The Scope of Science for the International Polar Year 2007–2008

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The scope of science for the International Polar Year 2007–2008

By: Ian Allison and Michel Béland (Co-Chairs), Keith Alverson, Robin Bell, David Carlson, Kjell Danell, Cynan Ellis-Evans, Eberhard Fahrbach, Edith Fanta, Yoshiyuki Fujii, Gisbert Gilbertson, Leah Goldfarb, Grete Hovelsrud-Broda, Johannes Huber, Vladimir Kotlyakov, Igor Krupnik, Jeronimo Lopez-Martinez, Tillmann Mohr, Dahe Qin, Volker Rachold, Chris Rapley, Odd Rogne, Eduard Sarukhanian, Colin Summerhayes, Cunde Xiao

February 2007

Produced by the ICSU/WMO Joint Committee for IPY 2007–2008 Cover photo: International Polar Foundation

NOTE The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the World Meteorological Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitations of its frontiers or boundaries. PREFACE © CHRISTIAN MOREL

The International Polar Year (IPY) 2007–2008 THE CO-SPONSORS represents one of the most ambitious coordinated international science programmes Founded in 1931, ICSU is a non-govern- ever attempted. It will include research and mental organization representing a global observations in both the Arctic and Antarctic membership that includes both national polar regions and explore the strong links scientifi c bodies (111 members) and inter- these regions have with the rest of the globe. national scientific unions (29 members). The poles are recognized as sensitive barom- ICSU’s mission is to strengthen international eters of environmental change. Polar science science for the benefi t of society. A key part is crucial to understanding our planet and our of this is to plan and coordinate research, impact on it. The poles are also exceptional particularly for topics that require collabora- archives of what the Earth was like in the past, tion between scientists in different disciplines and offer a unique vantage point for many and in different parts of the world. The ICSU terrestrial and cosmic phenomena. Executive Board in June 2003 established the IPY Planning Group, made up of leading This IPY will initiate a new era in polar sci- polar scientists from across the world. ICSU ence and involve a wide range of research and WMO then set up in October 2004 a Joint disciplines, from geophysics and ecology Committee for IPY responsible for the overall to social science and economics. It is a scientifi c planning, coordination, guidance truly international endeavour with over and oversight of IPY 2007–2008. 60 countries participating in more than 200 projects. IPY 2007–2008 also aims to edu- In 1950, WMO succeeded IMO, founded in cate and involve the public, and to help train 1873, and became a United Nations special- the next generation of engineers, scientists ized agency in 1951. WMO is the United and leaders. Therefore, over 50 of the projects Nations’ authoritative voice on weather, deal with education and outreach. climate and water. It facilitates cooperation in the establishment of networks for mete- IPY 2007–2008 is co-sponsored by the orological, climatological, hydrological and International Council for Science (ICSU) geophysical observations over the globe. It and the World Meteorological Organization also facilitates data exchange, and assists (WMO). It builds on a 125-year history of technology transfer, training and research. internationally coordinated study of polar WMO fosters cooperation between the regions. This extends back to the fi rst and National Meteorological and Hydrological second International Polar Years of 1882–1883 Services of its 188 Members, and furthers and 1932–1933, which were sponsored by the the application of meteorology to aviation, International Meteorological Organization — shipping, agriculture, water issues and the WMO’s predecessor — and the International mitigation of the impacts of natural disas- Geophysical Year of 1957–1958, backed ters. In May 2003 the World Meteorological by ICSU and WMO. IPY 2007–2008 marks Congress adopted a resolution to sponsor the 50th anniversary of the International the International Polar Year 2007–2008. Geophysical Year. www.icsu.org www.wmo.int

CONTENTS

The scope of science for the International Polar Year 2007–2008

PREFACE ...... 1

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... 5

1 INTRODUCTION ...... 7

2 AN URGENT NEED FOR POLAR RESEARCH ...... 9 2.1 Shrinking snow and ice: rapid change in polar regions ...... 9 2.2 Global linkages: interactions between the poles and the rest of the Earth ...... 9 2.3 Neighbours in the North ...... 11 2.4 A sense of discovery ...... 11

3 SCIENTIFIC THEMES FOR IPY 2007–2008 ...... 13

4 ENHANCED POLAR OBSERVING SYSTEMS — AN IPY LEGACY ...... 15

5 THEME 1: STATUS ...... 17 5.1 The polar atmosphere ...... 17 5.2 Ice sheets and glaciers ...... 18 5.3 The polar oceans ...... 20 5.4 People of the polar regions ...... 23 5.5 Terrestrial processes and systems ...... 25 5.6 Geosciences ...... 26

6 THEME 2: CHANGE ...... 29 6.1 The polar atmosphere ...... 29 6.2 Ice sheets and glaciers ...... 30 6.3 The polar oceans ...... 31 6.4 Polar peoples ...... 33 6.5 Terrestrial processes and systems ...... 34 6.6 Palaeoenvironments ...... 36

3 7 THEME 3: GLOBAL LINKAGES ...... 39 7.1 Global climate processes ...... 39 7.2 Thermohaline circulation in the global ocean ...... 41 7.3 Marine biogeochemical cycling ...... 42 7.4 Terrestrial energy, hydrological and biogeochemical cycles ...... 43 7.5 Solar–terrestrial linkages ...... 43

8 THEME 4: NEW FRONTIERS ...... 45 8.1 Adaptation and biodiversity in polar organisms ...... 45 8.2 Beneath the ice sheets ...... 45 8.3 Within the polar oceans ...... 47

9 THEME 5: VANTAGE POINT ...... 49 9.1 Astronomy from polar regions ...... 49

10 THEME 6: THE HUMAN DIMENSION ...... 51 10.1 Integration of the knowledge and observations of polar residents ...... 51 10.2 Societal and human aspects of interdisciplinary studies ...... 52 10.3 Human health and well-being in polar regions ...... 52 10.4 Studies in polar history and human exploration of polar regions ...... 53

11 EDUCATION, OUTREACH AND COMMUNICATION DURING IPY 2007–2008 . . . . 55

12 IPY DATA AND INFORMATION MANAGEMENT ...... 57

13 CONCLUSION ...... 59

14 APPENDICES ...... 61 I IPY structure and organization ...... 63

IPY 2007–2008 Joint Committee membership (as of January 2007) ...... 64

IPY 2007–2008 International Programme Ofﬁ ce staff ...... 65

IPY 2007–2008 Subcommittees membership (as of January 2007) ...... 65

International and national organizations endorsing or supporting IPY 2007–2008 ...... 67 II Nations involved in IPY ...... 69 III Endorsed IPY projects (as of February 2007) ...... 71 IV Acronyms ...... 79

4 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The International Polar Year 2007–2008 will Six scientifi c themes provide a framework be the largest internationally coordinated for IPY 2007–2008. research programme in 50 years. It will be an intensive period of interdisciplinary science 1. Status: to determine the present envi- focused on the Arctic and the Antarctic. The ronmental status of the polar regions; polar regions are especially important for the following reasons: 2. Change : to quantify and understand past and present natural environmental and • They are presently changing faster than social change in the polar regions and to any other regions of the Earth, with improve projections of future change; regional and global implications for societies, economies and ecosystems. 3. Global linkages: to advance understanding This change is particularly evident in on all scales of the links and interactions widespread shrinking snow and ice. between polar regions and the rest of the globe, and of the processes controlling • Processes in polar regions have a pro- these; found infl uence on the global environment, and particularly on the weather 4. New frontiers: to investigate the frontiers and climate system. At the same time, of science in the polar regions; the polar environment is impacted by processes at lower latitudes. Examples 5. Vantage point: to use the unique vantage include the formation of the ozone hole point of the polar regions to develop and and the accumulation of pollutants in the enhance observatories from the interior Arctic environment. of the Earth to the sun and the cosmos beyond; • The Arctic is home to more than 4 million people, and these communities face 6. The human dimension: to investigate the changes in their natural environment cultural, historical and social processes and in their natural resources and food that shape the sustainability of circumpo- systems — changes that are, for the lar human societies and to identify their most part, of a rapidity and magnitude unique contributions to global cultural beyond recent experience or traditional diversity and citizenship. knowledge. IPY 2007–2008 research activities were • Within the polar regions lie important assembled from the ideas of researchers in scientifi c challenges yet to be investigated more than 60 countries. A total of 228 projects and unique vantage points for science. have been endorsed by the ICSU/WMO Joint The regions beneath the polar ice sheets Committee for IPY 2007–2008. These projects and under the ice-covered oceans remain have a strong interdisciplinary emphasis and largely unknown. Many of the new sci- address the six themes as well as educa- entifi c frontiers in the polar regions are tion and outreach objectives. IPY projects at the intersection of traditional scientifi c will exploit new technological and logistical disciplines. capabilities and strengthen international

5 coordination of research. They aim to attract, atmospheric chemistry, meteorology, ecosys- engage and develop a new generation of tems, permafrost, glaciers and geophysics. researchers and raise the awareness, inter- Many observing systems within IPY will be est and understanding of polar residents, developed within the framework of existing educators, students, the general public and international global observing systems. decision makers worldwide. IPY projects will collect a broad-ranging set of samples, data The period from 1 March 2007 to 1 March and information which will be made available 2009 will be exciting and historic. The to an unprecedented degree. International Polar Year 2007–2008 should signiﬁ cantly advance our ability to meet IPY 2007–2008 aims to leave a legacy of the major science challenges of the polar enhanced observational systems, facilities regions and generate a rich legacy, notably and infrastructure. The observational net- in a new understanding of polar processes works to be established during IPY include and their global linkages at this critical time integrated ocean observing systems in both — for it is becoming ever clearer that we the Arctic and Southern Oceans, coordinated humans have to recognize and respond to acquisition of satellite data products from the planetary limits of our behaviour. The multiple space agencies and observational polar regions provide a litmus test and the systems for astronomy, sun–earth physics, insight to help us do so.

