help crush the ings such as G21. Similar buildings have been found in the straw or thresh the grain more quickly‘ (Morris 1979, vicinity of the Bridgman investigations — two c. 200m to 23). Most floors appear to be circular. This shape was the east on the Meadway investigations (Shepherd et al., this most suitable for threshing with sledges dragged by volume) and two more c. 360m and 460m to the north-east animals, and the floors were quite large, i.e. at least (Eagles and Evison 1970, 48). 10m in diameter. Morris describes smaller, circular and Unlike Bridgman, the contemporary settlement evidence rectangular sunken floors as being designed for hand on other excavations in the vicinity includes post-built struc- threshing (Morris 1979, 27); these are more compa- tures and multiple sunken-featured buildings (Shepherd et al., rable to G49 at Bridgman. Lowering of the floor below this volume), additional wells (Dix 1980, 17–18) and a ceme- ground level might have provided a windbreak, behind tery (Eagles and Evison 1970, 38–46). Although the latter is which winnowing or sieving could be undertaken. The located c. 200m to the north-west of the Bridgman excavation, gulley that curved around structure G49 could also have it is interesting that the cemetery would have been situated supported a windbreak. next to the projected line of Romano-British trackway G10, • Water tank. Such structures are believed to have been which probably remained in use. used to soak grain as part of the malting process (Morris 1979, 17). This might explain the clay lining of G49 Sunken-featured building G21 (Fig. 18) and its location on the stream channel side of the drying The Bridgman building was rectangular in plan, c. 3.8m by oven. However, it is more difficult to account for the use 3.3m, with rounded corners, sloping sides and a flat base. It of stone slabs, the sloping sides and the curvature of the had two centrally located gable-end post-holes, 3.5m apart. It northern side. is a Type A building in terms of the classification used by West (1985) in his analysis of the Saxon settlement at West Stow, In summary, a number of the elements of structure G49 — the Suffolk. This represents the ‘predominant type of structure solid, sunken floor, the sloping sides and the rounded corners throughout England and on the continent’ during this period on one side — would fit most closely with its interpretation (Tipper 2004, 68). It is the same type as SFB 354, which was as a hand-threshing or winnowing floor. Its small size might one of two such buildings on the adjacent Meadway exca- reflect the fact that the farmstead only operated on a small vations (see Fig. 18). The Bridgman building is also similar scale; alternatively, larger-scale processing may have been in size to the ‘mean maximum length’ (4.1m) at Pennylands, undertaken elsewhere. Milton Keynes, and also shares the common east–west alignment (Williams 1993, 78). It was closely comparable to SFB3 Structure G78 (Williams 1993, fig. 31), which also had internal post-holes in The precise function of structure G78 is unclear. It was linear, measuring 2m addition to those at the gable end (Fig. 18). by 0.8m, and was clay-lined. In some ways, it was similar to the drying oven, but no in situ burning or even a stokehole was identified. On the other hand, it For decades, there has been a great deal of debate produced a charred plant assemblage similar to that from structure G49. The concerning the reconstruction of this type of building, i.e. did latter appeared to truncate its western end, although it is possible that the two they have a sunken or suspended floor? In a recent compre- structures were actually contemporary. hensive study, Tipper takes the view that a suspended floor existed above the pit, creating a dry environment for storage Cobbled surface G82 The full extent of the cobbled surface adjacent to the stokehole of drying oven above, and allowing the free circulation of air beneath, a G69 is unknown, as it was located on the limit of the excavation area. It is wooden floor (Tipper 2004, 92–3 and 184–5). Tipper suggests uncertain if it was a localised area of hardstanding, associated with the use of these buildings ‘might have served a variety of functions at the stokehole, or a more extensive yard surface. the same and/or different times during their use’ (Tipper 2004, 185). Some large scale, open area excavations have located Economy post-hole buildings as well as sunken-featured ones. No such The charred plant remains from the Romano-British period buildings were identified at the Bridgman Joinery Works, are typical of contemporary sites in the region (Murphy 2007, although the total number of post-holes surviving from all but 79–80). Deposits associated with the agricultural processing the post-medieval period on the site was very small. area contained a variety of crops but are dominated by wheat, principally spelt but also some emmer, with barley as only a Economy and environment minor component. In terms of what woodland resources were The charred plant remains from the sunken-featured building available, there was a clear preference for oak and ash to fire indicate a change from previous periods in the types of crops the drying oven. cultivated. Free-threshing wheat, probably bread wheat, replaced the spelt wheat grown during the Romano-British Early–middle Saxon period; other crops include hulled barley and oats. Pig occurs The only feature that could be dated to the early–middle in greater numbers and, although not necessarily the most Saxon period was sunken-featured building G21. It was situ- economically important animal, the immature assemblage is ated in the south-west corner of the excavation area, and it is typical of a husbandry geared to meat production. The snail therefore unclear whether it was an isolated building or part of assemblage, however, suggests that the open environment 46 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Figure 18: The Bridgman early–middle Saxon sunken-featured building G21 and similar ones at Meadway Harrold and Pennylands, Milton Keynes identified in the Romano-British period continued into the existed at Harrold by late Saxon times (Albion Archaeology early Saxon period. 2000, 15). The pits were located c. 300m north of where the manor and mill were situated.

Saxo-Norman Economy and environment Bread wheat, hulled barley and oats continued to be culti- Evidence for activity during this period was limited to a cluster vated, while rye appears for the first time in the charred plant of pits, covering an area of 50m by 20m, in the south-west assemblage. Gathered foods include fruits such as pear or corner of the excavation area. They varied in diameter and apple. Charcoal from the pits show that hazel, field maple, shape but were consistently less than 0.5m deep. It is unclear the hawthorn group, ash and blackthorn were being used if they were isolated features or part of a more extensive as domestic fuel. It is likely that these came primarily from settlement. The southern pits contained the most domestic managed woodland. As in the early–middle Saxon period, pig debris, including pottery, suggesting that a settlement focus remains the dominant species in the animal bone assemblage. may have existed to the south. The presence of herring as well as freshwater fish bones indi- The pits’ proximity to building G21 (Fig. 8), which may cates contact and trade with coastal areas. have been part of a dispersed early–middle Saxon settlement, may indicate some degree of continuity with earlier periods. The pottery assemblage comprises shell-tempered, wheel- Medieval thrown vessels in the St Neots-type tradition, broadly datable to the mid-9th to early 12th centuries. This evidence may Evidence for Harrold’s open fields was only identified in the reflect the ‘general trend from dispersed to nucleated settle- northern part of the investigation area. However, a rectangular ment’ which is believed to have occurred in the 9th to 11th enclosure system was established over the southern part of the centuries (Edgeworth 2007, 93). Its mention in Domesday area during the early medieval period. Three enclosures were Book indicates that a settlement, including a manor and a mill, identified, with the largest one to the north. EVIDENCE FOR MULTI-PERIOD ACTIVITY AT THE FORMER BRIDGMAN JOINERY WORKS 47

The enclosures presumably lay on the periphery of the main and Romano-British periods, this was principally because the settlement which was concentrated along the High Street, gravels adjacent to the Great Ouse were particularly favour- c. 70m south (Albion Archaeology 2000, 18). The northern able to settlement. In the medieval period, the development boundary of the village at this time may have been defined of the village was also influenced by a number of new factors by the still extant footpath which runs parallel to the High including the bridge, the presence of a religious order, mano- Street and which formed part of the southern boundary of the rial planning etc. investigation area. A substantial ditch, parallel and adjacent to What is perhaps more surprising is the relatively high level the footpath, was found immediately to the south-east of the of archaeological survival beneath the buildings, structures Bridgman Joinery Works (Albion Archaeology 2003, 11; see and yard surfaces of the joinery works. On any site, the nature HSH913 on Fig. 1). It was c. 2m wide, over 1.4m deep and and intensity of previous land use is the principal determinant contained 11th- to 13th-century pottery. In addition to repre- of archaeological survival. On this site, larger features such as senting the northern boundary of the village, the ditch may also ditches and pits were most common; the number of smaller have been dug to channel water from the north–south streams pits and post-holes, from all but the post-medieval period, was onto a more west–east alignment (Albion Archaeology 2000, very small. This may indicate that ground reduction and level- 8). A channel serving this function survives to this day. ling had taken place prior to the construction of the joinery The investigations produced no significant evidence in works. The exceptional survival of the drying oven, sunken terms of the economy or environment during this period, stone-lined structure and associated cobbled surface may have mainly because they were located on the periphery of the been fortuitous — they were located on the periphery of the settlement. However, a priory was founded in Harrold in the works in largely undisturbed ground. Overall, however, the 12th century (Albion Archaeology 2000, 11) and ‘the intro- numerous modern features that were identified did not unduly duction of a religious order to the village would have been hinder the reconstruction of a chronological framework of extremely important to the development of urban characteris- past human activity on the site. tics’ (Albion Archaeology 2000, 15). The investigations have, therefore, demonstrated that significant and intelligible archaeological remains can survive in what is, at first sight, the unpromising environment of a Post-medieval modern factory complex.

As in the medieval period, the investigation area lay on the periphery of the village. The basic enclosure layout established ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS in the medieval period continued in use into the post-medieval period, with only minor changes, and is depicted on a map Taylor Woodrow Developments Ltd funded the archaeo- of 1797 held by the Bedfordshire and Luton Archives and logical fieldwork, analysis and publication of this report. In Records Service (DDGA 2587). The only significant develop- particular, Albion Archaeology would like to acknowledge ment was indicated by a series of post-hole alignments, but the assistance of Brian Ball, Mark Buddle, Matthew Brown the purpose of these is uncertain. and Tony Wright of their Welwyn Garden City office. In addition, thanks are due to Martin Oake and Lesley-Ann Mather (County Archaeological Officers), who monitored the Modern archaeological aspects of the project, and Stephen Coleman (Historic Environment Information Officer), all formerly of The Bridgman Joinery Works were established in 1969. Figure Bedfordshire County Council. 11 shows the outlines of the main 1994 factory buildings and All archaeological work was undertaken by Albion hardstanding in relation to the modern sub-surface features Archaeology, managed by Reuben Thorpe (Project Manager) identified during the investigations. The factory specialised in during fieldwork and subsequently by Mike Luke (Project the manufacture of doors, until its closure in 2000 prompted Manager). The field evaluation was undertaken by Tracy the residential redevelopment of the site. Preece (Project Supervisor), Mick Garside, David Ingham, Chris Mallows and Chris Swain. Mark Phillips undertook the day to day responsibility for the excavation, which was under- CONCLUSION taken by Caroline Clarke, Laurence Coulter, David Ingham, Adam Lee, Chris Mallows, Helen Parslow, James Pixley, Pete The archaeological investigations at the Bridgman Joinery Sprenger, Jerry Stone and Chris Thatcher. The latter under- Works located evidence for human activity from the early took all the record checking and the contextual assessment. prehistoric period through to the 20th century. This is perhaps The site plans were digitised by Joan Lightning. not surprising, given the long history of intensive human Finally, we are grateful to Drew Shotliff for reading and utilisation of the land around Harrold. During the prehistoric commenting on a draft version of this article.

Prehistoric Ritual Activity and Saxon Settlement at Meadway N. Shepherd, A. Walsh and J. Wells

with major contributions by Jacqueline McKinley, Richard Macphail, Mark Maltby and Ruth Pelling, and illustrations by Cecily Marshall

This article was largely completed in 2001; no systematic attempt has been made to include the results of more recent work.

SUMMARY An archaeological investigation was carried out on the northern fringes of Harrold between 1997 and 1998, in advance of housing development. The site lay immediately to the south of a flooded gravel pit where significant remains had been recorded in the 1950s. Evidence for a long and varied sequence of human activity was uncovered, which began with a middle Neolithic burial incorporated within a late Neolithic/early Bronze Age barrow. Only slight traces of early–middle Iron Age activity were present, but a small late Iron Age cremation cemetery in the vicinity of the earlier burial monument suggests continuity of ritual focus. A few stray finds of Romano-British date were recorded, but the site was not the focus of occupation until the early–middle Saxon period, when it formed part of what appears to have been a very extensive settlement. An apparent hiatus again occurred after the middle Saxon period until the site was enclosed some time after the 11th century. Pits and other features that were probably part of the post- medieval backyards of properties fronting the main village street were also recorded.

INTRODUCTION RESULTS OF THE EXCAVATION

The development site at Meadway covered approximately Period 1: Neolithic and Early Bronze Age 2.7ha on the northern edge of the village (SP 9528 5705), (c. 3500–1600BC) lying at a height of 44m OD (Fig. 1). A wealth of archaeological remains had previously been recorded to the north An isolated inhumation burial, unaccompanied by grave (HER 64) by Edwards and Carey in 1951–53 (Eagles and goods, was identified towards the northern edge of the site. Evison 1970), which are summarised, along with the rest Radiocarbon dating placed it in the middle Neolithic. The site of Harrold’s archaeological heritage, in the introduction of the grave was later incorporated within another funerary to this volume. The development site’s joint landowners, monument, defined by a small ring ditch with an internal Bedford Borough Council and Bedfordshire County Council, mound or bank. A grave towards the centre of the ring ditch commissioned Bedfordshire County Archaeology Service yielded a second inhumation burial, accompanied by grave (now Albion Archaeology) to assess its archaeological goods including a boar’s tusk. This burial produced a radio- potential. carbon date in the late Neolithic/early Bronze Age and is Geophysical survey was attempted first: although unsuc- assumed to have been contemporary with the excavation of the cessful in locating areas of archaeological remains, due ring ditch. A secondary cremation burial, cut into the upper fill mainly to the presence of large amounts of ferrous debris in of the central grave, suggests that the monument retained its the topsoil, it did at least suggest that large areas of the site had ritual significance. Just south-east of the ring ditch, a complete been subject to quarrying. A subsequent trial-trench evaluation collared urn in a shallow pit was possibly part of a cremation (BCAS 1997) confirmed that quarrying had indeed destroyed rite, although no bone survived in either the urn or the pit. the potential for archaeological remains to have survived, but also identified significant remains in the western third of Middle Neolithic Burial the area, dating primarily from the Saxon to post-medieval G20 was the earliest dated feature on site, comprising an indi- periods. vidual crouched inhumation burial in an unenclosed grave The results of the evaluation were used to design a miti- (Fig. 3). The grave was 2.7m x 1.6m in plan, and 0.45m deep, gation strategy that entailed the excavation, between July with steep sides and a flat base. The body had been placed in and September 1998, of three separate areas within the site, the south-west corner of the grave; it was aligned east–west covering a total of c. 0.5ha (Fig. 2). Part of the early–middle with the head to the west, resting on its left side, facing north. Saxon settlement identified by the evaluation, to the west of The left arm was flexed at the elbow, the right arm at a right- Area 1, was able to be left in situ beneath an area of public angle across the left elbow, with the legs drawn up in front of open space. the pelvis. The loss of the right shoulder and upper arm bone, The site narrative below presents the results of the inves- both uppermost in the grave, indicates some relatively recent tigations by chronological period, with subdivisions as post-depositional disturbance. The absence of the left hand necessary, describing the archaeological features and summa- bones suggests that the hand was originally resting on the right rising key artefactual and ecofactual evidence. The latter shoulder or upper arm. The buried individual was female, at is also presented in more detail in separate sections for the least 35 years old and 1.57m (5’ 1’’) tall. The skeleton survived individual datasets. The appendix to this volume contains a in moderate condition. The bones exhibited no major patholo- combined bibliography, ceramic type series, and summary of gies, apart from some dental disease. A fragment of the left analysis methodologies for all three sites. humerus gave a calibrated radiocarbon date of 3325–3225BC or 3120–2915BC (Beta-139476:4350+/-40BP). 42 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Figure 2: Detail of site

Located at either end of the grave were two sub-oval that the burial was significantly earlier than the one in the hollows, up to 0.9m across and 0.3m deep, filled by a mix centre of the ring ditch. of dark loamy soil and water-worn pebbles. A small, rectangular limestone slab had been placed upright at the back of the Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age Ring Ditch and Burials skull. The hollows had clearly been filled either before or at The early Neolithic grave G20 was later incorporated, perhaps the same time as the grave was sealed. The rest of the grave deliberately, within the circuit of a ring ditch L3, at the centre had been backfilled with dark, grey-brown loams. of which lay another grave G19 (Fig. 3; Pl. 1). The accompa- The grave lay just within the northern arc of ring ditch L3 nying grave goods suggest a late Neolithic or early Bronze (see below). The contrast between the loam-rich grave fill and Age date, supported by radiocarbon dating of some of the the stonier fill of the ring ditch makes it clear that the grave bone. A small pit was subsequently dug into the backfill of was cut by the ring ditch; radiocarbon dating also suggested the grave to accommodate an unurned cremation burial G79, PREHISTORIC RITUAL ACTIVITY AND SAXON SETTLEMENT AT MEADWAY 43

Figure 3: Ring ditch L3, early Neolithic burial G20, and central inhumation G19 44 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY while a complete collared urn placed in a small pit G22 may worn and damaged (RA18). One of the tine tips found within have been a mortuary deposit. the lower fill of the burial joins RA18. This could suggest that the antler was used to excavate the grave. Central Inhumation G19 An oval feature S26 was dug into the south-east corner of Grave G19 was 1.9m x 1.6m in plan, and 0.9m deep (Fig. 3). the backfilled grave. It measuredc . 0.8m x 0.46m, although it It was aligned north-south with vertical upper sides, which was difficult to define its full extent. In section, the profile was sloped less steeply towards the flat base. The body lay in the very irregular — shallow (0.2m) and concave to the north, centre of the grave on the flat basal area, with the head to deeper (0.75m) and more vertical to the south. The feature the south, facing west. Both arms were flexed at the elbows, contained three varied fills, including a 60mm thick layer of the open palms angled towards the face; the legs were tightly charcoal-rich silt. Interpretation of this feature remains prob- drawn up in front of the pelvis (Pl. 1). As with burial G20, the lematic. It may have defined the position of a grave marker, body occupied only a relatively small part of the grave. its elongated shape and distorted profile due to the extraction The buried individual was a 25–35 year old male. The of a post; alternatively, it may be no more than animal or root skeleton exhibited no major pathologies, although the teeth disturbance. Understanding of this feature is hampered by the showed evidence of repeated periods of illness or malnutri- insertion of a later burial G79 into the grave. tion. The early stages of mild joint disease were also visible. A small group of objects lay to the right of the body, close to the Cremation Burial G79 pelvis: these comprised two primary flint flakes, one possibly A small pit G79 truncated the infilled void left by the possible utilised (RA19 and RA20); a boar’s tusk (RA21); and a grave marker S26 (Fig. 3). It was 0.64m in diameter, 0.20m water-worn quartzite pebble (RA22). The left tibia produced deep and contained just over 88.3g of cremated bone, derived a calibrated radiocarbon date of 1935–1735BC (Beta-139477: from an adult of up to 30 years of age. This possible unurned 3470 +/-40BP). cremation burial (see pp. 71–2) has only tentatively been The lower fill of the grave was a friable, blackish brown, assigned to this period. Although radiocarbon dates for G19 sandy silt, c. 30mm thick, comprising c. 20% charcoal. Two provide a terminus post quem, no corresponding terminus antler tine tips (probably red deer) — smoothed through use ante quem is available. G79 might have belonged to the small or by some other deliberate, human modification — were late Iron Age cremation cemetery L6 (Period 2) lying some found within the lower fill. The upper fill was mostly rede- 20m to the south; however, its insertion into the fill of the posited silty gravel, and contained part of an antler beam with central inhumation argues in favour of a close temporal asso- the remains of three tines, the tips of two broken off, the third ciation with G19. The presence of intrusive artefacts within the fill of G79 was the result of truncation in the medieval and post-medieval periods.

Ring Ditch L3 The external diameter of the ring ditch was c. 14m, its centre falling within the western part of grave G19 (Fig. 3). The ditch was 0.7–2.0m wide and 0.45–0.81m deep, proving deepest to the east and south-east. In plan, it was slightly irregular, swelling and narrowing alternately throughout its circumference. Generally, the ditch contained only one or two distinct fills. Where identified, the primary fills G15 comprised sandy gravels. The intermediate fills G16 were dark brown silts with a c. 25% gravel component, while the upper fills G17 comprised dark reddish brown silt or sandy silt, with a lower percentage of gravel and flint. Some fine lensing of deposits and inter- leaving of gravels and silts within the upper fills suggest that deposition into the ditch was periodic, either seasonal or as a result of later ploughing. The depositional sequence was more complex in the south-east part of the ring ditch, where stonier deposits were interleaved with silts. Here, the dominant direction of deposition appears to have been from within the ring ditch, suggesting the presence of an internal bank or mound. To the west, a complete section through the ring ditch and the modern topsoil was examined to try to determine whether any buried soils or mound material survived (Fig. 3: f): none were detected, and it must be assumed that any upstanding barrow was levelled by ploughing, probably before the medieval period.

Collared Urn G22 A complete, intact collared urn (Fig. 10: 1) was recovered from a small pit G22 (c. 0.5m in diameter and 0.32m deep), approximately 2m south-east of the ring ditch (Fig. 3). The urn had been placed on its side with the rim facing south. Plate 1: Bronze Age burial G19 Dark lenses of fill with charcoal flecks were present below the PREHISTORIC RITUAL ACTIVITY AND SAXON SETTLEMENT AT MEADWAY 45 urn and around its rim, but no fragments of bone (human or contained crude cists, made from thin slabs of limestone; animal) were recovered from the pit. fragments in the upper fills of S56 and S61 may represent The urn can be dated typologically to the early second the disturbed remains of similar limestone linings. S60 millennium BC. A number of complete collared urns have and S62 also contained pieces of shell-tempered ‘Belgic’ been recovered from excavations in the Bedford area, the pots, which may represent the remains of urns, broken majority from pits within or close to ritual contexts, usually in antiquity for partial incorporation into the burials. The ring ditches, e.g. Radwell (Hall and Woodward 1977). One remaining burials were less elaborate and, for some, there was also found during the 1950s excavations to the north is doubt as to their designation, given the small amount of (Eagles and Evison 1970, 21 and fig. 9a), although its precise bone present. location is unknown. The linear arrangement of the cemetery and the absence of Traditionally, collared urns are associated with cremation intercutting suggest the use of grave markers. This function burials. Although no cremated bone was recovered in this may have been served by some of the twelve possible post- instance, the location of the pit and the presence of charcoal holes located among and to the south of the burial pits, yet no suggest that it represents some form of mortuary deposit, dating evidence was recovered from these features to indicate possibly related to the cremation rite. Similar deposits have a definite association with the cemetery. been found at a number of Bronze Age sites excavated in The cemetery contained the remains of probably nine Hampshire — Portsdown (Nicholls 1987), Twyford Down individuals (see pp. 62–4). A wide age range is represented, (McKinley 2000) and Langstone Harbour (Seager-Smith including one infant, two older sub-adults and five adults. 2001) — and in Berkshire at Cippenham (McKinley 1998), Four of the latter have been assessed as female or probably/ each within the vicinity of contemporary cremation burials. In possibly female, as has one of the sub-adults. An uneven most of these cases, the vessels contained quantities of burnt ratio of females to males amongst sexed individuals is not flint, together with fragments of charcoal and, in one instance, unusual from Iron Age cremation cemeteries (McKinley a tiny fragment of cremated bone. The Meadway urn may have 1997a, 64–5), although it would be unwise to conclude that been deposited in association with the central cremation burial this was the case at Meadway, given the small size of the or as part of another burial that has otherwise left no trace. cemetery.

Cremation Burial S60 Period 2: Iron Age (c. 700BC–AD43) Burial pit S60 (0.4m in diameter and 0.25m deep) held three thin, upright slabs of limestone above its 100mm-thick silty Limited evidence was recovered for two phases of Iron Age lower fill, forming a roughly triangular cist (Fig. 4). Pieces activity. Two small pits G25 represent the only early–middle of an incomplete urn had been placed within the cist and the Iron Age remains; these contained large sherds of decorated pit had been backfilled with a dark brown, stony loam. The pottery and a small quantity of animal bone, which may majority of the cremated bone (733g) came from the upper represent a simple rubbish dump, although similar assem- spit of the backfill, with only a small amount (41g) from the blages have been interpreted as ritual deposits (Hill 1995a). lower spit and directly around the urn. The lower fill, beneath The lack of any associated settlement-type features and the the slabs of limestone, also contained cremated bone (163g). proximity of the pits to the ring ditch may support the latter interpretation. Cremation Burial S62 The presence of a small, late Iron Age cremation cemetery Burial pit S62 (0.38m in diameter and 0.12m deep) had thin L6 near the late Neolithic/early Bronze Age ring ditch may be limestone slabs on its base and sides, forming a rough cist/ a sign that the latter was still visible, and its site still consid- lining (Fig. 4). Fragments of an urn had been positioned ered ritually significant. Two of the nine burial pits contained upright on the basal slab. The cist was backfilled with dark rudimentary stone cists; the remainder were less elaborate. brown silt containing 1,008g of evenly distributed cremated Although only a small group, all the identifiable individuals bone. in the cemetery were female. No contemporary settlement features were identified. However, the cemetery may have Cremation Burials S55–59, S61 and S63 been related to the farmstead immediately to the west, at the The other seven burial pits were generally circular in plan, Bridgman Joinery Works (Luke and Preece, this volume), or 0.25–0.80m in diameter and 0.06–0.24m deep. None perhaps to that investigated by Dix (1980; 1981) where the contained an in situ stone cist or lining, although fragments of first major period of occupation occurred at this time. limestone on the upper surface of S56 and S61 (Fig. 4) may represent the remains of displaced cists. All were backfilled Early–Middle Iron Age Pits with similar, dark brown silts, which contained between 5.9g Two adjacent pits G25 (L24) were located in the south-west and 284g of cremated bone. corner of Area 1 (Fig. 4). The larger pit was oval, 1.20m x 0.29m and 0.31m deep, with steep sides and a flat base; the Associated Feature S133 smaller was circular, 0.68m in diameter and 0.29m deep, with A separate feature was located south-east of the row of crema- irregular sides and a flat base. Both were filled by dark brown, tions (Fig. 4); it was 0.38m in diameter and 0.18m deep, with silty sand, and contained substantial amounts of charcoal and vertical sides and a flat base. A 0.14m thick zone of ‘burning’ pottery, including large decorated sherds (Fig. 10: 2–4). A or discolouration extended evenly around the edge of the cut, dump of large pieces of burnt limestone (0.15–0.35m long) which contained a homogenous, mid-grey, silty fill. If the sealed the central and western part of the larger pit. discolouration were the result of burning, then S133 might have been associated with one or more of the cremations. Late Iron Age Cremation Cemetery However, the pit contained no burnt material, and does not A group of nine cremation burials (L6) lay c. 20m south-east accord with the type of evidence normally associated with of the ring ditch (Fig. 4). Two of the burial pits S60 and S62 pyre structures (McKinley 1997b). 46 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Figure 4: Iron Age features

Period 3: Early–Middle Saxon (c. AD400–850) some of them sunken-featured (SFBs); pits and post-holes surrounded them, a cluster to the north containing significant Throughout the prehistoric periods described above, the domi- quantities of slag, possibly indicating a focus for ironworking. nant use of the site was for ritual practices, in particular for The southern focus was a group of large pits: originally dug burial. In common with Edwards and Carey’s salvage excava- as quarries, they appear to have been re-used for the disposal tions to the north (Eagles and Evison 1970), however, little of rubbish, producing significant quantities of pottery and evidence was found for activity in the Roman period. This animal bone. might be an indication that the area was taken into agricultural The settlement does not appear to have endured beyond the use, either as pasture or for arable cultivation, but no traces start of the middle Saxon period; the only feature containing of this have survived. The extensive remains of early–middle diagnostic pottery of this date (Maxey-type ware) was a large Saxon settlement produced only a handful of potsherds and enclosure ditch in the north-east corner of Area 1. It appears two ‘other artefacts’ which date to the Roman period. that settlement shifted to another part of the wide gravel The Saxon settlement that was established here had begun terraces north of the river. certainly by the 6th century, on the evidence of a stamped vessel sherd. As Saxon remains were also encountered to the Early–middle Saxon Settlement north by Edwards and Carey (Eagles and Evison 1970), to Post-built Structures and Sunken-Featured Buildings L10, the west at the Bridgman Joinery Works (Luke and Preece, L11 and L12 this volume) and to the south at Odell (Dix 1980), settlement The remains of Building G35 (L10) are represented by a group during this period may have been very extensive. Evidence of seventeen post-holes, within which three more-or-less survived across the whole site, except in areas of recent obvious alignments were visible (Fig. 6). This structure was quarrying. c. 6m wide, and its length could be traced over a distance of The two principal foci of activity lay within Area 1 (Fig. almost 8m. No trace of the building’s southern side survived, 5). The northern one comprised a group of timber buildings, probably as a result of truncation; indeed, it is possible that PREHISTORIC RITUAL ACTIVITY AND SAXON SETTLEMENT AT MEADWAY 47

Figure 5: Early–middle Saxon features the building was originally more than 8m long. A second in size but more regular in profile — may have been a contin- structure G37 (L10) lay to the east, defined by a roughly uation of G39. The spatial relationship between the terminals parallel alignment of eight post-holes that extended over a of these gullies and the southern end of building G35 might distance of 17m, though apparently interrupted by SFB G33 indicate that they were contemporary, the gullies perhaps (L10). It was perhaps just a fence line, but might have been defining a yard round the building. Neither gully produced part of something more complex. Neither structure is partic- any finds. ularly convincing in detail, perhaps in part through the loss The sunken element of SFB G33 was rectangular, meas- of other post-holes due to plough damage, and a number of uring 4.3m x 3.3m x 0.35m deep (Fig. 6: a and b). Three different, equally valid interpretations of the surviving pattern evenly spaced, very regular post-holes were located along might be put forward. It is worth noting that of the fifty-three both the west and east ends; with nearly vertical sides and post-built buildings listed at Mucking, only ten survived suffi- rounded bases, they were 0.45–0.50m in diameter and 0.60– ciently well to provide relatively unambiguous dimensions 0.65m deep. SFB G33 contained two distinct deposits (Fig. (Hamerow 1993, 9). 6: a and b), the lower of which (S65) was no more than 0.1m A slightly sinuous, interrupted gully G39 (L10) lay to the thick and was confined to the western end. The remainder of south and east of these post-built structures. It had an irreg- the cut was filled by G34, which comprised largely undiffer- ular, U-shaped profile, up to 0.85m wide and 0.35m deep, and entiated, mid greyish brown, sandy silt. Material similar to was filled by reddish brown sandy silt. Gully G71 — similar G34 filled the post-holes. Soil micromorphological analysis of 48 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Figure 6: Early–middle Saxon features L10

G34 indicated the presence of relict turf soil (probably derived they were only partially revealed in plan and their definition from turf walls or roofing) and fragments of beaten floor soil. remains uncertain. They were generally investigated through A smaller SFB G50 (L10) was located south of G33. The the excavation of only a single exploratory segment, meaning sunken element was sub-rectangular in plan, measuring 3.65m that their fills and the artefacts they contained cannot be x 2.3m x 0.28m deep, with single axial post-holes at both the analysed in the same detail as those of G33 and G50. east and west ends that were c. 0.5m in diameter and 0.48– SFB G59 (L10) was located in Trench 17 (Figs 5 and 6); 0.50m deep (Fig. 6: c). The fill (G51) of both the SFB and sub-rectangular in plan, it measured 2.10m x 1.2m x 0.35m the post-holes was an undifferentiated, greyish brown, sandy deep, with sloping sides and a flat base. Its fill G60 contained loam, which soil micromorphological analysis indicated to be moderate amounts of burnt stone in its upper extent. SFB G57 similar in character to G34. (L11) was partially visible in Trench 2 (Fig. 5), measuring c. Three further probable SFBs (G57, G59 and G61) were 5.5m long, at least 2m wide and deep, with gradually sloping located to the west of Area 1 during the evaluation; however, sides and a flat base. Its sole fill G58 was a dark orange PREHISTORIC RITUAL ACTIVITY AND SAXON SETTLEMENT AT MEADWAY 49 brown, sandy silt fill with frequent stones. Part of SFB G61 The clustering of twelve of the thirteen pits in L14 suggests (L12) was visible in Trench 16 (Fig. 5); neither its shape nor the presence of some archaeologically invisible boundary its full width or length could be determined, but it was 0.3m feature. Although the function of these pits is not clear in all deep, with a flat base. Its fill G62 contained a slightly greater cases, some of the pits in G28 and G29 appear to have origi- concentration of charcoal flecks than those of the other SFBs. nated as quarries, and were initially allowed to silt up naturally SFBs G33, G50 and G59 accounted for 35% of the Period before being used for rubbish disposal. With the exception of 3 animal bone assemblage, with the greatest quantity from the possible nightsoil deposits, this material probably derived G33. Cattle, pig and sheep/goat predominate, but the bones of from a primary dump (presumably a midden) in a nearby red deer, horse, domestic fowl and a cat are also present. The settlement focus. presence of gnawed bone (e.g. 32% of the assemblage from The disuse fills produced a significant proportion of the G33) indicates that much of the material was the subject of early–middle Saxon assemblages of pottery (44%), animal secondary deposition. The ceramic assemblage was equally bone (56%), and fired clay (98%). There were no complete well represented, the disuse fills of the five SFBs accounting or near complete pottery vessels; the incidence of sherd abra- for 55% of the Saxon pottery that was recovered. The compo- sion was not high, but the vessel to sherd ratio of 1:3 does sition and condition of the assemblage suggest a single episode suggest secondary deposition of material originally dumped of deposition, probably from a secondary source, occurring elsewhere. The good bone preservation, with less than 14% soon after the abandonment of each building. In contrast, of the assemblage showing signs of gnawing and/or erosion, they contained few artefacts other than pottery (see Table 6), indicates fairly rapid burial in the pits. Cattle predominate, the one exception being G33, which produced evidence for even more so than in the SFB assemblages. weaving and possibly finishing of woven cloth, and four bone Overall, the pits produced a larger artefact assemblage than pins. G57 contained large lumps of clay, possibly unfired the SFBs. Both sets of features produced artefacts associated loom weights, in addition to a poorly fired example (RA26). with weaving, although the pits also contained domestic items such as a spoon and a strap mount, as well as ironworking Quarry/Refuse Pits L14 slag. The slight differences between the assemblages — both Some 40m to the south of building complex L10 lay a cluster of which seem to have been associated with rubbish disposal of twelve pits (Figs 5 and 7). Three of them (G28) were sub- — may indicate their derivation from separate settlement foci, circular/oval in plan, 1.2–1.9m across and 0.3–0.85m deep characterised by a different range of activities. (Fig. 7: a, e and g), and were filled by reddish / yellowish brown sandy silt. Pits G29, three of which were stratigraphi- Other Settlement Activity L13 cally later than those in G28, were also generally oval in plan; A total of 138 small pits and post-holes were recorded within however, they were somewhat larger, measuring up to 5.2m Area 1 and the trial trenches to the west (Fig. 5). Only eight of long, 2.5m wide and 1.25m deep (Fig. 7: a–c, e and g). In the excavated examples contained Saxon artefacts, meaning places their sides were undercut, where slumping of looser that the vast majority are essentially undated. However, the gravel had occurred. Pits of this size may have originated as intensity of the site’s occupation during the Saxon period, quarries, providing building material for the construction of in comparison with both earlier and later periods, suggests earthen walls or surfaces. that most of these pits and post-holes are likely to have been Three of the four largest pits in G29 contained gravelly, contemporary with the Saxon remains. fairly sterile primary fills (S46) which were very similar to Some of the post-holes appeared to be arranged in pairs or the local river terrace deposits (Fig. 7: a–c), and presumably in alignments of three. One post-hole was located at the end represent initial weathering of the sides while the pits were of a steep-sided slot that may have held a ground beam (G26); open. Unlike pit [628], which was infilled entirely with fairly the slot was 2.0m long, 0.29m wide and 0.24m deep, with a sterile, redeposited river terrace gravel, the other three appear shorter slot perpendicular to it to the east. These may repre- to have been backfilled with domestic refuse and waste: two sent small, basic structures, suggesting that the areas around contained deposits of possible nightsoil S47 (Fig. 7: b and c). the identifiable foci of buildings and pits were not empty yards This dark green-grey clayey silt was 0.3m thick in pit [285], or open spaces, but were themselves foci for other activity. with concentrations of charcoal, ash and burnt clay; located Two clusters of features — G43, which comprised three on the base of the pit, its roughly horizontal upper surface post settings or small pits, and G40, which comprised four suggests it may have been deposited in a semi-liquid form. post-holes — were located to the north of building G35 and Sherds of pottery found in a similar deposit in pit [511] came SFB G33 (Fig. 6). These clusters, along with nearby pit from the same vessel as sherds recovered from the overlying G47, produced significant quantities of metalworking debris: fill, suggesting they were deposited within a relatively short ferrous slag from both the smelting of iron ore and the fabri- space of time. The possible nightsoil deposits S47 and the cation of iron objects was recovered. It was also noted that material overlying them — S48, which was also present in pit pit G47 had a burnt surface in the base of the cut. The accom- [219] — were particularly rich in artefacts, producing almost panying presence of animal bone and occasional potsherds 5kg of pottery, more than 850 fragments of animal bone and a shows that this metalworking debris had been redeposited, small amount of ferrous slag between them. yet its close association with the buildings — weathered slag Four shallow, circular or oval pits G31 were recorded in / hammerscale was recovered from SFB G33 (see p. 71) — the general vicinity of G28 and G29, measuring 1.6–4.1m may indicate a significant focus of activity. across (Fig. 7). The dark grey, sandy silt that filled these pits produced a moderate amount of domestic refuse, including Middle Saxon Enclosure just over 1kg of pottery and 288 fragments of animal bone. A substantial ditch L9, 2.3–2.5m wide and 1.1m deep, In addition, a small amount of domestic refuse was recovered presumably represents the south-west corner of a substantial from pit G23, located towards the north-east corner of Area 1 enclosure, the majority of which lies beyond the north-east (Fig. 5). Measuring c. 1.4m in diameter and c. 1.2m deep, this limit of excavation (Figs 5 and 8). The ditch was filled pit had vertical sides and a rounded base. with alternating deposits of silts and gravels, the pattern 50 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Figure 7: Quarry/refuse pits L14 PREHISTORIC RITUAL ACTIVITY AND SAXON SETTLEMENT AT MEADWAY 51