6 1 INTRODUCTION

The polar regions are integral components will leave a legacy of observing sites, facili- of the Earth system, as illustrated in Figure 1. ties and systems to support ongoing polar As the heat sinks of the climate system, they research and monitoring as the basis for respond to and drive changes elsewhere observing and forecasting change. The Polar on the planet. Today, the polar regions are Year will strengthen international coordina- changing faster than any other regions of tion of research and enhance international Earth, with implications for local animals, cooperation in polar regions, particularly plants, people and infrastructure, and for among scientists, local residents and their coastal populations everywhere. Within the institutions in scholarship, education, health polar regions lie frontiers of knowledge as and environmental protection. IPY 2007–2008 well as unique vantage points for science, projects will address both polar regions yet because of their remoteness and harsh and their global interactions in order to nature, the poles remain poorly understood. improve understanding of the poles as key With recent technological advances providing components of the global environment. new scientifi c possibilities and humankind’s urgent need for environmental knowledge Since interdisciplinary work is fundamental and understanding, the time is ripe for a to building a global understanding, IPY will coordinated international initiative to achieve link researchers to address questions and major advances in polar science. issues lying beyond the scope of individual disciplines. IPY 2007–2008 projects will collect Motivated by urgency and a need to under- a broad-ranging set of samples, and data and stand the poles and their relation to the rest information regarding the state and behaviour of the planet, scientists from 63 nations will of the polar regions and their relations to the launch a major multidisciplinary International rest of the world. These data will provide a Polar Year in 2007 co-sponsored by the reference for the future and the past. Data International Council for Science (ICSU) collected under IPY 2007–2008 will be made and the World Meteorological Organization available in an open and timely manner. IPY (WMO). The concept of the International will also provide a unique opportunity to Polar Year 2007–2008 is based on an inten- intensify the recovery of relevant historical sive and internationally coordinated cam- data and ensure that these also are made paign of cutting-edge research activities openly available. and observations in the polar regions. The offi cial IPY 2007–2008 observing period will IPY 2007–2008 projects will attract, engage be from 1 March 2007 to 1 March 2009, in and develop a new generation of research- order to include a complete annual cycle ers, and experts. Further, they will raise of seasons in the Arctic and in Antarctica. the awareness, interest and understand- IPY 2007–2008 will build upon a 125-year ing of polar residents and their community history of internationally coordinated study institutions, as well as educators, students, of the polar regions. The current IPY is the the general public and decision makers successor of the first International Polar worldwide with respect to the purpose and Year (1882–1883), the second International value of polar research and observations. Polar Year (1932–1933) and the International Building on existing and potential new fund- Geophysical Year (1957–1958). ing sources, projects developed as part of the Polar Year will optimize the use of avail- IPY 2007–2008 will have a strong interdisci- able polar observing systems, logistical plinary emphasis, with active participation assets and infrastructure, and develop and of the social sciences. This international embrace new technological and logistical cooperative venture will lay the foundation capabilities. for signifi cant scientifi c advances in understanding the nature and behaviour of the This document provides an overview of the polar regions and their role in the functioning scope of the scientifi c research that will be of the planet. In addition, IPY 2007–2008 undertaken during the International Polar

7 Figure 1. The two polar regions of the Earth will be the focus for research during the International Polar Year 2007–2008. As heat sinks of the climate system, they respond to and drive changes elsewhere on the planet.

[Source: British Antarctic Survey Mapping and Geographical Information Centre]

Year 2007–2008. The development of IPY Details are available at http://www.ipy.org/ 2007–2008 research activities has been driven development/eoi/. The IPY core participants as a bottom-up process by active researchers are self-organizing groups of researchers, in many countries. A total of 228 projects, international organizations and consortia of including 57 that focus on education and national governmental and non-governmental outreach, have been formally endorsed by agencies. The wide scope of IPY science the ICSU/WMO Joint Committee for IPY presented here is based on the research plans 2007–2008 as IPY activities (see Appendix III). and objectives of these endorsed projects.

8 2 AN URGENT NEED FOR POLAR RESEARCH

IPY science covers an enormous range of the loss of fringing ice shelves, since summer topics and specialties. All the IPY projects surface temperatures in the region remain confront challenging science issues fuelled well below the freezing point. by the need to understand rapid changes in polar regions. IPY science goals will evolve The Arctic sea ice cover is shrinking, opening as time and discovery reﬁ ne and refresh our the prospect of trans-Arctic sea routes. Polar understanding. Four key issues however, bears, seals, walruses and other ice-associ- require urgent attention. ated marine species are at risk as their habitat disappears, with the unknown consequences to many polar residents and their subsist- 2.1 SHRINKING SNOW AND ICE: RAPID ence-based economies. The Southern Ocean CHANGE IN POLAR REGIONS sea ice is also decreasing around the Antarctic Peninsula, but around East Antarctica the Global warming is not uniformly distributed. sea ice extent is stable. The shrimp-like krill As a result of a positive feedback in which that feed the whales, seals and birds of the reduced snow and ice cover increases solar Southern Ocean have declined tenfold near heat absorption, the atmosphere and the the Antarctic Peninsula where less sea ice ocean are warming much faster in some means less cover to protect growing krill areas of the polar regions than elsewhere larvae. Declines in some penguin species on the planet. The results are plain for all to are becoming apparent, but the picture is see: IPY occurs amidst abundant evidence complicated by the tendency of some species of changes in snow and ice, with reduc- to migrate south as the ocean warms and the tions in the extent and mass of glaciers and sea ice retreats. ice sheets, in area, timing and duration of snow cover, and in the extent and The observations and modelling studies of thickness of sea ice. There are clear indica- IPY will document and quantify the extent, tions that the reduction rate of many snow rate and impact of the changing environment and ice masses has accelerated over the in both polar regions. past decade.

On land the Arctic permafrost is melting, 2.2 GLOBAL LINKAGES: INTERACTIONS removing the stable foundations of build- BETWEEN THE POLES AND THE REST OF ings, roads and pipelines, and also having THE EARTH consequences for wildlife and the activities of native populations. Changes to the Surface temperatures over large areas of the distribution of snow cover in the amount Arctic and on the Antarctic Peninsula have and timing of snow-melt runoff from snow risen considerably faster than the global packs and the shrinkage of glaciers impact average, partly because of the ice–albedo the hydrological cycle locally and globally. feedback that amplifi es climate change in Southern regions of the Greenland Ice Sheet polar regions and impacts our global climate. are melting and thinning by collapse around Above Antarctica, tropospheric tempera- the edge, though increased precipitation tures have signifi cantly warmed while the thickens the centre of the ice sheet on the stratosphere has cooled. The latter has in turn high plateau. In the Antarctic the warming is enhanced the ozone hole. Global warming has more localized, but has been strong on the also led to lower and higher pressures south Antarctic Peninsula, where 87 per cent of and north of about 60˚S, which is consistent glaciers are in retreat and large ice shelves with intensifi ed and poleward-shifted west- have broken up. A major discharge of glacier erlies in the region. The poleward-intensifi ed ice is also occurring into the Amundsen Sea westerlies are strengthening the Antarctic Embayment of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, Circumpolar Current and contributing to apparently as a result of ocean warming and Southern Ocean warming.

9 The changing polar environments are closely Changes in sea ice combined with enhanced linked to changing environments globally. The river input of freshwater may alter the tem- ocean conveyor belt that transports heat and perature and salinity of polar ocean waters, freshwater around the globe and connects leading to substantial changes in the ocean ocean circulation between the Arctic and circulation patterns that moderate climate. the Antarctic, known as the thermohaline Changes in snow cover and sea ice have circulation, is driven by sinking dense water immediate local consequences for surface produced at the surface in polar regions. As radiation budgets and for terrestrial and polar waters warm, and as sea ice production marine ecosystems. Warming of polar waters, decreases, polar waters lose their tendency coupled with changes in ice coverage and to sink, and there are concerns that the con- river run-off, will have consequences for sev- veyor belt is slowing down as a response eral globally signiﬁ cant marine ﬁ sheries. to ocean warming. As atmospheric carbon dioxide levels rise, the ocean surface waters Changes in the large ice sheets will have a are becoming more acid, with potentially global impact on sea level, affecting large por- deleterious effects on those plankton forming tions of human populations living in coastal carbonate skeletons that form the base of the and low-lying areas. Global sea level rose at Southern Ocean food chain. a rate of some 1–2 mm/year over the 20th

In calm weather, frost ﬂ owers occur extensively on the surface of freshly formed sea ice. Research suggests that these exquisitely delicate structures may be involved in the production of reactive gasses that remove atmospheric ozone. BRITISH ANTARCTIC SURVEY BRITISH ANTARCTIC

10 century in response both to thermal expan- 2.4 A SENSE OF DISCOVERY sion — a warmer ocean occupies more space — and to the melting of mountain glaciers For many people, polar regions represent and ice caps. In recent years the rate has places of wonder. The Russian poet Yuvan risen to 3 mm/year, probably refl ecting some Shestalov, for example, refers to them as addition from melting polar ice sheets. “temples of the planet”, but they can also be regarded as the “Earth’s sentinels”. The polar Permafrost, an additional form of ice that regions are characterized by a six-month infl uences nearly 24 per cent of the northern polar night, an atmosphere largely free of hemisphere landmass, also shows substantial local pollution sources, a small human popu- change, mostly in the form of thermal decom- lation and a mostly undisturbed vegetation position, due to warming climate. Permafrost and wildlife. The poles act as amplifi ers of degradation affects local ecology and hydrol- anthropogenic and natural environmental ogy as well as coastal and soil stability. It may global stresses. Hence, they offer an ideal also mobilize vast reserves of frozen carbon, and unique natural laboratory from which some of which, such as methane, will increase to observe and understand the changes we the global greenhouse effect. are making to our planet.