Figure 8: Middle Saxon enclosure L9

of which may indicate the presence of an external bank. THE ARTEFACTS Sherds of Maxey-type pottery were recovered from the Jackie Wells upper fills, making this ditch the only excavated feature that was definitely extant in the middle Saxon period, although Summary a single Maxey-type sherd was also found within the fill of SFB G33. Artefacts dating to all periods represented on the site were recovered, with pottery the most abundant. Small amounts of fired clay/daub and ferrous slag were also recorded, together Period 4: Medieval (c. AD1150–1500) with a limited range of metal, bone and other non-ceramic artefacts. The study area was divided up into plots during the medi- Although small, the assemblage of early prehistoric arte- eval period, which were demarcated by a series of ditched facts was enriched by the discovery of a complete collared boundaries (Fig. 9) running roughly perpendicular to the line urn, buried in a pit to the south of the ring ditch. The burial at of the High Street. G1 was the most completely excavated the centre of the ring ditch was accompanied by a small group boundary, measuring c. 1.0m wide and c. 0.3m deep; although of grave goods. A small number of flint artefacts were recov- its profile was variable, there was no evidence of re-cutting. ered both from the fills of the ring ditch and, residually, from Only shorter lengths of G3 and G5 were visible, yet it was later features. Decorated early–middle Iron Age pottery and clear that G5 was later re-cut, remaining in use into the post- fragments of plain, late Iron Age vessels, utilised as cremation medieval period. Pottery from these three ditches suggests urns, were also recovered. that they became infilled at some time after the 12th/13th The assemblage of Saxon artefacts is the largest and century. most varied. A significant quantity of both decorated and A single, apparently isolated hearth was recorded in the plain coarse ware pottery was collected from both SFBs and north-west part of Area 1. It was oval, measuring 0.90m x pits, representing one of the best assemblages recovered in 0.74m x 0.14m deep, and contained a layer of burnt cobbles recent years from Bedfordshire. A sample of the material above a charcoal-rich lower fill. The feature was dated by was subjected to thin section analysis. The same deposits a single sherd of developed St Neots-ware pottery from the also contained a small group of domestic and craft objects, 12/13th century. including items associated with weaving. A group of features close to the main cluster of buildings contained ferrous slag, suggesting both smelting and smithing on site. Period 5: Post-medieval (c. AD1500–1750) Details on the small number of medieval and post-medieval artefacts are confined to the project archive. The basic layout of the plots that were established in the medieval period appears to have continued in use; medieval ditch G5 was re-cut by L20, while trackway L15, defined Pottery by wheel ruts, was established immediately to the east of medieval boundary G1 (Fig. 9). Some evidence for domestic Introduction activity was also recorded: a large pit G27 was excavated The deposits (including those which were unstratified) near the southern margin of Area 1; and a post-built structure yielded a total of 504 vessels, represented by 917 sherds associated with a number of other pits lay within Area 2. The weighing 14.4kg. The analysis methodology is presented in digging and infilling of pits of this date probably occurred the appendix to this volume. Illustrated vessels are sequen- within or just outside the backyards of properties established tially numbered and catalogued in Table 1. Unless otherwise along the High Street. stated, quantitative data in the text is based on vessel count. 52 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Figure 9: Medieval and post-medieval features

The proportions of fabric types within each Period, Land-use Period 1: Neolithic and Early Bronze Age unit and Group are presented in the form of a seriation table (1% of total assemblage) (Table 2); this provides the structure for the following discussion, which considers the assemblage characteristic of each Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age period. Approximately 11% of the assemblage derives from Early Bronze Age pottery is represented by an intact, tripartite, post-medieval or unphased features and is excluded from the collared urn bearing filled triangle and lattice/lozenge cord- following discussion. impressed decoration (Fig 10: 1), which had been deliberately placed at the base of pit G22. Although severely distorted, the vessel survives in surprisingly good condition. The vessel PREHISTORIC RITUAL ACTIVITY AND SAXON SETTLEMENT AT MEADWAY 53

Figure 10: Illustrated pottery nos 1–19 54 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Figure 11: Illustrated pottery nos 20–24

Illustration Fabric Type Description Period Land-use Group Fig. 10: 1 X10 Tripartite collared urn 2 4 22 Fig. 10: 2 F16 Jar with upright rim and horizontal grooves 3 24 25 Fig. 10: 3 F17 Globular jar with incised chevron / line-and-dot design 3 24 25 Fig. 10: 4 F17 Carinated bowl 3 24 25 Fig. 10: 5 A23 Bowl 4 10 34 Fig. 10: 6 A23 Vessel with upright rim 4 14 30 Fig. 10: 7 A18 Vessel with upright rim 4 14 30 Fig. 10: 8 A18 Vessel with everted rim 4 10 34 Fig. 10: 9 A23 Everted rim vessel with horizontal grooves 4 10 34 Fig. 10: 10 A01 Vessel with upright rim 4 14 30 Fig. 10: 11 A18 Vessel with upright rim 4 10 34 Fig. 10: 12 A18 Bowl 4 10 34 Fig. 10: 13 A16 Sherd with incised and stamped decoration 4 10 60 Fig. 10: 14 A18 Spalled vessel 4 10 34 Fig. 10: 15 A16 Bowl 4 14 28 Fig. 10: 16 A16 Sherd with vertical boss 4 10 34 Fig. 10: 17 A18 Bowl 4 14 30 Fig. 10: 18 A23 Bowl 4 10 34 Fig. 10: 19 A16 Rusticated / pinched ?bowl 4 10 34 Fig. 11: 20 A23 Jar with finger impressed decoration 4 14 30 Fig. 11: 21 A18 Handle fragment 4 14 30 Fig. 11: 22 A11 Jar 4 9 12 Fig. 11: 23 A19 Sherd with horizontal boss 4 10 34 Fig. 11: 24 A11 Vessel with everted rim 4 9 12

Table 1: Illustrated pottery is very interesting in that it belongs to the Secondary Series, vessel is broadly comparable with an example from Crick, but bears traits typical of the North Western Style (Longworth Northamptonshire (P. Blinkhorn, pers. comm.). The cari- 1984, 33), confirming the minor, but clearly discernible pene- nated bowl bears a horizontal linear design, similar to vessels tration of the North Western style into South Eastern counties recovered from Biddenham, Bedfordshire (Wells 2008a, north of the Thames. A small number of examples are known fig. 8.12). Both vessels are brittle and distorted, and display from Bedfordshire, Cambridgeshire, Hertfordshire and patchy oxidised and reduced surfaces, resulting from a poorly Essex (I. Longworth pers. comm.), while the upper part of a controlled firing. Secondary Series tripartite collared urn was found inverted in The pits also contained three vessels in coarse shell- a pit during the 1950s salvage excavation to the north (Eagles tempered fabric F16. One is a probable jar with an upright and Evison 1970, 21 and fig. 9a). rim and horizontal grooved decoration at the shoulder (Fig. 10: 2); the remainder comprise undiagnostic body sherds. All Period 2: Iron Age are highly abraded and leached. (2% of total assemblage) The composition of the assemblage (vessel:sherd ratio 1:8; average sherd weight 28g) suggests a deliberate episode of Early–Middle Iron Age deposition/dumping of material. The two pits G25 yielded seven vessels of early–middle Iron Age date. Significant among these are sixteen sherds (529g) Late Iron Age of a globular jar (Fig. 10: 3) and seven sherds (141g) of a Apart from a residual, undiagnostic grog and shell-tempered carinated bowl (Fig. 10: 4), in grog-tempered fabric F17. sherd (fabric type F05) recovered from a medieval ditch, The jar is decorated with an incised chevron / line-and- the late Iron Age assemblage comprises sherds of two undi- dot design; although no precise parallel can be found, the agnostic vessels in an abraded, shell-tempered fabric, type PREHISTORIC RITUAL ACTIVITY AND SAXON SETTLEMENT AT MEADWAY 55 2 1 2 7 2 2 1 2 6 2 1 1 1 2 4 3 2 7 1 1 3 7 1 19 19 47 38 91 140 416 Total 1 1 P01 1 1 5 4 E03 1 1 C11 1 2 1 C09 2 2 C71 2 1 1 C60 1 1 C01 1 1 9 7 B07 1 3 2 1 1 1 34 25 B05 2 1 3 A11 1 1 A30 8 1 1 3 1 9 23 A29 1 5 4 A26 1 8 9 A25 7 6 1 2 5 1 4 1 1 18 63 17 A23 2 8 1 2 2 15 A19 1 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 29 86 32 A18 1 7 7 1 2 1 2 1 2 3 1 61 13 20 122 A16 2 2 A05 1 2 1 A01 1 1 2 R12B 1 3 6 1 1 R11D 1 2 1 R13 Table 2: Pottery seriation table (vessel count) Table 1 1 R08 2 1 1 R06E 1 2 1 R06C 2 1 1 R01 1 1 F05 2 2 F07 3 3 F16 4 4 F17 1 1 X10 4 6 8 2 36 51 60 79 32 12 25 22 17 33 34 54 72 58 62 48 56 64 74 80 24 28 29 30 31 G No. 3 6 9 4 5 11 10 10 10 24 10 10 17 17 17 18 16 17 12 13 13 13 13 13 14 14 14 14 14 L No. L Late E–M Period Late Neolithic / Iron Age: Early–middle Mid Neolithic early Bronze Age Saxon Total Medieval 1. 2. 3. 4. 56 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

F07. The fragments have heavily abraded interiors and it is (ordered by prevalence). Organic-rich fabrics are likely to impossible to determine whether they are wheel-thrown or have derived from local clay (glacial drift deposits), while handmade. Both derive from cremations S60 and S62 within those containing sandstone and granitic material are of inde- cemetery L6 and appear to have been used as urns to contain terminate origin. at least some of the cremation deposits. Both vessels are The surfaces of most examples are untreated apart from incomplete and, although portions of base survive, there are simple hand-wiping. Approximately 44% of the assemblage no rim fragments. This may in part be due to truncation, but bears some form of decoration (Table 3; Fig. 10: 9, 16 and the disposition of the fragments within the graves suggests 19; Fig. 11: 20 and 23). The single stamped jar bears an deliberate breakage or modification prior to deposition. incised linear decorative zone, within which is a rosette of six cruciform circle stamps surrounding a circular thumbprint Period 3: Early–middle Saxon depression (Fig. 10: 13). This decorative scheme is broadly (74% of total assemblage) paralleled by a vessel recovered from Brundall, Norfolk (Myres 1977, vol. 2, fig. 167/2391) and is likely to date to Chronology the 6th century (cf. Pennyland, Buckinghamshire: Blinkhorn The assemblage from the early–middle Saxon settlement 1993, 250–2). No significant correlations are discernible remains reflects a significant increase in activity during between fabric and form, or between fabric and decoration. this period. The majority of the assemblage (256 vessels) Diagnostic forms constitute 14% of the assemblage and comprises plain, undecorated ‘domestic’ wares broadly comprise jars and bowls with either everted, upright, or datable to c. 450–850. Only a much smaller number of vessels inturned rims (twenty-two, twenty and fifteen vessels respec- can be more precisely dated: eight vessels bearing stamps tively; Fig. 10: 5–8, 10–12, 14, 15, 17 and 18). Bases are or decoration, datable to c. 450–650; and three vessels of predominantly flat-rounded (ten vessels), with wear marks middle Saxon Maxey-type ware (fabric type A11) datable to noted on the basal exterior of two vessels; a single foot-ring c. 650–850. base is present. A handle fragment was also identified (Fig. 11: 21). The recognisable forms are indicative of a domestic Manufacture assemblage, comprising tablewares and cooking pots; use of The Saxon fabric types are largely consistent with those the latter for this purpose is attested by sooting on the exte- known from contemporary sites throughout the county, such rior of the vessels (Table 4). A number of sherds bear traces as Stewartby (Wells and Edwards, in prep.), Village Farm of thick internal black residues, probably resulting from the (McSloy 1995, 57), Stratton, near Biggleswade (Slowikowski accidental burning of the vessels’ contents during cooking. 1994, 45), and recent excavations at Honey Hill Farm, Four vessels in fabric A16 are brittle and distorted due Biddenham (M. Luke pers. comm.). The vessels, which are to overfiring, while two vessels, both in fine sand-tempered hard-fired, handmade, and in almost all cases entirely reduced, fabric A18, show evidence of spalling (Fig. 10: 14). It is are also comparable in both form and fabric to those recovered possible the latter occurred during use, although it may also from the ‘settlement area’ during the 1950s salvage excava- have happened during firing. tions to the north (Eagles and Evison 1970, 46 and fig. 15). None of the vessels show evidence of repair, possibly Petrological examination of fabric samples (Knowles and suggesting a readily available supply of new material. Winterbottom 1999) has revealed three major groupings, Although no evidence of pottery production contemporary comprising sandstone-rich, organic-rich, and granitic fabrics with the settlement was recovered, it is probable that the

Decorative element A01 A05 A16 A18 A19 A23 A25 A29 A33 Total Incised horizontal grooves 2 1 2 5 Stamped 1 1 Impressed 2 2 Burnished (including interior and exterior) 2 1 42 32 2 23 5 6 1 114 Finger-impressed 1 1 2 Pinched rustication 2 2 4 Coarse-slipped 1 1 Incised motif 1 2 3 Deliberate oxidisation 12 2 2 2 1 19 Total 2 1 62 35 6 27 5 7 6 151

Table 3: Saxon pottery sherds — decorative elements

Attribute A16 A18 A19 A23 A25 A26 A29 A33 A11 Total Sooted exterior (body sherd only) 5 9 3 1 1 3 1 23 Sooted interior (body sherd only) 1 3 2 1 1 8 Pitted interior 1 1 1 3 External black residue 3 1 1 5 Internal white residue 1 1 1 3 External white residue 1 1 Internal black residue 7 16 4 1 3 31 Wear marks (exterior base) 1 1 2 Total 18 31 2 12 3 1 7 1 1 76

Table 4: Saxon pottery sherds — functional attributes PREHISTORIC RITUAL ACTIVITY AND SAXON SETTLEMENT AT MEADWAY 57 majority of the pottery was made on the site, or in its vicinity; micaceous black ware and grey ware, while two undiagnostic the local clay is suitable for manufacturing pottery with shell-tempered sherds with horizontal rilling are likely to be comparatively simple tempering (Knowles and Winterbottom products of the nearby Harrold Lodge Farm kilns (Brown 1999; cf. Williams 1993, 97). 1994). Diagnostic forms include flanged bowls, an everted- rim jar and a beaker. Distribution The survival of these vessels as heirlooms is improbable; Approximately 55% of the Saxon pottery derives from the they are more likely to have been scavenged or collected from disuse fills of the SFBs in L10–L12. None of this material can a nearby, derelict settlement, such as Odell (Dix 1981) or the be directly related to the use of the buildings, but the composi- Bridgman Joinery site (Luke and Preece, this volume). Such tion and condition of the assemblages suggest single episodes activity is well attested from contemporary sites in the region, of deposition soon after the abandonment of the buildings. e.g. Pennyland and Hartigans, Buckinghamshire (Marney and Two vessels from the lower fills of SFB G33 (S65) were Williams 1993, 243–5) and Honey Hill Farm, Biddenham (M. chronologically indistinguishable from those recovered from Luke, pers. comm.). the disuse fills of the same building. The disuse fills of G33 also produced a single sherd (7g) of Maxey-type ware (fabric Period 4: Medieval type A11). The single stamped jar derives from SFB G59, (12% of total assemblage) associated with a group of plain wares. Medieval pottery has a fairly restricted distribution, deriving Disuse fills of various quarry and/or rubbish pits, prin- principally from the disuse fills of boundary ditch G1. The bulk cipally G30 and G31 (L14), accounted for 44% of the of the assemblage (fifty-seven vessels) is of 12th–13th-cen- early–middle Saxon pottery assemblage. Although similar tury date, while the remainder (four vessels) derives from the proportions of fabric types derived from the pits and SFBs 14th–15th centuries. Fabric types represented are comparable (Table 5), the pits produced a greater number of vessels with to those recovered from the salvage excavations to the north decorative elements. Vessels of comparable form and decora- (Eagles and Evison 1970, 50); the majority comprise shell- tion recovered from the 1950s excavations have been dated to tempered vessels (fabric B05) which are the products of kilns the 5th century (Eagles and Evison 1970, 48). at either Harrold or Olney-Hyde. Locally manufactured, sand- Two middle Saxon Maxey-type vessels (Fig 11: 22 and 24) tempered vessels occur in negligible quantities, as do regional derived from the disuse fills of ditch L9. Ceramics of this date imports from Hertfordshire (fabric C60), Buckinghamshire are poorly represented on the site; their scarcity may be indic- (fabrics C09 and C11) and Northamptonshire (fabric C10). ative of settlement shift. One contemporary sherd of Ipswich Diagnostic forms are rare, and comprise, in order of preva- ware was recovered from the 1950s salvage excavations to the lence, jars, bowls and jugs. Decoration is limited to external north (Eagles and Evison 1970, 46, Pit D). glazing on jugs, and a single sherd with an applied thumbed strip. Residual early–middle Saxon vessels comprise only 4% Quality of the Assemblage of the Period 4 assemblage. The presence of sizeable, largely unabraded sherds, many of which derive from the same vessel, suggests that much Conclusions of the material was subjected to minimal post-depositional The pre-Saxon and post-Saxon assemblages derived from disturbance or contamination. A high proportion of diag- Periods 1, 2 and 4 are too small for their analysis to contribute nostic elements survive, including, unusually, a number of greatly to our understanding of the site. The sizeable Period 3 base fragments. The average sherd weight of 20g is iden- assemblage from the early–middle Saxon settlement is of the tical to that recorded in the recently excavated assemblage greatest interest, though not without its limitations; unusually, from Honey Hill Farm, Biddenham (M. Luke, pers. comm.), it has suffered relatively little post-depositional disturbance but is relatively high in comparison with other contempo- or contamination. rary assemblages from this region: at Stewartby, to the south Given the small size of the site, there is a wide range of Bedford (Wells and Edwards, in prep.) and Pennyland, of Saxon fabric types. These are among the first from Buckinghamshire (Blinkhorn 1993, 247), the average sherd Bedfordshire to have undergone petrological analysis and will weight was 13–14g. The undisturbed character of the assem- hopefully provide a benchmark for future study. However, blage is further evidenced by a vessel to sherd ratio of 1:7. the very localised nature of pottery production may preclude meaningful inter-site studies until much more work has been Residual Roman Pottery completed on other sites (Knowles and Winterbottom 1999). Residual Roman material (predominantly 3rd–4th century The ceramic evidence from Meadway is largely consistent in date) constitutes only 5% of the ceramic assemblage in terms of typology and chronology with that from the 1950s from the early–middle Saxon settlement. Two sherds of salvage excavations to the north, where Eagles and Evison 2nd–3rd-century samian ware were recovered, along with suggested an early date, perhaps the 5th century, for the estab- regional fine-ware imports from Oxfordshire and the Nene lishment of the settlement (Eagles and Evison 1970, 48). The Valley. Fabrics of probable local manufacture include difficulties in refining the dating of Saxon pottery assemblages

Feature type A01 A05 A16 A18 A19 A23 A25 A26 A29 A30 A11 Total Pit (non-specific) 17 13 2 9 1 42 Rubbish pit 1 2 22 35 3 19 4 11 1 98 Quarry pit 1 2 3 Sunken-Featured Building 1 80 34 10 32 9 1 11 1 179 Total 2 2 120 84 15 60 9 5 23 1 1 322

Table 5: Proportion of fabric types from pits and SFBs 58 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY beyond a broad range of c. AD450–850 have been well docu- period ends with a catalogue of the Registered Artefacts mented (Blinkhorn 1993, 246; Hamerow 1993, 37). The same (RAs) that have been covered. problem is encountered with the Meadway assemblage, the Measurements denote the maximum surviving artefact bulk of which can only broadly be dated typologically to the length, unless otherwise stated. early–middle Saxon period. However, the single stamped vessel (Fig. 10: 13) from SFB G59 is likely to date to the 6th Period 1 century, and the relative scarcity of middle Saxon fabrics (e.g. Two flints were the only contemporary artefacts recovered Maxey-type ware) suggests that a shift in settlement location from the early Neolithic deposits. The upper fill of burial may have occurred in the 7th century. This is mirrored by the G20 contained a patinated secondary flake; damage to the earlier excavations to the north, where only a single sherd of proximal end precludes determining whether this flake was Ipswich ware, also of middle Saxon date, was found (Eagles struck with a soft or hard hammer. Pit G18 also yielded a pati- and Evison 1970, 50 and fig. 15n). nated secondary flake, which had an obtuse flaking angle and Evidence for use of the pottery, and the range of forms was hard-hammer-struck. It is possible that this derived from present, are indicative of a predominantly domestic assem- activity associated with the later ring ditch L3, which trun- blage. Although hinting at the character and possible function cated pit G18. of the site, study of the composition and distribution of the Bronze Age burial G19 was accompanied by a group of Period 3 assemblage has not assisted in determining aspects four grave goods, placed next to the right pelvis. The cluster of the spatial organisation of this settlement: there is no signif- of objects comprised two hard-hammer-struck primary flakes, icant divergence in forms between the assemblages from the one with slight nicking along one lateral edge suggesting it may SFBs and the pits, for instance. Analysis of the evidence for have been utilised; a water-worn, banded pebble, smoothed vessel use, in the form of sooting, wear marks or residues etc., through handling; and an unmodified boar’s tusk. Boars’ tusks has also proved of limited value, as the proportion of vessels are among a group of ‘special items’ which began to appear bearing these attributes is so low. as grave goods with individual burials after 3000BC (Parker In general, few Saxon settlements in Bedfordshire have Pearson 1993, 76); a comparable find, from the burial of an been archaeologically investigated, and extant assemblages adult male at Irthlingborough, Northamptonshire, has been are too disparate to be statistically useful. Accordingly, there radiocarbon dated to cal 2900–2470BC. The Irthlingborough is only limited scope for localised comparison of the pottery tusk appears to have been curated before deposition, as the with assemblages from similar sites. The Meadway material body dates to cal 2210–1940BC (A. Bayliss pers. comm.), appears to be in the tradition of the early and middle Saxon slightly earlier than the date of 1935–1735BC (95% proba- pottery of the area, and comprises a similar range of vessels bility) for burial G19. The primary fill of burial G19 yielded the and forms to other sites both in the county and, more broadly, tips of two tines, probably red deer, which had been smoothed in the South-East Midlands. The assemblage is invaluable from use (see p. 44). An antler beam with the remains of three in contributing to the excavated body of Saxon material, but tines, two with their tips broken off, was found within the offers little scope for further detailed analysis at this stage. upper fill of the same burial (RA18), and can be refitted with at least one of the tine tips from the primary fill. It is possible that the antler was used to excavate the grave, and was either Daub and Fired Clay broken as a result or was purposefully broken as part of the burial rite. A small quantity of daub and fired clay (1.1kg) was associ- A small assemblage of six flints — two secondary and four ated with the early–middle Saxon settlement, 98% of which tertiary flakes — were found within the middle and upper fills derives from the disuse fills G30 of quarry/refuse pits G29 and of ring ditch L3. Half exhibit post-depositional damage, with G31. The material all occurs in a fairly hard-fired, uniformly the proximal end broken off. Where surviving, the bulb of oxidised, sand-tempered fabric. A number of fragments retain percussion indicates the flakes were hard-hammer-struck. finger-smoothed surfaces and/or edges, while wattle impres- RA19: L2, G19. Flake. Flint (grey-brown). Primary flake, hard-hammer- sions (c. 15mm wide) were noted on material from G30 and struck; cortex remaining at distal end and small patch near crude striking from the disuse fill G34 of SFB G33. platform. Triangular in cross-section. Length 57.8mm; width 36.5mm; thickness 15.5mm; weight 22.3g.

RA20: L2, G19. Flint (grey-brown, with one imperfection). Large, hard- ther rtefacts ‘O A ’ hammer-struck primary flake with hinge fracture; cortex remaining on lower half of dorsal surface. Slight nicking along exposed lateral edge. Length Introduction 69mm; width 65mm; thickness (max.) 9.8mm; weight 37.6mm. Sixty-three individual items were recovered, including twenty-five pieces of worked flint and 5.4kg of ferrous slag. RA22: L2, G19. Quartzite pebble. Rounded sub-rectangular water-worn/ river-rolled pebble; all surfaces smoothed, with traces of polish. Length Selected objects are illustrated in Figure 12. Unstratified finds 85.4mm. deriving from the ploughsoil are excluded from the catalogue, along with those artefacts whose date range places them RA21: L2, G19. Boar’s tusk. Incomplete. Length 123.5mm. beyond the scope of this publication, fifteen pieces of struck RA18: L2, G19. ?Pick? Antler. Part of antler beam with remains of three flint that were residual within later deposits, and post-medi- tines. Tips of two tines broken off, third short tine worn and damaged eval artefacts that were recovered as intrusive finds in earlier (through use?). One tine tip from the lower fill of grave G20 joins RA18. features. Length 300mm.

Discussion Period 2 The ‘other artefact’ assemblage is discussed by period, and Artefacts from Period 2 were limited to worked flint: two details of form, manufacture, parallels and suggested date tertiary flakes, one with a small area of retouch along one have been provided where relevant. The discussion of each lateral edge, were found in early–middle Iron Age pits G25. PREHISTORIC RITUAL ACTIVITY AND SAXON SETTLEMENT AT MEADWAY 59

Although it is possible that flint-working may have continued recovered from mid to late Saxon contexts at Fishergate into the Iron Age (cf. Young et al. 1999), the assemblage (Rogers 1993, 1266; fig. 625: 4957 and 4967), Coppergate is too small and the contextual evidence too limited in this (Ottaway 1992, 540; fig. 213) and Thetford (Goodall 1984, instance to confirm or refute the argument. A fragment of a fig. 119: 22–30). blade recovered from unurned late Iron Age cremation burial Weaving is demonstrated both by loom weights and a S59 was undoubtedly residual. double-ended (cigar-shaped) ‘pin-beater’ (RA 7). The use of pin-beaters in conjunction with the warp-weighted loom Period 3 has been demonstrated both by experiment and by finds of Early–middle Saxon deposits accounted for the bulk of the loom weights and bone tools on settlement sites (Brown ‘Other Artefacts’ assemblage. The following discussion first 1990a, 226). Double-ended pin-beaters can be separated into examines the range of activities represented by the assem- two distinct types based on their length, as observed at West blage and then looks at its distribution (Table 6). Stow, Suffolk (West 1985, fig. 129: 4 and 5) and Pennyland, Little was identified in the way of iron structural fittings or Buckinghamshire (Waller 1993, 117–9 and fig. 61). This fasteners, the sole example being an arm from a rectangular has promoted the theory that pin-beaters of differing lengths staple. The narrowness of the item perhaps suggests it served formed part of a differentiated set used during weaving on a box or casket, rather than holding more robust timbers (Waller 1993, 119). The Meadway pin-beater is of type A (up in place. The dearth of iron structural fittings may be due to to 110mm in length), examples of which have been found a combination of factors, including the method of (and mate- in early to mid-Saxon deposits (cf. Pennyland, Waller 1993, rials used in) construction of the buildings, and recycling of 117). materials after buildings went out of use. Remains of at least three loom weights were identi- That iron was available is attested by the ferrous slags fied. The objects indicate the use of a warp-weighted loom, recovered; 85% (4.6 kg) of the total ferrous slag assemblage where circular weights were used to tension the warp. The derived from Period 3 deposits. Iron smelting is attested most complete example (RA11) conforms to an ‘intermediate by the presence of dense, sub-rectangular slabs of tap slag type’ (Dunning et al. 1959, 23–4), formed from a disc of clay (2.2kg), their well-defined form indicating flow/removal into which has been pierced, the central hole being smaller than a network of cooling channels. Traces of mineralised organic the width of clay around it. The intermediate form is thought matter and charcoal on a number of associated furnace slags to succeed the earlier annular form and has a suggested date are likely to indicate the use of these materials as fuel (B. of 7th–8th-century. This example is also noteworthy in having Peacock, pers. comm.). Ferrous smithing slag (2.1kg) was comb-impressed linear decoration. Poorly fired fragments of also present, as was hammerscale. The presence of smelting a second fired-clay loom weight were recovered from the residues implies a greater degree of technological expertise disuse fills of SFB G57, and an undiagnostic fragment of and organisation than that required for smithing alone, in both probable loom weight from pit G80. the acquisition of raw materials (iron-rich ore, limestone flux The final two objects have only tentatively been assigned and fuel) and of skilled personnel. Although the processes a role in textile production. The first is a possible shearboard of smelting and smithing are well attested from sites such as hook (RA12). Wool cloth can be taken from the loom, washed Mucking (McDonnell 1993, 83) and Coppergate (McDonnell and used straightaway, or it may be ‘soft-finished’; fulled for 1992, 471ff.), the former remains poorly evidenced from a matted finish; or fulled, teaselled and sheared for a more smaller rural settlements. dense, felt-like nap (Rogers 1997, 1771). A nap can be raised The second craft evidenced in the assemblage is textile on wool cloth by brushing over the surface with teasels set in production. Remains of an iron spike (RA2), possibly from a frame. The cloth is then fixed to a padded bench with iron a heckle or perhaps a wool comb, attest to the processing of clips, known variously as havettes, habricks or shearboard wool or flax prior to spinning. Three iron heckle teeth were hooks, and sheared with large iron cropping shears (Rogers recovered from the grave of an adult male during the 1950s 1997, 1773). Most textiles from Anglo-Saxon England were investigations (Eagles and Evison 1970, 39), although none left without any form of finish, but a number of napped fabrics derived from the settlement area. Similar objects have been have been identified in Anglian cemeteries such as West

Artefact type L10 L11 L13 L14 Totals G33/34 G59/60 G57/58 G40/41 G43/44 G47/48 G80 G30 Ferrous slag (smithing) 1,027g 940g 212g 2,179g Ferrous slag (smelting) 2,400g 2,400g Ferrous slag (undiagnostic) 22g 4g 26g Loom weight 1 1 1 3 Pin beater 1 1 Heckle 1 1 Shearboard hook 1 1 ‘Lucet’ 1 1 Pins 4 4 Strap mount 1 1 Buzz toy 1 1 Mixing palette 1 1 Spoon 1 1 Staple 1 1 Total (items) 8 1 1 1 5 16 Total (slags) 1,049g 2,404g 940g 212g 4,605g

Table 6: Distribution of Period 3 ‘other artefacts’ 60 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Heslerton, where they were used as cloaks (Rogers 1997, and fig. 21: SG93 no.2). Others at Holywell Row (Lethbridge 1774). A shearboard hook, described as ‘a twisted iron rod 1931, fig. 14: C2), Burwell (Lethbridge 1931, fig. 30: 2) and with hook at either end, the twist giving it spring to allow it to Dover (Evison 1987, 87) generally came from late 6th- and hold the cloth taut’ was found in mid-9th to early 10th-century 7th-century contexts. A rectangular example, without a central deposits at Coppergate, as were remains of flower-heads of slot, was found in an SFB (Hut J) during the 1950s investiga- fuller’s teasel (Rogers 1997, 1774). The Meadway example tions (Eagles and Evison 1970, fig. 14: g). is incomplete, lacking the hooked ends, although it does taper A single perforated sheep/goat metacarpal (RA25) was to either end. It is of similar size to the Coppergate example found in SFB G59. The precise function of such items has and does have a twist, in this instance apparently formed by been a matter of debate, although current opinion favours twisting two separate rods. their use as musical instruments (buzz toys), which were spun A single example of a so-called ‘lucet’, a utilised bovine on cords passing through the central perforation to create a nasal bone, was recovered from G30 (RA3). The classifica- whirring or humming effect (Lawson 1995, 2). The unworn tion and function of these objects continues to be the subject condition of RA25 suggests that it may have been broken of some debate (MacGregor 1985, 175–6; MacGregor et al. during manufacture and subsequently discarded. Such items 1999, 1994; Rogers 1997, 1790). Points which have appar- are well attested from sites of the late Saxon and early medi- ently been utilised have been tentatively classified as a tool eval periods, including Coppergate (Rogers 1993, 1263), type. Suggested functions include a netting tool, shellfish Thetford (Rogerson and Dallas 1984, 182) and St Peter’s fork, or a thread-twister, the latter gaining favour in recent Street, Northampton (Oakley and Harman 1979, 313–4). years (MacGregor et al. 1999, 1994). Rogers points out that The final two items are of Roman date. While it is possible while almost any two-pronged object can be used as a lucet to that these objects may have been heirlooms, it is perhaps produce a square-section braid, no lucet-worked braids have more likely that they were scavenged from a nearby Roman yet been found from Anglo-Saxon, Anglo-Scandinavian or settlement, such as the Bridgman Joinery site (Luke and medieval England (Rogers 1997, 1790). Preece, this volume) or Odell (Dix 1981). The first is an Although no waste products from bone-working were example of a mixing palette (RA8), small slabs of stone on recovered, the presence of a pin-beater, a buzz toy and bone which cosmetics or medicines were mixed (Milne 1970, 171; dress pins (see below) does indicate that at least a basic level Crummy 1983, 57). In addition to their frequently dished of bone-working was being carried out during this period. mixing surface, these palettes have distinctive bevelled edges. Finds of a more domestic nature were also recovered, The second item is the handle from a cast spoon (RA6), of late including four bone pins, three comprising modified pig 3rd–mid 4th-century date. This is paralleled closely by a find fibulae and the fourth formed from a long-bone fragment from an Anglo-Saxon inhumation at the King Harry Lane site, of an unidentified mammal. Pig fibulae pins have been Verulamium (Ager 1989, 237 and fig. 81: 5). found on many Anglo-Saxon and Saxo-Norman sites (cf. Examining the distribution of the craft- and industry-related Rogers 1993, 1369 for a list). In the simplest form, repre- items, it is evident that there is a clear concentration of ferrous sented here by RA15, the naturally flattened and expanded slags, both smithing and smelting, in L13 (Fig. 6). Although distal end forms the head of the pin. In the second form, the these were redeposited, it does suggest that ironworking was expanded distal end has been perforated (RA16 and RA17), carried out in the vicinity; this is further supported by the pres- the lateral expansion of the articular end surviving intact. In ence of hammerscale within the fills of SFB G33 (see 00–00). most instances, pig fibula pins have been interpreted as dress Although the fills of SFB G33 may have been redeposited, it fasteners, but some debate surrounds perforated examples is worth noting that hammerscale is often found in the imme- due to their rarity in Anglo-Saxon burials, and their rela- diate vicinity of the smithing hearth. tive abundance in other contexts. Opinion continues to be Objects associated with textile production are less clear- divided as to whether this variety served as dress fasteners, cut, although this may be a reflection of the fact that textile in which a cord passed through the perforated head, helping production was a domestic occupation rather than a special- to keep the pin in place, or as needles (MacGregor et al. ised industry at this time (cf. Rogers 1997, 1824–9). Most 1999, 1950). In the case of the two perforated examples residential buildings may well thus yield textile-related arte- from Meadway, the fact that the lateral expansion on the facts, as did SFBs G33 and G57. The slight concentration of head of the pins is intact would seem to make them unlikely textile tools in G30, the disuse fill of possible quarry pits G29 candidates for needles. and G31 (Fig. 7), may indicate a second focus of domestic The fourth pin (RA14) may be an example of a fairly buildings in this area (Table 6). As indicated above, the crudely made ‘headless’ pin. Such pins are generally made presence of bone artefacts hints at bone-working within the with care, the shaft tapering smoothly from the widest point settlement. The four bone pins from SFB G33, combined with at the head to the tip (MacGregor 1985, 116), whereas the a concentration of pig bone (see p. 67), suggests this activity shaft of the Meadway example is quite irregular in places. was carried out in the vicinity of that building. Most headless pins are thought to date to the earlier part of the Roman period (MacGregor 1985, 116). There is, however, RA2: L14, G30. Fibre-processing spike (heckle tooth?). Iron. Tapering shaft an example from 8th–9th-century deposits at Fishergate, of rounded to rectangular cross-section; slightly stepped or bearded head (split longitudinally due to corrosion); lower shaft missing. Length 59.5mm; the similarity to contemporary headless copper alloy pins width 5mm; thickness 6mm. suggesting it may not have been residual (Rogers 1993, 1368– 9). RA14 came from the same SFB as the pig fibulae pins. RA7: L10, G34. Pin-beater. Bone. Complete, double-ended, cigar-shaped The only other dress accessory recovered was made from object, highly polished, with a smooth finish. Type A. Length 94.2mm. copper alloy (RA10). It comprised a small triangular plate with cast rivets in situ, thought to be one plate of a riveted RA11: L14, G30, Fig. 12: 1. Loom weight. Ceramic. Approximately one- third of a well fired, slightly oxidised intermediate-type loom weight, with double-plate strap stiffener. A triangular strap stiffener of the remains of three lines of comb-impressed decoration on obverse surface. similar size, though with a central slot, was found within a Reverse surface flat. Pierced central perforation (diameter 28mm). Outer grave at Melbourn, Cambridgeshire (Duncan et al. 2003, 115 circumference highly abraded. Width of ring 43mm; height 35.5mm. PREHISTORIC RITUAL ACTIVITY AND SAXON SETTLEMENT AT MEADWAY 61