IPY research will enhance understanding of For science, the sense of visual, aural and these linkages and their impact for global emotional wonders includes a sense of human societies. It will also enhance our skill discovery of polar regions as the home of in predicting future Earth system changes. unexplored places and the source of unex- pected ideas. What secrets, what clues to the planet’s past, lie under the ice? Can ancient, 2.3 NEIGHBOURS IN THE NORTH solid, silent ice hold so much history and yet change so fast? What marvels of physics Polar changes do not occur on a remote and chemistry occur when spring’s fi rst light planet, but in the daily living environment strikes winter snow? How does life survive of more than four million people in the extreme cold and long darkness? What struc- Arctic. Those communities and societies tural and physiological adaptations evolved face changes in their natural environment in cold waters and propagated throughout and in their natural resources and food the oceans? How and why do microbial systems. These changes are, for the most communities in the upper ocean infl uence part, of a rapidity and magnitude beyond cloudiness in the atmosphere above? What recent experience or traditional knowledge. subtle richness of behaviour, language and Northern people are confronting unique knowledge has allowed human communi- health challenges from diverse pollutants ties to survive in the Arctic for thousands transported to their regions from other parts of years? What will be the impacts of any of the globe. There are also new health risks future large-scale resource exploitation on and hazards associated with rapid climate polar biodiversity and societies? change, transport and commercialism issues and accelerating pressures of industrial These are some of the important and urgent development due to the demand for polar scientifi c challenges to be investigated in both energy and mineral resources. the Arctic and Antarctic, and IPY provides a unique opportunity to make exciting new IPY research, guided by and in partnership discoveries, visit unseen places, develop with polar residents, local communities and new concepts and theories and set the stage their institutions, will seek to understand the for future scientifi c advances through new complex factors that determine individual collaborative efforts and partnerships. Many well-being and community resiliency in the scientifi c frontiers in the polar regions are at face of this extraordinary environmental and the intersection of disciplines, and progress social change. will be achieved not only through the use of

11 new observational techniques, but also by polar scientific advances will occur on a the interdisciplinary cross-analysis of existing tremendous range of spatial scales, from databases, taking advantage of outstanding the previously inaccessible realms of the strides made recently in computing capability genome to vast areas of the Earth’s crust and communication on the Internet. New beneath the ice and polar oceans.

12 3 SCIENTIFIC THEMES FOR IPY 2007–2008

On the basis of consultations held with the In pursuing these themes, IPY 2007–2008 research community and of its own consid- seeks to exploit new technological and erations, a framework for the International logistical capabilities and to make major Polar Year 2007–2008 was developed by the advances in knowledge and understand- ICSU/WMO Planning Group (see www.ipy. ing. It aims to leave a legacy of new or org/development/framework/framework. enhanced observational systems, facilities, pdf). It contains a science framework; a data infrastructure, numerical Earth simula- management plan; a strategy for education, tors and research networks, as well as outreach and communication; and a structure an unprecedented degree of access to for the organization and implementation of the data and information it will generate. IPY 2007–2008. Another critical legacy of IPY 2007–2008 will be the next generations of scientists Six scientiﬁ c themes were identiﬁ ed from and educated polar residents, trained in the extensive input from the polar science advanced research methodologies and an community, providing a framework for IPY interdisciplinary approach. 2007–2008 activities: This document provides an overview of 1. Status: to determine the present envi- planned IPY 2007–2008 activities against a ronmental status of the polar regions; backdrop of these themes. Not only are most endorsed IPY projects strongly internation- 2. Change : to quantify and understand ally collaborative and interdisciplinary, they past and present natural environmental also are cross-thematic. Most proposals are and social change in the polar regions targeted at more than one of the IPY science and to improve projections of future themes. For example, many endorsed projects change; that address theme 1 (status) involve estab- lishing baseline observations and thus also 3. Global linkages: to advance under- address theme 2 (change). The IPY planning standing on all scales of the links and chart, Figure 2, categorizes endorsed projects interactions between polar regions and by region (Arctic, Antarctic or bipolar) and the rest of the globe, and of the proc- topic (Earth, land, people, ocean, ice, atmos- esses controlling these; phere, space, data management, education and outreach). The full set of endorsed IPY 4. New frontiers: to investigate the fron- proposals clearly demonstrates both the tiers of science in the polar regions; breadth and depth of the planned science for IPY. 5. Vantage point: to use the unique vantage point of the polar regions to develop and enhance observatories from the interior of the Earth to the sun and the cosmos beyond;

6. The human dimension: to investigate the cultural, historical, and social processes that shape the sustainability of circumpolar human societies and to identify their unique contributions to global cultural diversity and citizenship.

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Greenland biogeochemical (48) (52) (34) (93) fish Inuit (251) (257) (164) (325) (134) (142) Polar Arctic health Ocean Fishery change penguin acoustic nawhals Health of bioactive and tusks terrestrial Polar bear monitoring Indigenous Marine and compounds and whales ecosystems bears, seals Circumpolar communities observatories (6) ice (30) (386) (123) (166) (435) (456) living social Sea ice Sami in and use Cultural Dynamic literature literature Survey of strategies Language, and media conditions heritage in knowledge Sustainable development (210) (276) (259) (337) (157) (183) (100) Land Initial Global hunting stations IPY field History of rights and resiliency resources challenges Community Community colonization vulnerability and diversity Conservation change, social adaptation and (27) (10) (431) (285) (384) (206) (167) (355) (436) Food health system Human tools for initiative Northern Economy History of Historical Integrated traditional Protecting Relocation knowledge polar areas Polar Years of the North in the North geneologies surveillance International communities exploitation of and resettlement People People (310) (248) (187) (201) (341) (186) (227) local polar health pulses Taking Impact culture activity material Political Alliance Northern Exchange knowledge Food safety economy of Community- and wildlife development of oil and gas based Research in oil (46) (170) (399) (411) (448) (275) (247) Land Aliens People, Impacts Reindeer resources Antarctica monitoring community Bering Sea Monitoring wilderness and coastal and tourism herding and development disturbances of ecosystem climate change (59) (72) Bird (151) (172) (432) (452) (408) (139) (213) (329) (162) (113) (188) Deep Polar Polar of the Green Arctic health Tundra mental present impacts Biology extreme Environ- network Rangifer diversity Past and Terrestrial Biological conditions Antarctica migrations monitoring permafrost Monitoring experiment ecosystems ecosystems environments and ecology of and contaminants human−rangifer (33) (50) (97) (54) (90) (284) (262) (246) (104) (214) (390) (133) (373) Land cycle areas Hydro- logical natural Carbon spiders climate Coastal and soil pools in changes of Arctic coupling Network evolution Antarctic evolution Changing Protected ecosystem monitoring permafrost Permafrost Permafrost Cryosphere Arctic soils Biosphere– atmosphere Biodiversity Biodiversity Observatory Land Land environments observatories Arctic and sub- (11) (21) (86) (55) East land Cold (138) (169) (423) (152) (185) (300) (202) Polar lakes cover USGS UNSP change lake ice Wildlife traverse network network changes research Northern Antarctic observing integrated processes Ecological Pan-Arctic Freshwater response to biodiversity Biodiversity observatories environmental of Arctic chars Rift (77) (109) (256) Plate system margin drilling Continental geodynamics tectonics and polar gateways Earth Earth (29) (67) (173) Land Bering Bridge Hydro- systems Highlands exploration Gamburtsev thermal vent Arctic both Antarctic

14 4 ENHANCED POLAR OBSERVING SYSTEMS — AN IPY LEGACY

Intensive activity during IPY 2007–2008 will Enhanced observing systems endorsed as include linked physical, geological, biological part of IPY include: and chemical observations of the atmosphere, oceans, ice and land. Multidisciplinary obser- • An integrated Arctic Ocean observ- vations, including the observation of social ing system, based on proven tech- and human systems, will improve spatial nology and mobilizing both new and and temporal coverage of many data sets. on-going activities during the IPY The infrastructure and comprehensive polar years to achieve an unprecedented observing systems developed during IPY level of observations of a region 2007–2008 will provide long-term observing which is particularly sensitive to networks to support polar research for dec- climate change, but inadequately ades to come to enable determination of the covered by present observations present environmental status and establish a (see Figure 3); baseline for identifying and forecasting future change. This will be a particularly signiﬁ cant • Establishment of a southern hemi- legacy of IPY 2007–2008, since change in sphere observing system, harness- the polar regions is a harbinger for change ing the resources of the global polar elsewhere. Additionally, many IPY projects community, that will provide an early aim at engaging and training polar residents warning system for climate change as monitors, environmental experts and com- and improved southern hemisphere munity-based observers. meteorological analyses;

New multidisciplinary observational sys- • A coordinated inter-agency effort tems will enhance existing networks and linking space agencies and scien- leave a substantial legacy of new facilities, tiﬁ c institutions, aimed at planning, technologies and ways of coordination and acquiring, archiving and distributing data access. The time-limited focus and bipolar satellite data products essen- elevated funding during the IPY years will tial to meeting IPY objectives; encourage scientists and engineers from many nations to work together to master • Establishment of acoustic networks technological challenges — such as how to to monitor the movement of marine measure ocean changes beneath the sea ice mammals and ﬁ shes in both polar that covers the high-latitude ocean surface regions; for much of the year. At the same time, the high-intensity observing period of the IPY • A coordinated network of Arctic years will provide detailed observations that observatories measuring key can, through the integration of observations physical and biological variables and advanced numerical models, guide the and processes at multiple sites in design of cost-effective, feasible observing order to explore the diversity of cli- systems for the future. mates and ecosystems at landscape scale; Observing systems within IPY will be developed within the framework of and as • Observational systems for gla- contributions to the larger global observ- ciology, oceanography, geology, ing systems, for example, the Global Earth geophysics, sun–earth physics, Observation System of Systems, the WMO atmospheric science and astronomy World Weather Watch and Global Atmosphere installed along Antarctic transects Watch Programmes and the Global Climate extending from the summit of the and Global Ocean Observing Systems. ice sheet to the deep ocean;

15 Figure 3. • Coordination of activities at those • A comprehensive set of permafrost A large number of year-round, intensive and permanent measurements in boreholes to provide planned research Arctic atmospheric observatories with a snapshot of permafrost tempera- projects in the sufﬁ cient infrastructure and staff to tures in both polar regions, against Arctic Ocean during operate sophisticated atmospheric which assessment can be made of IPY have been instruments, such as lidars and radars. present and future regional and global coordinated to form These data will contribute to detailed changes; the basis for an studies of processes such as cloud–aer- international Arctic osol–atmospheric chemistry interaction • A consortium, under the auspices of Ocean Observing and the relative role of tropospheric the Arctic Council, to increase effec- System. This dynamics and stratospheric linkages in tiveness and efﬁ ciency in the use of potentially provides controlling Arctic surface variability; infrastructure, personnel and fund- the legacy of a ing, and to improve coordination for regional contribution • A coordinated network of local observa- sustained long-term timeseries Arctic to the Global Ocean tion sites engaging Arctic residents, observations and for data handling. Observing System their knowledge and their methods of and Global Earth monitoring changes in sea ice cover, Observation System weather patterns, atmosphere, terrestrial of Systems. The environment and coastal processes; graphic illustrates ship cruise tracks and locations for instrumented moorings and glider surveys.

[Source: Bob Dickson, Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Lowestoft, UK]

16 5 THEME 1: STATUS Determination of the present environmental status of polar regions

Previous International Polar Years and the In both polar regions, IPY will address the cur- International Geophysical Year brought the rent composition and patterns of circulation international scientiﬁ c community together of the high-latitude ocean–atmosphere–ice to develop an integrated assessment of system and investigate the interactive proc- the polar regions and polar processes. esses that drive high-latitude circulation. Similarly, a key output of IPY 2007–2008 will be the documentation of the contemporary natural and human environments of 5.1 THE POLAR ATMOSPHERE the polar regions, quantifying their spatial and short-term variability and character- Atmospheric research during IPY will aim to izing present-day processes. Well-planned improve understanding of linkages between synoptic observations of the environmental ice, oceanic and terrestrial systems and the status of the polar regions will serve as representation of these in weather predic- a valuable benchmark for scientists and tion and climate models. Researchers will decision makers globally. investigate chemical exchanges and air–ice, air–ocean and air–land interactions; the The depth of IPY programmes focused on impacts of these chemical, physical and the status of the polar regions reﬂ ects our biological exchange processes on tropo- lack of integrative knowledge and cross- spheric chemistry; and the complex feedback disciplinary models of both natural and social mechanisms among these processes in the environments in polar regions. These projects context of changing climate. Understanding aim for integrated and interdisciplinary all these atmospheric linkages and processes synoptic observations that will capture the will require observational and modelling stud- modern environmental status of the poles ies of transports throughout the atmospheric and document current spatial variability. They column from near-surface layers to the lower include integrated physical, biological and stratosphere — in the case of polar vortices, social observational projects drawing on an even to the mesosphere — of teleconnections expanded observational network, applying between polar and lower-latitude regions new technologies and enhancing the use of (see Figure 4) and of short- to medium-term satellite observations. weather events. Figure 4. Infrared satellite images of a winter polar low (cyclone) situated between Greenland and the southern tip of Spitsbergen. New active and passive satellite technologies offer the potential for vastly improved numerical weather forecasting capabilities.

[Source: World Meteorological Organization]

17 Improved weather prediction skills will serve processes of atmospheric transport, depo- to benefi t society, the environment and the sition and photochemistry and exchange economy. Meteorological research during IPY between the atmosphere, ice and snow and will include high-latitude contributions to The the polar ocean. Observing System Research and Predictability Experiment (THORPEX), a WMO global Polar ozone losses in both hemispheres will atmospheric research programme that aims be precisely quantifi ed during IPY in con- to accelerate improvements in weather pre- certed international campaigns of balloon diction skills on a 1- to 14-day timescale. IPY soundings, satellite data and ground-based THORPEX activities will include investigations observations with lidar and other remote- of the two-way interactions between polar sensing techniques. Polar stratospheric and sub-polar weather regimes; assessment clouds play a key role in processes affecting and improvement of the quality of operational the ozone layer. Chemical, microphysical and analyses and reanalysis products in the polar optical properties of polar cloud particles and regions; measurements to develop, test and gas-phase species will be obtained in situ refi ne coupled modelling strategies designed and remotely from stratospheric balloons to simulate and predict conditions in the and aircraft, including high-altitude research polar earth system; and demonstration of aircraft. the value of improved utilization of ensemble weather forecast products for events that are of high impact to polar societies and for 5.2 ICE SHEETS AND GLACIERS IPY operations. A better knowledge of the physical char- Aerosols have a large effect on radiation acteristics of the great ice sheets of both transmission in the polar troposphere Greenland and Antarctica is necessary to directly and indirectly via clouds. IPY aerosol improve understanding of their current and programmes will study transport — to the future contributions to sea level change. Arctic of aerosols and of air pollution more Large-scale surface and airborne ice sheet generally — from anthropogenic sources observational projects in conjunction with and boreal forest fi res. These studies will space observations will be a focus during IPY. use observations from aircraft, ship and Satellite-borne sensors will provide a unique surface stations, as well as satellite data and snapshot of the polar ice sheets. New data on numerical models. Atmospheric chemists ice sheet characteristics will be incorporated will determine the role that the transport into ice sheet models for investigating ice of remote aerosols and local biochemical sheet formation, the response of ice sheets processes over open ocean leads within the to climate change and the distribution of sea ice zone play in polar cloud formation, subglacial lakes. The new data will also be polar precipitation, hydrological cycles and used to identify locations where the longest ice–albedo climate feedbacks. coherent climate records can be obtained from ice cores. Physical–chemical mechanisms that occur at the crucial interface between the atmosphere Quantifi cation of ice sheet mass balance and the ocean in polar regions remain poorly — the balance between snow accumulation understood. These processes impact on over the ice sheets and ice loss, principally at the nature of climate change and are infl u- the margins — is essential to understanding enced signifi cantly by a change in climate. global sea level change. Improved estimates IPY scientists will establish comprehensive of this balance are a key goal of IPY. These polar atmospheric monitoring programmes improved estimates will be based on a variety alongside existing long-term monitoring of techniques. The grounding line of the programmes, such as the Arctic Monitoring Antarctic ice sheet will be identifi ed by analys- and Assessment Programme (AMAP). This ing interferometric synthetic aperture radar will be coupled with research into the (InSAR) data. The total discharge of ice from

18 Figure 5. A large number of satellite missions will be addressing cryosphere issues during and after the IPY ﬁ eld period and international coordination of these missions will yield a vast range of data products for the polar regions.

[Source: Jezek, K. and M.R. Drinkwater, Global Interagency IPY Polar Snapshot Year, EOS, 87, 50, 566, 12 December 2006]

In orbit Approved Planned/pending approval

Antarctica will be derived from the surface ice surface accumulation and basal conditions. velocity, also obtained from InSAR, and from IPY provides an unprecedented opportunity to dedicated airborne radar missions around constrain these largely unknown parameters the total grounding line. Iceberg calving by coordinated and systematic airborne and is a major factor in loss of mass from the surface surveys of the ice sheets. Geophysical ice sheet, and the processes leading to the data will contribute to mapping the heat fl ow formation of rifts and subsequent iceberg and basal melt beneath the ice sheets, and calving from ice shelf edges will be studied comprehensive data sets on the spatial and using a combination of in-situ measure- temporal patterns of snow accumulation on ments, automatic observatories and satellite the ice sheets will be acquired from high- data. Ice sheet mass balance estimates from frequency radar soundings along oversnow fi eld surveys will be compared with results traverses tied to dated ice cores. Airborne from other IPY studies of the variations in and oversnow surveys will also image the space and time of polar ice and snow mass ice sheet’s internal features and, together estimated from satellite data, including the with the ground measurements, will be laser altimeter on the Ice, Cloud and land used to link the data records from the main Elevation Satellite and the Gravity Recovery deep ice core sites on the ice sheets. New and Climate Experiment satellite mission. shallow and medium-depth ice cores will (See Figure 5). be obtained to extend the record of climate variability on timescales from years to millen- New data showing the existence of large- nia. Interior ice sheet locations fi rst explored scale water drainage systems beneath the during the International Geophysical Year polar ice sheets have renewed concern about will be revisited to observe any changes. ice sheet stability. Assessing this requires Automatic instruments will be deployed in a fundamental understanding of both remote regions during oversnow surveys.

19 In the polar regions, sunlight triggers the sampling strategies to obtain the fi rst fully release of chemicals from surface snow into comprehensive synoptic picture of the nature the lower atmosphere, a process that affects and variability of the circulation and physical both air quality today and the interpretation of characteristics of water masses in the polar past climate using ice cores. IPY investigators oceans, including ice-covered regions. Their will study how the presence of snow and ice strategies will include the use of remote affects the chemistry of air above the polar sensing from space, novel technologies for ice sheets. observing the ocean beneath the winter ice cover and a fl eet of polar research vessels. On the Antarctic Peninsula and in the Arctic, They will investigate the relationship between where air temperature has risen faster than circulation, ocean biogeochemistry, ecology the global average in recent decades, baseline and biodiversity, both in the open ocean and glaciological data on glacier extent and mass around the margins, and the properties and balance will be obtained. Glacier dynamics circulation of the water masses beneath the will be studied by means of fi eld observa- sea ice. In the north, IPY research will focus tions and remote sensing from satellites to on the large-scale circulation of the Arctic facilitate more accurate computer modelling Ocean, including circulation infl uences on of glacier response to future climate changes. sea ice; on local and large-scale fl uxes of This will include investigation of modern heat, salt (freshwater) and mass; and on surging glaciers in Alaska, Svalbard and interactions between central basins, the high Asian mountains to develop improved Arctic shelves and the adjacent ocean areas. projections of their cycle of evolution. (See Figure 6).