RA12: L10, G34. Shearboard hook? Iron. Square-sectioned rod, tapering Period 4 slightly towards each end; both ends missing. X-ray suggests the rod is The few finds from medieval deposits were restricted in distri- formed of two rods spirally twisted together. Length 111.3mm; width 5.5mm; thickness 5.5mm. bution to the fills of boundary ditch G1. Two flat-headed nails, a sherd of clear window glass with a pale green tinge, and RA3: L14, G30. ‘Lucet’? Bone. Utilised bovine nasal bone — double small quantities of ferrous slag comprise the assemblage. Both pronged point. Length 90.8mm. smelting (27g) and smithing (558g) slag were again present, RA15: L10, G34. Bone pin. Modified pig fibula; shank thinned to form point with smithing futher evidenced by a plano-convex hearth with polished shank and unperforated triangular head. Length 79.5mm. bottom (length 91mm; width 81mm; thickness 57.6mm). The upper surface bears a characteristic depression resulting from RA16: L10, G34. Bone pin. Modified pig fibula with polished shank and the air blast from the bellows forcing the semi-liquid slag to circular distal perforation (diameter 3.8mm) through the triangular head. Length 70.5mm. the sides of the hearth bottom (cf. McDonnell, 1992, 474). RA17: L10, G34. Bone pin. Modified pig fibula with polished shank and oval Period 5 perforation (3mm wide and 5mm long) through the triangular head. Length Two nails were found in post-medieval boundary ditch L20. 102.9mm. The artefacts from L19 all derived from pit G27, and comprise RA14: L10, G34. Bone pin. Modified fragment of long-bone from uniden- a small quantity of ferrous smelting slag (243g), an incom- tified mammal. Pin with somewhat irregular sub-rounded tapering shank. plete whittle-tang knife, window glass, and fragments of wine Plain, ‘flat’ head, thinned on one side by angled cut. Length 69.1mm. bottle thought to date to c. 1655–1750. RA10: L14, G30. Strap mount. Copper alloy. Undecorated, flat, triangular mount retaining three cast (i.e. not rolled shanks) copper alloy rivets at each Conclusions corner; rivets incomplete. This may be one plate of a riveted double-plate The size and nature of the ‘other artefacts’ assemblage allow strap-stiffener. Length 18mm; width 17.4mm; thickness of plate 0.45mm; only limited conclusions to be drawn regarding the character surviving height of rivets 3.2mm. and date of activity at the site. The assemblage comprises RA25: L10, G60. Buzz toy. Bone. Incomplete worked sheep/goat metacarpal a fairly disparate group of artefacts, few of which are of with the remains of a carefully drilled circular, central perforation (c. 5mm intrinsic interest. Typologically datable artefacts, although diameter). Length 64.0mm. few in number, are indicative of both early prehistoric and RA8: L10, G34. Mixing palette. Mudstone or siltstone. Rectangular in Saxon occupation, attested by the presence of the small lithic plan with bevelled edges. Flat underside is worn smooth and bears patches assemblage and Saxon domestic/craft items. of polish. One corner broken off. Length 76mm; width 56.3mm; thickness Considered collectively, the diagnostic Saxon objects 11mm. are principally craft-related. Possibly three stages in textile RA6: L14, G30, Fig. 12: 2. Copper alloy spoon. Bowl missing; the surviving production were identified — fibre-processing, weaving and open scroll offset would have attached the bowl to the twisted handle. perhaps finishing of wool cloth. They suggest textile produc- Extensively corroded. Length 108.8mm. tion at a family level, rather than activity carried out by

Figure 12: Selected ‘other artefacts’ 62 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY specialist craftsmen. The presence of redeposited ferrous slag skeleton — characteristically the area of preferential bone indicates both the primary extraction of metal from the ore destruction. Skeleton G19, although weathered and of a by the smelting process, and the fabrication of artefacts in the slightly battered appearance, was generally better preserved, smithing process. Bone-working is also suggested, at least on probably as a result of the ameliorating effects of the organic a small-scale. The distribution pattern of the artefacts suggests material along the base of the grave on the microenvironment two foci of Saxon activity; however, the material cannot be of the fill. The difference in preservation between the two directly related to the use of specific buildings, since it repre- burials is reflected in the percentages of skeletal recovery. sents deposition from a secondary source, perhaps soon after At 0.45m and 0.9m respectively, inhumation graves G20 the abandonment of the buildings. and G19 were relatively deep, yet the bone was fairly heavily broken. The skull from G20 was shattered, with a combination of old and fresh breaks elsewhere. All the bone from THE ECOFACTS burial G19 was badly broken, some being shattered; all were old breaks. The loss of the right shoulder and upper arm bone Introduction from G20, both uppermost in the grave, indicate that at least some post-depositional disturbance has occurred. The absence Human bone, animal bone and charred plant remains were of the left hand bones from this burial also indicates that they recovered from the site. In addition, soil samples were subject were removed by truncation, and suggesta that the hand was to chemical and micromorphological analysis and bone originally resting on the right shoulder or upper arm. samples were taken for radiocarbon dating. Skeletal indices Stature was estimated for the Neolithic female (G20) at 1.57m Human Bone (5’ 1’’). Jaqueline McKinley Pathology Summary Both adults from the inhumation burials had mild to moderate Material was analysed from two inhumation and ten cremation periodontal (gum) disease, predominantly in the distal burials. Inhumation burial G20 has a calibrated radiocarbon alveolus. Calculus deposits (tartar) were also noted in both date of 3325–3225BC or 3120–2915BC (Beta-139476:4350+/- dentitions, slight to mild in the early Neolithic burial G20 40BP), while the other (G19) has a calibrated radiocarbon date and mild to moderate in G19; since the latter was potentially of 1935–1735BC (Beta-139477: 3470 +/-40BP). One of the slightly younger than the former, the factor of age in relation cremation-related deposits has been tentatively dated to the to severity of the condition is questionable as the main causa- earlier Bronze Age, with the remainder to the late Iron Age. tive factor. A potential of twelve individuals are represented by the Carious lesions were observed in 8:23 teeth from G20, remains: one each from the Neolithic inhumation burial, the and dental abscesses had formed in the sockets of four of the early Bronze Age inhumation burial and the possible earlier carious teeth, with a further four lesions elsewhere. The rates Bronze Age cremation-related deposit; and six, probably nine, for both these conditions are considerably higher than those from the Iron Age deposits. The tentative assignment of nine noted in other Neolithic assemblages (cf. Brothwell 1972, fig. Iron Age individuals is due to the inconclusive interpreta- 55; McKinley 1999). In contrast, the adult male G19 showed tion of the nature of three of the features (S55, S58 and S61), no carious lesions. He had, however, lost the left mandibular discussed in more detail below. The results of the analysis are first incisorante mortem, and there were two dental abscesses. summarised in Table 7. This suggests that he may have suffered a blow to the face, resulting in a broken tooth; the exposed pulp cavity in the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age Inhumations broken tooth may have led to abscess formation and conse- Condition and disturbance quent tooth loss. Skeleton G20 was moderately worn and root-marked, with Comparison between the two inhumed individuals in an flaking to parts of the skull and loss of much of the axial attempt to ascertain differences in diet between the Neolithic

Burial Type Weight of % of skeleton Age Sex cremated bone (g) recovered Period 1: Neolithic / early Bronze Age L7: G20 Inhumation c. 60% Mature/older adult >35yr female L2: G19 Inhumation c. 70% Mature adult c. 25–35 yr male L3: G79 ?unurned cremation / ? rpd 88.3 Mature/older adult > c. 30 yr ? Period 2: Iron Age L6: S60 Urned cremation in cist grave 937.0 young adult c. 18–25 yr female L6: S62 Urned cremation in cist grave 1,008.4 young/mature adult c. 18–45 yr ?female L6: S55 Unurned cremation /? rpd 5.9 immature L6: S56 Unurned cremation 149.2 Adult >18 yr ??female L6: S57 Unurned cremation 30.0 Sub-adult/ young adult c. 15–25 yr ? L6: S58 Unurned cremation /? rpd 284.7 Mature adult c. 25–45 yr ??female L6: S59 Unurned cremation 82.0 Older sub-adult c. 15–18 yr female L6: S61 Unurned cremation /? rpd 61.0 older mature/older adult c. 30–45 yr ? L6: S63 Unurned cremation 56.4 Infant c. 3 yr rpd = redeposited pyre debris; ?? = possible; ? = probable Table 7: Summary of results from human bone analysis PREHISTORIC RITUAL ACTIVITY AND SAXON SETTLEMENT AT MEADWAY 63 and the early Bronze Age should be approached with caution, is limited by the size of the cemetery and the possibility that as a number of factors other than diet may have had an effect further burials may have extended to the east, outside the exca- on the disease rates. Carious lesions and dental abscesses vated area. The group spans a wide age range, comprising five generally show an increase in severity with age (Miles 1969, adults and four immature individuals, including one infant and fig. 8; Harman 1990, table 2.6); studies have also shown two older sub-adults. Four of the adults have been assessed as that females are more affected by caries than males, and that female or probably/possibly female, as has one of the sub- some individuals are more susceptible to the condition than adults. The potential significance of the apparent exclusion others (Hillson 1986, 287 and 293). Consequently, compari- of males from the group must include consideration of the sons between single individuals of different age and sex from fact that the two unsexed sub-adult/adults may be male. An different periods are inadvisable. uneven ratio of females to males amongst sexed individuals Slight dental hypoplasia (developmental defect in the tooth from Iron Age cremation cemeteries is not unusual, and has enamel; Hillson 1979) was noted in all the teeth in the adult been noted to work in favour of one or other sex in different male dentition (G19), indicative of repeated periods of illness cemeteries (McKinley 1997a, 64–5). Here, the small size of or malnutrition (sufficiently severe to cause growth arrest in the cemetery precludes much comment other than to register the tooth enamel) throughout the individual’s childhood. The the apparent, at very least uneven, sex distribution. individual also showed very slight porotic cribra orbitalia in one orbital vault; the condition is generally believed to result The Iron Age cremation cemetery: pyre technology and from a metabolic disorder connected with childhood iron- cremation rituals deficiency anaemia (Robledoet al. 1995). Although the majority of the cremated bone was the buff/ Slight, smooth new bone formation was noted on the white colour indicative of a high degree of oxidation (Holden walls of the right maxillary sinus from G19, indicative of et al. 1995a and b), a few fragments from four of the Iron Age sinus infection (Wells 1977). It is thought that sinusitis was burials showed variations in colour demonstrating incomplete probably prevalent in the cold, damp climate of Northern oxidation of the organic components of the bone. Numerous Europe, exacerbated by smoky dwellings with poor ventila- fragments of skull, upper and lower limb from two burials tion (Roberts and Manchester 1997, 131). (S60 and S62) were blue/grey. Fewer fragments were affected Slight lesions, indicative of osteoarthritis (Rogers et al. in burial S58, though with a similar distribution; the colour 1987, Rogers and Waldron 1995), were noted in the atlas- ranged from brown (effectively unburnt), through black axis joint of the adult male G19, and minor Schmorl’s nodes (charred) to blue/grey. Only two fragments from burial S61 (destructive lesions in the vertebral body surface) were noted were black (tarsal) or blue/grey (humerus), and one from S56 in two of the fourteen vertebrae recovered. Osteophytes (hand bone, grey). (irregular growths of new bone along joint margins), pitting Numerous factors may influence the efficiency of crema- and other destructive lesions may develop in response to a tion (McKinley 1994a, 77–84), which requires sufficient number of conditions and it is not always possible to ascertain time, temperature and oxygen supply to effect full oxida- the specific cause of individual lesions (Rogers and Waldron tion of the bone, the three factors being interrelated. Where 1995). The vast majority of these lesions, which were slight elements from all the skeletal areas are involved, a general to mild in severity, were seen in joint surfaces and are most deficiency is indicated, such as insufficient temperature and/ likely to represent the early stages of some form of joint or time for cremation. The potential effects of adverse weather disease. Similarly, it is not always possible to be conclusive conditions should not, however, be overlooked. Where more with respect to the aetiology of exostoses, bony growths which singular elements are affected, a peripheral (cooler) position may develop at tendon and ligament insertions on the bone. on the pyre, fragments falling off the pyre, or burial under fuel Causative factors include advancing age, traumatic stress and ash (thereby cutting-off the oxygen supply) may all have had various diseases. As with the dental lesions, any meaningful an effect. The latter factors may also reflect a lack of tending comparison between remains from the different periods is of the pyre, peripheral fragments not being moved back into hampered by poor bone survival (e.g. the recovery of only the hotter or more oxygen-rich areas. It should not, however, sacral vertebrae from inhumation burial G20 and the singu- be assumed that the variations in cremation efficiency neces- larity of remains from the Neolithic and early Bronze Age). sarily demonstrate poor technology or inefficient personnel; it is not improbable that what was considered ‘efficient’ crema- Late Iron Age Cremation Burials tion may have varied considerably from our present western Condition and disturbance perception. The cremated bone was generally in good condition and The quantities of bone recovered from the burials ranged included a representative quantity of trabecular bone, indi- widely from 5.9g (immature individual) to 1008.4g (urned cating that the soil conditions had not been detrimental to its burial of an adult in shallow cist grave S62). The latter repre- survival. However, the features containing cremated remains sents c. 63% of the expected weight of bone from an adult were only 0.06–0.25m in depth, and all are believed to have cremation (McKinley 1993), yet even in this case, the grave is been truncated to some degree. In the deepest of these features believed to have been truncated and an unquantifiable amount (S60), the urn had clearly been truncated and one side of the of bone may have been lost. There is no direct relationship vessel was missing the full depth of the grave, which may between the level of apparent truncation and the amount of suggest not only truncation but possibly selective deposition bone recovered from a deposit: 1008.4g was recovered from rather than partial removal of some of the buried remains. As S62 at 0.10m, compared with only 284.7g from burial S58 at there was little indication of animal disturbance, some other 0.24m, and 61g from S61 at 0.19m (all adult remains). The agency, possibly in antiquity, must have been responsible. lowest weights were recovered from the graves of immature individuals, which produced 5.9–56.4g of bone. Demographic data Incomplete recovery of cremated remains from the pyre for The small Iron Age assemblage of cremation burials does burial is a characteristic of the rite. However, comment on the appear to form a cohesive group, but demographic comment possible significance of the different bone weights between 64 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY burials would be inappropriate due to the suspected high level unknown levels of truncation and disturbance. The two urned of truncation and hence potential bone loss. Comparison with burials were recovered from cist graves, but there were clearly other contemporary cemeteries is similarly precluded, though differences in the attendant burial rituals. Prior to insertion of substantial variation in bone weights has been noted from the cist, grave S60 had been partially backfilled (0.10m depth) other Iron Age sites (McKinley 1997a, 68–9). with what appeared to be redeposited pyre debris, comprising The degree of bone fragmentation was at the lower end dispersed fragments of cremated human bone and charcoal. of the range generally observed. Many factors may affect The bone from pyre debris appeared to represent remains the size of cremated bone fragments (McKinley 1994b), from the same individual as the burial, and comprised c.17% the type of burial (urned or unurned) and post-depositional of the total weight recovered from the grave. The inclusion disturbance being important influences. This is demonstrated of redeposited pyre debris in grave fills is not an uncommon by the fact that a greater percentage of large fragments and characteristic of the cremation rite (McKinley 1997a, 71; the maximum-sized fragments were recovered from the two 1997b), yet deposition is generally over or around the burial; urned burials. In the Meadway assemblage, post-depositional only one other instance where redeposited pyre debris was fragmentation due to disturbance is likely to have had a major deliberately ‘sealed’ below the burial is known to the writer, influence. In general, the fragment sizes observed are within in a Bronze Age burial from Hampshire (Fitzpatrick and Allen the ‘normal’ range for Iron Age cemeteries (McKinley 1997a, 2008; McKinley 1997b, 138). The vast majority (95.2%) of 69) and do not suggest deliberate fragmentation of bone prior the cremated bone from the burial (0.24m deep) was recovered to burial; one possible exception may be burial S56, where from the upper half, which raises the question as to what was only 22% of bone fragments were >10mm and the maximum in the lower half of the vessel to keep the bone in this elevated fragment was only 26mm. The grave was not insubstantial, at position? It was presumably some form of organic material, a depth of 0.19m, though it is believed to have been ‘signifi- which was replaced by filtered-in soil as it decomposed. cantly truncated’ and this factor may have been instrumental In grave S62, the cist was conventionally set at the base in the condition of the bone. of the grave cut; the few fragments of bone (0.3%) recov- Skeletal elements from all areas of the body were included ered from the fill probably did comprise spill. In grave S63, in all of the deposits, with the exception of S57, from which however, the cremated bone and charcoal was concentrated no bones of the axial skeleton were identified. As is commonly in the upper, central area of the fill (0.10m from the base). It the case, there was generally little evidence to suggest a pref- is not clear why the grave cut was partially backfilled before erence for the collection of specific skeletal elements. Of inserting the burial: perhaps, as appears to have been the case the 30.0g of bone recovered from S57, only 25% was iden- with grave S60, there was originally some organic material tified to skeletal elements (see McKinley 1994a, 5–6), the in the fill. rest comprising fragments of long bone or trabecular bone, In several other features, fairly small quantities of cremated the latter possibly including fragments of the spine or pelvis. bone were dispersed over relatively large areas (e.g. 0.8m However, four other deposits did include noticeably high or diameter in S58) together with fragments of charcoal, and it is low percentages of certain identifiable elements. Deposit S58 these two characteristics which present difficulties with inter- had an unusually low percentage of upper limb fragments, pretation of the deposits. Unurned cremation burials usually but, as in the case of S57, only c. 30% of the bone was iden- comprise a concentration of cremated bone, generally (though tified to skeletal elements: the ‘unidentified’ bone may have not exclusively) placed towards the base of a grave. What is included fragments of the arm bones. unclear at Meadway is the real degree of disturbance which Less easily dismissed is the unusually high percentage of may have rearranged the archaeological components within skull fragments in burial S63, and the low percentage from the burial, making conclusive identification of the type of three other deposits (S55, S57 and S61). Skull fragments deposit difficult. Deliberate ‘burial’ of pyre debris in discrete are far easier to identify to specific element than are those features has also been noted at various sites (McKinley 1997a, from other skeletal areas, hence they will generally consti- 57; 1997b) and this may represent an alternative interpreta- tute a relatively high percentage of the identifiable fragments tion for some of these deposits (e.g. S58, S61 and S55). (McKinley 1994a, 5–6.). However, 92% of the identifiable bone in burial S63 (infant, c. 3 yr) comprised skull fragments, and even had all the bone been identified to element Animal Bones there would have been a disproportionately high percentage Dr Mark Maltby of skull fragments (c. 42%). This suggests that there was preferential recovery of skull fragments. Conversely, low Introduction percentages were identified from deposits S61 (14%), S55 Assessment of the animal bone determined that only material (7%) and S57 (11%). In all three, the total bone weights were from the early–middle Saxon deposits had sufficient poten- relatively small (5.9–61g); in S57 there was a high level of tial to warrant full analysis. Quantification by species of the truncation (0.06m depth remaining), and it is possible that animal bone from Periods 1, 2, 4 and 5 (where identifiable) is skull fragments were concentrated towards the top of the fill tabulated in Table 8. and consequently were lost preferentially. One other possi- Significant observations regarding the distribution of the bility is that there was a deliberate lack of selection of skull assemblages from all periods have been integrated into the fragments for burial; such deliberate exclusion of skull frag- archaeological sequence discussion above. Exploitation of ments from Iron Age cremation burials has been suggested on the various species represented in the early–middle Saxon other rare occasions (McKinley 1997a, 69). Exclusion from (Period 3) assemblage is discussed below. the burial may be indicative that these fragments were being collected for some other ritual purpose and that they were not Cattle simply ‘jettisoned’ or redeposited with other pyre debris. Quantification and spatial distribution The nature of the deposits containing cremated bone is not Cattle provided over 51% of the identified mammal frag- straightforward and their interpretation is hampered by the ments from the early–middle Saxon deposits (Table 9). This PREHISTORIC RITUAL ACTIVITY AND SAXON SETTLEMENT AT MEADWAY 65

Period Cattle Sheep Pig Deer Bird Unid. Total completely through, though chops through lower limb bones 1 2 18 20 are rare. Occasional instances of longitudinal chop marks 2 6 3 1 56 66 resulted in the partial splitting of the bone for marrow. Forty- 4 7 19 1 43 70 three further cases of cattle bones bearing superficial chop 5 18 4 3 1 13 49 88 marks were observed; these were mostly located in the same Total 31 26 5 3 13 166 244 areas as those where bones had commonly been chopped completely through. Table 8: Animal bone by species from Periods 1, 2, 4 and 5 Eighty-one examples of incisions made by knives were observed. In some cases these were associated with dismemberment, in other cases with the filleting of meat. Knives were is a substantially higher percentage of cattle bones than found used for the separation of the upper and lower hindlimb at the at West Stow, where they were outnumbered by sheep/goat ankle joint; evidence for knife cuts also suggests that the elbow (Crabtree 1990, 9–26), and at Wicken Bonhunt, where pig joint was more commonly disjointed with knives than with bones were predominant (Crabtree 1994, 41). The landscape cleavers. Knife cuts were found commonly on the mandibles, around Meadway may have been more suited for cattle- in zones where chop marks are largely absent. These were grazing than the area around West Stow. A number of urban associated with the removal of cheek meat and the tongue. assemblages from contemporary sites have provided higher Knife cuts on major limb bones and on the blades of seven percentages of cattle, for example Southampton (Bourdillon scapulae are most likely to have been the result of filleting. and Coy 1980, 84–5), York (O’Connor 1989, 151; 1991, Five metatarsal shafts bore knife cuts; these may have also 236–9) and Ipswich (Crabtree 1994, 41). been the result of filleting, but incisions made preparatory Cattle fragments are comparatively better represented to skinning may account for some of them. Superficial saw from the pits of L14 (60%) than from the buildings of L10 marks are rare, with only three examples recorded. (41%). This is also reflected by other quantification methods. Many of the butchery marks appear to be similar to those A minimum of only five cattle are represented from the SFBs, described at West Stow (Crabtree 1990, 97–103), although providing a lower estimate than for both sheep/goat (nine) and the frequency of observations of butchery on cattle bones pig (seven), whereas a minimum of seven cattle were recov- was much lower (6%). Chop marks on mandibular rami, the ered from the pits, compared with a minimum of six sheep/ glenoid of the scapula, bones of the elbow joint and on parts goat and three pigs. Other measures give an even greater vari- of the pelvis were common, as were knife cuts on the tarsals. ation in the numbers. This may be in part due to differential Splitting of the cattle metapodials was noted there (Crabtree preservation, with bones of sheep/goat and pig being less 1990, 102) and in Saxon Southampton (Bourdillon and Coy well preserved in the pits, but may also reflect variations in 1980, 97). disposal strategies in the two areas, with cattle bones being more likely to be deposited in the pits. Age The relative abundance of different types of cattle bones Ageing data for cattle was provided by sixteen mandibles, in in the pit and SFB assemblages, however, shows no great which several cheek teeth survive. Only six (38%) of these differences. Cranial elements (particularly mandibles) and have completed their tooth eruption sequence and belong loose teeth are slightly better represented from the pits, with to adult animals. A similar number died prior to the second a corresponding decrease in the proportion of phalanges and molar’s coming into wear (c. 18 months), including two from scapula fragments. The latter are more susceptible to destruc- calves under 6 months of age. The remaining four mandibles tion in poorer preservation conditions than most cattle skeletal belonged to sub-adult/young adult animals, probably under elements. 4 years old. The epiphysial fusion data broadly complement The cattle assemblage is highly fragmented in all deposits. this evidence, with only 45% of a limited sample of twenty This reflects several processes, particularly gnawing late-fusing epiphyses fused and belonging to animals prob- and butchery practices. At least 29% of the cattle bones ably over 3 years of age. (excluding teeth) have been damaged by gnawing, and 32% Relatively high frequencies of immature slaughter of cattle have been butchered. Both processes can cause significant are not unusual in Saxon and contemporary assemblages in fragmentation. Britain (Maltby 1981, 179–82). West Stow, for example, produced slightly higher percentages of immature cattle in Butchery a much large assemblage (Crabtree 1990, 69–74). Although Butchery marks on cattle bones were created both by only two mandibles of young calves were found at Meadway, cleavers and knives. Cleavers were used mainly to segment it could be that dairy production was of some importance. the carcasses. In fifty-seven cases a bone has been chopped Using Irish documentary and archaeological data, McCormick

Species L9 L10 L13 L14 L16 Total % Identified Enclosure Buildings Settlement activity Pitting Pitting Mammals Cattle 7 156 7 308 5 483 51.4 Horse 2 2 13 17 1.8 Pig 1 109 57 2 169 18.0 Sheep/Goat 9 106 2 135 2 254 27.0 Red Deer 7 7 14 1.5 Roe Deer 2 2 0.2 Cat 1 1 0.1 Totals 26 381 9 515 9 940 100

Table 9: Animal bone fragments from the early–middle Saxon deposits 66 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

(1992) has argued that calves may have been kept alive for bone equivalent estimates show a similar trend, with sheep/ longer in this period than is commonly practised in modern goat providing the highest percentage in the SFBs (41%) and dairy herds because cows required the presence of their calves the second highest behind cattle (33%) in the pits. to give milk. In this case, the number of animals killed before Poorer preservation of sheep/goat bones, combined with 18 months of age may represent the cull of male calves for greater fragmentation of the cattle assemblage, explains a lot meat in herds that were also exploited for milk. of the discrepancy between the results. The identified mandibles and limb bones of sheep/goat tend to be less fragmented Size than cattle, particularly in the SFBs, while the sheep/goat Metrical data were obtained from forty-three cattle bones. assemblage also shows much greater bias towards denser Unfortunately, only one bone, a metatarsal, is complete and elements than cattle. Vertebrae and small bones of the foot therefore able to provide a greatest length measurement are very poorly represented, probably indicating retrieval as (231mm). This gives a withers height estimate, using Foch’s well as preservation bias. There are some indications that conversion factors (von den Driesch and Boessneck 1974), of the sample from the pits is less well preserved than the SFB 1.259m, which is from a large animal for the period. None of assemblage. the complete cattle bones from West Stow attained this height However, other variations in the sheep/goat assemblage (Crabtree 1990, 36), and it is near the upper end of the range in are less easy to explain purely in terms of differential pres- size of cattle from Melbourne Street, Southampton (Bourdillon ervation. There are unusually low numbers of mandible (6%) and Coy 1980, 105), Flaxengate, Lincoln (O’Connor 1982, and skull (2%) fragments from the SFBs, whereas they are 21) and Coppergate, York (O’Connor 1989, 166). amongst the most commonly occurring elements from the pits Most of the cattle measurements in the Meadway assem- (16% and 12% respectively). Metapodials form 28% of the blage fall a little below or slightly above the equivalent mean sheep/goat fragments from the SFBs, compared to 16% from measurement from West Stow. A few specimens, however, the pits. More bones derived (indirectly) from cooking rather are over 20% larger than the West Stow mean. These may than initial butchery may explain the low numbers of cranial have been from a larger type of stock, but it is also possible fragments in the SFBs; however, little meat is obtained from that they are bones from large bulls or steers of the same type sheep metapodials, and these are well represented. Some of of stock as the smaller specimens. The bias towards smaller these may have been retained as bone-working material, but specimens probably implies that the majority of the fused only one worked object (RA25) was definitely made from a bones belong to females. A bias towards adult cows may sheep metacarpal. Many metapodials have been gnawed, indi- again indicate that milk was an important commodity in the cating that they were given or were accessible to dogs at some exploitation of cattle. stage prior to burial.

Pathology Butchery A few minor pathological and genetic abnormalities were Butchery marks were observed on thirty-five (15%) of the observed on cattle bones and teeth. There are examples of sheep/goat bones. Only nine of these consist of chop marks, lower third molars lacking the posterior cusp. This a genetic including chops to remove the flanks of the animals, to variation observed in small numbers in many prehistoric and segment the spine, to remove the horns, and to cleave the early historic cattle assemblages (Andrews and Noddle 1975). skull. Although a cleaver may sometimes have been used to Excessive calculus formation was observed on four rows of segment some of the carcasses, it is clear that knives were cheek teeth in the sample. Pathology of joint surfaces is rare. also used for disarticulation. However, most of the knife cuts are found on the shafts rather than at the ends of bones, Sheep/Goat the majority of which are best regarded as filleting marks, Quantification and spatial distribution although cuts on the metapodial shafts may have been made Sheep/goat account for 27% of the identified mammal frag- at the inception of skinning. ments (Table 9). This is a significantly lower percentage than in the West Stow assemblage (Crabtree 1990, 9–26). Age Only five bones could be identified as goat. These include Eighteen sheep/goat mandibles produced some tooth erup- a horn core from a male and one from a female, the latter tion data. No mandibles of young lambs were recovered; having a portion of the skull still attached. No evidence of indeed, only one very porous bone of a neonatal mortality was butchery was observed on any of these specimens, and there recorded. Between six (33%) and nine (50%) of the mandi- is consequently no clear evidence that the horns of goats were bles belong to lambs of 6–12 months in age, while only two worked. However, the presence of the large male horn core probably belong to animals killed in their second year. Six in the fill of SFB G33, which also contained several bone mandibles belong to adult animals over two years old, four of objects and antler fragments, may be significant. The prox- which have heavy wear on their first molars and are probably imal portions of the radius and ulna of an immature goat were over 4 years of age. found in the same SFB. The epiphysial fusion data is more heavily biased towards Thirty-five bones were positively identified as sheep, and fused bones at each of these stages. This may be the result it can be assumed that the great majority of the remaining of biases created by the greater destruction of unfused speci- sheep/goat specimens also belong to this species. Sheep/goat mens. The seemingly high incidence of slaughter of animals is only the third most common species represented by frag- towards the end of their first year is similar to the pattern at ment count in the SFBs, but comfortably outnumbers pig as West Stow (Crabtree 1990, 83–95); it is suggested that these the second best represented species in the pits. However, frag- may indicate the culling of excess stock in the autumn and ment counts tend to underestimate the importance of sheep/ winter of their first year (Crabtree 1994, 45). Most of the older goat: minimum number estimates show them to be the most animals probably represent breeding stock, with no evidence common of the three main species represented (43%) in the that wool production was a primary aim of sheep exploita- SFBs, and a close second to cattle (38%) in the pits. Whole tion at Meadway. This interpretation assumes that the sample PREHISTORIC RITUAL ACTIVITY AND SAXON SETTLEMENT AT MEADWAY 67 represents a typical selection of animals kept and slaughtered wear and probably belong to pigs killed in their second year. at the settlement. At least three belong to piglets under a year old, including one under 6 months old. Size High rates of immature slaughter are usually evidenced in Measurements were taken on thirty-three sheep/goat bones. pig assemblages, as they are exploited solely for meat and Only one withers height estimate of 0.60m was obtained, lard. Whether this concentration of mandibles represents a from a sheep metatarsal with a greatest length of 127mm. typical mortality pattern of pigs kept during the life of the The measured sheep bones from Meadway tend to be slightly settlement is impossible to say. The mandibles at Meadway smaller than those from West Stow; for the most common represent only a very small number of sub-adult pigs in measurements, eighteen specimens are smaller than the West comparison with the large assemblages from West Stow and Stow mean, and only ten are larger. Wicken Bonhunt (Crabtree 1994, 50), yet the high percentage of sub-adult animals at Meadway may have resulted from the Pig selection of younger pigs as a requirement of the processing Quantification and spatial distribution that was carried out here. Pig fragments account for 18% of the total assemblage (Table 9), though they are much better represented in the SFBs Size (29%) than in the pits (11%). Other methods of quantification The large lower canine from a pit in G29 is the only evidence support this discrepancy. At least seven pigs are represented for the possible presence of wild boar. It was only possible from the SFBs, providing 33% of the combined total for cattle, to measure fourteen pig bones, because of the large number sheep/goat and pig, while only a minimum of three (19%) are of unfused epiphyses. Measurements that could be compared represented from pit deposits. fell within the range of the West Stow assemblage, with The fluctuation in the frequency of pig bones may be asso- one exception, a scapula that was slightly smaller than the ciated with variations in the disposal of different anatomical smallest specimen from West Stow (Crabtree 1990, 58). Six elements in the two locales. The SFB assemblage is dominated fused metapodials are complete enough to provide greatest by fragments of mandible and metapodials, which are poorly length measurements. represented in the pits. Nine fibulae were recovered from the fills of SFB G33, three of which have been worked. The Pathology uneven makeup of the pig assemblage in this SFB, combined Two jaws have evidence of pathology: a maxilla of a sow with the unusually high percentage of pig, suggests that possesses a third premolar that was set at 90 degrees to its there was some gathering-together of parts of pig carcasses correct alignment; and a mandible of an immature male has for further processing in the vicinity. Bone-working would evidence for an abscess on the buccal surface below the fourth account for some of the fibulae, while seven of the mandible premolar. There is evidence that the mandible has been frac- fragments bear knife cuts which were probably made during tured at this point, which probably instigated the infection. the removal of the tongue and cheek meat. It is significant that this small sample of mandibles has produced more evidence Horse of butchery than in the huge sample of over 1,000 mandible Quantification and spatial distribution fragments from West Stow, on which only three observations Only seventeen horse bones and teeth were recorded from of butchery marks were made (Crabtree 1990, 103). Butchery the early–middle Saxon deposits, with loose teeth the most marks, mostly incisions made with a knife, were also found commonly identified element. Horse remains are slightly on two metacarpals, a metatarsal and a peripheral metapo- better represented from the pits and in the small assemblage dial. Evidence for the processing of cheek meat, tongues and from the later enclosure ditch L9, than in the SFBs. The horse trotters may suggest that some of this material represents the remains represent less than 2% of the identified mammal waste from brawn production. fragments (Table 9), a typical feature of contemporary rural Apart from the unusually low number of mandible frag- assemblages — they also formed 2% or less of the identified ments, the makeup of the pig assemblage from the pits is more mammal bones from West Stow, Wickham Bonhunt (Crabtree typical of other assemblages. 1994, 41) and Abbots Worthy, Hampshire (Coy 1991).

Butchery Butchery and Age Butchery marks were observed on twenty-six pig bones. In Two bones bear knife cuts. Those around the lateral and ante- addition to those described above, knife cuts were observed rior surfaces of a third phalanx may have been made during on six scapulae, produced during both filleting and disarticu- removal of the hoof, but filleting of horse flesh is evidenced lation. Filleting marks were found on the shafts of an ulna, two by a knife cut on the blade of a scapula from one of the bones ilia and three ribs. A superficial chop mark runs transversely from middle Saxon enclosure ditch L9. Evidence that horse across a thoracic vertebra, while two rib heads show evidence carcasses were occasionally butchered for meat has been that a cleaver was used to remove the rib cage from the verte- found on a number of Anglo-Saxon sites. Six of the bones brae. Two skull fragments have been chopped through axially have been gnawed by dogs. Very little ageing evidence is to remove the brain. available, though all the teeth are worn and come from adult animals. An os coxae from SFB G33, however, has only just Age fused and probably belongs to a horse of about a year old Fourteen pig mandibles from SFB G33 possess surviving (Silver 1969). teeth. Of these, only one has all three molars in wear, and belongs to an animal probably killed in its third year (Bull Deer and Payne 1982). All the remainder were slaughtered prior to Quantification and spatial distribution the eruption of the third molar and were therefore under two Red deer as represented by at least fourteen fragments, repre- years old. At least six of these have the second molar in early senting only 1.5% of the mammalian assemblage. The species 68 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY was identified only from the SFB deposits and the middle Most of the domestic fowl bones are the larger bones of Saxon enclosure ditch L9 (Table 9). The latter produced four the wing and leg. Three of the broken limb bones reveal no associated cervical vertebrae, and it is possible that the poste- medullary bone in the shaft, and do not belong to hens in lay rior of a skull from an adjacent context also belongs to the (Driver 1982). The bones are comparable in size to those from same animal. Most Anglo-Saxon assemblages have low repre- Fishergate, York (O’Connor 1991, 274). Most of the goose sentations of red deer; antler fragments are often the main bones come from the wings and the clavicle area; two humeri element recorded, for example at Fishergate, York (O’Connor bear knife cuts indicating carcass-processing. The two meas- 1991, 255) and Abbots Worthy, Hampshire (Coy 1991), yet urable bones are of a size comparable to measurements of only two were recovered from Meadway. goose bones on other Saxon sites. It is assumed but not proven Two bones of roe deer were identified in pit deposits (Table that these geese were domesticated. 9), including a scapula with a fused glenoid that belongs to No bones of wild birds and fish were recovered from the an animal over a year old. No measurements could be taken. deposits, even in the sieved samples. It is assumed that the Most Anglo-Saxon sites have produced only low numbers of capture of game birds and fish was not an important consid- roe deer bones, although there are one or two exceptions, such eration for the inhabitants. Six bones of a frog skeleton from as Ramsbury, Wiltshire (Coy 1980). The absence of fallow an early–middle Saxon pit probably represent the remains of deer from the deposits is again typical of Anglo-Saxon sites. a victim of a fall into the open pit.