Accurate bathymetric data constrain both 5.3 THE POLAR OCEANS ocean models and habitat studies. A number of IPY oceanographic projects will include The role of the polar oceans and their proc- sea-ﬂ oor imaging using multibeam swath esses remains a poorly understood facet of bathymetric techniques. In addition, investi- the global climate system. IPY projects will gators on all IPY oceanographic cruises will examine water mass transformations, ocean be encouraged to contribute echo-sounding currents, ocean–atmospheric exchanges, data of the ocean ﬂ oor to the presently sparse ocean–ice interactions, physical–biogeo- polar bathymetry archives. These data will chemical–ecological linkages and telecon- provide a basis for construction of improved nections between polar and lower latitudes. maps of ocean bathymetry needed as clues to Improved understanding of modern polar interpreting underlying geological processes, ocean processes and their variability will guides to identifying biological habitats and feed through advanced numerical models inputs to advanced numerical models of into improved climate predictions. Many of ocean circulation. the IPY projects that will research the physical and chemical processes of the polar oceans Globally, sea ice is one of the most rapidly are linked to studies of the ecology and the changing components of the cryosphere. biodiversity of the coupled ocean sea ice In both polar regions scientists will obtain ecosystem. circumpolar data on sea ice thickness, extent, and physical properties. Ice thickness data A comprehensive synoptic understanding will be obtained by a variety of methods of both the nature and variability of the including observations from vessels, buoy physical circulation of polar oceans, includ- arrays, airborne inductive electromagnetic ing ice-covered regions, is necessary to surveys, under-ice floats, autonomous understand the observed environmental underwater vehicles and satellite remote change and to develop accurate predictions sensing. A quantitative baseline on sea ice of the future. IPY oceanographers will use thickness is essential for detection of change a diverse array of in-situ instruments and and validation of the next generation of

20 satellite altimeter observations, particularly The distribution and abundance of marine for the Antarctic where the distribution of sea biodiversity in the polar regions and how ice thickness is as yet only poorly known. polar biodiversity will be affected by cli- A network of semi-automatic stations to mate change remain largely unknown. IPY monitor the land-fast ice around the coast researchers will undertake mult-ship surveys of Antarctica will be established. of polar marine ecosystems (see Figure 7) in both polar regions to determine the distribu- Shifts in the global freshwater cycle are tion and abundance of marine biodiversity powerful agents of global change. IPY will and to investigate how biodiversity and over- explore the broader ice–ocean connections all ecosystems will be affected by climate that modulate global ocean circulation and change. Discovery and census activities will which contribute to the global freshwater include surveys of ecosystems in and on cycle. These include processes driving sea ice. These will be strongly affected by a stratification, water mass modification, shrinking sea ice cover. Biodiversity surveys ice shelf–ocean interaction and ice shelf will cover pelagic microbial communities, stability. Understanding of the sensitivity phytoplankton, larger organisms such as of the freshwater cycle to climate change krill, benthic and sub-ice communities, fi sh and variability and the impact of changes and shellfi sh, sea birds and marine mam- in the high-latitude water cycle on the rest mals. In quantitative terms microorganisms, of the globe will be signifi cantly improved including algae, protozoa, bacteria, fungi during IPY. and viruses, form by far the most important

CTD = Conductivity, Temperature, Density HF = High Frequency IPS = Ice-Proﬁ ling Sonar ITP = Ice-Tethered Platform LF = Low Frequency

Figure 6. A full range of advanced sensor technology will be deployed during IPY in the Arctic region through satellite, aircraft, ship, submarine and sea ice platforms as well as ﬁ xed ocean moorings and autonomous ocean proﬁ ling packages.

[Source: DAMOCLES Consortium]

21 Figure 7. AUS = Australia Ship-based sampling DEU = Germany plans for the Census DNK = Denmark of Antarctic Marine FRA = France Life during IPY: dark GBR = United Kingdom of blue areas denote Great Britain and bottom sampling Northern Ireland activities while the ITA = Italy dashed lines are JPN = Japan transects using NZL = New Zealand the Continuous USA = United States of Plankton Recorder. America The red band near the Antarctic Peninsula will be sampled by tourist vessels. The darker of the two ocean colours indicates waters south of the Subantarctic Front. The fi eldwork is being undertaken by Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Chile, Denmark, Ecuador, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Peru, Poland, New Zealand, Uruguay, the United group of organisms in polar aquatic ecosys- ice cover; therefore, a concerted IPY effort Kingdom and tems, and the diversity and activity of these is planned to document its biodiversity and Venezuela. organisms will receive particular attention. study extreme environments for life, such These ecological studies will include the as the hydrothermal environments of the [Source: Census of Antarctic development and application of state-of-the- Gakkel Ridge. Marine Life Consortium] art molecular methods to detect, enumerate and monitor sentinel, or indicator microbial Polar infl uences on global biogeochemi- genes, determine molecular biodiversity and cal cycles will be addressed through a assess polar waters as source regions for combination of models and observations. marine speciation. Researchers will investigate population dynamics, trophic interactions and fl ows The Arctic marine ecosystem is diverse and of energy and matter in polar marine eco- highly productive and has many connections systems to understand polar infl uences on to other latitudes. Arctic marginal seas are global biogeochemical cycles. IPY research- vitally important breeding areas for mam- ers will conduct comprehensive studies of mals, birds and fi sh and provide substantial cooling and freezing processes in key ocean fisheries for Eurasia and North America. shelf regions to identify mixing processes in Changes in the Arctic exert profound effects downward cascading waters, obtain produc- elsewhere. Existing monitoring programmes tion rates of bottom water and investigate of Arctic marine ecosystems will be sup- relationships among deep-water formation, plemented by more detailed studies during carbon dioxide uptake rates and large-scale IPY. The deepest parts of the Arctic Basin climate forcing. The role of oceanic micro- remain poorly studied owing to year-round bial processes in regulating the effi ciency

22 In both polar regions marine mammals will be used as oceanographic monitoring platforms to complement and supplement conventional oceanographic monitoring systems. A Southern Elephant Seal has been ﬁ tted with instrumentation to measure global position, water depth, temperature and salinity. (See Figure 8.) MIKE FEDAK, SEA MAMMAL RESEARCH UNIT, ST. ANDREWS, SCOTLAND ST. MIKE FEDAK, SEA MAMMAL RESEARCH UNIT,

of the removal of carbon from the upper will be developed to quantify their response ocean and sequestering it on the ocean to variability and projected change. In both ﬂ oor, the “biological pump” — thus regulat- polar regions, researchers will also explore ing atmospheric carbon dioxide — will be sources, sinks and transports of contaminants investigated and assessed. Studies will be in marine ecosystems and linkages among carried out to understand how high-nutri- contaminant levels and changes in physical ent-low-chlorophyll polar areas may act as or biological systems. They will integrate carbon dioxide sinks during glacial periods ecological and economic models to develop when increased inputs of iron stimulate strategies for sustainable use of polar marine primary production. A coordinated investiga- resources. tion of ocean chemistry will help elucidate the crucial role that trace elements such as iron play in regulating and recording polar 5.4 PEOPLE OF THE POLAR REGIONS biogeochemical and physical processes. Humans are a key component of the polar Integrated analyses of climate–ocean–eco- regions and, for the ﬁ rst time, IPY 2007–2008 system interactions will be made across a will have a strong research programme range of spatial and temporal scales. Marine focused on assessing the cultural, historical mammals will be recruited as instrumented and social processes that shape the sus- partners to investigate oceanic “hot-spot” tainability of circumpolar human societies regions of high productivity and biogeo- and identifying their contributions to global chemical complexity. Hierarchical sets of diversity and citizenship. Thus, IPY 2007–2008 models of the operation of ocean ecosystems will become the key reference point for prior

23 Figure 8. 6 Typical examples of temperature 200 5 and salinity obtained along a 4 400 1 500-km track by 3 oceanographic instrumentation 600 2 ﬁ tted to a Southern 1 Elephant Seal 800 Depth (m) 0 Temperature ˚C [Source: Mike Fedak, 0 500 1000 Sea Mammal Research Unit, Distance travelled (km) St. Andrews, Scotland]

200 5

4 400 3

600 2

800 Depth (m) 0 ‰ Salinity 0 500 1000

Distance travelled (km)

and future interdisciplinary studies involving emerging infectious diseases; chronic dis- polar residents and societal institutions. eases; new health risks brought by rapid Interactions between social and natural actors climate change, particularly in the Arctic; that would occur with the expected changes challenges to community well-being stem- in the sea ice, water temperatures and land ming from current living conditions, existing vegetation are an important component community services and social behaviour of this theme, owing to the signifi cant role patterns. Many IPY projects addressing the of subsistence hunting and the economi- health status of polar residents require a cally important fi shing and reindeer herding network of new social observations, com- industries to Arctic residents’ well-being. parative case studies and extensive data IPY projects focused on economic develop- sets or databanks of health, community and ment and strategies for community sustain- occupational records. Researchers collecting ability will also determine adaptation and new physiological, public and occupational mitigation policies that will enhance the health and psycho-social data during IPY and value of IPY research to local agencies and beyond can utilize effi cient and innovative stakeholders. health and telemedicine technologies to provide a snapshot of human health in the IPY studies will also address many critical northern and southern polar regions. These issues concerning the health and well-being health issues are inextricably linked to many of polar residents, particularly the impacts local and global factors affecting climate, of industrial pollutants, contaminants and environment, economies and cultures across parasites in traditional foods; existing and polar regions.

24 The economically and culturally important Arctic activities of hunting, ﬁ shing and herding are being challenged and stressed by climate and geopolitical changes. IPY projects are addressing a wide range of traditional human activities in the context of a changing Arctic. © BRYAN AND CHERRY ALEXANDER © BRYAN

5.5 TERRESTRIAL PROCESSES AND SYSTEMS the overall habitability of the Arctic. They will use integrated geophysical, ecological Assessing the current status and biodiversity and economic models to determine thresh- of polar terrestrial ecosystems in order to olds of critical change. In many cases the understand acclimation and adaptation to Arctic terrestrial and marine ecosystem dehydration, low temperature and dark- studies will be linked to study of the social ness, and to discern variations induced by impacts for Arctic peoples. For example, temperature or precipitation changes or by human–caribou/reindeer systems across the enhanced UV-B radiation, is a prime goal of Arctic will be monitored and assessed, and the International Polar Year. IPY researchers new practices will be investigated to enhance will also study key polar species as bio- the sustainability and adaptive capacity of monitors of the distribution, fate and potential those systems. impact of man-made contaminants in polar environments. In polar terrestrial regions, the hydrological connections between ice, freshwater systems A new level of ecological monitoring of and continental discharge to the ocean are the anthropogenic pressures on the Arctic, profoundly relevant to broader environmental Subarctic and northern taiga ecosystems issues. During IPY, an enhanced network of is required because of their low stability in hydrological observatories in the Arctic will the face of change. Arctic researchers will provide an important benchmark for assess- focus on changes in hydrological systems, ing future change (see Figure 9). Scientists green biomass, wildlife populations and in will monitor the impacts of freshwater and

25 Figure 9. Diverse contaminants from increasing global Rapid climate change industrialization have been detected in Arctic is manifested in and Antarctic ecosystems. Concentrations steadily increasing of certain semi-volatile contaminants may discharge rates from become elevated owing to cold-condensation the major Arctic effects in those regions. IPY scientists will be rivers over recent studying the path and fate of contaminants in decades. This infl ux Arctic and Antarctic ecosystems, particularly of freshwater and through higher organisms such as polar bears organic carbon has and their major food species, ringed seals a marked impact on and seabirds. The infl uence of toxic com- the Arctic Ocean and pounds on higher organisms also impacts the its ecosystems. Total other changes on ecosystems and biodi- ecosystem as a whole through disruption of annual discharge versity, and will study the hydro-systems community dynamics. The effect of contami- from the six largest linked to glaciers, lakes, the surface and nants will also be a signifi cant component Arctic rivers are underground fl ows. of extensive Arctic human health monitoring shown with a linear programmes during IPY. Ice, tree rings and trend line fi tted. Although permafrost covers 24 per cent sediments provide a detailed archive of his- of the continental surface of the northern torical deposition of contaminants and will be [Source: Richter-Menge, J. et hemisphere, a comprehensive understand- studied during IPY to identify contamination al. (2006) State of the Arctic ing of the permafrost region is lacking. patterns and the diversity of contaminants. A Report. NOAA OAR Special IPY researchers will produce retrospec- number of projects will address issues such Report, NOAA/OAR/PMEL, tive and contemporary global data sets of as oil spill remediation and the application Seattle, WA, 36 pp.] permafrost distribution and temperatures of microorganisms. (see Figure 10), active layer thicknesses and temperatures, soil processes in polar regions and coastal erosion rates. They 5.6 GEOSCIENCES will develop new estimates of sub-surface carbon and of a variety of greenhouse gases The Earth’s surface and sub-surface contain in permafrost regions and explore micro- many clues to understanding the geological bial processes that may either stimulate or history of oceanic basins and gateways, and mediate carbon fl uxes to the atmosphere. thus of past ocean current systems. The Where glaciers retreat, IPY researchers will vertical motion of the Earth’s surface provides determine the consequences of deglaciation key insights into the history of continental on geochemical processes, development of glaciation. The Earth’s deep interior contains soil substrates and environmental potential important clues to deciphering global scale for colonization. processes and the geological history of the Figure 10. polar regions. The study of climatic evolu- Permafrost is tion on a geological timescale will provide a sensitive to climate, framework to compare and evaluate recent and data from and current climate changes. boreholes in fi ve separate sites along Connections between the northern and south- an Alaskan transect ern hemispheres during past periods of large indicate signifi cant or abrupt climate change will be investigated warming at depth. from the records in ocean sediments and ice cores. During IPY, detailed tectonic, geody- [Source: Richter-Menge, J. et namic, sedimentary and palaeogeographic al. (2006) State of the Arctic histories of strategic oceanic basins and Report. NOAA OAR Special gateways (see Figure 11) will be constructed Report, NOAA/OAR/PMEL, to assess, through the use of modelling Seattle, WA, 36 pp.] studies, how changes to large-scale oceanic

26 circulation have infl uenced climate change. geodetic Global Positioning System (GPS) The opening of marine passages between instruments and absolute gravity measure- Antarctica, South America and Australia has ments. Determining the status of vertical been of major global signifi cance owing to crustal dynamics in the polar regions is a the connection of the southern hemisphere powerful tool to understanding the history oceans and the establishment of the Antarctic of glaciation. During IPY, the network of Circumpolar Current. Similarly, the alternat- GPS instruments that can observe these ing role of the Bering Strait region, owing to important, but very small, vertical motions, tectonic changes, as either a marine gateway will be expanded. Coordinated geological, or a terrestrial migration corridor, is also a geophysical and GPS observations during focus of IPY research. IPY will contribute to a more accurate overview of current plate motion and crustal Vertical motions of the Earth’s crust can result geodynamics. from tectonic forces or ice sheet loading. Today the polar regions are characterized Recent imaging techniques such as seismic by vertical motions produced by changing tomography now allow important details ice volumes at timescales ranging from the of the Earth’s interior to be resolved for the disappearance of the Fennoscandian Ice fi rst time, providing a window to under- Sheet in northern Europe to any current standing the complicated history of the change in mass of the West Antarctic and polar regions as shown in Figure 12. The Greenland ice sheets. Previously these verti- height of parts of the East Antarctic bedrock cal movements could only be extrapolated has been a key factor in localizing glacia- from distinct geomorphological features tions there. The cause of this anomalous such as raised beaches. Today the verti- elevation is as yet unknown, but it could cal motion can be directly observed with be due to mantle buoyancy, composition

Figure 11. Target areas in the Arctic region for surveying and coring: the modern polar environments are the result of tectonic processes opening and closing ocean gateways around the globe that change patterns of ocean circulation and global heat transfer. A number of sites have been selected for geophysical surveying and marine coring to investigate the timing and patterns of polar gateway opening.

[Source: Plates and Gates Consortium Steering Committee]

27 Figure 12. Seismic velocity of the polar regions at IPY projects will 150-km depth investigate heat ﬂ ow from the Earth’s interior and its affect on overlying ice sheets. Seismic velocity measurements illustrate substantial temperature differences between East and West Antarctica.

[Source: Redrawn from Ritzwoller, M.H. et al. (2002) Journal of Geophysical Research 106 (B12), 30645- 30670, (2001) and Shapiro, N.M. and M.H. Ritzwoller, -7.0 -4.2 -3.6 -2.8 -2.1 -1.4 -0.7 0.0 0.9 1.8 2.7 3.6 4.5 5.4 6.3 Geophysical Journal Seismic velocity percentage perturbation International, 151, 88-105.]

or thermal/dynamic processes. Detailed between East and West Antarctica at a depth seismic imaging of the mantle should of 100 km, markedly infl uencing the results resolve this question. At present, owing of ice sheet models. During IPY 2007–2008, to the ice sheet coverage, Antarctica has researchers will install new seismic station the highest average elevation of any conti- networks on a broad regional scale encom- nent. Exploring the earth’s interior will also passing the entire Antarctic continent, and help constrain coupled climate-ice-sheet on a limited regional scale, focusing on key models that require knowledge of basal tectonic targets such as the Gamburtsev heat fl ow and mantle viscosity. Heat fl ow Subglacial Mountains. New information on from the interior of the earth to the base of sub-ice geology to be obtained during IPY the ice sheet affects the ice fl ow, through will improve knowledge of the subglacial the strong temperature dependence of ice environments and associated processes, viscosity, and the terrestrial response to ice contribute to new discoveries related to loading, through mantle viscosity. Seismic subglacial streams and lakes and aid the velocity measurements suggest that there location of future ice-coring sites where ice is a temperature difference of about 600°C older than one million years could exist.