Butchery Summary There is evidence that red deer were utilised for meat Exploitation of animals for food consumption and antler- and bone-working. Knife cuts on The faunal sample from the early–middle Saxon deposits is the medial aspect of the distal end of a humerus from ditch small, but does provide some insights into the exploitation L9 indicate disjointing of the elbow joint. Several of the red of animals at the settlement. Meat was provided mainly by deer elements from SFB G33 show evidence of working; cattle, though sheep and pigs were also common sources of the broken metacarpal has been polished and whittled. It meat. Other species appear to have provided relatively little also bears abundant transverse knife cuts either side of the of the meat supply, although there is evidence that horse, red break, where the bone was carefully prepared for working deer, roe deer, goat, chicken and goose were occasionally by the removal of flesh and sinew. The bone then appears eaten. There appears to have been a greater reliance on beef to have been broken and discarded. The presence of two than on some Anglo-Saxon rural settlements. antler fragments, one of which bears evidence of polishing, In addition to meat, there is evidence that some animals and another proximal metacarpal fragment which bears a were exploited for other commodities. The mortality profile superficial chop mark running obliquely across its anterior and sexing data of cattle do not rule out the possibility that surface, may indicate the acquisition of several red deer dairy production was an important consideration in their elements for working. husbandry. There is evidence that some bones of red deer, pig and sheep were utilised for making artefacts, while red deer Age antlers and horn cores of sheep, goat and cattle may also have Ageing data show the presence of adult red deer in ditch L9, been used for this purpose. The butchery of some cattle bones represented by the group of fused vertebrae and the fused provides clear evidence for the extraction of marrow. distal end of a radius. An immature deer is represented by an It is less certain whether other commodities were unfused distal tibia. The proximal metacarpal discussed above commonly exploited. Certainly, the older sheep would have has evidence for exostosis on the medial aspect of the joint provided fleeces but there is no evidence that wool produc- surface, a condition which is more likely to have developed tion was of primary importance in the exploitation of sheep. in an adult animal. Bird eggs may have been eaten but there is no evidence for the presence of hens in lay. There is no clear evidence that Size any of the cattle represented were used as plough animals. Reconstruction of the worked red deer metacarpal and the Most of the adult cattle could have been breeding stock and radius give greatest length measurements of 278mm and perhaps dairy cows. Metrical data did reveal the presence of a 267mm respectively. few large, probably male cattle, although whether these were steers used for ploughing rather than bulls used for breeding Cat and Dog cannot be determined. No dog bones were identified, but their scavenging activities have had a profound effect on the faunal assemblage. Gnawed Variations in spatial distribution bones were common in all types of deposits and it is clear that The analysis was able to demonstrate significant variations dogs were allowed access to the discarded parts of butchered in the composition of the assemblages from different parts of carcasses. Only one cat bone was discovered, with the fused the site. In particular, the assemblages from the buildings and distal end of a humerus recovered from an SFB (Table 9). SFBs of L10 and the pits of L14 showed differences in the following respects (Table 9). Cattle, horses, sheep mandibles Bird, Fish and Amphibian and bird bones were better represented in the pits of L14. In Twenty-nine bird bones were recorded, but only twenty-one contrast pigs, red deer, pig mandibles, sheep and pig metapo- could be identified to species. Perhaps surprisingly, they dials were better represented in the SFBs. were recovered more commonly from pits than SFBs. Only Interpretation of these variations is limited by the restricted bones of domestic fowl and goose were positively identified, range of features that produced bones. The SFB assemblage, although one or two of the unidentified fragments bear simi- for example, is largely derived from one building, which need larities to duck. Bones of domestic fowl (thirteen) outnumber not be typical. However, the analysis does demonstrate that those of goose (eight), but the samples are too small to indi- the bones were not randomly distributed, and that evidence cate whether this is a true reflection of their relative frequency. for small concentrations of waste from different activities PREHISTORIC RITUAL ACTIVITY AND SAXON SETTLEMENT AT MEADWAY 69

can be observed: for example, the pig assemblage from SFB Period 1 2 3 G33 includes an unusual group of butchered mandibles and Number of Samples 6 17 13 the bones from several trotters. It is possible that these were Hordeum sp. barley - + + collected together for the production of brawn. The presence Triticum sp. wheat - + + of both discarded bone objects and of waste from bone/horn/ free-threshing antler-working may also indicate one of the activities carried Triticum sp. hulled hulled wheat - + + Avena sp. - - + out within or in the vicinity of the building. Arrhenatherum elatius false oat grass, tuber + + - There is no clear evidence to support the premise that the Crataegus sp. hawthorn - - + bones in the SFBs were deposited during the use of the build- Corylus avellana Hazel nut shell - - - ings. Indeed, the presence of high percentages of gnawed Vicia/Pisum sp. large legume - - - bones suggests that many of the bones were not buried immediately after use but were accessible to dogs. Similarly, high Table 10: Summary of charred seeds and chaff by period percentages of gnawed bones were found in the pit assemblages, showing that many of those bones were also the weeds in the samples include small seeded vetch/tare (Vicia/ subject of secondary deposition. Lathyrus sp.), blinks (Montia fontana), goosegrass/cleavers The sample from the middle Saxon enclosure ditch L9 (Galium sp.) and medick/clover (Medicago/Trifolium sp.). is much too small for detailed comparisons. However, the species representation is different from the assemblages from Early–middle Saxon (Period 3) earlier deposits, with sheep/goat, horse and red deer being A very small number of charred cereal grains were present in relatively better represented than elsewhere. the six samples. Cereals represented include barley, the most frequently represented, and free-threshing wheat grain, with Size one hulled wheat grain. Occasional grains of oats (Avena sp.) Metrical analysis demonstrates that most of the domestic may also represent a cultivated crop. Small numbers of weed stock was comparable in size to those found on other Anglo- seeds were recovered from three samples, including sedges Saxon sites. A few of the cattle, however, were large animals (Carex sp.), Polygonaceae and brome grass (Bromus sp.). towards the top end of the range of known sizes for cattle of this period. Charcoal Late Neolithic/early Bronze Age (Period 1) Butchery Wood charcoal was present in abundance in two samples Detailed butchery analysis shows that both cleavers and from collared urn G22 and one from cremation burial G79. knives were used in processing carcasses. Chop marks are Charcoal from the cremation was dominated by fragmentary more commonly present on cattle bones than on bones of other pieces of oak, though Pomoideae (hawthorn, apple, pear etc.) species. Much higher frequencies of butchered bones were was also present. In contrast, the samples from the collared recorded at Meadway than at West Stow (Crabtree 1990, 101), urn were dominated by Pomoideae charcoal, with only a but many of the types of butchery mark appear to be similar. small presence of oak and blackthorn (Prunus spinosa). The dominance of oak in the cremation deposit suggests that oak wood formed the principal component of the crema- Charred Plant Remains tion pyre, with smaller quantities of Pomoideae perhaps Ruth Pelling for kindling or as a contaminant of the deposit. The use of single taxa or even single trees for early prehistoric crema- Introduction tions has been speculated elsewhere, such as at Barrow Hills, Assessment of the archaeobotanic material recovered from Radley, Oxfordshire (Thompson 1999) or Rollright (Straker soil samples determined that only the few samples which had 1988). The dominance of Pomoideae in the urn samples might produced significant quantities of charcoal warranted detailed suggest its presence in general backfill. analysis. The charred seeds and chaff, summarised in Table 10, are briefly discussed in the following text; this is followed Iron Age (Period 2) by a more detailed discussion of the charcoal assemblage, Charcoal fragments were present in most of the seventeen with a summary in Table 11. samples, the majority of which were taken from the late Iron Age cremation burials G32. The species most frequently iden- Charred plant remains tified are oak and Pomoideae; however, the most productive Late Neolithic/early Bronze Age (Period 1) sample, from cremation S59, contained only ash (Fraxinus Cereal remains were not recovered from any of the six excelsior), including both slow- and fast-growing wood but samples, with weed seeds limited to a single specimen. Four mostly fast-growing. It is suggested that the ash represents a of the samples contained charred tubers of false oat grass single tree used for a cremation pyre. (Arrhenatherum elatius); the relationship between these and The other sample selected for detailed analysis came from Bronze Age cremation deposits has been demonstrated at one of the two early–middle Iron Age pits in G25. Oak is the several sites (Robinson 1988). dominant taxa, but hazel (Corylus avellana) and possibly blackthorn are also present. This deposit is likely to be mixed, Iron Age (Period 2) with wood charcoal possibly coming from a range of sources Ten of the seventeen samples produced small quantities of reflecting the use of the pit for refuse disposal. charred seeds and chaff. Occasional cereal grains include barley (Hordeum sp.), and both hulled and free-threshing Early–middle Saxon (Period 3) wheat (Triticum sp.) grain. Free-threshing wheat is more Most of the assemblages from the samples were mixed, commonly found on Saxon than Iron Age sites, however, containing two or more taxa. Oak and Pomoideae were the and its presence here may be intrusive. Occasional arable most frequently identified, while occasional blackthorn was 70 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Period 1 Period 2 Period 3 Late Neolithic / Early Bronze Age Early–middle Iron Age Late Iron Age Early–middle Saxon G79 G22 G25 S59 G26 Cremation Collared urn Pit fill Cremation Structural cut No. fragments > 4mm 39 84 114 18 30 Quercus sp. Oak X x X Fraxinus excelsior Ash X Pomoideae Hawthorn etc. x X X Prunus spinosa Blackthorn ?x ?x Corylus avellana Hazel x Corylus/Alnus sp Hazel/Alder x Arrhenatherum elatius False oat grass 8 1 x = species present; X = dominant species Table 11: Summary of the charcoal analysis also recorded. Fragments of buckthorn (Rhamnus sp.) char- and Federici-Schenardi 1999) and Stratton, Bedfordshire coal were noted from one of the quarry/refuse pits in L14. (Macphail and Cruise 1998) has shown that they can comprise A single sample from a possible structural slot G26 (L13) in situ soil-based building material (e.g. turf); in situ sedimen- contained large quantities of Pomoideae, presumably the tary deposits derived from use (including floor deposits); or wood from which the structure was constructed. materials deposited from occupational activities around the building after they went out of use. SFBs G33 and G50 (Fig. Discussion 6) were consequently subjected to soil analysis, with partic- The samples provide some indication of the cereals culti- ular attention focussed on the former. Soil micromorphology, vated at the site, and of the wood that was available nearby chemical and magnetic signature analyses were carried out on for use as firewood or in buildings. Cereal cultivation is a total of nine samples and eight thin sections; the results are not represented for the Late Neolithic/early Bronze Age, summarised below. although the presence of false oat grass tubers points towards some collection of wild resources, as well as suggesting the Summary of Results presence nearby of open but ungrazed land. Cereal cultiva- Chemical analyses indicated that SFB G50 had a lower tion is possibly represented in the Iron Age and the Saxon magnetic susceptibility, was less organic and less phosphate- samples; the species represented include barley, hulled and rich, but with a higher P ratio (inferred ratio between amounts free-threshing wheats and, in the Saxon samples, oat. The of inorganic and organic phosphate) compared to the fills of collection of hazelnuts may also have taken place in the Iron SFB G33. Some comparisons can be made with the chemistry Age. It is difficult to assess the true significance of the cereals of Saxon fills from elsewhere. Both SFBs at Meadway have given the low numbers of grains, while the recovery of free- higher P ratios and less total phosphate compared to ‘waste’- threshing wheat from an Iron Age sample may indicate that rich fills at Stratton (Macphail and Cruise 1998) and Lake End contamination is also a problem. Road West, Oxfordshire (Macphail et al. 1999), appearing to The charcoal samples were dominated by oak, although it have more in common with an ‘earth-filled’ SFB (no. 012AC) was not present in every sample. Oak woodland is likely to at West Heslerton (Macphail 1998). Low P ratios reflect the have been available in the late Neolithic/early Bronze Age presence of inorganic phosphate in the form of bone, miner- and early–middle Iron Age. False oat grass is characteristic alised cess/coprolite and vivianite/poorly crystalline forms in succession to scrub and woodland. Also present in all of soil phosphate, while high ratios indicate the presence periods and abundant in many samples were Pomoideae and of organic phosphate, such as in dung and organic matter blackthorn charcoals, which were widely available from the (Engelmark and Linderholm 1996). Neolithic period onwards and are frequently encountered in The fill of SFB G50 was characterised by a reddish brown archaeological assemblages. All three species have uses as soil, containing relatively few anthropogenic inclusions and building material as well as fire wood, and appear to have common very thin organo-mineral excrements. The upper- been used as funeral pyres. It appears that by the Iron Age, most fill in SFB G33 was similar, but was characterised by ash was also present as a possible major woodland species. more numerous organo-mineral excrements of earthworms. Hazel has been a widely available resource throughout the Lower fills were mixed with patches of dense dark reddish Holocene, utilised for its nuts as well as its wood. Buckthorn brown soil that was rich in fine charcoal and red, fine burned is characteristic of a range of habitats including scrub and soil. Anthropogenic inclusions were infrequent, but more oak or ash woodland; it appears to have been utilised at least numerous than in G50. In the central fill of G33, the frequent during the Saxon period, perhaps purely as firewood. fine charcoal and burned fine soil resulted in the deposit’s having a blackish brown colour.

Soil Micromorphology of Sunken-Featured Buildings Interpretation Richard I Macphail The fill of SFB G50 appears to have been dominated by turf with a contribution by Jöhan Linderholm soil that was a relic of construction, with the occurrence of the thinnest organo-mineral excrements being consistent with the Introduction use of turf from rather acidic grassland such as the local river- The analysis of fills from SFBs at West Heslerton, N. Yorkshire valley pasture or argillic brown sands. The presence of these (Macphail 1998), Develier-Courtételle, Switzerland (Guélat excremental features in turf used in construction, was found PREHISTORIC RITUAL ACTIVITY AND SAXON SETTLEMENT AT MEADWAY 71 to be a recognisable signature in experimentally constructed (Beta-210616: 4460+/-40BP) (Phillips 2009, 11–13). Other turf roofs in Sweden (Cruise and Macphail 2000). The pres- undated examples of crouched inhumations, normally within ence of infrequent, possible relict textural features in the soils square or oval enclosures, have been excavated in the Great may reflect local poached-pasture soils, as described from Ouse valley (e.g. Willington: Pinder 1986) and throughout the Stratton (Macphail and Cruise 1998; Macphail et al. 1998). eastern region (e.g. Fengate: Pryor and French 1985, 62–3). The phosphate chemistry possibly reflects the presence of The lack of any enclosure surrounding the Meadway burial humic turf, probably dung-enriched turf, with only very small is noteworthy but not unknown: three flat, single inhumation inputs of bone and coprolitic waste. graves were recorded from Barrow Hills, Radley, Oxfordshire The upper and side fills of SFB G33 were still dominated with radiocarbon dates of cal. 3800–3100BC, cal. 3650– by turf soil, but reflect more earthworm activity and greater, 3100BC and cal. 3380–3090BC (Barclay and Bradley 1999, albeit still small inputs of anthropogenic materials. This mate- 31–3). In contrast to the Barrow Hills burials, G20 was rial includes fine and coarse charcoal, ash, phytoliths, pottery, marked by an upright limestone slab. coprolites, bone and daub — the latter possibly from unfired loom weights. The fills also contained evidence of probable beaten-floor soil. The central fill of G33 was marked by Late Neolithic/Bronze Age Ring Ditch and Burials frequent amounts of fine charcoal, further fragments of likely beaten-floor soil and weathered slag/hammerscale. Inhumation burials within a circular ring ditch, presumably These findings suggest that the fills of the two SFBs mainly incorporating some sort of mound or bank, are one of the most resulted from infilling with turf soil, much of which was prob- common archaeological components of the Great Ouse Valley ably a relic of their construction. Turf was possibly employed landscape. They occur singly or in groups, mostly dating from to construct walls and perhaps also used for roofing. Acidic the late Neolithic to the early Bronze Age, with a smaller turf/soil which is likely to have originated from local pasture number of Iron Age and Saxon examples (Clark and Dawson seemed to dominate the fill of G50, whereas the more detailed 1995; Hall and Woodward 1977; Taylor and Woodward studies of G33 suggest a more intensive use of this structure, 1985). The Meadway ring ditch lay on the southern edge of with relict turf soil being found alongside dark, compact an extensive group of at least seventeen monuments lying to soil that can be interpreted as relict of a trampled or beaten the north of Harrold, ranging from simple circular ditches floor. Ash, fine charcoal and burned soil are evidence ofa to more complex multiphase features. Many were partially possible hearth, with other anthropogenic debris — including investigated during the salvage excavations of the 1950s, but weathered slag/hammerscale and fragments of loom weight none have been reported in any detail beyond dimensions — possibly indicative of low-intensity industrial as well as and some associated artefacts (Eagles and Evison 1970). The domestic activity. exact number of monuments recorded is uncertain, as the text The Meadway SFBs, therefore, resemble earth-filled exam- and plans do not agree. ples described from Stratton (Macphail and Cruise 1998) and For the monument investigated at Meadway, a terminus West Heslerton (Macphail 1998). However, the fills lacked ante quem of the early second millennium can be inferred from the burned materials, ash, and frequent anthropogenic mate- the central inhumation, which yielded a calibrated radiocarbon rials found at those two sites. The lack of enhanced phosphate date of 1935–1735BC (Beta-139477: 3470 +/-40BP). This is levels indicates an absence of the sewage that characterised earlier than some comparable monuments that have been radi- some of the SFB fills at West Heslerton (Macphail 1998) and ocarbon dated, such as Roxton Ring Ditch B, Bedfordshire pits at Lake End West, Oxfordshire (Macphail et al. 1999). It (1750–1670BC: Taylor and Woodward 1985) and Little Pond is possible that the soil (turf) fills at Meadway were present Ground in Milton Keynes (1800–1640BC: Green 1974, 116). because turf fell into the SFBs when they were dismantled, the The juxtaposition of late Neolithic/early Bronze Age wood being re-used. Dismantling of the larger SFB G33 may ritual structures over those of earlier Neolithic date appears have helped to preserve traces of the floor and hearth associ- to be a common feature in the Great Ouse Valley, indicating ated with its use, as well as associated activity indicated by continuity of ritual function (Luke 2007, 41). The possibly hammerscale waste and possible fragments of loom weight. intentional incorporation of the middle Neolithic inhumation burial G20 within the bounds of ring ditch L3 could be another example of this ritual continuity. Excavation of what appear, DISCUSSION prima facie, to be simple, single-phase monuments frequently J. McKinley, R.M. Macphail, M. Maltby, R. Pelling, demonstrates unexpected complexity both in construction and N. Shepherd and J. Wells in burial rite (cf. Steadman 1999). In particular, the evidence increasingly indicates continuous or episodic re-use of monu- Middle Neolithic Burial ments over extended periods of time. The Meadway example is relatively simple, although The emergence of individual or limited-number burials under the exact chronological relationship between the burial and small barrows or in small ring-ditches dates to the end of the construction of the ring ditch cannot be demonstrated. The middle Neolithic (c. 3000–2900BC), while a variety of single inhumation burial’s central position within the ring ditch burials occurred during the late Neolithic (c. 3000–2200BC) strongly suggests contemporaraneity, yet it is possible that the (Whittle 1999, 60). The Meadway burial, with its calibrated burial predated the ring ditch; the grave, its location defined radiocarbon date of 3325–3225BC and 3120–2915BC (Beta- by possible grave marker S26, would then have become the 139476:4350+/-40BP), conforms to this pattern. An enclosed focus for excavation of the encircling ditch. burial at Site 1, Willington, some 16km to the east, yielded What is clear is that cremation burial G79, inserted into a similar radiocarbon date of cal. 3583–2908BC (Dawson the infilled grave, was later than the inhumation burial. The 1996), while a crouched burial within a small, lozenge-shaped cremation burial was unurned and unaccompanied by grave enclosure, north-east of Baldock, Hertforshire has a cali- goods; its date is uncertain, beyond the terminus post quem brated radiocarbon date of 3340–3000BC and 2980–2940BC of the inhumation burial’s radiocarbon date. It is possible that 72 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

G79 belonged to the small late Iron Age cremation cemetery influence, the fragment sizes observed are generally within L6 lying some 20m to the south. It seems likely, however, the ‘normal’ range for Iron Age cemeteries (McKinley 1997a, that the location of the earlier inhumation burial was visible 69) and do not suggest deliberate fragmentation of bone or known, despite extraction of the possible grave marker, as prior to burial. The graves generally contained a selection of it appears to have influenced the placement of the cremated bones from all parts of the body, although an unusually high material. Although a different rite, the cremation burial need percentage of skull fragments in infant burial S63 suggests not have been separated from the inhumation burial by any that there was preferential recovery of skull fragments to be significant period of time. There was a broad change from included in the burial deposit. inhumation to cremation after 2000BC (Parker Pearson 1999, Of the probable nine burials, seven were unurned. The 87), and with the advent of the middle Bronze Age (1600– two cist graves (S60 and S62) were associated with frag- 1200BC), cremation was universal (Parker Pearson 1999, 90). mentary urns, although the graves exhibited contrasting rites. Inhumation G19 was placed centrally within the grave, S60 appears to have had pyre debris placed in the pit prior confined to its relatively small, level base. The space around to construction of the stone cist, a practice for which there the body may indicate the presence of perishable grave goods. are few parallels. In contrast, cist S62 was more conventional The objects that did survive were tightly grouped and may in construction, with stones being set against the sides of the have originally been in a bag. They might be interpreted as grave cut. Only a few fragments of bone were recovered from a working ‘toolkit’, as a record of the skills of the person, or the fill, which was probably spillage during filling of the cist. for future use in the next life. The presence of the boar’s tusk It is possible that both urns were incomplete when placed was particularly evocative, representing perhaps a favourite in the cists, although the level of truncation again precludes object, a record of achievement or status, or a talisman or certainty. Burial S60 was also unusual in having the vast good-luck charm. Boars’ tusks are among a group of ‘special majority of the cremated bone concentrated in the upper half items’ which began to appear as grave goods with individual of the vessel, which suggests that some form of organic mate- burials after 3000BC (Parker Pearson 1993, 76); a compa- rial may have filled the lower portion of the urn. Unurned rable local example is known from the burial of an adult burial S63 exhibited a similar pattern of bone distribution and male at Irthlingborough, Northamptonshire, which has been may also have had some organic material placed in the base of radiocarbon dated to cal. 2900–2470BC. In that case, the tusk the pit before the cremated remains were deposited. appears to have been curated before interment, as the body The Meadway cemetery falls into Whimster’s La Tene III dates to cal. 2210–1940BC (A. Bayliss pers. comm.). cremation tradition (Whimster 1981, 147–66), this being the The dark colour and high charcoal content of the lower primary indicator of Bushe-Fox’s Aylesford-Swarling Culture grave fill suggests the body was placed on a layer which (1925). The Aylesford cremation rite was introduced into included burnt organic matter. Unfortunately, a sample of this south-east England in the late 2nd century BC (Haselgrove material was lost. In addition to suggesting some aspect of the 1999, 124); Harrold lies close to the northern edge of the burial rite, the organic material may have contributed to the distribution. Burial grounds were typically small, the vast relatively good survival of the skeleton. majority comprising fewer than five individuals, while most cremations of the Aylesford rite were accompanied by up to two pottery vessels and occasionally metalwork. At the Iron Age Cremation Cemetery time Whimster was compiling his gazetteer, unaccompanied burials (Whimster’s simple Iron Age type) were rare The quantities of bone recovered from the nine possible (Whimster 1981, 157). This in part may have been due to the graves showed marked variations. Incomplete recovery of ease with which they can be overlooked, but the lack of a cremated remains from the pyre for burial is a known char- method to scientifically date cremated bone must also have acteristic of the rite. In three of the possible burials (S55, played a part; with the advent of bio-apatite dating tech- S58 and S61), fairly small quantities of cremated bone, niques, this seeming imbalance may well disappear (Lanting together with charcoal, were dispersed over relatively large et al. 2001). The Meadway cemetery probably served a small areas, which could suggest that these were actually small pits agricultural community, with the individuals linked by family containing dumps of pyre debris. The deliberate ‘burial’ of kinship. The difference between urned/unurned and lined/ pyre debris in discrete features has also been noted at various unlined burials does not represent a fundamental difference in sites (McKinley 1997a, 57; 1997b). However, a high degree cremation ritual, but may indicate status. of truncation — and hence potential bone loss — was noted The siting of the late Iron Age cremation cemetery 18m during excavation, thus precluding the type of deposit from south-east of the Bronze Age ring ditch, which itself appears to being identified with certainty, and also prohibiting any mean- have incorporated a middle Neolithic burial, hints at continuity ingful comparison with other contemporary cemeteries. of ritual function. A low mound or bank may still have been At least six, and probably nine individuals are represented in visible, and other mechanisms for the transfer of knowledge the cemetery. Four immature individuals are present (including about the landscape may also have operated. A similar pattern one infant and two older sub-adults), and five adults. Four was noted at a cluster of Bronze Age barrows to the north-east adults and one sub-adult have been identified as female or of Baldock, Hertfordshire, where the ditch of the largest barrow possibly female. An uneven ratio of females to males amongst in the group became the focus for late Iron Age and earlier sexed individuals from Iron Age cremation cemeteries is not Roman cremation burials (Phillips 2009, 57–63; 149–51). unusual, and has been noted to work in favour of one or other sex in different cemeteries (McKinley 1997a, 64–65). Here, the small size of the cemetery precludes much comment other Saxon Settlement than to register the apparent uneven sex distribution. The degree of bone fragmentation is at the lower end of Chronology the range generally observed. Although post-deposition frag- The presence of Anglo-Saxon settlement on the northern mentation due to disturbance is likely to have had a major edge of Harrold is well attested by both the salvage recording PREHISTORIC RITUAL ACTIVITY AND SAXON SETTLEMENT AT MEADWAY 73

of Edwards and Carey between 1951 and 1953 (Eagles and Spit % animal bone % pottery Evison 1970), and the investigations at Meadway. Determining G33 Upper 1 11 11 the date the settlement was established, however, is more 2 14 15 problematic. In the absence of coin evidence or closely dated 3 25 24 brooch types, the onus of dating falls on the pottery, yet the 4 21 22 difficulties in refining the dating of early–middle Saxon pottery 5 21 18 assemblages beyond a broad range of c. AD450–850 are well Lower 6 8 10 documented (Blinkhorn 1993, 246; Hamerow 1993, 37). G50 Upper 1 34 23 2 46 58 Within a settlement, the majority of the pottery is domestic, 3 16 19 usually plain and functional in nature. It is likely that most 4 4 0 plain wares were manufactured on a domestic basis. Studies Lower 5 0 0 of fabric types appear to indicate that particular fabrics can be associated with familial/cultural groups, rather than being Table 12: Recovery of animal bones (% fragments) and primarily chronological indicators. They may have remained pottery (% sherds) by spit from SFBs G33 and G50 in use for a lengthy period, with the ‘recipe’ being handed down through the generations (Blinkhorn 1993, 246). Closer dating of a pottery assemblage is thus primarily dependent on although some evidence of weathering indicates that it prob- the presence of decorated wares. ably represents secondary material moved from elsewhere on The majority of the Saxon pottery assemblage from the site. Meadway comprises plain wares (256 vessels). Only eight The animal bone assemblage supports these conclusions. vessels bearing decoration or stamps can be dated to the early A high percentage of bones (32%) have been gnawed, indi- Saxon period; the single stamped sherd, recovered from SFB cating that many were accessible to dogs prior to burial. This G59, is thought to be of 6th-century date. SFB G33, while strongly suggests that much of the material was the subject producing a range of plain wares and two sherds with bosses of secondary deposition. In addition, the ratio of pot to bone (Fig. 10: 16; Fig. 11: 23), also produced a small sherd of within the different fills is broadly constant, suggesting Maxey-type ware, dating to the middle Saxon period. The that the material may have originated from a single source, evidence, although limited, does suggest that Meadway was perhaps indicating a single period of dumping rather than occupied by at least the 6th century, remaining in use into the piecemeal deposition over time. Further support for a single later half of the 7th century, after which time it is postulated episode of dumping is evidenced by a pig radius from the that a shift in settlement may have occurred (see below). lowest fill of SFB G33, which matches an ulna from the Despite Edwards’ and Carey’s valiant efforts, it is probable upper fill. that a considerable amount of evidence was lost as a result of Find-spots of ‘other artefacts’ occurred in two clusters. A quarrying in the 1950s to the north of Meadway (Eagles and concentration of four bone pins and a possible shearboard Evison 1970, 50). In her analysis of the pottery recovered by hook were found in the lowest spit, while a bone pinbeater, a Edwards and Carey, Evison argues for a date within the 5th Roman mixing palette and an iron staple came from the upper century for the establishment of the settlement, with occupa- fills. None came from the central fills. This pattern might tion continuing into the 6th century (Evison 1970, 48 and 50). suggest two episodes of dumping at most. As at Meadway, there was a paucity of pottery dating to the Soil micromorphological and chemical signature analysis middle Saxon period — only one sherd of Ipswich ware was indicate that the upper and side fills of SFB G33 were domi- recovered (Evison 1970, 46). There was, however, a cemetery nated by the remains of turf soil used to construct the walls containing grave goods indicative of use in the 7th and 8th or roof of the building — the turf filled the sunken void when centuries. the building was dismantled or collapsed. Turf would have been a readily available building material, cut either from the Sunken-Featured Buildings cleared ground prior to construction, or from open meadow The SFBs excavated at Meadway were similar in form and close to the settlement. The technology is very simple, inex- size to types found at Mucking (Hamerow 1993, 10–19) pensive of resources, fast, and easily repairable. This was and West Stow (West 1985, 113–4). Six-post SFBs such as also suggested as one of the building materials utilised at G33 were defined as ‘Type B’ at West Stow, with the central Mucking (Hamerow 1993, 14). Turf soil was also identified posts supporting a ridge, and purlin posts at the corners. The in the central fills of G33, but was here mixed with anthro- slightly simpler two-post G50 accords with West Stow ‘Type pogenic material such as charcoal, ash, fired clay and unfired A’, with a central ridge only, the purlins presumably resting clay. Interestingly, fragments interpreted as relict beaten on the ground or supported on a low wall. earth floor and hearth fragments were also identified within Combined analysis of the stratigraphy, artefacts, animal this mixed deposit. bone and soil micromorphology / chemistry associated with The finds distribution in the fills of SFB G50 was similar SFBs G33 and G50 can be used to suggest the pattern of depo- to that obtained from G33 (Table 12): no material was recov- sition for the material within these buildings. ered from the lowest spit, with most of it deriving from the SFB G33 produced 3.97kg of pottery and 633 fragments central spits, and lesser quantities in the upper spit. The of animal bone. This material was distributed throughout assemblage is much smaller, however, with less than 0.5kg of its profile, but a distinct pattern is visible: the central fills pottery and only fifty-one fragments of bone; this is perhaps contained the majority of the material, with smaller amounts partly due to the smaller size of the feature, but may also be from the lower and upper fills (Table 12). The average potsherd an indication of contrasting origins of the fills. Analysis of size is large at 25g, compared with 12g from the pits of L14, them indicates that these otherwise undifferentiated fills were yet the vessel to sherd ratio is low (1:1), and there is only dominated by relict turf soils throughout the profile. Turf one example of sherds from the same vessel that came from contained either in the walls or the roof of the building may different deposits. The pottery is in relatively good condition, have been deposited into the feature on dismantling or soon 74 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY after as the building collapsed, with little time or room for At Meadway, there is evidence for late Iron Age and significant dumping of secondary refuse. The significance of Roman land divisions and agricultural activity immediately to the ‘clean’ lower spit is uncertain here, as no anthropogenic the west, at the Bridgman Joinery site (Luke and Preece, this features such as relict beaten earth floors or hearth fragments volume), and to the south-east, at Odell (Dix 1981, 25). Saxon were indicated. Perhaps the use of G50 was less intensive. activity is also attested at both sites. The site at Meadway Alternatively, it is possible that the relict beaten earth floor lacks evidence for pre-existing land divisions; instead, it fragments identified in G33 were in fact secondary deposits, appears to have been an established ritual complex or burial possibly from another part of the structure or from another ground, in use from the middle Neolithic into, arguably, the structure entirely. late Iron Age. Significantly, the Saxon settlement appears to Detailed study of the character and deposition of the mate- have avoided the pre-existing ring-ditch L3. The rescue exca- rial culture assemblages within SFBs, in particular from the vations in the 1950s also encountered evidence for Saxon sites at Mucking, West Heslerton and West Stow, indicates settlement — probably two further SFBs, again positioned that most of the material within their pits bears no relation- near, but respecting, earlier ring-ditches (Eagles and Evison ship to the function or date of the original buildings (Tipper 1970, 48–50 and fig. 2). Although this positioning of settle- 2004). Experimental research also indicates that most SFBs ment around the edges of the prehistoric monument complex were rapidly infilled after the building had been abandoned may have been fortuitous, the presence of a Saxon cemetery (Tipper 2004, 105–6); this pattern appears to be repeated at within the confines of the complex (Eagles and Evison 1970, Meadway. 38–46) provides some support for the continuing respect of a recognised burial area. Settlement Economy The mid to late Saxon period witnessed major social and Due to the relatively small sample sizes, it is only possible economic change, both in towns and in the countryside. to form an outline of the nature of the agricultural economy Some rural, open settlements from the early–middle Saxon for the early–middle Saxon period. The livestock evidence period were abandoned, possibly as a result of large land- is the better preserved, and indicates that the main source of owners reorganising boundaries and shifting their tenants meat was cattle; pigs and sheep were a lesser source, though (Hinton 1990d, 35), and nucleated settlements became more still important. There is some evidence to suggest that the common. It is possible that L9, which appears to be the corner cattle were managed to provide milk, whilst their bones were of a substantial enclosure, is representative of this settlement split to provide a source of marrow after slaughter. There is shift; however, as the majority of the enclosure lay beyond the no direct evidence that the sheep were kept for wool, though limit of excavation, this is only speculation. If the line of the there is evidence of textile working on site. Some parts of pig ditch is continued to the north-east, it encounters a large ring- carcasses appear to have been gathered together, in particular ditch (Eagles and Evison 1970 fig. 2, ring-ditch 3), perhaps metapodials and mandibles; butchery marks on the mandi- suggesting that the long-established burial area had ceased to bles indicate the removal of tongue and cheek meat. The retain importance within the landscape. processing of cheek meat, tongues and trotters might indicate Evidence for the date of this possible reorganisation at brawn production. Craft-level bone-working is evidenced by Meadway is limited. There is a paucity of middle Saxon pig fibula pins and weaving implements. pottery; only three sherds of Maxey type ware were recov- The arable aspects of the economy are poorly represented, ered, two from enclosure L9. A similar pattern was evident although small amounts of grain suggest that wheat and oats from the 1950s investigations, where only a single sherd were grown. Examination of the wood charcoal suggests that of Ipswich ware was found (Eagles and Evison 1970, 46). oak, apple/pear/hawthorn and sloe/plum/cherry grew in the Amongst the ‘other artefacts’ assemblage, the intermediate vicinity, possibly in managed woodland. loom weight, the heckle and the possible shearboard hook Iron slag, representing redeposited waste, was recovered suggest some occupation into the middle Saxon and perhaps from seven features. The presence of tap slag shows that the beginning of the late Saxon period, but the absence of smelting was taking place nearby, but the amount of residue items such as single-ended weaving implements and bun- found is quite small compared to other sites (e.g. Mucking shaped loom weights suggests that this did not extend much and West Stow). The closest sources of iron ore appear to into the 9th century. The finds accompanying the Saxon be c. 8.5km to the north-west, near Wollaston and Grendon burials uncovered during the 1950s rescue excavations like- in Northamptonshire (Bennett 1980, 16). A number of slag wise suggest a date in the ‘Conversion’ period (Eagles and heaps and associated charcoal-production sites are known Evison 1970, 38–46); the grave goods accompanying burial 3 in the parish of Harrold, mostly at its north-western edge are now thought to date towards the middle of the 8th century (Hall and Nickerson 1966); these may be associated with (Geake 1997, 62). the processing of iron ore in the pre- or early medieval The absence of late Saxon pottery and other artefacts periods. does hint at a shift of settlement, sometime during the 8th century, which may have been the result of landowners reor- Continuity of Land Use ganising land boundaries. This shift may have coincided with The traditional view of the end of the Roman period in Britain a change to a new religion, which may have helped persuade was an apocalyptic one — a population in rapid decline under communities to leave their traditional religious foci and the the pressure of famine, hostile raids, and collapsing systems. burial-places of their ancestors (Hinton 1990d, 35). The apparent lack of landscape divisions of early–middle Saxon date was thought to reflect this general collapse, their absence interpreted as resulting from reduced demands for Medieval Land Divisions land and a lower population. More recently, however, this view has been called into question, and continuity in use of The boundary ditches dating to the medieval period were the landscape is increasingly being recognised (cf. Higham aligned perpendicular to the High Street, defining elements 1992; Hills 1999, 181–2). of at least four linear plots. The only one whose width can PREHISTORIC RITUAL ACTIVITY AND SAXON SETTLEMENT AT MEADWAY 75 be determined with confidence was approximately 15m wide; ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS this roughly corresponds to three statute perches of 5.03m, suggesting that a common measure was used to determine the Bedford Borough Council and Bedfordshire County Council width of the plots. sponsored the archaeological fieldwork, the subsequent The regularity of the land parcels suggests organised analysis and the publication of this report. In particular, planning (or at least extension) of the village on the basis Albion Archaeology would like to acknowledge the assis- of existing boundaries, which were established before tance of John Theobald of Bedford Borough Council and the 12th/13th century. The High Street was referred to as Roger Norman of Bedfordshire County Council, and tenant ‘Harewold Weie’ in Priory documents dating to the 12th-13th farmer Mr Smith. In addition, thanks are due to Martin century (Albion Archaeology 2000), while Brook Lane was Oake (County Archaeological Officer) who monitored the first mentioned in the Eyre of 1247 (Fowler 1939, 123). The archaeological aspects of the project and Stephen Coleman pattern of parallel ditches is repeated to the west of Meadway (Historic Environment Information Officer), both formerly of by an open ditch, and beyond that by the brook that defines Bedfordshire County Council. Brook Lane. Several of these boundaries continue to have The project was managed by Nick Shepherd (Project significance in the present form of the village, with ditch G1 Manager) under the direction of Drew Shotliff (Operations being traceable beyond the southern limit of excavation as a Manager). The evaluation was undertaken by Jackie Crick modern property boundary. (Supervisor), Petra Adams, Roderick Dale, Craig Halsey and Tony Walsh. The mitigation excavation was undertaken by Tony Walsh (Supervisor), Ian Beswick, Emma Carter, Joanne Post-medieval Continuity Clark, Mary-Ellen Crothers, Francesca Daniels, Sally Dicks, Craig Halsey, Joan Lightning, Peter McNaught, Jill Martin, The Inclosure Map of 1799/1800 clearly shows boundary Matt Town and Mark Williams. G1, although by this time the medieval boundary may have Jackie Wells would like to thank Dr I.H. Longworth for changed in character. It appears to be respected by the wheel his identification of, and comments on, the collared urn. ruts of trackway L15 immediately to the east, which, along Gary Edmondson greatly assisted in progressing the article with the reefinition of boundary L20, suggests at least a to publication. Finally, we are most grateful to Drew Shotliff degree of continuity from the medieval period. for reading and commenting on a draft version of this article.

Evidence for early medieval occupation and pottery production from Harrold Priory Middle School H.B. Duncan, J. Wells and J. Wooding

Illustrations by Cecily Marshall

SUMMARY In 2003, Albion Archaeology undertook an archaeological investigation at Harrold Priory Middle School during the construction of a new science laboratory. Despite the small area of investigation and the truncated nature of the archaeological deposits, a sequence of occupation from before the Norman Conquest up to the 13th century was identified. The evidence took the form of elements of building foundations, which unfortunately could not be resolved into complete building plans. It is possible that the remains are associated with the capital messuage of Harrold Manor, which may formerly have occupied part of the school site. A varied range of contemporary artefacts were recovered, including more than 290kg of locally made, shell-tempered pottery, probably derived from nearby, as yet unlocated, kilns. Although much of this material was residual in later archaeological deposits, its importance lies in the fact that it is the largest assemblage yet recovered from the village. It includes a range of less common forms and decorative techniques and provides a valuable insight into this local industry. When occupation at the site ceased it appears to have been gradually levelled up as a result of episodic rubbish disposal. This process seems to have come to a halt sometime after the mid-17th century. Thereafter, the site remained as unoccupied land on the edge of the village until the school was built in the 1930s.

INTRODUCTION B05) recovered primarily from Period 3 and 4 deposits is also discussed at the end in its own right; despite appearing to be The site lay on the edge of the playing fields within Harrold largely redeposited, it is important because of the sizeable Priory Middle School, immediately to the west of the school quantity of wasters, and the range of forms and decorative buildings (Fig. 1). It was centred on OS grid co-ordinate SP techniques not previously recorded in this fabric type. 9492 5674, southwest of the village green in the centre of The appendix to this volume contains a combined bibli- Harrold, at a height of c. 48m OD. ography, ceramic type series, and summary of analysis The school lies immediately north of a group of buildings methodologies for all three sites. labelled ‘Manor House’ on a 1790 map of the River Great Ouse (BLARS: L33/24). A brief history of the manor, and a more general summary of Harrold’s archaeological heritage, are RESULTS OF THE EXCAVATION contained in the introduction to this volume. When the school H.B. Duncan was built in 1937–38, ‘massive foundations were unearthed’ (Robinson 1973, 120–1), and the same source also describes Period 1: Saxo-Norman Structure and Cobbled Yard (c. the headmaster as finding ‘thousands of small pieces of medi- 850–1150) eval pottery’ whilst digging a new school garden. A trial-trench evaluation (Northamptonshire Archaeology Phase 1: initial construction (Fig. 2) 2003) confirmed the archaeological potential of the site, iden- Structure 1: walls tifying 11th–12th-century deposits in the northern part of the Little of Structure 1 had survived its ultimate dismantling; only site. A considerable quantity of pottery wasters were also found, a small portion of its original foundation trench/continuous sill suggesting the presence of a medieval kiln in the vicinity. G8 remained, forming the southern portion of the west wall. Bedfordshire County Council’s County Archaeological Officer However, the layout of the Phase 4 robber trenches (G13 and (CAO) therefore advised that the archaeological impact of the G14) suggests that it was aligned north–south and may have development should be mitigated by pre-construction, open- been over 15m long and 7–7.5m wide. area excavation. Before any archaeological work had taken G8 had steep sides and a flat base, up to 0.47m wide at the place, however, 0.3m or more of overburden was stripped from lip of the trench, narrowing to 0.32m at the base. Its southern the site, and footings for the new building dug. Most of the foot- end kinked to the south-east, tapering to a narrow butt end ings cut through the entire sequence of archaeological deposits which may perhaps indicate an inward-curving end wall. No into the underlying river gravel terrace (Pl. 1). Construction artefacts were recovered from its infill. work was halted at the request of the CAO, and Albion No post impressions survived. Their absence could suggest Archaeology was engaged by Mouchel Parkman to assess the that G8 formed part of a continuous ground sill or sill beam. damage to the archaeological deposits and prepare proposals for However, excavations at North Elmham, Norfolk did uncover a belated excavation. The resulting excavation was carried out buildings constructed using continuous foundation trenches, in September and October 2003, and focussed on the northern but lacking post impressions (Wade-Martins 1980, 137–42, wing of the new laboratory, covering an area of 144m2 (Fig. 2). Buildings U and P), and the use of this building technique for The results of the excavation are presented below by chron- Structure 1 should not be discounted. The ambiguous nature ological period, with the site narrative for each period followed of the evidence for construction technique, combined with the by a discussion of the artefact and faunal assemblages. A absence of artefacts, makes it difficult to propose a date for large volume of early medieval Harrold pottery (fabric type Structure 1. 78 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Plate 1: The excavation area looking south-east, following initial cleaning

Structure 1: internal features 0.25m to the west, was oval, 0.46m long, 0.33m wide and The southern portion of Structure 1 had a cobbled or gravelled 0.32m deep, with similarly near-vertical sides. These post- floor surface G9, covering an area of 7.25m by 7.95m. It was holes perhaps represent doorposts (one replacing the other), set c. 0.2m below the level of an external yard L1 (see below). or at least an entranceway; SG29 was particularly deep, a It is unclear whether or not the northern portion of the struc- feature often noted in doorposts (e.g. Wade-Martins 1980, ture originally featured a similar surface. 159–60; 164–65). Although this identification is tentative, it A limited number of features within the structure have been might fit with the tendency for doorways to be placed off- tentatively assigned to this phase. G10 comprised a cluster of centre in a side-wall during the middle to late Saxon period. In four possible post-holes in the north of the structure (SG24– the late 11th to 12th centuries, the favoured position was near 27), and a fifth post-hole (SG28) located some 4.1m to the the middle of the side-wall (Wade-Martins 1980, 240; 242). south-east, set c. 1.5m from the putative line of the east wall. The cluster of post-holes lay at the approximate midpoint of External Yard the structure’s width. SG26 and SG27, set 0.33m apart, were Intermittent patches of a cobbled yard G1 survived on either nearly circular, measuring 0.32–0.34m in diameter and 0.24– side of Structure 1, in the form of frequent small to large 0.26m deep (Fig. 2: b). On either side were post-holes SG24 stones set on the underlying river-terrace gravel. Two of the and SG25, set 0.88m apart; these were both larger — 0.61m in larger patches abutted the west wall of the structure, while the diameter and 0.74m by 0.39m respectively — and shallower patchier cobbling to the south, west, and east does suggest (Fig. 2: c). They may represent supports for a ridge piece, for the presence of an extensive yard that originally surrounded either a hipped or gabled roof, although they were not quite Structure 1. Finds were limited (Table 1); the presence of both in alignment; nor did corresponding supports survive in the Saxo-Norman and early medieval ceramics reflects the open south end of the structure. The function of the isolated post- nature of this surface. hole SG28 — oval, measuring 0.38m by 0.26m in plan and 0.14m deep (Fig. 2: e) — remains unclear. Phase 2: alterations to Structure 1 and its external yard G11 comprised two post-holes SG29 and SG30, situated (Fig. 2) outside, or partially outside of the robbed-out western wall The putative door- or entranceway G11 appears to have been line G13. SG29 was sub-rectangular, measuring 0.44m by subject to alteration. Flat-bottomed gully G2 cut through 0.26m in plan and 0.55m deep (Fig. 2: f), while SG30, situated the backfilled post-holes and extended 4.8m from Structure EVIDENCE FOR EARLY MEDIEVAL OCCUPATION AND POTTERY PRODUCTION FROM PRIORY MIDDLE SCHOOL 79

Figure 2: Period 1 features — Phases 1 to 4 80 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Phase 1 Phase 3 Phase 4 instance, the evidence has also been compromised by subse- Find type G1 G10.1 G2.1 G13 G14 G4 quent dismantling and building activity, as well as by modern truncation. Using construction techniques alone as a basis for St Neots-type wares 8 4 39 129 24 8 dating structures can also be problematic — regional differ- Shelly ware (B05) 538 12 1,109 1,539 36 CBM 169 2 201 61 ences and the function and status of the structure may also Ferrous slag 13 12 153 139 2 12 have helped determine which techniques were employed. Vitrified clay 3 3 Within the wider East Anglian region, excavations at North Other artefacts slide key Elmham uncovered buildings of middle and late Saxon date Animal bone 91 245 which had continuous foundation trenches that held closely spaced posts — a tradition which seems to have continued Table 1: Weight (g) of finds from Period 1 deposits into the 10th century (Wade-Martins 1980, 141–2). The use of separate earthfast posts, in place of a continuous founda- 1 at an angle of roughly 45˚. It was 0.86m wide adjacent to tion trench, appears to have been re-introduced in the 10th Structure 1, tapering towards its south terminus, and was up century, becoming the predominant building method by the to 0.25m deep (Fig. 2: f). early 11th century. The spacing between post-holes became No replacement post-holes for the door- or entranceway progressively wider during the 11th century, resulting in were identified, but it is possible that the subsequent disman- the introduction of the interrupted ground sill, which was tling of Structure 1 destroyed any evidence for them. The then superseded by the continuous sill beam (Wade-Martins gully’s function also remains uncertain. It may have been 1980, 244). A potentially early example of a continuous sill designed for drainage; alternatively, it may have defined a beam structure, with bowed sides, was found at Buckden, pathway leading from the structure (cf. the pathway at Weoley Cambridgeshire, where the presence of St Neots-type ware Castle leading from the phase 1 (prior to 1210) timber struc- pottery has led it to be assigned a disuse date of the second ture; Oswald 1963, 117 and fig. 43). There was, however, no half of the 11th century (Tebbutt 1962, 15). The earliest corresponding gully to define the north side of a pathway. structures at Sulgrave, Northamptonshire included a timber Two features had been cut into Structure 1’s cobbled yard: hall-like building with buried sills dated to the late 10th gully G3 to the west of Structure 1, which was U-shaped in century (Davison 1977, 109–11). profile and measured 1.6m long, 0.35m wide and 0.20m deep; The narrowness of Structure 1’s foundation trench/sill beam and a deep, rectangular feature G6 to the east. G6 was 1.5m long can be paralleled by Building P at North Elmham, where it and 1.3m wide, with nearly vertical sides; it could not be fully was suggested that the 0.30m wide trench held closely spaced investigated, but was at least 0.7m deep (Fig. 2: g) and may planks, in the manner of stave buildings (Wade-Martins represent a well. The absence of both dated artefacts and any 1980, 139; 241). Building P is thought to date to the mid- stratigraphic relationships with features other than the cobbled 10th century (Wade-Martins 1980, 142). However, it should yard preclude its certain attribution to this phase of activity. be noted that the possible continuous sills at Buckden and Sulgrave were similarly narrow (Tebbutt 1962, 13; Davison Phase 3: demise of Structure 1 and its external yard (Fig. 2) 1977, fig. 2). The ‘in-turned’ southern terminus of the west The demise of Structure 1 is evidenced by the infilling of the wall of Structure 1 might indicate a curving end wall — a internal post-holes (G10.1) and the external gullies (G2.1 and feature frequently found on gable-ended buildings of late G3.1). Very few finds were recovered from these deposits Saxon to 11th-century date (Wade-Martins 1980, 242–3). (Table 1). Datable artefacts from the foundation trenches and internal Both Structure 1 and its external yard were subsequently features were limited to 4g of St Neots ware from post-hole sealed by a series of layers (G12 and G7 respectively). One such SG26 in G10 (Table 2). Robber trench G13 also yielded a deposit — a stony, 0.12m thick layer of mid-brown sandy silt small amount of St Neots ware, as well as sizeable quantities — overlay the yard surface near the entrance to Structure 1 and of shelly ware, suggesting that the building was dismantled continued unaltered into its interior. These deposits varied in no earlier than the 12th century. The only other artefact which composition but were all similarly devoid of finds, suggesting can assist in dating Structure 1 is key RA89 (Fig. 3) — a that the area ceased to be a focus of activity for some time. distinctive form, used in conjunction with a type of mounted lock which was in use before, but not after, the Conquest Phase 4: dismantling of Structure 1 and pitting (Fig. 2) (Goodall 1990a, 1003–5). Although the association of the key Two robber trenches mark the locations of the dismantled with the occupation of Structure 1 is not certain, as it came west and east walls of Structure 1. The west robber trench from the western robber trench, it is strongly suggestive of a G13 was better defined and deeper — up to 0.20m (Fig. 2: pre-Conquest date. f). A variety of finds, including a key (Fig. 3), were recov- In summary, while the evidence for the building technique ered from its fills (Table 1). The east robber trench G14 was used in Structure 1 remains uncertain — whether foundation much shallower — only 0.07m (Fig. 2: h) — suggesting more trench with closely spaced posts, or continuous sill beam — truncation in this part of the site. With the exception of one the artefactual dating evidence suggests that it was in use in excavated segment near the centre of its length, its infill did the earlier half of the 11th century. not produce any finds. Given the limited nature of the evidence, it is difficult to Pit G4 appears to have been dug through the layers sealing attribute a function to Structure 1. Its reconstructed dimen- the former yard surface at the same time as Structure 1 was sions — over 15m long and some 7.5m wide —can be dismantled. It had steep sides and was c. 0.4m deep (Fig. 2: i), paralleled by Buildings U and P at North Elmham, which and produced a small but varied assemblage of finds (Table 1). were 18m by 7m and 22.7m by at least 8.5m respectively (Wade-Martins 1980, 137; 139). These buildings have been Structure 1: summary of dating evidence and function interpreted as high-status halls (Wade-Martins 1980, 245), Determining construction techniques from surviving ‘nega- yet while this could hold true for Structure 1, its dimensions tive features’ can be difficult at the best of times. In this could also signify a barn. EVIDENCE FOR EARLY MEDIEVAL OCCUPATION AND POTTERY PRODUCTION FROM PRIORY MIDDLE SCHOOL 81

Period 1 Finds Other artefacts Pottery H.B. Duncan J. Wells Artefacts from Period 1 deposits are limited in both quan- Approximately 1% of the total pottery assemblage (by sherd tity and in the range of activities represented. Most of the count) derived from Period 1 features, which yielded 361 evidence relates to metalworking activities, in particular slag sherds, representing 182 vessels and weighing 3.4kg (Table and associated fired clay; the vitrified nature of the latter 2). Although not particularly abraded, the fragmented and suggests it formed lining for a furnace or hearth (Table 4). The disturbed nature of the assemblage is evidenced by a low presence of tap slag points towards iron smelting; however, vessel to sherd ratio of 1:2 and low average sherd weight of the small quantity and dispersed deposition pattern suggests 10g. the slag was redeposited, rather than indicating that smelting Early medieval shell-tempered pottery (fabric B05: see was being carried out within the structure or the immediate below, pp. 101–8) constitutes 84% of the assemblage — confines of the cobbled yard. 35% of which are wasters, mostly from robber trench G14 Only one object may be related to the occupation of Structure — while the remainder comprises wheel-thrown, shell- 1: the cast copper alloy key (Fig. 4: RA89), which conforms tempered vessels in the St Neots ware tradition (fabric B01) to Ward Perkins type 1B (1993, 134). This distinctive form and its variants (fabrics B01A, B and C). These range broadly of key was used in conjunction with a type of mounted lock in date from the mid-9th to 12th centuries, peak during the that was in use before, but not after, the Conquest (Goodall 10–11th centuries, and develop by the 12th century into the 1990a, 1003–5). The hollow stem-tip fitted over a pin on the early medieval shell-tempered wares (type B05 at Harrold lock bolt, and the projecting teeth of the bit entered holes in and type B07 further afield). St Neots ware forms comprise the lock-bolt before both key and bolt were slid along in a plain everted-rim and ‘top hat’ jars, and bowls with simple single action. An example of such a lock was found in situ on upright rims. The dearth of diagnostic material hinders an iron-bound wooden chest from a late 9th-century context attempts to provide a more closely refined date range for the in Winchester (Goodall 1990a, 1003–5). Such locks were not Saxo-Norman material. Use of vessels as cooking pots is restricted to use on chests or caskets, but were also mounted indicated by the presence of sooting on the exterior surfaces on doors. Although the key was found within the west wall’s of several sherds. robber trench, it seems probable that it was associated with The majority of the assemblage derived from Phase 4 the occupation of Structure 1. Its presence suggests this struc- robber trenches G13 and G14, associated with the disman- ture was extant prior to the mid-11th century. tling of Structure 1. External cobbled yard G1 and associated cut features (G2.1, G1.1 and G4.1) yielded small, mixed Key. Copper alloy. Cast, L-section bit with hollow stem-tip, ring bow. White assemblages of Saxo-Norman and early medieval date, and a metal plating visible on surface. Length 53.6mm. RA89. Robber trench G13; residual sherd of Roman coarse ware. Phase 4. Figure 3

Ceramic building material Animal bone J. Wells J. Wooding A single shell-tempered fragment of flat roof tile (84g) was The total number of bones recorded (NISP) from Period 1 recovered from external cobbled yard G1. The tile is made deposits numbered fifty fragments (4% of the entire assem- from the same fabric as the early medieval type B05 pottery blage of 1,127 fragments), twenty-nine of which were and is considered to be of a similar date. assigned to the general categories of cattle- and sheep-sized, Sixteen fragments of fired clay (349g) were recovered, leaving only twenty bones identifiable to species and element the majority deriving from Phase 4 robber trench G13 (Table (Table 5). 3). Twelve are in a fine oxidised sand-tempered fabric; the The three main domestic stock species (pig, sheep/goat remainder are in a buff fabric, tempered with coarse fossil and cattle) plus horse were identified, along with domestic shell. Fragments are generally small, with an average weight fowl, goose and dog. However, the numbers of identifiable of 22g. All retain finger-smoothed surfaces, and two sand- elements are so few that only a single individual from each tempered pieces from G14 retain impressions of circular of the three main domesticated species is represented. Of wattles which are 15–20mm in diameter, indicating their use the bones that are present from these three main species, all as structural components. All were redeposited and cannot be regions of the skeleton were observed, indicating that the directly associated with the features from which they were animals were present in their entirety on site rather than as collected. selected joints and cuts. In addition to this, butchery marks

Phase G no. Fabric type* Total Roman Saxo-Norman Medieval R06B B01 B01A B01B B01C B05 1 1 3:8 75:538 78:546 3 2.1 1:2 3:14 5:23 1:2 4:12 14:54 10.1 1:4 1:4 4 4.1 3:8 9:36 12:44 13 22:114 3:12 1:3 100:1,109 126:1,238 14 2:20 1:4 127:1,539 130:1,563 Total 1:2 31:160 12:47 1:2 1:3 315:3,234 361:3,448 *Shaded area denotes contemporary ceramics Table 2: Period 1 pottery quantification by sherd number and weight (g) 82 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Phase G no. Fabric type Total Phase Shell Sand Species 1 2 3 4 NISP MNI 1 1 3:85 3:85 Horse 1 1 3 2.1 1:2 1:2 Cattle 2 2 1 4 13 1:82 9:119 10:201 Sheep/goat 2 2 4 1 14 2:61 2:61 Pig 6 6 1 Total 4:167 12:182 16:349 Dog 1 1 Domestic fowl 2 2 1 Table 3: Period 1 fired clay quantification by fragment count Goose 1 1 1 Bird (dom. 1 1 and weight (g) fowl-sized) Toad 1 1 2 Cattle-sized 1 4 5 1 Phase G no. Description Wt (g) Sheep-sized 1 23 24 Unidentified 1 1 1 1 Ferrous smelting tap slag 13 Total 1 5 44 50 — 3 2.1 Ferrous smelting tap slag 115 Ferrous slag and clay lining 38 10.1 Ferrous smelting tap slag 12 Table 5: Period 1 animal bone: Phase, NISP and MNI results cinder 23 4 4.1 Ferrous smelting tap slag 12 13 Ferrous smelting slag 139 and a group of four post-holes which may indicate the posi- Clay lining 3 tion of temporary scaffolding. As with the pre-Conquest 14 Ferrous smelting tap slag 2 Clay lining 3 building evidence, intensive robbing and modern truncation Total 360 have hampered reconstruction of these structural elements into a coherent building(s) plan. Table 4: Period 1 evidence for ironworking Wall foundation trenches G16–19 Near the western corner of the site, foundation trench G17 represented the corner of a wall, running ESE–WNW for c. 3.5m before turning north for 2m. The trench had an irregular profile, and was 1m wide and 0.4m deep (Fig. 4: b). The primary fill comprised dark grey-green brown clayey silt, interpreted as packing material, and contained lenses of off- white, mottled pink mortar that was up to 30mm thick, as well as remnants of the stone core of the wall. It was overlain by large cobbles and fragments of limestone. Although a small quantity of St Neots type wares was recovered, the pottery assemblage is dominated by shelly ware (Table 6). Foundation trench G18 abutted and is thought to have been contiguous with G17. It appears to have been aligned SSW– NNE and was traceable for 3.6m; the line of robber trench G23 (Period 3, Phase 7) suggests this wall may have continued to the north-north-east for at least 17m. The trench had a stepped profile, and was up to 1.5m wide and 0.4m deep (Fig. 4: b). Its primary fill was similar in thickness and composition to that of G17, while broken quern/millstones were used in addition to limestone fragments in the core. Figure 3: Period 1 ‘Other Artefacts’ A smaller, heavily truncated remnant of wall foundation G19 survived towards the centre of the site, which was 0.69m wide and 0.13m deep (Fig. 4: d). Its primary fill of black indicative of dismemberment, filleting and marrow cracking clayey silt was sealed by a spread of limestone fragments, were also observed. thought to be remnants of the stone core of the wall. Both this Age at death could be suggested for three pig bones (two and the primary fill produced a small quantity of pottery and mandibles and an unfused proximal ulna); one at least 12 animal bone (Table 6). months, one at least 17 months and one that was less than Foundation trench G16 lay in the southern corner of the 3 to 3½ years of age. The sheep/goat bones indicate that the site, and was 1.2m wide and 0.1m deep (Fig. 4: a). In plan, animals were aged at least 10 months and anywhere up to 2½ the trench was irregular, apparently having some curvilinear years at death. A single proximal fused cattle radius indicated elements (perhaps for a niche in the wall?), but modern distur- age at death of 12 to 18 months. bance makes it impossible to determine its original form or precise function.

Period 2: Early Medieval Building Remains (c. 1150–1250) Post-pads G18.1 and G20 At the junction of wall foundation trenches G17 and G18 Phase 5: wall foundations, post-pads and post-holes (Fig. 4) was rectangular cut G18.1, which was 1.8m long, 1.6m wide This phase of building is evidenced by a number of wall foun- and 0.4m deep, with vertical sides and a flat base (Fig. 4: dations (some containing remains of bedding and bonding b). Its shape suggests that it was a post-pad; furthermore, its material), two post-pads, two post-holes with stone settings, infill, thought to represent packing, contained remnants of EVIDENCE FOR EARLY MEDIEVAL OCCUPATION AND POTTERY PRODUCTION FROM PRIORY MIDDLE SCHOOL 83

Figure 4: Period 2 — Phase 5 features possible bonding or bedding material for the post-pad. These e). Any packing, bonding and foundation material had been comprised 50mm thick fragments of off-white, mottled pink subsequently removed. mortar with frequent flecks of fired clay; remnants of orange- red mortar with grey surfaces, T-shaped in plan and suggestive Temporary scaffolding G15 of interstitial bonding; and a 0.18m thick layer of yellow, Four post-holes G15 were situated immediately adjacent to wall plastic clay. A number of limestone fragments were set in the foundation trench G17; none produced any finds. Three of them clay, although it is thought that the pad stone itself was subse- (SG42) were in line with, and respected, the foundation trench; quently removed (see below: Period 3, Phase 7, G18.2). Small these were all oval in plan and up to 0.4m deep (Fig. 4: c). The quantities of pottery and animal bone were found within the fourth post-hole SG41 (Fig. 4: c), which was triangular in plan, packing (Table 6). was just off this line. The sloping angle of its south-west side may A second possible post-pad G20 lay 4.5m north-east of indicate that it held a raked, supporting timber for the vertical G18.1, on the line of (and heavily truncated by) the later post in SG42. The location of the post-holes along the course robber trench G23. It was 1.4m long, possibly 0.85 wide and of the wall foundation trench suggests that they may mark the 0.45m deep, with nearly vertical sides and a flat base (Fig. 4: position of temporary scaffolding, erected during construction. 84 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Post-holes with stone settings G21 Ceramic building material Two post-holes G21 were located near the north-east edge J. Wells of the site. They were 1.6m apart, aligned perpendicular to Fifty-five fragments of fired clay (1.8kg) in a coarse shell- and 4.7m from the line of robber trench G23. SG51, lying tempered fabric were associated with post-pad G18.1. They closest to the robber trench, was oval in plan, measuring are likely to represent packing material. The pieces are not 0.85m long, 0.63m wide and 0.34m deep, while SG52 was particularly well fired, although a number have finger- circular, 0.45m in diameter, and 0.13m deep (Fig. 4). Both smoothed surfaces. post-holes had stone settings; SG51 contained a 0.13m thick stone with smaller stones stacked on top, forming a central Other artefacts well to support a post. H.B. Duncan Two joining fragments of millstone grit, from the Derbyshire/ Period 2: summary of evidence and dating Yorkshire region, were found within the stone core of wall Extensive robbing, later pitting and modern truncation have foundation G18. The concentric wear pattern on the grinding made it impossible to identify individual buildings within the surface indicates a diameter exceeding 500mm, which could Period 2 evidence. However, the surviving structural elements suggest a millstone rather than a quern. The convex grinding do indicate a change in building technique between Periods surface indicates this was an upper or runnerstone. As mill- 1 and 2. The Period 2 wall foundations consisted of spreads stones involved a considerable financial outlay, those retrieved of limestone fragments and cobbles; whether these carried from archaeological deposits are worn thin and frequently stone walls or, more likely, a timber and clay superstructure is show evidence of re-use, sometimes as a hearthstone or, as in uncertain. Several examples of structures of mixed stone and this case, as part of a wall foundation. timber building technique are also known, including stone The remaining Period 2 artefacts — a nail, a cylindrical halls with timber aisles and quite complex timber structures iron collar, an iron harness buckle and a copper alloy strap constructed on foundations consisting simply of a spread of mount — were found within the core of wall foundation G19. boulders and cobbles (Higham and Barker 1992, 177–93; The wall remnant was immediately below a Period 3 make-up 246–7). A general trend has been noted for the increasing use or levelling layer (G29), and some of these artefacts may have of stone in the 12th and 13th centuries, not only in castles but derived from this later deposit. Harness buckle RA40 would also in both high quality houses and houses of the peasantry have possessed a separate rotating arm, forming the fourth (Higham and Barker 1992, 191–3). The pottery associated side of the frame, held in place by the looped-over ends of the with the Period 2 structural elements is predominantly early buckle frame. The rotating arm permitted easy movement of medieval shelly ware, suggesting the same trend is evident at the harness straps. This form of buckle appears to be an inno- Harrold. vation of the late 11th century and remained current until at least the 13th century (Ottaway and Rogers 2002, 2894). The Period 2 Finds cylindrical iron collar or band and the nail shank, however, cannot be closely dated. Pottery The bar mount for a strap (Fig. 5: RA41) from G19 is cast, J. Wells and has a single integral rivet beneath a scallop shell and fillet Less than 1% of the total pottery assemblage derived from terminal. The opposing end has an arrow-shaped terminal Period 2 features, which yielded 113 sherds, representing (currently looped over). Bar mounts were in use throughout sixty-four vessels and weighing 1.4kg (Table 7). The frag- the medieval period and were normally attached transversely mented and mixed nature of the assemblage is indicated by a in a row on the strap (Egan and Pritchard 1991, 209–10). It is low vessel to sherd ratio of 1:2 and low average sherd weight of possible that this example, with its looped-over arrow-shaped 13g. Pottery in fabric type B05 constitutes 82% of the assem- terminal, may have been used with a pendent loop to suspend blage, of which 6% are wasters (see 00–00); the remainder an item from a belt, although these normally have two rivets. comprises Saxo-Norman wheel-thrown, shell-tempered St Terminals similar to the scallop-shape were found on bar Neots-type wares (fabric types B01, B01A, B01C and B04). mounts from 14th- to 15th-century deposits at Winchester Forms present include bowls with inturned rims, ‘top hat’ (Hinton 1990a, fig. 144: nos. 1377 and 1383, referred to as jars and simple everted-rim jars, some of which are sooted. foliate); an arrow-shaped terminal can be seen on a large bar Three early to mid-13th-century developed Stamford ware mount from deposits of 1350–1400 at London (Egan and jug sherds with a speckled dark green glaze (type C12A), and Pritchard 1991, fig. 134: no. 1163). Although this finely made a micaceous sand-tempered body sherd (type C75) were also mount may date from earlier than the cited parallels, its small identified. The majority of the assemblage derived from the size means that it could easily have worked its way from the fill of wall foundation trenches G17 and G19. overlying Period 3 deposits, which are dated to c. 1250–1400.