28 6 THEME 2: CHANGE Quantifying and understanding past and present natural environmental and social change in polar regions; improving projections of future change

Rapid environmental change occurring in improved data assimilation and modelling, the polar regions today has increasingly this increase and its impacts will be further signiﬁ cant global ramiﬁ cations. This change described. is occurring over a wide range of timescales. Instrumental records enable assessment of Changes in the dynamical structure of timescale variations from inter-annual to the polar atmospheres will be manifested decadal periodicities, while proxy records through changes in traditional weather pat- from sediment and ice cores provide informa- terns and hazards. THORPEX-IPY is the polar tion on the longer timescales. IPY scientists component of a major WMO experiment that will combine these by collecting new data aims to better understand the impacts of this from direct measurements and proxies to warming on severe and extreme weather extend the available timeseries, evaluating events, such as snow storms and blizzards, available timeseries data and further devel- polar lows and fog. In the upper atmosphere, oping models to understand the changes increasing greenhouse gases bring about and how they are being transferred into the a cooling of the stratosphere; this cooling proxy records. in turn changes the strength and character of the polar vortices and that of the meridi- Projection of future changes will be derived onal circulation cell by which ozone-rich from a variety of models. These will be cali- low-latitude air is transported to the polar brated and initialized with comprehensive regions (the Brewer-Dobson circulation). An data sets obtained from synoptic surveys integrated research programme will explore of the present state. Providing the means to these processes. monitor future changes is one of IPY’s major goals. For this purpose IPY observations will Coupled atmosphere–ocean patterns be designed to establish optimal observing of variability such as the Northern and systems in the Arctic and Southern Oceans Southern Hemisphere annular modes are to keep track of the ongoing changes, and important processes of longer-term vari- to provide data streams for assimilation ability. The Northern Hemisphere annular into models. In this way, a more reliable mode is also called the Arctic Oscillation prediction of future states of the coupled or the North Atlantic Oscillation, and the atmosphere–ocean–cryosphere systems in Southern Hemisphere annular mode has the polar regions will be achieved. been referred to as the Antarctic Oscillation. Natural variability has to be determined before anthropogenic changes can be diag- 6.1 THE POLAR ATMOSPHERE nosed. Coupled models are indispensable tools for this purpose. Longer-term changes The physical state and chemical composition may occur in an abrupt and irreversible man- of the polar atmospheres will undergo major ner, and it is important to try and quantify changes in the coming decades. Moreover, the probability of these happening. Another these changes will appear throughout the important link between atmosphere and whole atmospheric column, from the surface ocean change is the freshwater cycle fed up to the mesosphere. The major driver of through local precipitation, river runoff, dif- change is the increase in carbon dioxide and ferential freeze and melt of sea ice and melt other greenhouse gases. Through enhanced of continental ice. IPY projects investigate the monitoring and observational capacity, and feedbacks between these, and their impacts

29 Figure 13. Exsisting SBUV/2 measurements of ozone over Antarctica derived from the Solar Backscatter km²]

Ultraviolet 6 Radiometer 2 (SBUV/2) illustrate the seasonal appearance of an ozone hole which has Ozone hole area [10 resulted in markedly enhanced ultraviolet radiation exposure for many life forms in the polar regions.

[Source: NOAA] Day number

on the local and overall ocean circulation 6.2 ICE SHEETS AND GLACIERS patterns. Changes in ice on land have the potential to Another set of polar changes relates to the impact populations globally through changing chemical state of the atmosphere. The ozone sea level and changing climatic conditions. IPY hole recovery process (see Figure 13), a result seeks to understand variability and change of of the Montreal Protocol, which came into snow and ice on many time and space scales, force in 1987, will be impacted by the cooling particularly in large ice reservoirs whose of the lower stratosphere, and changes in the changes in mass greatly influence ocean Brewer-Dobson circulation. Many complex circulation and sea level. Full assessment of interactions between the chemistry and the change in global ice mass will require accurate dynamics of this recovery process will be and comprehensive measurements of accu- observed, monitored and modelled during mulation, surface and basal melting of land IPY. In the lower atmosphere, the different and shelf ice, glacier and ice shelf motions, pathways through which man-produced air fracturing, melt percolation, related changes pollutants are transported into the Arctic, in surface albedo and seasonal changes in and their disposition and fate, will be closely ice ﬂ ow. studied through a number of IPY projects. Any eventual melting of Arctic Ocean sea Melting glaciers in polar and mountain ice will have a significant impact on the regions will raise the sea level and the exchanges between the lower atmosphere supply of sediment and freshwater to and the surface, and on complex chemical embayments and fjords. IPY projects will processes. Changes are particularly impor- monitor changes to mountain glaciers and tant given the risks of contamination of the small ice caps using ground and space food web, and eventually of living animal and observations. The variations in space and human populations. Changes in precipitation time of the mass of ice and snow over and thermal regimes will impact the chemical polar and mountain regions will be linked exchanges between the cryosphere and the to water supply, global climate change, lower atmosphere, which control in part the the global hydrological cycle and sea level ozone and mercury chemistry. change.

30 Changes in ice sheets will be monitored and Figure 14. assessed, with specific emphasis on the Temperatures on the margin of Greenland, on West Antarctica and Antarctic Peninsula the Antarctic Peninsula where ice is melting have risen rapidly quickest. Recent changes in surface eleva- over the past 50 tion and discharge speed in outlet glacier years, and some ice systems along the margins of the Greenland shelves in this region Ice Sheet show dramatic local shifts in the have thinned and balance of ice discharge, surface melt and collapsed. accumulation. These rapid changes are in The breakup of the sharp contrast to relatively slow variations Larsen B ice shelf, in surface elevation in the interior, which about 35 days, was have been tied to variations in accumulation captured by the and ﬁ rn compaction on decadal timescales. MODIS satellite. IPY research will address these changes by The red solid line using a range of observational and model- shows the position ling techniques and by exploiting evolving of the ice shelf front capabilities in atmospheric modelling, remote edge in November sensing for measurement of ice motion and 2001 and the image surface conditions and surface-based and shows the collapsed aircraft-based measurement techniques. ice sheet (~3250 sq km) in March 2002. Melting of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, espe- responsible for the collapse of the Larsen cially where it discharges into the Amundsen A ice shelf in 1995 and Larsen B in 2002, as [Source: National Snow and Sea, is already contributing to sea level rise, illustrated in Figure 14. Further south, Larsen Ice Data Centre and Ted and holds the potential to dwarf most other C has thinned, and continued warming could Scambos, Boulder, Colorado, sea level contributions in the long term. IPY lead to its break-up within the next decade. USA] activities in this region will include studies IPY will investigate the complex and rapid of ice dynamics from surface measurements changes in this sensitive region. of motion, conditions at the base of the ice from seismic studies at critical sites, sub-ice The processes by which the polar ice masses shelf oceanic interactions using moorings nucleated are not well known, but are impor- both through the ice shelf and in the sur- tant for understanding the present-day stabil- rounding seas, atmospheric transport of ity of the ice sheets and interpreting the ice incoming snow using automatic weather core paleoclimate records. Field observations stations and historical records of ice extent and numerical modelling will be used in from geological sampling, marine studies IPY projects to address the evolution and and deep ice coring. This new knowledge will stability of both the Greenland Ice Sheet and contribute to the construction, initialization the modern East Antarctic Ice Sheet, which and validation of improved full-stress tensor is thought to have nucleated in the region of models of ice ﬂ ow. the Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountains.

Changes on the Antarctic Peninsula include a mix of enhanced precipitation at high eleva- 6.3 THE POLAR OCEANS tion; enhanced melting at low elevation; enhanced surface and basal melting of land The oceans are experiencing dramatic and shelf ice; glacier and ice shelf fractur- changes in both polar regions. The Arctic ing; melt percolation down through the ice Ocean environment has undergone tremen- sheet; seasonal changes in ice ﬂ ow; and dous changes over the past decades, with rapid acceleration of glaciers that had been shrinking sea ice cover, increased freshwater buttressed by ice shelves which subsequently run-off and accelerated coastal erosion. In collapsed. Recent regional warming was the Southern Ocean changes in the salinity

31 and temperature of intermediate waters and cost-effective, sustained observing systems properties of deep water advected into the for the ocean–ice–atmosphere system in Southern Ocean have taken place. Changes both polar regions, enabling inter-annual have also been observed in the characteris- and seasonal variability to be documented tics of bottom water masses, but these are for the fi rst time in many locations. in opposite directions in different regions. The contradictory behaviour of the Arctic International collaborative efforts to inventory and Antarctic sea ice cover with a strong marine biodiversity in the sea ice, water col- decrease in the Arctic and an almost constant umn and sea fl oor, from the shallow shelves ice cover, except for the area of the Antarctic to the deep basins of both polar oceans, will Peninsula, is still not understood. The col- contribute to understanding and evaluation lection of new comprehensive ocean data of the impact of physical change on the ocean sets during IPY will allow comparison with ecosystem. High-latitude ecosystems are historic observations and provide baselines characterized by signifi cant inter-annual vari- for the assessment of future change. Global ability, and polar organisms have developed environmental change is modulated by both coping strategies. The Arctic region has been inter-annual and local variability, and it is subject to marked changes in environmental important to have adequate data to distin- drivers in recent decades, largely as a result of guish this variability from secular change. climate warming. The ocean is warming in the Comprehensive IPY analyses of how the polar marginal areas and experiencing substantial oceans work will facilitate the design of viable, freshwater infl uxes from rivers and meltwater

The Arctic marine food chain has proved highly susceptible to organic and inorganic atmospheric pollution drawn into the Arctic region. Polar bears and their main seal prey are top predators in this food chain, suffering reproductive and physiological damage from toxic accumulation in body tissues. © BRYAN AND CHERRY ALEXANDER © BRYAN