Find category G17 G18 G18.1 G19 G19 Primary fill Wall core St Neots-type wares 83g 10g 98g 15g 26g Shelly ware (B05) 814g 12g 388g Other medieval wares (C12A, C75) 34g Ceramic building material 1.8kg Other artefacts millstone harness buckle, strap mount, collar, nail Animal bone 56g 28g 254g

Table 6: Finds from Period 2 deposits EVIDENCE FOR EARLY MEDIEVAL OCCUPATION AND POTTERY PRODUCTION FROM PRIORY MIDDLE SCHOOL 85

G no. Fabric type* Total Saxo-Norman Medieval B01 B01A B01C B04 B05 C12A C75 17 3:43 1:11 2:29 53:814 59:897 18 1:10 1:10 18.1 2:89 1:9 3:98 19 4:18 2:23 40:400 3:29 1:5 50:475 Total 9:160 1:11 2:23 3:38 46:1,214 3:29 1:5 113:1,480

*Shaded area denotes contemporary ceramics Table 7: Period 2 (Phase 5) pottery quantification by sherd number and weight (g)

Species Phase 5 NISP MNI Horse 1 1 1 Cattle 6 6 1 Sheep/goat 10 10 1 Pig 3 3 1 Domestic fowl 4 4 2 Goose 1 1 Bird (dom. 5 5 fowl-sized) Cattle-sized 24 24 1 Figure 5: Period 2 ‘Other Artefacts’ Sheep-sized 22 22 Total 76 76 —

Millstone. Millstone grit. Two joining fragments, feeder and skirt not Table 8: Period 2 animal bone: Phase 5, NISP surviving. Grinding surface has concentric wear pattern. Upper surface roughly worked. Diameter exceeds 500mm; maximum thickness 46mm. and MNI results RA99 and RA100. Foundation trench G18; Phase 5

Collar. Iron. Cylindrical collar or band, oval in plan and formed from a wool, lamb production or for meat (mutton). Amongst the six rectangular-sectioned strip. Length 45mm; width 42mm; height 15.2mm; cattle bones, two proximally fused phalanges came from an thickness 3.2mm. RA43. Foundation trench G19; Phase 5 animal a minimum of 1–1½ years old at death, and an unfused Buckle. Iron. Harness buckle with rotating arm. Arm missing, frame incom- proximal tibia epiphysis came from an animal that was no plete; one side and part of inside edge surviving. Side of frame terminates in older than 3½ years (Silver 1969, 285–6, table A). Two of the rolled-over loop to carry rotating arm. Frame plano-convex in cross-section, three pig bones provided age at death information: a complete narrowing on inside edge. Length 60mm; surviving width 53mm. RA40. phalanx provides a minimum age at death of 1–2 years (Silver Foundation trench G19; Phase 5 1969, 285–6, table A), with a mandible fragment, containing Strap mount. Copper alloy. Cast bar mount with integral rivet. Scallop and an M1 in wear and an M2 just in the process of erupting, fillet terminal, opposing terminal (bent over) arrow-shaped. Length (straight- suggesting an age at death of around 7–13 months. The fact ened) 37mm. RA41. Foundation trench G19; Phase 5. Figure 5 that the third molar had not yet erupted through the head of the bone indicates that the pig was no older than 17–22 months Animal bone (Silver 1969, 298–9, table G). J. Wooding Seventy-six fragments of animal bone were recovered from Period 2 deposits (7% of the entire assemblage). Over half Period 3: Robbing of Building Material and Levelling of the bones (61%) were only identifiable to the general cate- (c. 1250–1400s) gories of cattle- and sheep-sized, leaving twenty-five bones that were identifiable to both species and element. Although Phase 6: infilling of Period 2 structural elements and well the assemblage is extremely small, the information extracted (Fig. 6) from those bones very much parallels the Period 1 assem- Post-holes G21 were infilled with greyish brown sandy silt, blage: all three stock animals plus horse were identified, along similar to the 0.16–0.25m thick levelling layer G22 that with domestic fowl and goose (Table 8). With such a paucity sealed them, indicating that at least the northern part of of identifiable bones, it is difficult to be conclusive about the site was not occupied at this time. The levelling layer skeletal element representation. However, all regions of the produced a moderate assemblage of finds, while a few were skeleton are represented, as well as the butchery processes of also recovered from the larger of the two post-holes (Table dismemberment, filleting and marrow cracking. 9). The presence of wasters within the ceramic assemblage, Age at death could be suggested for three sheep/goat bones as well as redeposited ironworking by-products, suggests that (proximally fused radius, a scapula and a pelvis), which are some of the deposit may have derived from industrial activity, at least 10 months, 6–8 months and 6–10 months respec- although the presence of non-kiln material and animal bone tively. A single loose tooth indicates that there was a sheep/ may indicate an element of domestic debris. goat that was at least 18–24 months (data for sheep) to 30 It is assumed that the possible well G6 (tentatively assigned months (data for goat) of age, and probably older due to the to Period 2) also went out of use at this time, if not before. The fact that the tooth was in wear (Silver 1969, 297–8, tables absence of dated artefacts from any of its fills and the lack of E and F). Although the data is limited, it could potentially a stratigraphic relationship with any features other than the indicate that some sheep were being kept into maturity for early cobbled yard surface precludes certainty. 86 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Figure 6: Period 3 — Phase 6 features

Phase 7: robbing of building materials (Fig. 7) series of large cobbles and limestone fragments at its southern Phase 7 comprised episodic robbing, commencing with the end; a distinct deposit of dark grey loamy silt with greenish post-pads (G18.2 and 20.1) and the digging of robber trench mottled clay and frequent burnt stones in its middle section; G24, followed by the excavation of a second robber trench and what appeared to be decayed mortar at its northern G23. In the western corner of the site, two somewhat curvi- end. These deposits produced sizeable quantities of finds, linear ditches G25 and G26 may also have been associated including more than 75kg of shelly pottery, half of which are with robbing or dumping activity. wasters, and nearly 4kg of fired clay fragments. The pottery Removal of the pad stones from the two post-pads left only was spread throughout the trench, but with a greater concen- the disturbed remnants of packing and bonding, intermixed tration in the northern half. Redeposited ferrous slag was also with soil (G18.2 and G20.1). G20, in particular, was compre- present, but in small quantities (Table 9). In the main, these hensively dismantled. All of its various fills yielded finds, finds appear to have derived from industrial and craft-related including abraded sherds of both St Neots-type and shelly activity, although the small quantity of animal bone may wares, and small quantities of ferrous slag and animal bone represent an element of domestic waste. (Table 9). Two irregular, curvilinear features G25 and G26 were Robber trench G24 appeared to continue beyond the north located near the western corner of the site. G25, which was limit of excavation. It was heavily truncated by subsequent 4m long, 2.4m wide and 0.8m deep (Fig. 7: b), partly overlay episodes of robbing, but was up to 0.5m wide and 0.8m deep one of the Period 2 wall foundations (G17); it may, therefore, (Fig. 7: a), and appeared to terminate adjacent to robbed out be a further example of a robber trench, continuing in a west- post-pad G20 at its southern end. Its infill produced small erly direction beyond the excavated area. It contained varying quantities of residual St Neots-type ware, a much higher densities of limestone fragments, although only its uppermost proportion of shelly ware, limited amounts of redeposited fill yielded finds (Table 9). ferrous slag, and animal bone (Table 9). The purpose of G26 is less clear. Only a 2.4m length Robber trench G23 truncated G24, following a similar survived, which was 1.4m wide and 0.35m deep (Fig. 4: e) alignment. It was mostly c. 1.6m wide and 0.48–0.68m deep and featured a bulbous terminal to the north; to the south, it (Fig. 7: a), increasing to 2.8m wide at its southern end, with was completely truncated by a large pit (G30, Phase 9). The a varied profile. Its infill mostly comprised grey or greyish finds assemblage from G26 is comparable with those from the brown sandy silts, though there were localised variations: a other Phase 7 deposits (Table 9). EVIDENCE FOR EARLY MEDIEVAL OCCUPATION AND POTTERY PRODUCTION FROM PRIORY MIDDLE SCHOOL 87

Figure 7: Period 3 — Phase 7 features 88 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Figure 8: Period 3 features — Phases 8 and 9

Phase 8: site-wide levelling (Fig. 8) Phase 9: digging of rubbish pits (Fig. 8) Consecutive layers of dark, silty soil G29 were, presumably, Disposal of rubbish from the surrounding area continued with deposited deliberately in order to level the area. They varied the digging of five rubbish pits (Table 9). Two adjacent pits in thickness from 70mm to 0.15m to the north and north-west, G27 in the northern quadrant of the site were similar in size and 0.23m to 0.3m elsewhere, but nearly all produced a consid- — 1m long, up to 0.74m wide and 0.18m deep (Fig. 8: a and erable assemblage of finds (Table 9). As with the previous b) — and appear to have been dug specifically to dispose of episode of levelling (G22, Phase 6), the sizeable proportion ironworking debris. Each contained a single deposit of dark of shelly ware wasters, and the presence of redeposited iron- sandy silt, and produced finds assemblages dominated by working debris (11.5kg), suggests that some of these levelling ferrous slag. layers derived from industrial activity. Although the bulk of The infilled southern pit in G27 had been dug through by the assemblage appears to date to the earlier 13th century, another pit, G28, much of which was destroyed by modern residual elements are also apparent, as attested by the pres- truncation. G28 was sub-rectangular in plan, measuring c. ence of St Neots-type ware and a zoomorphic strap end dating 3m long, at least 0.8m wide and 0.61m deep (Fig. 8: c), and to either side of the 9th century (Fig. 9: RA69). contained similar dark, sandy silts to those in pits G27. It produced the largest quantity of ironworking debris (23.7kg) from the site, with the greatest concentration coming from its EVIDENCE FOR EARLY MEDIEVAL OCCUPATION AND POTTERY PRODUCTION FROM PRIORY MIDDLE SCHOOL 89 secondary and tertiary fills, perhaps suggesting that rubbish no portable kiln furniture, such as kiln bars, was identified, disposal represents re-use of the pit. such items could have usefully been reused and were perhaps Two large oval pits in the south-west quadrant of the site less likely to be dumped than fragments of kiln superstruc- were quite different in character. Pit G30 was 2.6m long, ture or lining. 2.3m wide and 0.58m deep, with a stepped profile (Fig. 8: d). Compared to the other Phase 9 pits, it produced very few Other artefacts finds. Pit G31 was 3.2m long, 2m wide and 0.6m deep (Fig. H.B. Duncan 8: e); its principal fill, a dark silty loam, produced very little Period 3 deposits produced considerably more artefacts than ironworking debris but did contain a sizeable quantity of the preceding periods. However, the nature of the deposits shelly ware. — levelling, robbing and the disposal of metalworking and other craft-related by-products — makes it unlikely that the Period 3 Finds artefacts were directly associated with the structural elements Pottery from which they were recovered. There is also some evidence J. Wells of residuality within the assemblage. Features assigned to Period 3 yielded 15,846 sherds, weighing 162.6kg (Table 10), which constitutes 53% of the total pottery Building fasteners and fittings assemblage. Over 97% of this material comprises vessels in Surprisingly few nails — twenty, 40% comprising only shell-tempered fabric type B05, of which 26% are wasters shanks — or other structural fasteners are present in the (see below and 00–00). Sherds are small, with an average Period 3 assemblage (Table 12). All the heads are flat, but weight of 10g, and moderately abraded. Pottery contempo- three head forms are identifiable: shanks flaring to form rary with the shelly ware comprises six glazed jug sherds and rectangular heads; offset or L-shaped heads; and narrow a combed and glazed strap handle in developed Stamford rectangular heads. Most of the nails came from either robber ware (type C12A). Residual material was present in all of the trench G23 or levelling layer G29. A looped staple (Phase 8) Period 3 phases, and is accounted for primarily by 413 sherds and one domed door stud (Phase 9) were also found. (6.3kg) of St Neots-type ware (types B01, B01A, B01B and B04). Forms present are bowls with hammerhead, inturned Household and simple rounded rims; ‘top hat’ and everted-rim jars, a Little evidence was recovered for household activities, e.g. small proportion of which are sooted; and jugs with applied furnishings or kitchen-related items. An iron mount or clamp, thumbed decoration. comprising narrow paired strips fixed together by two nails Most of the wasters from Period 3 deposits were recovered (Fig. 9: RA67), may have been used to hold parts of a casket from features assigned to Phases 7 and 8, which produced the together. Similar mounts have been found in contexts of 11th- majority of the overall Period 3 assemblage. Wasters account to 15th-century date (Goodall 1980, 115). for more than 64% of the 77kg of pottery from Phase 7 robber Knives could be used both as eating utensils and for craft- trench G23, and for 33% of the 73kg of pottery from Phase related activities. Two tanged knives were found, both from 8 levelling layers G29. The pottery assemblages from Phases Phase 8 levelling layer G29; although one is damaged and 6 and 9 are considerably smaller, with wasters accounting for incomplete, both appear to be of Ottaway’s back form C only 1% and 2% of the assemblages respectively. (1992, 565–70). The more complete example (Fig. 9: RA64) has a straight back before curving down to the tip; it fits into Ceramic building material the definition of form C1, which was current from the middle J. Wells Saxon period until the 11th century (Ottaway 1992, 568–70), Period 3 features yielded nine pieces of shell-tempered flat and appears to have continued in use into the 12th or early roof tile (525g) and a poorly fired brick fragment (378g), the 13th century, as evidenced by finds from York (Ottaway and latter 38mm thick. The tiles occur in the same fabric as the Rogers 2002, 3038). The second example (RA85) appears to early medieval type B05 pottery and are considered to be of correspond to form C3, having a straight downward-sloping a similar date. They are 13–18mm thick, and have roughened back; the absence of the tip makes this allocation less certain, undersides, indicating their manufacture in a sanded mould. but the length of the tang and the slimness of the blade are Fingerprints on the edges of two fragments are likely to have also characteristic of this form. C3 knives appear to have a been made when the tiles were removed, in a plastic state, similar date range to form C1, the main period of use being from their moulds. Six tiles were recovered from levelling the mid-9th to 11th centuries, perhaps continuing into the 13th layer G29 (Phase 8), a brick and tile fragment from pit G31 (Ottaway 1992, 570; Ottaway and Rogers 2002, 3039). (Phase 9), and single tiles from robber trench G23 and ditch G26 (Phase 7). Box mount. Iron. A pair of bar mounts with expanded and perforated A total of 438 fired clay fragments (11.2kg) was recov- circular ends, retaining a nail in situ at either end. Nails have domed heads; the opposing ends have been upset. The space between the two bar mounts ered, the majority deriving from Phase 7 features, in would accommodate wood of a thickness of 25mm. Remains of mineralised particular robber trench G23 (Table 11). Fragments tempered wood visible. Length of bar mounts 47mm and 50mm; height 22mm. RA67. with coarse fossil shell constitute 66% of the assemblage, Robber trench G23; Phase 7. Figure 9 with the remainder in a fine oxidised sand-tempered fabric. Fragments are generally small, with an average weight of Knife. Iron. Whittle-tang knife, tang of tapering rectangular section set at mid-point. Blade’s back straight and horizontal before curving to tip. Blade’s 26g. The majority retain finger-smoothed surfaces and/or edge straight before rising to meet tip. Length 108mm; blade length 63mm; edges. Larger pieces in both fabric types have impressions of blade width 16mm. RA64. Levelling layer G29; Phase 8. Figure 9 circular wattles which are 5–25mm in diameter. All are redeposited and cannot be directly associated with the features Knife. Iron. Remains of a whittle-tang knife; tapering rectangular-sectioned from which they were collected. It is conceivable that at least tang appears complete (length about 43mm). Junction of blade and tang damaged; blade bent. Back appears to be straight, downward-sloping (Type some of the fired clay assemblage could represent structural C3?). Blade heavily worn. Length about 75mm. RA85. Levelling layer G29; remains from one kiln, or indeed a number of kilns. Although Phase 8 90 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY 4 5:16 8:41 78 13:86 631 150 800 65:697 31:359 49:395 G31 3,927 139:872 Total 520:4,009 367:2,536 315:2,772 7,516:77,128 6,819:73,769 15,846:162,625 2 3 13 G30 7:81 3:66 4:15 C12A 11 58 58 639 2,097 6,792 G28 Medieval 4:13 7:38 2:20 23,717 Phase 9 60:639 23:224 41:343 123:649 door stud, ‘buzz bone’ B05 510:3,927 359:2,438 274:2,231 7,426:75,612 6,594:70,070 6 15,423:156,204 13 15 4,864 SG66 horseshoe, nails (3) G27 1:2 1:2 C12 2 35 23 453 1,284 SG65 1:26 1:48 1:19 1:24 1:13 2:22 B04 13 15 961 23:466 16:314 4,045 G29 3,671 3,149 11,494 70,070 Phase 8 strap end, horseshoe (2), shoeing nail (4), knife (2), weed hook, staple B01B 223 649 324 174 319 289 12:319 12:319 G26 Saxo-Norman nail Fabric type* 2:4 84 2:35 3:32 1:24 6:39 4:12 135 224 281 8:119 G25 43:696 20:271 10:104 B01A 99:1,336 66 192 1,721 1:3 2:9 G23 1,395 2,544 4,012 8:52 7:85 3:23 3:20 6:61 2:13 75,612 Phase 7 5:103 29:415 B01 awl, box mount, pin nail (6), beater, shoeing nail 66:1,076 279:4,200 147:2,340 98 271 196 G24 2,438 1:4 1:4 Table 10: Period 3 pottery quantification by sherd number and weight (g) Table A18 Saxon 52 20 93 112 343 G20 Table 9: Artefacts from Period 3 deposits (quantified by weight (g) except for other artefacts) 9: Table nail, shoeing nail 1:9 1:9 R12B 41 541 461 348 G22 2,231 1,658 nails (2) Roman Phase 6 1:4 1:4 R01 21 20 74 442 G21 SG51 finger ring

30 31 Total 26 29 28 23 25 27 24 20.1 G. no. 22 21.1 8 *Shaded area denotes contemporary ceramics 9 7 Find type Pottery Pre-Saxo-Norman (R12B, A18) St Neots-type wares, C12 Shelly ware (B05) Other medieval wares (C12A) Phase Ferrous slag Ceramic building material 6 Fuel ash slag Vitrified clay Vitrified Other artefacts Animal bone EVIDENCE FOR EARLY MEDIEVAL OCCUPATION AND POTTERY PRODUCTION FROM PRIORY MIDDLE SCHOOL 91

Phase G no. Fabric type Total of material, in particular in the Phase 9 pits, suggests that Shell Sand smelting furnaces were not too distant. Other crafts are represented by an awl and a bone pin 7 20.1 36:1,592 36:1,592 beater. The possible awl, from deposits associated with 24 25:484 25:484 23 150:3,908 4:49 154:3,957 Phase 7 robbing activity, has one arm of diamond-shaped 26 19:157 19:157 cross-section and one of rectangular cross-section (Fig. 8 29 56:2,050 21:697 77:2,747 9: RA121). The latter is assumed to be the tang end. The 9 28 114:2,097 114:2,097 diamond shape of the arm was particularly suitable for 31 2:103 11:99 13:202 Total 288:8,294 150:2,942 438:11,236 leatherworking, as it enabled a clean cut to be made in the material (Ottaway 1992, 552). The single-ended bone pin Table 11: Period 3 Fired clay quantification by fragment beater (Fig. 9: RA103), with its smoothed, oblique end and count and weight (g) worn point, falls into the category of flat pin beaters which first appear in contexts of the late 9th or early 10th centuries, remaining in use into the 13th or 14th (Rogers 1997, Phase G no. Description Nails Door stud Staple 1755–6). These are thought to have been used in conjunction with the two-beam vertical loom. 6 22 Levelling layer over 2 north of site Awl. Iron. Tang of flat rectangular section, bent as it approaches the expanding 7 20.1 Robbed post-pad 1 mid-point. The opposing arm is diamond-shaped in cross-section, tapering 23 Robber trench 6 to point. Tang incomplete. Length 90.5mm; width 4.5mm; thickness 4mm. 26 South-west robber 1 RA121. Robber trench G23; Phase 7. Figure 9 trench 8 29 Site-wide levelling 7 1 Pin beater. Bone. Pointed working end; opposing end rounded and oblique. layer Slight waisted area just below mid-point; surfaces worn and polished. Length 9 27 Rubbish pit SG66 3 91.8mm. RA103. Robber trench G23; Phase 7. Figure 9 28 Rubbish pit 1 Total 10 1 1 Pastimes Table 12: Building fasteners from Period 3 deposits The ‘buzz bone’, made by drilling a transverse hole through an axial metapoidal of a pig, is thought to have been threaded on a twisted cord and made to spin and hum by pulling the Phase G no. Description Wt (g) ends of the string (Lawson 1995). York produced some ninety 6 21.1 Ferrous smelting slag 442 examples, none of which were found in deposits prior to the Vitrified clay 74 second quarter of the 10th century (MacGregor, Mainman and 22 Ferrous smelting slag 1,658 Rogers 1999, 1980–81). Buzz bones continue to be found in Fuel ash slag 41 post-Conquest deposits throughout England up to at least the Vitrified clay 461 13th–15th centuries (cf. Brown and Lawson 1990, 589). 7 20.1 Ferrous smelting slag 112 Vitrified clay 20 Buzz bone. Bone. Axial metapodial of pig with transverse hole cut through 24 Ferrous smelting slag 271 the centre of the shaft. The hole appears to have been drilled from one side. 23 Ferrous smelting slag 2,544 Length 47.7mm; diameter of perforation from drilled side 3.2mm, opposite Vitrified clay 192 side 4.2mm. RA104. Pit G28; Phase 9 25 Ferrous smelting slag 281 26 Ferrous smelting slag 324 Vitrified clay 319 Agriculture and horticulture 8 29 Ferrous smelting slag 11,494 Evidence of agriculture or horticulture is limited to a single Vitrified clay 961 tanged weeding hook with a crescent-shaped blade (Fig. 9: 9 27 Ferrous smelting slag 6,148 RA86). These tend to be found in deposits of post-Conquest Vitrified clay 453 28 Ferrous smelting slag 23,717 date. Weed hooks with flanged tangs superseded the simple Fuel ash slag 58 straight tang by the late medieval period (Goodall 1980, 72). Vitrified clay 6,792 31 Ferrous smelting slag 150 Weed hook. Iron. Tanged weed hook with crescent-shaped blade; cutting edge on the inner side. Current length 115mm; width of blade 21mm. RA86. Total Ferrous smelting slag 47,141 Levelling layer G29; Phase 8. Figure 9 Fuel ash slag 99 Vitrified clay 9,272 Transportation Table 13: Period 3 ironworking debris Items associated with transportation, in this case horse trappings, include three fragments of horseshoes and six shoeing nails. Two of the shoe fragments were found in levelling layer Crafts and industry G29 (Phase 8), while the third came from the fills of a pit Industrial activity is again represented by ironworking debris in G27 (Phase 9), along with sizeable quantities of ferrous (Table 13). Just over 47kg of ferrous smelting slag and over slag. Due to the incomplete survival of the horseshoes, most 9kg of associated vitrified clay lining were found within Period comprising a small portion of one branch, assigning forms 3 deposits. Although smaller quantities of these metalworking and date ranges is not possible. All the shoeing nails recov- by-products were present in the infilling (Phase 6) and subse- ered are of the fiddle key form, the use of which spanned quent robbing (Phase 7) of the Period 2 building remains, the the mid-11th to mid-13th centuries (Clark 1995, 86–7). The greatest quantity derived from levelling activity in Phase 8 robbing of post-pad G20 (Phase 7) accounted for one shoeing and what appear to have been pits that were purposefully dug nail, while a second was found within robber trench G23. The (Phase 9) in order to discard metalworking debris. Although remaining four nails all derived from the levelling activity none of this evidence is in its primary context, the quantity G29 in Phase 8. 92 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Figure 9: Period 3 ‘Other Artefacts’

Dress and personal accessories drawn wire link suggests such a function. Similar delicate More personal items include a finger ring, a strap end and a lengths of chain in silver and copper alloy have been found link for a chain. Copper alloy penannular finger ring RA84 in deposits of the late 13th to the 17th centuries from London was recovered from one of the post-holes in G21 (Phase 6). and Norwich (Egan and Pritchard 1991, 318–20; Margeson These simple rings were made of a length of narrow D-shaped 1993, 19). band which tapered at either end, and were bent into a circular shape, the ends overlapping. These rings are identical to ear- Finger-ring. Copper alloy. Band of D-shaped cross-section, tapering to terminals. Ring shape somewhat distorted; terminals currently overlapping. rings known from the Roman period, but there is no evidence External dimensions 18.5mm by 15.7mm; band width 2.3mm; thickness for ear-rings’ being worn in the Anglo-Saxon period, nor in the 2.6mm. RA84. Post-hole G21.1; Phase 6 11th century (Hinton 1990b, 646–7; Margeson 1993, 4). At Winchester, simple undecorated finger rings were a common Strap end. Copper alloy. Split end, convex-sided, zoomorphic terminal. Strap-end with bilobate mouth with two perforations (rivets not in situ) fashion in the late Anglo-Saxon and Norman periods, but by and narrow fan-shaped panel with trefoil (originally inlaid?). Opposing the end of the 12th century were going out of use (Hinton end terminates in a round-eared animal head; brow ornamented with inlaid 1990b, 647). A finger ring similar to RA84 was recovered lozenge-shaped field containing geometric(?) motif, and squared nose. from late 12th- to later 13th-century deposits at Norwich Central panel has inlaid decoration (stylised anthropomorphic?). The sides (Margeson 1993, 4–5). of the strap-end have a border of triangular(?) punches. Reverse surface plain; upper quarter of back missing. Length 44mm; width 11.2mm. RA69. Strap end RA69 (Fig. 9), with its round-eared animal- Levelling layer G29; Phase 8. Figure 9 head terminal and fan-shaped field at the split end, belongs to Thomas’ Class A strap ends, the chronological limits of Chain link. Copper alloy. Small circular link of circular-sectioned wire; which probably lie either side of the 9th century (Thomas break along circumference. External diameter 6.2mm; diameter of wire 2003, 2). While this find is residual within levelling layer 0.8mm. RA98. Levelling layer G29; Phase 8 G29 (Phase 8), it does reflect late Saxon activity within the vicinity of the site. Uncertain A single copper alloy oval chain link (RA98) was also A modified pottery sherd (RA105) in shelly ware (B05), dated found within levelling layer G29. Although this cannot defi- to the 12th–13th centuries, was found within robber trench nitely be identified as a dress accessory, the delicacy of the G23 (Phase 7). It has been roughly worked into a sub-oval EVIDENCE FOR EARLY MEDIEVAL OCCUPATION AND POTTERY PRODUCTION FROM PRIORY MIDDLE SCHOOL 93 shape, the edges unfinished, and perforated off-centre. It is Boessneck’s (1969) criteria. Elements representing all regions unclear whether this is a spindle whorl or perhaps a gaming of the skeleton were identified. As Table 15 shows, the counter; if the former, then it is unfinished, as it would not majority of the bones used to calculate age at death are fused, have spun smoothly in its current condition, and the perfora- especially those that fuse at an early age (i.e. by 10 months). tion, at 4.1m in diameter, is too small to have accommodated However, the results are more or less even from the age of 30 a late Saxon or medieval spindle, which required a hole of months onwards, with an equal frequency of both fused and 9–11mm diameter (Rogers 1997, 1731). A third possibility is unfused bones. This may suggest that sheep/goats were not that the disc is a ‘tableman’, which tend to be 40–50mm in only being kept for meat, but that a few older animals were diameter: the game of tables seems to have spread to England perhaps also being kept for milk and wool production, as was from France in the 11th or early 12th century (Brown 1990b, also possibly the case in Period 1, but again this was based 696). Three further modified pottery sherd discs in shelly upon a very small sample. In addition to the fusion data, there ware (B05) were also found within the Period 3 and Period 4 are also four mandibles with lower premolars and molars in pottery assemblage (see p. 107). wear that, although too small a number to allow for detailed comparative analysis, do serve to complement the fusion data Uncertain. Ceramic. Unfinished spindle whorl or gaming counter? Roughly in illustrating a range of ages. rounded reworked disc from vessel of fabric type B05. Edges chipped and Pig is the second most abundant species identified, with unfinished. An off-centre circular perforation has been drilled from the exterior surface of the vessel. External dimensions 47.4mm by 41.7mm; a NISP total of seventy-five fragments. However, only five thickness 6.4mm; diameter of perforation 4.1mm. RA105. Robber trench individuals are represented according to the MNI calcula- G23; Phase 7 tions (Table 14), which serves to illustrate once again the high levels of fragmentation evident within this assemblage. Most Animal bone parts of the skeleton are represented, and the age at death J. Wooding information indicates a high frequency of young animals Period 3 deposits produced the greatest abundance of animal (Table 16) — pigs tend to be slaughtered for their meat as bone remains, representing 89% of the entire assemblage. soon as they reach an adequate weight. This is supported by Most of these came from Phases 7 and 8; however, these the fact that only a minority of older animals are represented, two phases also contained the greatest number of cattle- and possibly being kept in excess of 24 months for breeding sheep-sized fragments whose species could not positively be purposes. ascertained (Table 14). Of the 1,001 bones that make up the Cattle bones are almost as frequent as pig, with a NISP Period 3 assemblage, only 317 (32%) are sufficiently diag- total of 71 (7%), although the MNI is low, with only three nostic to be identifiable to both species and element. individuals represented by the elements identified. The age at A similar pattern to Periods 1 and 2 is evident, with the death data (Table 17) may indicate that cattle from this period three main stock animals and horse again identified: sheep/ were being slaughtered prior to a minimum of 36 months. goat, pig and cattle (in that order) were the three most abun- Evidence from tooth wear analysis, although limited to a dant species (Table 14). Amongst the three main species, single mandible, is complementary; the animal being aged at meat-bearing bones as well as bones from the extremities and least 15–18 months at death and probably a little older, as the skull region are present, the latter predominantly made up of teeth were in wear (Silver 1969, 296, table D). However, it is loose teeth. important to note that this pattern of mortality is based upon a In total, 100 sheep/goat bones representing seven indi- very small pool of data (thirteen epiphyses and one mandible viduals were identified. Of these, five bones were definitely in total), and consequently may not be a true reflection of the recorded as sheep and a single bone as goat, utilising utilisation of cattle in this period.

Phase Species 6 7 8 9 NISP MNI Sheep/goat Element Fused Not fused age range Horse 5 7 2 14 1 Cattle 5 17 45 4 71 3 By 10 months Pelv (acet), Scapula (D), Humerus 14 1 Sheep/goat 14 19 54 7 94 7 (D), Radius (P) Sheep 5 5 13–16 months 1st Phal (P), 2nd Phal (P) 1 — Goat 1 1 18–28 months Metac (D), Tibia (D), MetaT (D) 3 1 Pig 2 27 40 6 75 5 30–36 months Ulna (P), Femur (P), Calc (P), 3 2 Dog 1 3 4 8 2 Radius (D) Deer 1 1 1 36–42 months Humerus (P), Femur (D), Tibia (P) 2 2 Domestic fowl 2 4 16 22 6 Total 23 6 Goose 1 7 2 1 11 2 Bird (dom. 3 12 6 3 24 1 Table 15: Period 3 sheep/goat fusion data fowl-sized) Corvid 1 1 1 Pigeon 1 1 2 1 Fish 2 1 1 4 Hare 2 2 1 Pig age range Element Fused Not fused Toad 1 1 By 12 months Scapula (D), Humerus (D), Radius 4 4 Cattle-sized 4 69 166 28 267 2 (P), Pelv, 2nd Phal (P) Sheep-sized 10 103 232 37 382 1 24 months Metac (D), Tibia (D), 1st Phal (P) 1 3 Small mammal 3 2 5 24–30 months Calc (P), MetaT (D) 1 2 Unidentified 2 7 2 11 36–42 months Ulna (P), Humerus (P), Radius (D), Total 42 276 591 92 1,001 — Femur (P) and (D), Tibia (P) Total 6 9 Table 14: Period 3 animal bone: Phase, NISP and MNI results Table 16: Period 3 pig fusion data 94 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Cattle age range Element Fused Not fused Harrold Manor estate (BLARS: L33/286) may indicate that it By 10 months Pelvis (acet) and Scapula (D) — — was mown as a hay meadow. 13–18 months 1st Phal (P), Humerus (D), Radius 3 1 The earliest deposit in this sequence was a 70mm thick (P), 2nd Phal (P) gravelly layer G32 which produced a very large finds assem- 24–36 months MetaC (D), Tibia (D), MetaT (D) 5 1 blage, including 110kg of pottery; 97% of this is shelly ware, 36–48 months Femur (P), Calc (P), Radius (D), — 3 with a sizeable proportion of wasters. Ironworking residues Ulna (P), Humerus (P), Femur (D), Tibia (P) and animal bone were also present, along with a wide range Total 8 5 of other artefacts which provide evidence for buildings and fasteners, textile working, horse-related items and domestic Table 17: Period 3 cattle fusion data activity (Table 18). Although the majority of the artefacts span a date range from the mid-11th to mid-13th centuries, there are items within this assemblage that indicate that this In addition to the three main species, domestic fowl, horse, layer was not laid down prior to the 15th century. goose, dog, fish, hare, deer, pigeon, corvid (crow family) and Sealing G32 was a 0.15m thick layer of dark silty sand toad were also recorded, along with a number of domestic G33, which also produced a large assemblage of finds, fowl-sized bones (bird) and a number of indeterminate small albeit fewer than G32 (Table 18). The majority of the finds mammal bones. The twenty-two domestic fowl bones repre- are residual, but half of the datable finds amongst the non- sent at least six individuals and comprise elements from ceramic assemblage are from the mid-16th to 17th centuries. the majority of the skeleton, with the exception of the skull Ironworking debris was present but in much smaller quanti- region. The bones appear to have belonged to mature birds, ties. Shelly wares still dominate the pottery assemblage, but as is also the case with the eleven goose bones recovered. The post-medieval fabrics dating to the 17th and 18th centuries are fourteen horse bones largely comprise loose teeth and only also present (see Table 19). represent a single individual aged at least 3½ years at death. An intact radius provides a withers height of 1.47m, based Period 4 Finds on Kiesewalter’s (1888) multiplication factors (quoted in von Pottery den Driesch and Boessneck 1974). There are eight dog bones J. Wells from a minimum of two individuals; a single metacarpal fused Forty-five percent of the total pottery assemblage derived from both proximally and distally indicates an age at death of at Phase 10 layers G32 and G33, which yielded 13,293 sherds least 8 months (Silver 1969, 285, table A), whilst the dentition (119.1kg), the majority associated with layer G32 (Table 19). of two mandibles also indicates an age at death of at least 6–7 Over 99% of the assemblage comprises residual pottery of months (Silver 1969, 299, table H). late Roman (three sherds), Saxo-Norman (318 sherds) and Butchery marks attributable to all stages of the butchery early medieval date (12,937 sherds), the majority being in process (slaughter, skinning, dismemberment, filleting, shelly ware type B05. Among the latter, wasters comprise marrow-cracking and chops/cuts) were identified. There are 40% of the total, 24% deriving from G32 and 16% from G33. two instances of slaughter: a possible pole-axing of a cattle Sherds are small, with an average weight of 9g, and moder- frontal bone; and a series of fine cuts on a sheep/goat hyoid ately abraded. The Saxo-Norman assemblage comprises a bone, suggesting that the throat was cut. There is also evidence range of shell-tempered St Neots-type wares (fabric types of skinning, with fine cut marks appearing on the skulls of B01, B01A/B/C and B04) and two undiagnostic glazed sherds both horse and cattle, illustrating that animal skins and hides of Stamford ware (type C12). St Neots-type forms are bowls were also being utilised. However, the highest frequency with hammerhead, inturned or simple rounded rims, and ‘top is associated with dismemberment, filleting and marrow- hat’ and everted-rim jars, a small proportion of which are cracking, with goose and domestic fowl-sized bird bones also sooted. The Harrold shelly ware assemblage (type B05) is exhibiting marks. In addition to this, there are signs of what discussed below (pp. 101–8). Other pottery of early medieval Binford terms ‘food preparation’ (Binford 1981, 108; 136). date is represented by sixteen glazed jug sherds, including a A pig skull was split in half down the medial line, which is handle, in developed Stamford ware type C12A. described by Binford as the process of segmenting, whereby G33 yielded an undiagnostic sherd of late medieval the carcass is split into segments for cooking (Binford 1981, oxidised ware (type E02) and fourteen intrusive sherds of 109). A high proportion of ‘indeterminate chops/cuts’ were 17th–18th-century glazed earthenwares (types P02 and P03), also recorded. Staffordshire slipware (type P30) and Black ware (type P14). Twenty further sherds of intrusive pottery dating to the 18th– 20th centuries were also recovered. Period 4: Continued Levelling of the Site (c. 1500–1750) Ceramic building material J. Wells Phase 10: levelling The Phase 10 assemblage, mostly derived from layer G32, No pre-modern cut features were identified that postdate comprises eight pieces of shell-tempered flat roof tile (267g) the Period 3 remains. However, a series of site-wide layers and a brick fragment (129g), the latter measuring 32mm in continued to accumulate, partly as a result of deliberate thickness. The roof tiles range are 12–14mm thick and have human action and partly as a result of natural soil formation sanded bases; one is a waster, suggesting building material processes. Including topsoil and subsoil, which had been may also have formed part of the Harrold potters’ repertoire. almost completely removed before the archaeological work G32 also yielded a residual piece of highly abraded Roman began, the overall build-up of soil exceeded 0.5m in places. shell-tempered flue tile (109g), which has a combed surface It is clear that the site was no longer a focus of occupation, and is sooted or burnt. A piece of oxidised sand-tempered flat perhaps serving instead as pasture or grazing land on the edge roof tile (83g) of late medieval or early post-medieval date of the village. The field name ‘Mowels’ on the 1719 map of was recovered from layer G33. EVIDENCE FOR EARLY MEDIEVAL OCCUPATION AND POTTERY PRODUCTION FROM PRIORY MIDDLE SCHOOL 95

Find type G32 G33 Roman pottery 4 28 Saxo-Norman pottery 2879 317 Medieval pottery 107,187 (shelly 107,146) 8,582 (shelly 8,571) Late medieval pottery 29 Post-medieval pottery 82 Modern pottery 12 42 Ceramic building material 2,805 83 Ferrous slag 11,538 1,594 Vitrified clay 4,456 148 Other artefacts stone roof tile (3), staple, nails (22), coffer mount, wool staple, nail (12), spindle whorls (2) (ceramic fabrics A23 comb tooth, spindle whorl (ceramic fabric B07), whittle-tang and B01), bolster-tang knife, writing slate, harness side knife, harness buckle, harness pendant fitting, spur, spur link, shoeing nails (6), lace tag, drawn wire pins (3) attachment, shoeing nails (13) Animal bone 8,970 1,398

Table 18: Finds from Period 4 deposits (Phase 10), quantified by weight (g) except for other artefacts

Fabric type* Total Post- Roman Saxo-Norman Medieval Modern medieval B01 B01A B01B B01C B04 C12 B05 C12A E02 G32 1:4 201:2037 42:502 6:63 6:63 14:206 2:8 11551:107146 12:41 1:12 11,836:110,082 G33 2:28 36:230 8:47 1:10 2:30 1370:8571 4:11 1:29 14:82 19:42 1,457:9,080 Total 3:32 237:2267 50:549 6:63 7:73 16:236 2:8 12921:115717 16:52 1:29 14:82 20:54 13,293:119,162

*shaded area denotes contemporary ceramics Table 19: Period 4 (Phase 10) pottery quantification by sherd number and weight (g)

Eight-four redeposited fragments of fired clay (2.3kg) 15th-century deposits (Oakley 1979a, 327). Associated finds were also recovered from G32. Fifty-eight (1.5kg) are in a within G32 suggest the same may be true at Harrold. buff fabric, tempered with coarse fossil shell; the remainder, Nails were more plentiful in Period 4 deposits (thirty-four some of which are burnt, are in a fine oxidised sand-tempered examples), with six forms identified. The majority are flat fabric. Fragments are generally small, with an average weight headed, of which five types are present: square; rectangular; of 27g. All retain finger-smoothed surfaces, and larger pieces narrow rectangular; head formed from flaring shank; and in both fabric types have impressions of circular wattles that figure-of-eight, a distinctive form which appears to occur are 15–20mm in diameter. only in deposits of medieval date. Two nails with faceted, narrow rectangular heads are also present. Two U-shaped Other artefacts staples represent the only other type of building fastener H.B. Duncan recovered. Period 4 deposits yielded the highest number of individual items. The profile of the assemblage is very similar to that Household from Period 3, with limited structural materials and fittings and Evidence for furnishings is restricted to the remains of a gilded little in the way of furnishings. Industries and crafts continue mount (Fig. 10: RA68) from a casket (coffer) or other small to be represented, including smelting and, to a limited extent, box, or possibly a book cover. Similar copper alloy fittings textile production; horse trappings and a small assemblage of have been found in a range of settings, including castles, personal/dress fittings are also present. The date range for the manor houses and urban sites (Egan 1998, 69; Hinton 1990c, Period 4 assemblage is broader than that for the preceding 765–6). They appear in the archaeological record from the Period 3 assemblage, however, the majority of which dated 12th century, continuing probably into at least the mid-15th to the 11th–13th centuries. While Period 4 deposits still (Hinton 1990c, 766); a very close parallel to RA68 was found yielded a high proportion of finds of that date, about half of in deposits of c. 1150–1200 in London (Egan 1998, fig. 48: the datable assemblage belongs to the later medieval or early no. 141). Both the gilding and the transverse ridging present post-medieval period, providing a terminus post quem for the on RA68 are thought to be more characteristic of mounts of deposition of these layers. the 12th to 13th centuries (Egan 1998, 65 70). Two knives — items that could be used as eating utensils, Building materials, fasteners and fittings weapons or for craft-related activities — were found within Building material is limited to three fragments of sandy Phase 10 deposits. The earlier of the two (RA53) is another limestone roof tile, all retaining carefully executed circular example of Ottaway’s C1 form, in use from the middle Saxon holes (7.4–8.5mm in diameter) designed to take the fixing period until the 12th–13th centuries (Ottaway 1992, 568–70; nails. The lack of complete examples precludes determina- Ottaway and Rogers 2002, 2753). The second knife (RA23), tion of their original dimensions. The probable source of however, has a bolster on the tang, an innovation in hafting the stone is the Jurassic limestone of north Bedfordshire or introduced in the mid-16th century (Hayward 1957, 4). Northamptonshire. Although excavations in Northampton Coffer mount. Copper alloy. Strip, of plano-convex section, with three have yielded limestone roof tiles from deposits predating convex knops, one having a circular perforation. The narrow sections 1400, the majority of the stone tiles found there were from between the knops have diagonal grooves creating a cable effect. Traces of 96 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY gilding survive. Bent in a rough U-shape. Length (straightened) 114mm. Written communication RA68. Levelling layer G32; Phase 10. Figure 10 A small fragment of a writing slate (Fig.12: RA1) was found Knife. Iron. Small whittle-tang knife; short tapering rectangular-sectioned within layer G33. It retains part of a bevelled edge, suggesting tang set mid-line. Blade back straight and horizontal before curving down that it once had a wooden frame. One face has a ruled grid to the tip; blade edge worn, but appears to be horizontal before rising to tip. comprising two horizontal lines and two vertical lines, the Length 85mm; blade width 11.8mm. RA53. Levelling layer G32; Phase 10 opposing face two horizontal lines. Although writing slates Knife. Iron. Bolster-tang knife; bolster of short barrel shape, rounded in were in use as recently as the early 20th century, they have a cross-section. Short portion of square-sectioned tang, incomplete and with long history and are thought to date back to at least the time end bent over. Blade widens towards the tip. Back and edge of blade straight, of Chaucer (Rhodes 1984, 121). A writing slate with unruled before gently sweeping up to form rounded tip. Total length 160mm; length lines was found in mid-15th- to early 16th-century deposits in of bolster 20mm. RA23. Levelling layer G33; Phase 10 York (Ottaway and Rogers 2002, 2936; fig. 1502: no.1992) and a number of writing slates were found at the Franciscan Crafts and industry Friary at Lewin’s Mead, Bristol, dated to c. 1500 (Webster and A single fibre-processing spike was identified. The rounded Cherry 1974, 189). In common with RA1, one of the slates rectangular cross-section and length suggest it may have from the Bristol site was marked out with squares, as was an come from a wool comb, used to remove foreign matter and example found in 17th-century deposits at Aldgate (Rhodes align the fibres prior to spinning (Rogers 1997, 1727–31). 1984, 120–2; fig. 63: no. 117). RA1 may be intrusive, but the Further evidence for textile production is represented by three possibility that it dates to the 16th or 17th centuries cannot be incomplete ceramic spindle whorls. The earliest example, ruled out. occurring in an early–middle Saxon fabric (A23), has a single flat face, perhaps equating to Rogers’ form A1 stone spindle Writing tablet. Slate. Small fragment of a possible writing slate, retaining whorls (Rogers 1997, 1736–41). The remaining two whorls, a portion of one bevelled edge. One face has a ruled grid comprising two horizontal lines and two vertical lines. Reverse face has damaged edge and each with two flat faces of equal size, both occur in shelly two horizontal lines. The incised lines are all 8.75mm apart. Length 21.7mm; fabric types (St Neots (B01A) and medieval shelly of uncer- width 22.2mm; thickness 2.2mm. RA1. Levelling layer G33; Phase 10. tain source (B07)), dating to the late Saxon to Saxo-Norman Figure 10 and early medieval periods respectively. These could equate to Rogers’ form B stone spindle whorls. Transportation Rogers’ study of the stone spindle whorls from York indi- Transportation is again represented by horse-related items, cates that form A whorls date to the 9th to 10th century, going including a harness buckle, a possible bridle fragment, into decline in the 11th, while form B whorls were in use from shoeing nails, a spur and a spur attachment. The harness the late 10th to the early 12th centuries. Although Rogers’ buckle is of the same form as that from the Period 2 deposits, study was restricted to stone whorls from a different region, with a separate rotating arm held in place by the looped-over there does appear to be a similar correlation between whorl ends of the rectangular buckle frame, and is thought to date form and date at Harrold. from the late 11th to at least the 13th century (Ottaway and Ironworking by-products again feature within the assem- Rogers 2002, 2894). blage, but in smaller quantities than for Period 3 — just over Although no bridle bits were found, one possible side link 13kg of ferrous smelting slag as opposed to 47kg (Table 20). was tentatively identified (Fig. 10: RA3). This would origi- Vitrified clay lining was also recovered in smaller quantities nally have been double-looped, the inner loop attached to the (4.6kg as opposed to 9kg). Given the largely residual nature mouthpiece and the outer loop to take the reins (cf. Goodall of the Period 4 assemblage, it is likely that these by-products 1990b, fig. 333). Examples of such double-looped side links originated from earlier activity. are known from Winchester (Goodall 1990b, 1043–6), York Wool comb(?) tooth. Iron. Tapering spike of rounded-rectangular cross- (Waterman 1959, 74–5) and Thetford (Goodall 1984, 100; section; blunt squared end; opposing end tapering to point; tip missing. fig. 138), the Winchester examples mostly found in deposits Length 113.4mm; width 5mm; thickness 4.6mm. RA44. Levelling layer G32; from the late 9th to the mid-11th centuries (Goodall 1990b Phase 10 1044–5). Spindle whorl. Ceramic. About half of a ceramic spindle whorl; fabric dated Shoeing nails are the best represented group of horse-related to the early to middle Saxon period (A23). Whorl has one flat face, equating items, with nineteen examples (Table 21). Four different forms with Rogers’ form A1. Diameter of perforation 9.9mm; external diameter of nail are present which, from in situ examples on horseshoes 42.7mm; height 17.2mm. RA28. Levelling layer G33; Phase 10 from other excavations, span a chronological range from the 10th to at least the 16th centuries. The earliest two forms are Spindle whorl. Ceramic. About a third of a ceramic spindle whorl of fabric type B01, with two flat faces. Diameter of perforation 10.0mm; external the T-shape and the ‘fiddle key’ nail. The former type has been diameter 39mm; height 19.4mm. RA30. Levelling layer G33; Phase 10. found in situ on horseshoes of Clark’s type 1, dating from the 10th century and perhaps continuing into the 12th (Clark Spindle whorl. Ceramic. About a third of a ceramic whorl of fabric type B07. 1995, 93–5); it has been suggested that these T-shaped nails External edges do not survive; form appears to be form B, with two flat faces of equal size. Diameter of perforation estimated at 9mm; external diameter are in fact worn examples of the fiddle key variety (Ottaway exceeds 39.6mm; height 16.2mm. RA157. Levelling layer G32; Phase 10. 1992, 707; Clark 1995, 85). Fiddle key nails were used from the mid-11th century and continued in use into the 13th, when they appear to have been replaced with the ‘eared’ variety, G no. Description Wt (g) dating from the early 13th to the late 13th/14th centuries. The final form of nail present is triangular in side view, equating 32 Ferrous smelting slag 11,538 Vitrified clay 4456 to Goodall’s type D nail (1980, 183), and is thought to date to 33 Ferrous smelting slag 1594 the 15th or 16th centuries. Vitrified clay 148 Of the two spurs identified within the Period 4 assemblage, the earliest is represented by a spur attachment (RA81). The Table 20: Period 4 (Phase 10) ironworking debris terminals on some late 13th-century prick spurs and on early EVIDENCE FOR EARLY MEDIEVAL OCCUPATION AND POTTERY PRODUCTION FROM PRIORY MIDDLE SCHOOL 97

Figure 10: Period 4 ‘Other Artefacts’ rowel spurs had one ring terminal and one pierced slot; the mid-14th to early 15th centuries, the first of which concerns ring terminal held an attachment for a single long leather, the spur terminals and their attachments. By the mid-14th which passed under the wearer’s foot and then was passed century, most spurs had two spur leathers, one above and one up through the slot terminal and across it to the buckle (Ellis below the foot. These were held to the spur terminals by hook 1995, 127–8). RA81 is an example of such an attachment and attachments, while buckles were also attached directly onto may date to the mid-13th to mid-14th centuries. the terminals (Ellis 1995, 128); this is precisely the arrange- The second spur (Fig.12: RA26) survives in exception- ment on the Harrold terminals. Buckles were worn on the ally good condition, with rowel and spur attachments in outside of the terminal, and this indicates that RA26 was worn situ. Several aspects of this spur indicate that it dates to the on the right foot. The second indicator of date is the presence 98 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Shoeing nail type G32 G33 Total leather. Both holes of the left terminal retain hook attachments, one of rectangular shape; the second is damaged, but may be the same shape. Faint traces T-shaped 2 1 3 of plating (tinning?) visible on the x-ray of hook attachments and sides of Fiddle key 9 1 10 spur. Length 132mm; length neck 45mm; span 84mm; rowel diameter 43mm. Eared 2 2 RA26. Levelling layer G32; Phase 10. Figure 10 Triangular 4 4 Total 19 Bar mount(?) or mount for harness pendant(?). Iron with white metal plating (tinning?). Rectangular strip, one end having integral rivet, opposing Table 21: Shoeing nails from Period 4 deposits end incomplete, comprising half of a perforated, lobed terminal. Length 30.4mm; width of bar 6.6mm. RA52. Levelling layer G32; Phase 10. Figure 10

Dress and personal accessories of a large rowel, a fashionable trait by the mid-14th century Costume fittings are limited in number, comprising a lace tag (Ellis 1995, 1290); a very similar spur to RA26 was found at with edge-to-edge seam and transverse rivet (RA19), and up London in deposits dating to 1330–1400 (cf. Ellis 1995, 139 to three pins with drawn wire shanks and wire-wound heads cat. no. 333; fig. 97). (cf. RA6 and RA90). Lace tags, which both protected the The identification of RA52 (Fig.12) is uncertain. In some ends of laces and facilitated threading, have been found in respects it resembles a bar mount for a strap, defined as mounts deposits as early as the mid-13th century in London (Egan in which the width is 10mm or less and equals no more than and Pritchard 1991 281), but are more commonly found in half the length (Egan and Pritchard 1991, 209). However, the 14th–16th-century deposits. Lace tags such as RA19 with unusual combination of an integral rivet and an opposing lobed transverse rivet were found in late 14th- to early 15th-century terminal, combined with the fact that it is iron as opposed to contexts at London (Egan and Pritchard 1991, 282); they the more commonly occurring copper alloy, suggest this may occurred in early 14th-century deposits in York, but were have served a different purpose. An alternative identification more common in 15th–16th-century contexts (Ottaway and is suggested by a tin-plated iron harness pendant found at Rogers 2002, 2920–1). A similar pattern was noted from Coppergate (Ottaway and Rogers 2002, fig. 1529: no. 12752). excavations in Northampton (Oakley 1979b, 262–3). This pendant was attached to the end of a strap by means of Drawn wire pins with wire-wound heads first appear a fitting which had an integral rivet at one end and a perfo- in the archaeological record in the 13th century (Ottaway rated triangular terminal at the opposite end, which held the and Rogers 2002, 2915–6; Biddle and Barclay 1990, 561), looped-over terminal of the pendant. The harness pendant becoming increasingly common in the 14th and 15th centu- from Coppergate, although from 13th-century deposits, is ries. The fashion for ruffs and pleated and folded head dresses thought to be Anglo-Scandinavian in date (see Ottaway and of the 16th and 17th centuries required even greater use of Rogers 2002, 2960 and fig. 1525 for reconstruction of bridle). such pins, and this is reflected by their abundance in deposits Buckle. Iron. Harness buckle; rectangular frame with rotating arm. Frame of of this date. plano-convex section. Rotating arm, with domed head at each end, is held by looped ends of the frame side. Pin does not survive. Length 36.6mm; frame Lace tag. Copper alloy. Tapering tubular lace tag; edge-to-edge seam; trans- width 31.6mm. RA80. Levelling layer G32; Phase 10 verse copper alloy rivet in situ at mouth; end incomplete. Length 22.8mm. RA19. Levelling layer G33; Phase 10 Bridle fitting(?). Iron. Incomplete double-looped side link, comprising one loop and start of linking bar. The linking bar narrows in width but expands in Pin. Copper alloy. Drawn wire shank of circular section, tapering to point. height, perhaps forming a central expansion. The surviving loop is convex in Wire-wound, moulded head. Length 33.5mm; diameter wire 1mm. RA6. section. No trace of tinning visible. Length 50mm; loop breadth 32mm. RA3. Levelling layer G33; Phase 10 Levelling layer G33; Phase 10. Figure 10 Pin. Copper alloy. Tapering, drawn wire circular-sectioned shank, tapering Shoeing nail. Iron. T-shaped nail. Thin tapering rectangular-sectioned shank; to tip. Wire-wound, moulded head. Length 23.5mm; wire diameter 0.5mm. tip clenched. Length 33mm. RA45. Levelling layer G32; Phase 10 RA9. Levelling layer G33; Phase 10

Shoeing nail. Iron. Fiddle key nail; semicircular head no thicker than shank. Animal bone Tapering rectangular-sectioned shank; tip damaged. Length 40mm. RA128. Levelling layer G32; Phase 10 The degree of residuality among the Period 4 artefact assemblages meant that the animal bones from these deposits were Shoeing nail. Iron. Eared nail; head expands only slightly in thickness. not deemed to merit analysis. Tapering rectangular-sectioned shank; clenched tip. Length 42mm. RA135. Levelling layer G32; Phase 10

Shoeing nail. Iron. Triangular head in side view (Goodall’s type 4 nail), SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION expanding in thickness from the shank. Tapering rectangular-sectioned H.B. Duncan and J. Wooding shank; tip clenched. Length 33mm. RA33. Levelling layer G33; Phase 10 The preservation of archaeological deposits is largely Spur attachment. Iron. Incomplete rectangular spur attachment. Narrow iron strip doubled over to form a loop, single surviving terminal expanding dependent on the nature of subsequent land use. Despite the into square or rectangular shape with one iron rivet in situ. Opposing side survival of up to 1m of stratified deposits, the intensity of broken off before perforation. The condition of the attachment precludes activity within the restricted area of investigation, combined certainty as to whether it originally had one or two rivets. Surviving length with the unsupervised excavation of the foundation trenches 30.2mm; width 11mm. RA81. Levelling layer G32; Phase 10 for the new science laboratory, have significantly reduced Spur. Iron. Rowel spur; slender D-sectioned sides plunge into deep curves the analytical potential of the site’s contextual evidence. The and then rise towards figure-of-eight terminals at the front. The neck is of recovered artefactual assemblage is sizeable, in particular the rounded oval section and straight, tapering towards conical rowel bosses. pottery, but the extensive re-cutting and truncation of features Large star rowel of eight round-sectioned points. Spur terminals retain spur has been detrimental: while providing some insight into the attachment fittings: uppermost hole on right terminal retains an iron buckle with long integral plate (one rivet in situ) and ring hook fastening it to the date and nature of activity at the site, the finds assemblages spur. The lower hole on the right terminal retains a rectangular hook attach- from most of the identified periods of activity are contami- ment, the opposing end also hooked in the opposite direction for the spur nated by residual and/or intrusive elements. EVIDENCE FOR EARLY MEDIEVAL OCCUPATION AND POTTERY PRODUCTION FROM PRIORY MIDDLE SCHOOL 99

The earliest contextual evidence from the site was for a for the disposal of what appears, in the main, to be industrial timber, possibly gable-ended building, some 15m long and by-products (ferrous smelting slag). 7.5m wide. Due to subsequent robbing, it is unclear whether A large quantity of finds were recovered from Period 3 its foundation trench held closely spaced posts or a contin- deposits, although the nature of the deposits themselves uous sill beam. The building was set within a cobbled yard, means that not all can be directly related to activity on the and at least half of its internal floor surface was also cobbled. site itself — much of the recovered material was undoubt- Few datable artefacts were recovered from either the foun- edly brought in for disposal from elsewhere in the immediate dation trenches or the features within this structure. One locality. The large pottery assemblage (over 162kg) is over- internal post-hole produced 4g of St Neots-type ware (B01), whelmingly dominated by shelly ware. Residual pottery which is broadly dated to the mid-9th to 12th centuries, with is present (see Table 10), but no late medieval fabric types a peak in the 10th to 11th centuries. A type of key used in were found; the only other medieval fabric type identified, conjunction with a pre-Conquest mounted lock was recovered Developed Stamford ware (C12A), did not extend in use from one of the robber trenches associated with the building, much beyond the mid-13th century. The date range of most of suggesting that it was extant prior to the mid-11th century. the non-ceramic assemblage is also fairly consistent, spanning The same features yielded some 2.6kg of shelly ware, thought the 11th to mid-13th centuries. The absence of artefacts dating to have developed from the tradition of St Neots-type ware by to later periods may suggest that this change in use occurred the 12th century. This suggests that the structure was disman- in the second half of the 13th or early 14th century; historical tled no earlier than the 12th century. documentation indicates that the manor had expanded in size Despite its misidentification with the site of Harrold Priory and status by the early 1300s, and it is possible that some of on early Ordnance Survey maps, it is strongly suspected that the manorial buildings were relocated as part of this process. the school stands on, or close to, at least part of the site of the The non-ceramic artefacts from Period 3 deposits include headquarters of Harrold Manor, which was already in exist- few structural materials and fittings, and little in the way of ence at the time of the Domesday survey in 1086. Although furnishings and personal/dress fittings. There is an absence the evidence is very limited, this building may have been of items that one might expect to find in the residential quar- associated with the manor: its form and reconstructed dimen- ters of a manor, such as kitchen-related items, currency or sions would not be incompatible with either a high-status hall accounting aids (e.g. jettons), and writing implements. By or a barn. The faunal evidence gives limited support to this contrast, there is evidence of small-scale crafts (e.g. textile interpretation, although the assemblage is extremely small. production) and ironworking on a more industrial scale, and The three main stock animals (pig, sheep/goat and cattle), the possible suggestion of stabling in the vicinity. plus horse, were identified along with domestic fowl, goose The Period 3 faunal assemblage is more abundant than and dog. The bones of the main stock species suggest that those from preceding periods, producing over 1,000 bones. animals were primarily being slaughtered for meat, but with The species representation is similar to Periods 1 and 2, a few perhaps being kept into maturity for the purposes of however: the three main stock animals and horse were again breeding, labour (traction), wool and milk. This is a pattern identified, with sheep/goat, pig and cattle (in that order) the evident throughout Periods 1–3, and would again not be three most abundant species (Table 22). Butchery marks incompatible with a manorial establishment. attributable to all stages of the butchery process were identi- The Period 2 structural remains comprised several largely fied. Other species present include deer, corvid (crow family), isolated remnants of stone wall foundations and post-pads. It pigeon, hare and fish. These species, especially the hare, fish remains unclear how many buildings and/or alterations were and possibly the pigeon, may well have formed a small part of represented, and what their functions were, although it is at the economic life of the community living in this area during least clear that new building techniques were used. The wall the early medieval period, illustrating the fact that fishing and foundations consisted of spreads of limestone fragments and hunting supplemented the core food that the stock animals cobbles which could have carried either a stone wall or a provided. A mature horse was identified within this period and timber and clay superstructure. was calculated as having a withers height of 1.47m, which The finds from the wall foundations are limited in number. is marginally taller than might be expected; evidence from A worn millstone fragment was incorporated into one wall — sites prior to the late medieval period suggests that horses again not unexpected on a manorial site; Harrold Mill itself had a maximum height of fourteen hands (1.42m) (Clutton- lay on the River Great Ouse, c. 210m to the south-east. A Brock 1992, 124). Horse is present in the assemblages from harness buckle of 11th–13th-century date attests the presence all periods, presumably supplying both labour and transport. of horses, but cannot, on its own, suggest permanent stabling; The abundance of pig in Period 3 is interesting, as a the faunal assemblage very much parallels that of Period 1. potential indicator of the site’s high status. In general, archae- The modest pottery assemblage (1.4kg), although retaining ological evidence for the medieval period suggests that pig a component of Saxo-Norman fabric types (see Table 7), is often the least well represented of the main stock species, predominantly comprises 12th–13th-century shelly ware with less than 20% of the combined total of cattle, sheep/ (B05). Overall, a construction date during the 12th to mid- goat and pig in many cases (Albarella 2006, 73). The high 13th centuries seems most likely for these buildings, which emphasis placed upon pig husbandry in the Saxon period would accord well with the general trend that has been noted for increasing use of stone in building construction during this period (Higham and Barker 1992, 191–3). Species NISP NISP Ratio MNI MNI Ratio How long the Period 2 buildings remained in use is also Cattle 71 29% 3 20% debatable. However, the Period 3 contextual evidence indi- Sheep/goat 100 41% 7 47% cates a distinct change of use for the site. It is characterised Pig 75 30% 5 33% by abandonment and levelling of the Period 2 structural elements in the northern part of the site, followed by episodic Table 22: Period 3 NISP and MNI ratios of cattle, robbing of walls, further levelling, and finally pit-digging sheep/goat and pig 100 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

shifted to sheep over time (Albarella 2006, 74–7), with sheep Period thought to have been of particular importance in the medi- Find Category 3 4 eval period in particular, in order to supply the demand for wool (Grant 1988, 151). This would appear to be the case at Building material Stone roof tile 3 Harrold, with evidence that a number of animals were kept into maturity. The main aim of pig husbandry, however, was Building fittings & fasteners Nails 20 34 meat production, which is why most were slaughtered as Staple 1 1 soon as they had reached their optimum weight. As a conse- Door stud 1 quence of this, the majority of pigs seen at medieval sites Household tend to be ‘immature’ or ‘sub-adult’ (Albarella 2006, 83), a Box/chest fitting 1 1 trend that is also observed here. High status sites in the 12th Knives 2 2 to 13th centuries display significantly greater abundance of Craft & Industry pig (Grant 1988, 152), with the greatest frequencies associ- Ferrous slag 47kg 13kg ated with castle and monastic sites (Grant 1988, 159). The Textile production - wool comb 1 high ratio of immature pig from Period 3 therefore suggests Textile production – spindle whorl (residual) 3 Textile production – pin beater 1 that this was a relatively high-status site in the medieval Leatherworking 1 period. Pastimes Period 4 saw further successive, site-wide episodes of Buzz bone 1 levelling and infilling (G32 and G33), which again produced a large quantity of artefacts (see Table 18). The pottery assem- Written communication Writing slate 1 blage from G32 has a very similar composition to that from Period 3 (see Tables 10 and 19), the overwhelming majority Agriculture & Horticulture Weed hook 1 comprising shelly ware, with a sizeable quantity of wasters present. Shelly ware still dominates the assemblage from the Transportation Horseshoes 3 second levelling layer G33, but post-medieval fabric types Shoeing nails 6 19 dating to the 17th and 18th centuries are also present in small Harness fittings 3 numbers. Spurs 2 In contrast, about half of the datable non-ceramic assem- Dress & Personal accessories blage falls within the later medieval and early post-medieval Finger ring 1 periods, providing a terminus post quem for the deposition Strap end (residual) 1 of these layers. The range of activities represented, and the Dress chain 1 Lace tag 1 absence of others, bears a strong resemblance to the Period Pin 3 3 assemblage (see Table 23); a relatively high proportion of artefacts dating from the 11th to mid-13th centuries are also Table 23: Periods 3 and 4 artefacts by functional category still present. The similarity in finds profiles between these two periods, and the continued presence of earlier medieval artefacts within the Period 4 assemblage, could suggest that these levelling deposits came from the same source as the Period 3 and the disposal of rubbish and industrial by-products, perhaps deposits — for example, there may have been an established related to a reorganisation of the manor. Further purposeful midden for this area of the manor which was subsequently levelling of the whole area appears to have occurred at some used as a source of levelling material. The overall compo- time after 1630. sition of the assemblage, in particular the quantities of The finds evidence is also able to give some insights into ironworking by-products and ceramic wasters, suggests the both activities carried out at the site and its actual status. The assemblage did not derive from residential activity associated animal bone assemblage from Periods 1 to 3, although small, with the main hall, but rather from what could be termed the has provided an interesting insight into the early medieval income-generating area of the manorial complex. The one economy. Any differences apparent in the frequency of the item that is suggestive of higher-status residential activity is stock animals of the three periods have largely been masked the 12th–13th-century gilded coffer mount (Fig.12: RA68) by a combination of low numbers and high fragmentation. from the Period 4 deposits. However, what is evident is that cattle, sheep/goat and pig Historical documents indicate that the manor fell into were utilised throughout for both food and other purposes, disrepair between 1588 and 1612, although a brief revival supplemented by domestic fowl and goose and, in Period 3, of fortunes occurred from 1630. The recovery of 17th- and also by fish and smaller wild animals. The high frequency 18th-century artefacts from Period 4 deposits suggests that of pig in the Period 3 assemblage is compatible with a high- the final levelling of this area occurred after the 1630s, but the status manorial site. exact date remains unknown. The high incidence of ferrous smelting by-products, Although the evidence from the excavations at the Priory although redeposited, does indicate that a smelting furnace Middle School was compromised by extensive truncation was operating in the area. However, the most noteworthy of features and unsupervised excavation of modern footing aspect of the excavations was the recovery of a considerable trenches, a basic developmental sequence spanning several quantity of, again largely redeposited, shelly ware pottery. centuries can be established. A timber structure — possibly The incidence of wasters and the occurrence of previously one of the manorial buildings extant at the time of the unseen decorative techniques and forms (see below) have Domesday survey — was replaced at some point in the 12th considerably added to the knowledge of this pottery type to mid-13th century, by a building (or buildings) with stone and suggest that a thriving industry was in existence in the foundations. Sometime after the mid-13th century, this area early medieval period, although the exact location of the kilns witnessed a change in use, represented by levelling deposits remains elusive. EVIDENCE FOR EARLY MEDIEVAL OCCUPATION AND POTTERY PRODUCTION FROM PRIORY MIDDLE SCHOOL 101

THE EARLY MEDIEVAL SHELLY WARE (FABRIC averaging a weight of only 10g; no complete vessels were TYPE B05) recovered, and few full vessel profiles occur, meaning that J. Wells identification has been based largely on rim and base forms. The distinction between jar and jug was not always apparent. Introduction Vessels are wheel-thrown and most have been competently made, although variable finish and surface colours indicate a The total B05 assemblage comprises 29,008 sherds (280.2kg) wide range of firing conditions. On average, vessel walls are and includes both domestic and kiln material (Table 24), which 5–10mm, although particularly fine examples occur, usually was examined and recorded in detail (see the appendix to this small jars and jugs with 2mm-thick walls. There do not, volume for the methods used). The assemblage has paral- however, appear to be a greater number of broken examples lels with pottery from a number of kiln sites in Bedfordshire, of finer-walled vessels, as might be expected. Buckinghamshire and Northamptonshire known to have been Jars constitute 70% of the diagnostic assemblage and occur producing large quantities of shell-tempered wares during the in varying sizes, suggesting a range of functions including 12th and 13th centuries (cf. Olney-Hyde (Mynard 1984) and tableware, cooking pots and storage vessels. Both rounded Yardley Hastings (Brown 1993/94)). The bulk of the pottery and cylindrical forms appear to be present. Rims measure represents production waste associated with either areas of 100–280mm in diameter, with 141–180mm representing the known kiln activity in Harrold High Street (SP 947567) and most common size (Table 25). The profiles of forty-two jar in Brook Lane (SP 948569: Hall 1972), or with other, as yet rims were recorded (Table 29; Fig. 14). undiscovered kilns in the vicinity. The incidence of medieval Bowls constitute 22% of the diagnostic assemblage. The shelly pottery is well attested throughout the village, and ratio of bowls to jars (523:1,688) is consistent with the general many finds of waster sherds have been noted during informal composition of earlier medieval assemblages, where wooden field survey in the fields around Harrold (Northamptonshire bowls formed a proportion of the domestic assemblage and Archaeology 2003). ceramic jars/cooking vessels were the dominant form. The bowls have a wide range of diameters and depths; generally large and shallow, their bases are often knife-trimmed to thin The assemblage down the angles. Rims measure 120–360mm in diameter, with the majority measuring 241–280mm (Table 26); twenty- Fabric four rim profiles were recorded (Table 31; Fig. 16). A small The pottery occurs in a hard, well-fired fabric, often with a proportion of the rims have thumb impressions along the top light to medium grey core. Surfaces display a wide variation or around the internal and/or external edges, and the applica- in colour: they are orange-pink to buff-brown when oxidised tion of thumbed strips directly below the rim exterior is also a and blue-grey when reduced, with the former appearing to be decorative element, but the bowls are otherwise undecorated. the intended appearance. Surface finish varies from smooth Many bowl sherds have smoothed internal surfaces. and soapy to coarse and ‘pimply’. Although the presence of more than one fabric group within the assemblage was noted, the preponderance of wasters makes any significant distinction between, or sub-division of, the basic fabric problematic. Rim Diameter (mm) Sherd No. Percentage The chemical composition of the Harrold pottery is closely 100–120 116 7.1 121–140 278 17.1 comparable with that from the Olney-Hyde kilns (Mynard 141–160 373 22.9 1984), due to the use of middle to upper Jurassic clays laid 161–180 370 22.7 down in similar environmental conditions. Petrologically, the 181–200 258 15.7 wares contain limestone fragments characterised by bivalve 201–220 143 8.7 shell, punctate brachiopod and echinoid shell (Vince 2006). 221–240 64 3.9 241–260 30 1.8 261–280 2 0.1 Forms Total 1,634 100.0 Diagnostic vessels constitute approximately 8% of the assemblage (by sherd count): the principal forms are jars, bowls Table 25: Jar rim diameters expressed by sherd count and and jugs. Less common forms comprise lamps, spouted percentage pitchers, pipkins, lids, roof furniture and a possible fragment of water pot. The material is highly fragmented, with sherds Rim Diameter (mm) Sherd No. Percentage 120–140 5 1.1 141–160 4 0.8 Period* Phase Sherds Total wt (g) Wasters wt (g) 161–180 14 2.9 181–200 20 4.2 1 1 75 538 256 201–220 26 5.4 3 4 12 221–240 54 11.4 4 236 2,684 893 241–260 105 21.7 2 5 93 1,214 56 261–280 100 20.7 3 6 276 2,251 650 281–300 89 18.4 7 7,973 79,316 34,943 301–320 43 8.9 8 6,594 70,070 20,774 321–340 21 4.3 9 582 4,775 1,071 341–360 1 0.2 4 10 12,921 115,717 32,493 Total 482 100.0 *excludes material from topsoil and subsoil Table 26: Bowl rim diameters expressed by sherd count and Table 24: Shelly ware quantification by period and phase percentage 102 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Jugs constitute 7% of the diagnostic assemblage. Rims pot waster (Fig. 11: 10) and a lid knob (Fig. 11: 11). An unfin- measure 80–200mm in diameter, with the most common ished indentation/perforation in the top of the latter suggests measuring 80–100mm (Table 27); fourteen rim profiles the vessel may have been part of an incomplete watering pot, were recorded (Table 30; Fig. 15). Throwing marks are although this remains speculative. One waster has a partial often clearly visible on both internal and external surfaces. pre-firing hole or slot approximately 30mm above the base Characteristic thumbing and pinching/frilling evident around (Fig. 11: 4), although its purpose and form remain unclear. jugs’ bases may represent an attempt to render vessels with sagging bases more stable. All jugs have a simple pulled lip Vessel components for pouring. Fragments of 121 handles were recorded, with eight forms Forms other than the ubiquitous jars, bowls and jugs identified (Table 28; Fig. 13). Over 60% of these are ofa constitute approximately 1% of the assemblage and comprise simple strap type with rounded, squared or slightly bevelled lids (Fig. 11: 7–9), lamps (Fig. 11: 1–2), spouted pitchers (Fig. edges (type H1 A–C: Fig. 12: 12–16). Twenty-three percent 11: 3, 5 and 6), pipkin handles (Fig. 12: 26–29), a chimney of the handles have raised, thumbed edges and a wide central channel (type H3: Fig. 12: 17–21). Asymmetrical strap handle type H4 (Fig. 12: 22), and type H5 (Fig. 12: 23–25) with raised Rim Diameter (mm) Sherd No. Percentage edges and a narrow central groove/channel, respectively 80–100 45 60.0 constitute 6% and 8%. Four rod handles are present (types H6 101–120 18 24.0 and H7: Fig. 12: 26–28), including one from a pipkin in the 121–140 5 6.6 form of a ‘swan’s neck’ (Fig. 12: 29). 141–160 3 4.0 161–180 3 4.0 The handles exhibit three basic finishing treatments, which 181–200 1 1.4 are functional as well as decorative. Functional thumbing at Total 75 100.0 the junction of the handle and body comprises large, smeared impressions smoothing the handle clay over the body to create Table 27: Jug rim diameters expressed by sherd count a better join (Fig. 12: 30), while decorative thumbing occurs and percentage on the surface and sides of the handle (Fig 14: 16, 19, 20

Figure 11: Selected Pottery EVIDENCE FOR EARLY MEDIEVAL OCCUPATION AND POTTERY PRODUCTION FROM PRIORY MIDDLE SCHOOL 103

Figure 12: Handles

Figure 13: Handle profiles and 21). Stabbing, and less commonly knife slashing, serve attached to the neck. Scars are visible on a few body sherds, to open the clay to allow even drying and prevent cracking indicating where handles have become detached. during firing, in addition to their decorative capacity (Fig. Rims comprise approximately 8% of the total assemblage. 12: 13, 15, 17, 18 and 24). Two examples have been stamped Eighty individual rim forms were recorded, plus a number of (Fig. 12: 14, 25). Handles appear to have been applied simply variants within these types (Figs 14–16; see also the appendix to the vessels, pressed onto the body and secured by thumbing to this volume). Most rim types are exclusive to a specific on the exterior, with corresponding finger marks on the inte- vessel form: exceptions are R9, R32 and R45, used for both rior. Some handles come directly off the rim, while others are jars and jugs; and R25 and R36, used for jars and bowls. The 104 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Handle types Sherd No. Percentage Jug rim form Sherd No. Percentage H1A 43 38.1 R9 34 25.5 H1B 11 9.7 R14 7 5.4 H1C 14 12.4 R29 3 2.3 H3 26 23.2 R32 6 4.5 H4 7 6.2 R45 5 3.8 H5 9 7.9 R51 16 12.2 H6 1 0.8 R52 11 8.3 H7 3 1.7 R53 7 5.4 Total 114 100.0 R54 13 9.8 R55 12 9.1 Table 28: Handle types by sherd count and percentage R56 8 6.1 R57 (A and B) 5 3.8 R58 4 3.0 R65 1 0.8 Total 132 100.0

Table 30: Jug rim profiles by sherd count and percentage Jar rim form Sherd No. Percentage (missing numbers represent duplication: see Appendix) R1 61 3.9 R2 (A, B and C) 75 4.8 R5 44 2.9 R7 68 4.3 R8 (A and B) 57 3.6 R9 69 4.4 R10 (A and B) 3 0.2 Bowl rim form Sherd No. Percentage R11 71 4.4 R25 15 3.1 R12 10 0.6 R36 1 0.2 R13 116 7.3 R59 6 1.3 R15 49 3.1 R60 59 12.4 R16 1 0.1 R61 36 7.5 R18 (A and B) 130 8.3 R62 23 4.8 R19 14 0.9 R63 1 0.2 R20 19 1.2 R64 9 1.9 R21 (A and B) 21 1.3 R66 1 0.2 R22 36 2.3 R67 27 5.7 R23 9 0.5 R68 52 10.9 R24 7 0.4 R69 8 1.6 R25 17 1.1 R70 17 3.6 R26 32 2.0 R71 16 3.4 R27 61 3.9 R72 37 7.8 R28 (A and B) 3 0.2 R73 12 2.5 R30 41 2.6 R74 9 1.9 R31 26 1.6 R75 (A and B) 56 11.9 R32 14 0.9 R76 8 1.6 R34 38 2.4 R77 (A and B) 9 1.9 R35 60 3.8 R78 7 1.5 R36 85 5.4 R79 3 0.6 R38 21 1.3 R80 23 4.8 R39 23 1.4 R81 42 8.7 R40 2 0.1 Total 477 100.0 R41 3 0.2 R42 7 0.4 R44 67 4.2 Table 31: Bowl rim profiles by sherd count and percentage R45 11 0.6 (missing numbers represent duplication: see Appendix) R46 4 0.3 R47 4 0.3 R49 7 0.4 R50 2 0.1 R63 40 2.5 R70 157 9.9 Total 1,585 100.0 Base Diameter (mm) Sherd No. Percentage 101–120 9 6.0 Table 29: Jar rim profiles by sherd count and percentage 121–140 9 6.0 (missing numbers represent duplication: see Appendix) 141–160 26 17.5 161–180 20 13.4 181–200 34 22.8 201–220 26 17.5 221–240 14 9.4 241–260 3 2.0 261–280 7 4.7 281–300 1 0.7 Total 149 100.0

Table 32: Base diameters expressed by sherd count and percentage EVIDENCE FOR EARLY MEDIEVAL OCCUPATION AND POTTERY PRODUCTION FROM PRIORY MIDDLE SCHOOL 105

Figure 14: Jar rim profiles

Figure 15: Jug rim profiles

Figure 16: Bowl rim profiles 106 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Table 33 EVIDENCE FOR EARLY MEDIEVAL OCCUPATION AND POTTERY PRODUCTION FROM PRIORY MIDDLE SCHOOL 107 dominant rim forms are R70 and R18 (jars: Table 29), R9 and their interior, and six have pitted interiors resulting from their R51 (jugs: Table 30), and R60 and R75 (bowls: Table 31). The use. No wear marks were observed. range and variety of rims present suggest the vessels are from Twenty-four sherds have been modified by the addition the repertoire of more than one potter. of drilled post-firing perforations in bodies, shoulders and Bases, four types of which were recorded, comprise approx- necks to facilitate repair. It is possible that some represent the imately 4% of the total assemblage. No correlation is apparent potters’ domestic debris. Three body sherds have been shaped between base type and vessel form among the two most into discs to function as possible gaming counters (see also common, flat and sagging. The majority are knife-trimmed Period 3: Other Artefacts, RA105 for a perforated example). above the base angle, to reduce the thickness of the clay. Four broken sherds may have been shaped to function as Thumbed and pinched/frilled bases constitute the remainder, purpose-made potters’ tools, although this identification and are characteristic of jugs. As with the decorative applied remains highly speculative. thumbed strips, the thumbing and pinching appears to have been carried out by both adults and children (see below). Wasters (Table 34) The diameters of bases were recorded where possible, Wasters constitute approximately 26% (by sherd count) of although this was slightly problematic due to the fact the assemblage and provide an insight into a range of manu- that sagging bases do not sit flat. Base diameters measure facturing problems encountered by the potter. The types of 101–300mm, with the most common ones 141–220mm (Table wasters recorded include cracked surfaces (crazing); cracks 32). The absence of full profiles made it difficult to determine (dunting); spalling; overfiring; partial vitrification; and the form of the vessels from which many bases derived. variable or patchy firing, associated with regulation of the kiln’s temperature and the speed at which vessels heated up Decoration (Table 33) and cooled. Examples occur consistently across the range Decorated sherds are rare, constituting just 2% of the assem- of vessel forms recorded. Over 84% of the wasters display blage, and include decorative elements which seem to be evidence of dunting (cracking of a vessel when it has been absent from consumption sites. Thumbed strips (D1 A–C) cooled too quickly) and crazing. This occurs solely on the — applied either vertically, horizontally, or diagonally — exterior surfaces of 37.6% of the sherds in this group, on the are the most common decorative element, constituting 48% interior surfaces of 31.3%, and on both surfaces on 31.1%. of the decorated material. Simple thumbing and/or fingernail Spalled/flaky sherds total less than 4% of the waster slashing along the tops, interiors and exteriors of vessel rims assemblage. Examples with variable oxidised/reduced firing (D9) constitutes nearly 14% of the assemblage. The variable and/or fire clouds constitute approximately 12% and, as sizes of the thumbed impressions suggest that decoration seconds, would have been more usable than other waster was applied by a range of people in addition to the potter, types, although aesthetically not very attractive. There are including children. several examples of applied parts, mainly thumbed strips Rouletted decoration (D2 A–C) occurs in three types and less commonly handles, coming away from the body. No — squares, diamonds, and notches positioned in single or instances were recorded of bloating or bubbles in the fabric, multiple bands — and constitutes approximately 8% of the resulting from the expansion of air and gases unable to escape total. Single or multiple incised linear and wavy motifs (D4 from the clay. There is little evidence of distortion resulting A–B) on the bodies of jugs and jars total 5%. Sherds decorated from the vessels’ either being misshapen during formation or with applied plain strips (D5), fingernail impressions (D6), subsequently squashed in the kiln, apart from the remains of single/multiple grooving (D7), combing (D8) and corruga- at least three vessels which appear to have collapsed during tion (D10) comprise a small proportion of the assemblage. firing and fused together. Corrugation is a decorative feature associated mainly with jugs, as is the thumbing and/or pinching of base angles, which Summary may also have functioned to steady a vessel with a sagging The excavation at Harrold Priory Middle School has afforded base. an opportunity to examine a sizeable assemblage of early medi- Of particular interest is the presence of five different stamps, eval shelly ware, which complements assemblages recovered decorating nine body, rim and handle sherds (Fig 12; 14, 25). from known areas of kiln activity in Harrold High Street and They comprise a ‘petal’ stamp (D3 A); ring-and-dot (D3 B); in Brook Lane. A large proportion of the pottery appears to large and small circles (D3 C and D3 D respectively); and a represent production waste deriving, in all probability, from more complicated ‘wheel’ motif (D3 E), examples of which as yet unlocated kilns in the vicinity, given the wide range of are generally blurred and poorly executed. The incidence of vessel forms and decorative elements represented. Standard stamping on early medieval pottery is rare, and the presence forms comprise ubiquitous jars, bowls and jugs typical of of stamped sherds suggests either experimentation with a new the early medieval period, which are well represented on decorative technique, or a revival of earlier Saxon traditions. consumption sites in the vicinity. A range of less common It may be significant that most of the stamped sherds are also wasters. To date, only one stamped vessel has been recovered from a consumption site in the vicinity, a jug handle with large circular stamps (type D3 C) from Pavenham, c. 4.5km Waster type Sherds % east of Harrold (A. Slowikowski, pers. comm.). Dunting (cracks) and cracked surfaces (crazing) 6,389 84.1 Spalling 287 3.7 Modification and use Detachment of applied parts 17 0.2 Patchy oxidised/reduced firing 895 12.0 Used and/or modified non-wasters constitute less than 1% of Distortion/collapse 1 <1 the assemblage. The sooted exteriors of 108 sherds, including Total 7,588 100.0 jars and a lid, indicate their use as cooking pots, while forty- four body sherds have thick white (?limescale) residues on Table 34: Types of waster quantified by sherd count and percentage 108 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY forms comprises lamps, spouted pitchers, pipkins, lids, a comprised David Ingham, Adam Lee, Pete Sprenger, Jerry possible water pot fragment and a chimney pot, all of which Stone and Adrian Woolmer. Albion Archaeology would like are rare on consumption sites. Shell-tempered examples of a to thank the following for their assistance and co-operation: chimney pot are known from excavations at St John’s Street Lesley-Ann Mather (Heritage and Environment, Bedfordshire and the High Street in Bedford (Dunning 1970, 86). Although County Council); Steven Bird (Education Strategy, representing only a small proportion of the manufactory’s Bedfordshire County Council); and Eric Wakely, Chris Lewis products, the less common vessels demonstrate the potters’ and Brian Betterton (Mouchel Property Services). Thanks are skill and the range of forms available. also due to Stephen Coleman (Heritage and Environment, Bedfordshire County Council) for providing information on the historical background to the site. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Jackie Wells would like to thank Anna Slowikowski for her comments and advice regarding the pottery, particularly Drew Shotliff had overall management of the project; his for assistance with identifications, and with the checking of guidance and advice throughout the project and editing of illustrations. Jen Wooding would like to thank Jen Browning the article is gratefully acknowledged. The excavations and (zooarchaeologist and field officer, ULAS) for reading and preliminary post-excavation work were directed by Reuben commenting on previous drafts of the faunal remains report Thorpe and supervised by Chris Thatcher. The excavation team and for valuable advice regarding the analysis. Appendix

CERAMIC TYPE SERIES Type Common Reference Form (by site) J. Wells name F06B Medium Slowikowski everted- and bead-rim jars; cordoned Pottery grog (2005) vessels; narrow-necked and neckless jars. Two body sherds have been modified with post-firing drilled holes to The fabrics are summarised below by chronological period, facilitate repair (Bridgman); Fig. 12: P2 using type codes and common names in accordance with the F06C Coarse Slowikowski everted and bead-rim jars; cordoned Bedfordshire Ceramic Type Series, which is maintained by grog (2005) vessels; storage jars; and a single Albion Archaeology. Full fabric descriptions are given only pedestal urn. Decoration comprises combing, burnishing and fingertip for those types not previously published. The early prehistoric impressions, the latter occurring at fabric is described in accordance with guidelines from the the shoulders of several large jars Prehistoric Ceramics Research Group (PCRG 1997). Modern (Bridgman) fabrics are excluded from the list. Where forms are not listed, F07 Shell Slowikowski Bead-rim jars; lid-seated jars; and (2005) large storage vessels, some with flat only undiagnostic body sherds were recovered. For fabrics rims. Decoration comprises fingernail recovered from more than one site, the forms present are listed slashed and fingertip impressed motifs separately. (Bridgman); Fig. 12: P4–6 and P8 F09 Sand and Slowikowski everted-rim jars; bead-rim jars; and Early Prehistoric grog (2005, 102–3) bowls. One base sherd has three post- firing drilled holes and may represent a Quartz and flint (QUCM/FLSV) (Bridgman) strainer (Bridgman); Fig. 12: P3 Fabric: medium–hard-fired fabric with variable buff-orange-brown surfaces F16 Coarse Parminter and upright-rim jar (Meadway); Fig. 10: 2 and core. Contains common, well sorted sub-rounded medium quartz and shell Slowikowski sparse, poorly sorted, very coarse angular grey-white flint. Equates with type (2004) X01 (non-specific early prehistoric) in the Bedfordshire Type Series. F17 Grog Slowikowski carinated bowl and globular jar Illustration: Fig. 12: P1 (2000) (Meadway); Fig. 10: 3–4 F24 Buff shell Slowikowski everted-rim vessels; lid-seated jars; and Coarse flint (FLCC) (Bridgman) (2000, 64) large storage vessels (Bridgman) Fabric: hard–medium-fired rough fabric with an uneven fracture. Patchy dark grey in colour throughout. Contains common, poorly sorted angular flint inclusions, 1–2.5mm in size and infrequently up to 5mm. Also sparse quantities of Roman fine quartz and red and black iron ore. Equates with type X01 (non-specific early prehistoric) in the Bedfordshire Type Series. Type Common name Reference Form (by site) R01 Samian ware Tomber and Dore — (Meadway) Type X10: Collared Urn (Meadway) (1998) Form: Secondary Series, North Western Style, Form IIIA: twisted-cord filled R01A Samian: Central Tomber and Dore — (Bridgman) triangles on the collar, parallel twisted-cord lines on the rim, lattice/lozenge Gaulish (1998, 30–2) decoration on the neck and jabbed impressions on the shoulder. Height R01B Samian: South Tomber and Dore miscellaneous foot-ring 142.0mm. The entire decorative scheme is comparable with a classic North Gaulish (1998, 28–9) (Bridgman) Western-style vessel such as that from Barrow 16, Stanton Moor, Derbyshire R03B Gritty white ware Slowikowski (2000, — (Bridgman) (Longworth 1984, pl. 83: 323), although the latter bears incised, rather than 64) twisted-cord decoration (I. Longworth pers. comm.). R06B Coarse grey ware Wells (2004, 126) — (Bridgman) Date range: early 2nd millennium BC R06C Fine grey ware Wells (2004, 126) everted-rim jar (Bridgman) Illustration: Fig. 10: 1 R06D Micaceous grey Wells (2004, 126) dish (Bridgman) ware R06E Calcareous grey Wells (2008) — (Meadway) Late Bronze Age/early Iron Age ware R07B Sandy black ware Wells (2004, 126) bowl (Bridgman) Type Common name Reference Form (by site) R08 Micaceous black Wells (2008) — (Meadway) F01A Coarse flint Slowikowski (2005, 102) — (Bridgman) ware F01C Flint and quartz Slowikowski (2005, 102) — (Bridgman) R11D Oxford colour Young (1977) flanged bowl; beaker coat (Meadway) R12B Nene Valley Tomber and Dore — (Meadway) colour coat (1998) Late Iron Age R13 Shell Brown (1994) lid-seated vessels; jars with everted and undercut Type Common Reference Form (by site) rims; large storage jars; name and bowls. Surface F03 Grog and Slowikowski everted-rim jar; storage jar with finishes range from simple sand (2005, 102) fingertip impressions around the girth smoothing or wiping, to (Bridgman) combing (Bridgman) F05 Grog and Slowikowski bead-rim jar; miscellaneous large jars, shell (2005, 102) some with wiped surfaces (Bridgman); Fig. 12: P7 F06A Fine grog Slowikowski cordoned jars; bead-rim jars, one with Early–middle Saxon (2005) burnished horizontal linear decoration Fifteen examples of Saxon fabric types from Meadway, (Bridgman) together with three samples of naturally occurring clay, were submitted for petrological analysis to Kathryn Knowles (University of Southampton). Three petrological groups 110 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

were identified — sandstone-rich (group 1), granitic (group Form — Meadway: handmade burnished jars with plain upright rims and 2) and organic-rich (group 3) — which are listed below for everted rims; vessels with incurving rims; and flat to rounded those Saxon fabrics that were submitted for petrological bases. Fig. 11: 23 Bridgman: handmade vessels with upright and rounded rims, analysis. some with wiped surfaces Type A01: Organic Type A23: Sandstone Fabric — fairly hard, ‘soapy’ fabric with variable orange-brown to grey- Fabric — fine, hard, dark grey-brown to black fabric throughout. Surfaces black surfaces and black core. Characterised by abundant elongated are often smoothed. Characterised by large clusters of sub-rounded blackened voids, up to 3mm in size, where organic temper has quartz crystals, 0.6–1.0+mm, and moderate subangular sandstone burnt out during firing. Sherds also contain sparse, ill-sorted fragments, 0.2–2.5mm. Also contains abundant subangular subangular quartz, 0.1–0.3mm; and occasional argillaceous quartz, 0.3–1.0mm, and occasional elongated blackened voids, inclusions, 0.6mm in size, occurring naturally in the clay. up to 3.0mm in size, where organic material has burnt out. Petrology Group 3 Petrology Group 1 Form — Meadway: burnished handmade vessel. Fig. 10: 10 Form — Meadway: handmade burnished jars with plain upright rims and Bridgman: undiagnostic handmade body sherd everted rims, vessels with incurving rims and flat-rounded bases. Fig. 10: 5, 6, 9 and 18; Fig. 11: 20 Type A05: Shelly limestone and sand Bridgman: undiagnostic handmade vessels, some with wiped Fabric — fairly hard, variable orange-brown to dark grey-black fabric, surfaces. Fig. 12: P9 containing abundant fossil shell, 0.6–1.2mm; and frequent subangular quartz, 0.3–0.6mm. Occasional examples of oolites Type A25: Granite occur. The nature of the inclusions suggest the temper is a Fabric — coarse, hard fabric, usually dark grey or black throughout. crushed shelly limestone, possibly from the Cornbrash deposits, Contains moderate sub-rounded to subangular quartz, situated close to Bedford. 0.1–0.3mm; moderate angular to subangular granitic inclusions, Form — Meadway: burnished handmade jar with everted rim 0.4–2.0mm; limestone fragments, up to 0.8mm; and moderate angular gold mica, up to 1.0mm (average size 0.4mm). Type A15: Limestone and sand Petrology Group 2 Fabric — hard, smooth and burnished fabric, dark grey-black throughout. Form — Meadway: undiagnostic burnished body sherds Contains frequent coarse shelly limestone, 0.6–1.2mm; frequent coarse grog particles; and frequent medium, sub-rounded quartz, Type A26: Mica, sand and organic 0.3–0.6mm. Fabric — fairly hard, variable orange-brown to dark grey-black fabric, Form — Bridgman: undiagnostic handmade body sherd often with smoothed surfaces. Contains common to abundant subangular quartz, up to 1.2mm; moderate to common blackened, Type A16: Mixed coarse quartz elongated and occasional rounded voids where organic material Fabric — Hard-fired, fairly rough fabric, usually dark grey or black has burnt out; and occasional to moderate white mica, 0.1mm. throughout, although surfaces can be light brown. Contains Petrology Group 1 abundant, ill-sorted, sub-rounded to rounded quartz, 0.3–0.6mm; Form — Meadway: handmade jar with everted rim occasional sub-rounded limestone fragments, 0.2–0.6mm; and coarse, subangular flint inclusions, up to 1.3mm. Organic Type A29: Sandstone and limestone impressions, up to 2.0mm in size, are often visible on the surfaces. Fabric — hard-fired, dark grey-black throughout, sometimes with smoothed Petrology Group 1 surfaces. Contains moderate to common subangular quartz, Form — Meadway: handmade jars with plain, upright rims and everted 0.1–0.6mm; moderate subangular sandstone fragments, 0.2–1.9mm; rims; vessels with incurving rims; flat to rounded bases; and sub-rounded to subangular limestone fragments, 0.1–2.0mm; a single footring base. Most vessels have burnished exteriors. occasional blackened, elongated voids, 0.6–1.2mm in length, where Decoration comprises horizontal grooves, a vertical boss, and organic material has burnt out; and flecks of white mica, 0.1mm. pinched or impressed sherds. A single stamped jar bears an Petrology Group 1 incised linear decorative zone, within which is a rosette of six Form — Meadway: handmade burnished jars with plain, upright rims, cruciform circle stamps surrounding a circular thumb-print everted rims and flat-rounded bases depression (cf. Myres 1977 vol. 2, fig. 167/2391). Fig. 10: 13, 15, 16 and 19 Type A30: Sandstone and mica Bridgman: handmade vessels with plain upright rims and flat Fabric — hard-fired fabric with variable orange-brown surfaces and buff- rims, some with wiped surfaces. Fig. 12: P10–11 grey core. Contains abundant subangular quartz, 0.1–0.5mm; moderate subangular sandstone fragments, 0.3–1.0mm; moderate Type A18: Fine quartz angular gold mica, 0.4mm; occasional sub-rounded limestone Fabric — hard, fairly smooth, occasionally sandy in texture. Reduced fragments, 0.1–0.9mm; and occasional elongated, blackened dark grey to black throughout, with occasional brown exterior voids, up to 3.0mm in size, where organic material has burnt out. surfaces. Contains abundant, well-sorted, fine sub-rounded Form — Meadway: undiagnostic body sherds to subangular quartz, 0.1–0.2mm; moderate to common sub-rounded sandstone fragments, 0.2–0.3mm; and occasional Middle Saxon to moderate organic impressions, up to 2mm in size. Petrology Group 1 Type Common name Reference Form (by site) Form — Meadway: handmade burnished jars with plain, everted rims and A11 Maxey-type Addyman (1964) everted-rim jars (Meadway) upright rims; vessels with incurving rims; and a vessel with a ladle handle (cf. Myres 1977 vol. 2, fig. 74/3133). Fig. 10: 7, 8, 11, 12, 14 and 17; Fig. 11: 21 Saxo-Norman Bridgman: handmade everted-rim vessel Type B01: St Neots-type ware Priory: handmade everted-rim vessel Fabric — Hurst (1956); Hunter (1979, 230–40); Denham (1985). Includes 322 sherds of ‘chocolate brown’ variant. Type A19: Organic and sand Form — Priory: wheel-thrown bowls with upright, inturned, hammerhead Fabric — hard, fairly smooth, dark grey to black throughout. Contains and bevelled rims; everted-rim and ‘top hat’ jars with sagging abundant sub-rounded to subangular quartz, 0.2–0.6mm; bases; and a jug with a strap handle. Decoration comprises moderate to common coarse organic matter and/or frequent applied thumbed strips and fingertip impressions along vessel elongated blackened voids, up to 5mm in size, visible on surfaces rims. One body sherd is perforated by a post-firing drilled hole, and in breaks; and occasional to moderate subangular limestone 5mm in diameter inclusions, 0.1–0.7mm. Bridgman: wheel thrown everted-rim jars; and bowls with inturned rims APPENDIX 111

Type B01A: St Neots-type ware (orange) Type Common name Fabric / Reference Form (by site) Fabric — fairly hard, smooth fabric, characterised by at least one bright C12A Developed Kilmurray (1980, 12) jugs with speckled dark orange surface and a dark grey core. Contains abundant finely Stamford ware green glaze (Priory) pounded angular shell; sparse sub-rounded red iron ore, c. C60 Hertfordshire- Brine (1988); Havercroft — (Meadway) 0.5mm; sparse subangular light grey limestone fragments, c. type grey ware and Turner-Rugg (1987) 2mm; and sparse sub-rounded clear quartz, c. 1.0mm. C71 Sand (buff-grey Wells (1996, 113) jar (Bridgman) Form — Priory: wheel-thrown bowls with upright, inturned, hammerhead cored) and bevelled rims; ‘top hat’ and everted-rim jars, some with C75 Micaceous grey-brown to light grey — (Priory) thumbed decoration; and a jug with a strap handle surfaces, with a light Bridgman: wheel-thrown everted-rim jars grey core. Hard-fired; moderately fine and Type B01B: St Neots-type ware (fine) smooth to the touch. Fabric — very hard, smooth fabric, with a slightly soapy feel. Generally Inclusions are abundant buff-mauve in colour, but occasionally darker mauve-brown- white mica, seen grey, particularly on external surfaces. Characterised by both throughout the fabric but colour and abundant, finely pounded shell inclusions which are particularly obvious on the very well sorted. Also contains sparse limestone and red iron surfaces, where smoothing ore, both c. 1.0mm, and sparse black voids where organic matter has brought the smaller has burnt out. particles to the surface. Form — Priory: wheel-thrown bowls with inturned and upright rims; ‘top There are also moderate hat’ and everted-rim jars amounts of poorly sorted, Bridgman: wheel-thrown bowl with inturned rim sub-rounded to rounded quartz, both clear and pink Type B01C: St Neots-type ware (mixed inclusions) in colour, 0.1–0.8mm, and sparse, small black Fabric — fairly hard, coarse, orange-brown to brown-grey fabric, with a patches, approx. 0.5mm, medium to dark grey core. Contains frequent to abundant, poorly where organic matter has sorted shell, 0.5–3.5mm; frequent, poorly sorted, sub-rounded been burnt out. to subangular clear quartz, 0.2–1.5mm, some up to 2.5mm; E02 Late medieval Baker and Hassall (1979, bowl and jug moderate poorly sorted, soft, orange-brown-grey, rounded oxidised 212) (Meadway); — (Priory) inclusions (?grog); sparse sub-rounded fragments of limestone, E03 Smooth Wells (1996) — (Meadway) c. 1mm (although some can be as large as 5mm); sparse, oxidised sand rounded, red iron ore, 0.3–3mm; and a background of very fine P28C Midland Purple dark grey-brown to purple — (Bridgman) white mica, less than 0.1mm. fabric, vitrified almost to Form — Priory: wheel-thrown bowl with a plain upright rounded rim stoneware, with a deep Bridgman: wheel-thrown everted-rim jars; and a bowl with an purple glaze inturned rim Type B04: St Neots-type ware (coarse) Post-medieval Fabric — fairly hard, orange-brown to brown-grey fabric, with a medium Type Common name Fabric / Reference Form (by site) to dark grey core. Very coarse, but smooth to the touch due to P01 Fine glazed red Baker and Hassall bowl (Bridgman) the alignment of shell inclusions with the surfaces. Contains earthenware (1979, 220) abundant, very poorly sorted shell, c. 0.2–1mm (some up to P02 Coarse glazed hard-fired, oxidised bowl (Priory) 3mm); sparse, rounded quartz, c. 0.3mm; sparse to moderate red earthenware fabric similar to type light grey rounded–sub-rounded ?limestone inclusions; soft, P01, but with coarse sparse rounded inclusions (?grog); and occasional black voids quartz inclusions. where organic matter has burnt out. Usually orange Form — Priory: wheel thrown bowls with hammer head, everted and throughout, although upright rims, ‘top hat’ and everted rim jars blue-grey cores occur, Bridgman: wheel-thrown bowl particularly in thicker Type C12: Stamford ware vessel parts such as rims, bases or handles. Fabric — Kilmurray (1980, 8–12) P03 Black-glazed Baker and Hassall bowls and dishes Form — Priory: wheel-thrown yellow glazed body sherds earthenware (1979, 221) (Bridgman); bowl Bridgman: wheel-thrown body sherds (Priory) P05 Hard fired Baker and Hassall dish or platter Medieval earthenware (1979, 220) (Bridgman) Type Common name Fabric / Reference Form (by site) P12 Cistercian ware Baker and Hassall — (Bridgman) (1979, 221) B05 Shell See discussion in Duncan jar and bowl (Meadway) P14 Black ware fine, well-made, hard- — (Bridgman and et al., this volume fired red-orange fabric, Priory) B07 Shell Baker and Hassall — (Meadway); wheel- occasionally purple- (1979) thrown everted- and grey when reduced. No square-rim jars; inclusions visible to the miscellaneous bowls naked eye. Characterised (Bridgman) by a thick black glaze B09 Lyveden/ Webster (1975); — (Bridgman) on interior and exterior Stanion ware Bellamy (1983) surfaces. C01 Sand Slowikowski (2000, 64) — (Meadway) P25 Frechen Gaimster (1997) — (Bridgman) C05 Sand (red Baker and Hassall — (Bridgman) P30 Staffordshire Jennings (1981) press-moulded dish margins) (1979, 172) Slipware with piecrust edge C09 Brill/Boarstall Jope (1953); Ivens glazed jug (Meadway); (Bridgman and Priory) ware (fine) (1982) glazed jug with slashed P33 Tin-glazed Baker and Hassall — (Bridgman) strap handle (Bridgman) ware (1979, 222) C10 Potterspury Mynard (1970) — (Bridgman) P36A Brown hard, vitrified mid to — (Bridgman) ware salt-glazed dark grey fabric with C11 Brill-Boarstall Jope (1953); Ivens — (Meadway) stoneware few visible inclusions. ware (coarse) (1982) 112 ALBION ARCHAEOLOGY

Ceramic Building Material Grog and sand Fairly hard-fired fabric, orange-brown throughout, (Bridgman) characterised by frequent, ill-sorted sub-rounded buff- orange grog fragments up to 3.5mm in size. Also contains Type Fabric / Reference Form frequent, well-sorted, subangular multicoloured quartz c. Sand fine and hard-fired, orange Roman brick; late 0.1–0.3mm, and dark red and black iron ore c. 0.1–0.3mm. (Bridgman throughout, turning to brick-red medieval / post- Calcareous and Coarse, friable, pink-orange-buff fabric with variable dark and Priory) where over-fired. Generally finely medieval flat roof tile, sand grey patchy reduction. Inclusions are as sand-tempered tempered, although some fragments brick and a nib tile (Bridgman) type, but this fabric is also characterised by the addition are coarsely made and contain angular of moderate sub-rounded calcareous pieces c. 0.5–1.0mm. quartz up to 6mm in size. Contains Some larger fragments contain subangular/angular flint or frequent, well-sorted, subangular chert pebbles, 10–20mm. multicoloured quartz c. 0.2–0.5mm, Grog Soft, orange-brown fabric with smooth, soapy texture. and dark red and black iron ore c. (Bridgman) Contains moderate, orange-buff grog pieces c. 0.3–0.5mm, 0.1–0.3mm. Also rare angular flint some ranging up to 5mm; and occasional, poorly-sorted, inclusions of up to 5mm in size. subangular, multicoloured quartz c. 0.1–0.5mm. Shell Brown (1994) for Roman fragments; Roman tegulae and (Bridgman medieval fragments same as pottery brick; medieval flat roof and Priory) fabric B05. tile and brick Sand and fairly hard-fired, often gritty Late medieval / post- calcareous fabric, with variable orange to medieval flat roof tile METHODOLOGIES inclusions light red-brown surfaces and (Bridgman) core. Contains frequent, ill-sorted calcareous inclusions up to 2mm in The techniques employed to analyse the artefacts and ecofacts size; frequent, well-sorted, subangular from the three sites are summarised below. Further details on multicoloured quartz c. 0.1–0.3mm; these techniques, and the full results obtained, are held in the and dark red and black iron ore c. site archive. 0.1–0.3mm. Also rare angular white flint inclusions up to 5mm in size. Examples in this type are often characterised by a vesicular surface Pottery appearance, caused by the firing or leaching out of calcareous inclusions. Blue-grey hard-fired, fairly smooth fabric with Late medieval / post- Each assemblage was laid out individually in context order, cored sandy bright orange to dark red-brown medieval flat roof tile for ease of comparing fabric types and seeking cross-context (Bridgman) surfaces, and characterised by a joins (sherds belonging to the same vessel, but deriving distinctive blue-grey core. Contains from separate contexts). Pottery was quantified by minimum variable multicoloured quartz, vessel number, sherd count and weight. Where cross-context 0.1–0.5mm, and unevenly sized red iron ore inclusions, 0.5–1mm. joins were found, these were quantified as a single vessel. Gault clay fairly hard-fired, smooth, fine fabric, Late medieval / post- Fabric groups were identified on the basis of type, size and (Bridgman) off-white/grey to yellow throughout, medieval flat roof tile density of principal inclusions; these identifications were in turning to pale pink when oxidised. accordance with the Bedfordshire Ceramic Type Series (see Contains sparse angular to subangular quartz c. 0.1–0.3mm, and above), which is maintained by Albion Archaeology. All sub-rounded red and black iron ore attributes such as decoration, manufacturing techniques and c. 0.1–0.2mm. levels of abrasion were recorded, as well as evidence of use, such as the presence of residues, sooting and wear marks. The only variation from this procedure was for fabric type B05 from Period 4 deposits at the Priory Middle School. In Daub and Fired Clay the case of rim and base sherds, diameter and the percentage of the circumference were recorded; no further quantification All seven fabric types identified are likely to have derived of undiagnostic waster and non-waster body sherds recov- from locally extracted clay. ered from the Period 4 deposits was undertaken (cf. Mellor Coarse shell Hard-fired, buff-orange fabric characterised by frequent, 1994, 20; MPRG 2001, 11). The minimum vessel number (Bridgman) ill-sorted subangular fossil shell inclusions, 10–20mm in was only recorded where it was obvious that a number of size. Also contains moderate, ill-sorted subangular quartz sherds derived from a single pot, due to the large size and c. 0.1–0.5mm, and ill-sorted subangular/angular flint visual similarity of the assemblage. pieces up to 20mm in length. A representative sample of the Bridgman Joinery Works Sand Coarse, friable mid to dark orange-red fabric with variable (Bridgman and dark grey-black patches where reduced. Inclusions and Meadway assemblages has been illustrated (Figs 12 and Priory) are abundant sub-rounded and subangular quartz, c. 10–11 respectively). Standard drawing conventions have 0.1–0.5mm, and rare red iron ore, c. 0.5mm. Some been used, with vessels shown at one quarter size (collared larger fragments contain subangular/angular flint or chert urn on Fig. 10 at 1:3), external view on the right and a section pebbles, 10–20mm. Shell Fairly soft orange-buff-brown fabric at Bridgman Joinery and internal view on the left. Individual stamps are shown (Bridgman and Works; hard-fired buff to beige fabric at Priory Middle at twice their original size. Handmade vessels are illustrated Priory) School. Contains abundant, ill-sorted subangular shell with hatched sections, and wheel-thrown vessels with solid c. 0.5–8mm, and sparse, ill-sorted subangular quartz sections. Visible coils and/or applied parts are indicated in c. 0.1–0.5mm. Also contains occasional angular flints, the section. The pie diagram at the base of some illustrations ranging in size between 5-15mm. Organic and Fine pink-buff-orange fabric, dark blue-grey where indicates the proportion of the vessel recovered. For shelly sand reduced. Inclusions are moderate, poorly sorted, subangular, fabric B05 from the Priory Middle School, the method of rim (Bridgman) multicoloured quartz c. 0.1–0.5mm, occasionally ranging manufacture is shown in the profile drawing where it is clear to 1mm, and frequent organic material (?straw), evidenced in the section. A running sequence of rim profile numbers by elongated voids where the latter has burnt out. Some fragments contain a lower proportion of sand than others was assigned (R1–R81: Tables 16–18); gaps in this sequence and are almost entirely organic, although the small quantity result from the demotion of rim forms which were subse- did not merit a separate fabric type. quently found to be duplicated. APPENDIX 113

Other Artefacts with reference literature (Cappers et al. 2006; Beijerinck 1947), whilst cereal grain and chaff identification criteria Each object was assigned an identification and functional follow Van der Veen (1992). Nomenclature and taxonomy category, and was quantified by number and/or weight. A date follows Stace (1997). range was also assigned, where applicable, with reference to standard typological works. All ironwork and selected non- ferrous objects were x-rayed, those from Meadway by Adrian Charcoal Tribe (Institute of Archaeology, UCL), and the others by Lincolnshire County Council Heritage Service’s Conservation The samples were prepared and examined using standard Department. Each object was examined for its form, method of methods (Gale and Cutler 2000). When possible, the maturity manufacture, material and source, and presence of diagnostic of the wood was assessed (i.e. heartwood or sapwood) and features. Parallels from comparable site were then sought, and stem diameters recorded. The Meadway material was identi- a full catalogue description entered into the project database. fied using the key for European hardwoods in Schweingruber (1982) and by comparison with modern reference material held in the Oxford University Museum of Natural History; Human Bone classification follows that of Flora Europaea (Tutin et al. 1964–80) for the Bridgman Joinery Works assemblage. Analysis of the cremated remains followed standard procedures (McKinley 1994a). Age (cremated and unburnt remains) was assessed from the stage of tooth development and ossification/ Pollen epiphyseal bone fusion (van Beek 1983; McMinn and Hutchings 1985; Webb and Suchey 1985), and the pattern and extent of Standard techniques for pollen concentration of the sub- degenerative changes in the skeleton (Brothwell 1972; Bass fossil pollen and spores were used on sub-samples of 1ml 1987). Sex was ascertained from the sexually dimorphic traits of volume taken from the basal samples of the palaeochannel the skeleton (Bass 1987; Gejvall 1981; Wahl 1982). The cranial at the Bridgman Joinery Works. The six samples examined (Brothwell 1972), platymeric (degree of anterior-posterior flat- produced well-preserved pollen, enabling counts of 300–500 tening of the proximal femur) and platycnemic (meso-lateral grains in total. Taxonomy in general follows that of Moore flattening of the tibia) indices were calculated for the inhuma- et al. (1991), modified according to Bennett et al. (1994) for tion burials (Bass 1987), and stature was estimated (Trotter and pollen types, and Stace (1997) for plant descriptions. These Gleser 1952; 1957) where long bones survived intact. procedures were carried out in the Palaeoecology Laboratory of the Department of Geography, University of Southampton.

Animal Bone Soil Analysis A database was used for each faunal assemblage to record attributes such as species; side of body; part(s), proportion The methods employed were soil micromorphology, and chem- and zone(s) of bone present; gnawing damage; surface condi- ical and magnetic signature analysis. The last is composed tion; and fusion, tooth-ageing, butchery and metrical data. of a specific suite of chemical analyses (loss-on-ignition, Identifications were confirmed by comparison with modern magnetic susceptibility (MS), qualitative MS after soil ignition reference collections where necessary, and Boessneck (1969) (MS550), phosphate (Pcitric) and phosphate after soil ignition was utilised to differentiate between the species of sheep (PcitricOI)). This combined methodology was successfully and goat. Anatomical zones were recorded for each skeletal applied at Stratton, Bedfordshire (Macphail and Cruise 1998). element following those published by Serjeantson (1996). Nine thin-section samples were impregnated with crystic Bones from sieved samples are included in the overall counts resin, cured, cut into blocks and sent to Spectrum Petrographics alongside those recovered by normal excavation. for manufacture into 7.5x5 cm thin sections (Murphy 1986). Tooth-eruption and -wear descriptions for cattle, sheep/ Soil micromorphology employed standard methods (Bullock goat and pig follow the method of Grant (1982). Only teeth et al. 1985), with the employment of plane polarised light, that were still anchored within the mandible were assigned crossed polarised light, oblique incident light and ultra violet tooth-wear stages and as a result mandible wear stages; maxil- light, as recommended by Courty (Courty et al. 1989) in lary and loose teeth were not recorded in this manner. Where order to aid identifications and interpretations. Microfabrics possible, epiphyseal fusion was recorded and compared present in the Meadway SFBs were defined, and natural inclu- with figures published by Silver (1969). Measurements are sions, anthropogenic material, soil structure (prisms, massive those recommended by von den Driesch (1976), with a few structure and packing structure) and pedofeatures (burrows, additions. Withers heights were calculated using formulae excrements and coatings) were counted semi-quantitatively. recommended by von den Driesch and Boessneck (1974). Probable beaten-floor soil fragments were identified on the basis of analysis of the ethnoarchaeological reconstruction of Iron Age domestic floors at the Butser Ancient Farm demon- Charred Plant Remains stration areas, and known archaeological floors (Macphail and Cruise 2001). Semi-quantitative counting can be equal to A programme of sampling was carried out during the Meadway data gained from image analysis and may be utilised in statis- and Bridgman Joinery Works excavations, targeting deposits tical differentiation of soil horizons (Acott et al. 1997; Ponge that contained visible or suspected environmental remains 1999). Materials that were counted reflect the Grubenhäuser from within well-dated or stratigraphically secure contexts. fills, and comparable materials have been counted at Stratton, No waterlogged deposits were identified. The samples Bedfordshire (Cruise and Macphail 1998; Macphail and Cruise were processed and studied using standard procedures. 1998), Lake End Road West, Oxfordshire (Macphail et al. Identifications utilised modern reference material together 1999), and West Heslerton, North Yorkshire (Macphail 1998).

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