32 as well as anthropogenic infl uences from and feeding practices. These lead to differ- pollutants transported by the atmosphere, ences in growth, development, health and and through growing exploitation of marine well-being. Security is also affected because resources. Retreat of the Arctic sea ice is of the new disease vectors and the invasion impacting the life cycle of marine organisms of organisms that are not common in the on, in and under the ice. It is also infl uencing region. For the human economy in general, exploitation of these resources, and thus it is expected that ecosystem changes will the lifestyles of the indigenous Northern affect both marine and terrestrial food chains, peoples. particularly in the Arctic, with possibly deleterious consequences on the availability The Southern Ocean ecosystems are complex of living resources and small-scale local and diverse, sustaining large populations of economies. Such changes can be predicted higher predators such as birds, whales and with numerical models developed during IPY seals. These ecosystems are highly responsive and data obtained from IPY surveys across to changes in the Southern Ocean food chain. the polar regions. The relative isolation of this ocean around 30 million years ago with the development IPY 2007–2008 will be the first major of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, which interdisciplinary venture in the history of acts as a barrier to exchange between north- polar studies that will specifi cally feature ern and southern ecosystems, has resulted social and human aspects of change on its in the preservation of a pre-Quaternary research agenda. Many IPY projects will marine environment whose ecosystems address the impacts of those new cultural have evolved differently from those in the and societal agents in the polar regions that other major oceans. The permanent cold are triggered by larger global processes. of this environment has resulted in unique Such processes include advances in the physiological adaptations and life strategies global economy, transportation systems as well as a striking diversity of organisms, and the rising demand for polar mineral and even greater than the diversity of rain forests. energy resources; cultural and language This diverse environment is as yet largely globalization; new forms of governance; unstudied. Ocean warming will have deleteri- and progress in global communications ous effects on Southern Ocean organisms that give new and greater accessibility to adapted to uniquely cold conditions, and the polar regions, through physical and may encourage the infl ux of alien species electronic networks. These communication from the north. Ocean acidifi cation is an networks also provide polar inhabitants additional threat that could potentially have with much more open access to the rest an even greater impact on biota. IPY projects of the world. Unlike some International include studies on the diversity of life in the Geophysical Year activities, no research Southern Ocean, the physiological adapta- efforts in IPY 2007–2008 are propelled by tions of marine organisms, their response military interests in the polar regions. to environmental change and the impact on fi sheries in these waters. Social and human actors will also be a critical part of many concerted interdisciplinary efforts during IPY 2007–2008. For the fi rst 6.4 POLAR PEOPLES time, social and human scientists will be tasked with addressing the interactions Environmental changes and subsequent and linkages among the environment, gov- alterations to the polar ecosystems have a ernance and socio-economic development major effect on local human communities across polar regions. All three areas are in the Arctic and the economy of human currently undergoing rapid change. This populations, both directly and indirectly. has helped transform our former vision Direct effects can be seen in the availability of of the polar zones as relatively stable and food and shifts in traditionally used resources low-key regions at the periphery of global

33 The rapid economic development of the Arctic region brings industrialization into conﬂ ict with ecosystems and traditional ways of life. © BRYAN AND CHERRY ALEXANDER © BRYAN

processes. The new vision will be tested Changes in the amount and timing of snow by various projects focused on coupled accumulation and subsequent melt from human–environmental systems and adaptive mountain snow packs and glaciers will have mechanisms, vulnerabilities, or resilience signifi cant impacts on water resources, and of polar societies to change. It will also in turn, on the peoples and the economy help bring new understanding of the role of in the alpine regions and major polar river polar regions and their residents in chang- basins. Changes in continental and alpine ing global systems — in the environment, snow cover will directly impact the timing economy, politics, values, education and of spring runoff and the characteristics of culture. the annual runoff hydrograph affecting the nature and occurrence of floods and droughts, reservoir regulation, hydropower 6.5 TERRESTRIAL PROCESSES AND SYSTEMS production, irrigation needs for agriculture, community water supply, wetland recharge The physical environment of polar regions, and moisture supply for spring planting. Most particularly the Arctic, is changing markedly. melt water from glaciers is released during Temperature is increasing, permafrost is the hot summer months, when the discharge melting and spring snow cover has decreased from snowmelt has decreased and when the in many regions. These changes in turn affect water is mostly needed for agriculture and other elements of the physical environment. domestic/industrial water supply. Reduced For example, changes in precipitation and winter snowfall and increased winter rains snow cover impact river discharge. In addi- will change the amount and distribution of tion, permafrost retreat is resulting in signifi - water available to the economies of these cant changes in Arctic terrestrial ecosystems, regions. In addition to the socio-economic including summer fl ooding, instability of impact, there will be direct effects on the the tundra and the northerly advance of the functioning of the ecosystems in these tree line. regions and on permafrost degradation that

34 in turn will affect the biogeochemical cycle Figure 15. of these regions, as well as the developing Warming of the Arctic economies. region is predicted to impact particularly on Such changes in the physical environment tundra environments have consequent impacts on the ecosys- which will largely tem. Land-use changes and climate-related give way to boreal changes will favour some species, while oth- forest by the end ers will be disadvantaged. Warming increases Current Arctic vegetation of this century, the presence of invading sub-polar species fundamentally that compete with indigenous polar plants changing the nature and animals (see Figure 15). In the extreme of large swathes case, temperature and other physical changes of Arctic terrestrial may be so rapid that ecosystems might not ecosystems. have the capacity to adapt, and organisms will disappear or move away from these regions. We may also see new plant and [Source: modiﬁ ed from Arctic animal communities develop in the polar Climate Impact Assessment regions. 2004]

Arctic terrestrial ecosystems are trophi- cally complex, but species-poor relative to those at lower latitudes. Substantial population fluctuations in herbivore and predator populations, such as lemmings, caribou/reindeer and snowy owl are features of Arctic terrestrial ecosystems. The Arctic Projected Arctic vegetation is an important area for migratory breeding 2090-2100 birds, and environmental changes exert profound effects on the annual cycle and Temperate forest Polar desert/semi-desert the spatial distribution of these species. A rich wildlife is crucial for Arctic residents Boreal forest Tundra and for attracting tourists. Grassland Ice IPY projects will study community stability in polar ecosystems and their sensitivity to environmental change. Existing monitoring projects of both the physical and biological Antarctica, the short food chains and rela- terrestrial environments will be supplemented tively simple environments with a strong and expanded. Processes that shape polar seasonality provide ideal natural systems ecosystems will be investigated, and IPY sci- for those IPY projects planning experimental entists will seek to predict the likely impacts manipulation to study the evolutionary adap- of projected 21st century climate warming tation of organisms to the polar environment. on such diverse elements as Arctic lake ice Another source of Antarctic change that cover, polar snow cover characteristics, plant will be evaluated during IPY is the introduc- communities and bird and mammal population of propagules (seeds, spores, eggs) of tions and breeding success. alien species carried by human visitors. In the Arctic, IPY projects will accept the chal- During IPY, scientists will describe the adap- lenging task of developing new strategies tive capacity of polar terrestrial and marine for managing the resources of plants, ﬁ sh organisms, from the molecular level, up to and wildlife in a sustainable way — despite the functional level of whole organisms. In changes and threats. Many IPY projects will

35 Vast numbers of birds, such as the geese pictured here, migrate between the polar regions and the lower latitudes. In the Arctic, climate change, coupled with vegetation changes, will allow southern bird species to move further north, changing the Arctic ecosystem structure. © BRITISH ANTARCTIC SURVEY © BRITISH ANTARCTIC

make substantial contributions to facilitate Proxy records from marine sediments and ice the sustainable and adaptive management cores will be used to determine the natural of the vulnerable Arctic ecosystems. modes of climate variability on timescales from years to millennia and to improve our understanding of the mechanisms of abrupt 6.6 PALAEOENVIRONMENTS climate change in the past, including the role of northern versus southern hemisphere. Our planet has undergone major shifts in Drilling programmes in ice sheets and the climatic conditions in the past, changes that polar oceans will target these climate change provide an important framework for under- mechanisms, contributing to a more effec- standing current environmental changes. tive representation of natural processes in IPY projects will use proxy records from ice climate models. cores, sediment cores and other sources to determine how the Earth’s past climate and Ice cores provide unique records of change environment have changed over a number of in atmospheric composition from the trapped different timescales. Ice cores from regions air in bubbles in the ice, enabling precise and with high snow accumulation rates, along quantitative links to be established between with studies of tree rings from polar regions temperature and atmospheric gases. During and varved polar lake sediments can provide IPY, new records of glacial to interglacial annually resolved records. These can be change during the Quaternary and since used to extend the quantitative instrumental the Last Glacial Maximum will be recovered record of ecosystem feedbacks and climate through both sediment cores and ice cores. change back through time for many centuries. During IPY major new cores will be drilled Many potentially valuable records are being in Greenland and Antarctica. Reconstructing destroyed through melting of the ice, hence the history of climate change for the past a pressing need to extract the information 30 000 years will improve understanding of now, during IPY 2007–2008. the movements of animals, plants and early

36 Glacial ice contains air trapped as minute bubbles. Analysis of the gas composition provides a sensitive historical record of past greenhouse gas composition, while isotopic analysis of the ice provides a temperature record. © BRITISH ANTARCTIC SURVEY © BRITISH ANTARCTIC

humans into the polar regions. In conjunction temperature and associated increases in ice with glaciological models, palaeohistories volume occurred around 34 and 15 million will improve understanding of the advance years ago, prior to the establishment of the and retreat of glaciers and ice sheets. An cold conditions of the Quaternary Ice Age improved quantitative appreciation of how around two million years ago. Continental- the Earth system has changed in the past will scale glaciation of Antarctica seems to have improve confi dence in our ability to predict begun at the fi rst of these steps, 34 million future change. years ago. IPY projects will investigate the history of glaciation and the consequent The last interglacial period was warmer than change in sea level at the global cooling step the Holocene, providing an analogy for an 34 million years ago, and at key times since anthropogenically warmed world. A deep then, using unique sedimentary records from ice core from Greenland reaching back into the margins of polar landmasses. These the penultimate glacial period will provide a records and numerical ice sheet models will North Atlantic record enabling comparison provide insights into the glaciation processes with the 800 000 year-old record of changing in both polar regions, the variability modes climate from Dome C, Antarctica. This new in the Earth system and the history of sea North Atlantic record will also provide a level change. greatly improved record of recent Holocene climate history. The separation of continental fragments as a result of tectonic plate motion and the Studies of longer timescale records to deter- progressive opening of seaways like Fram mine the critical factors that triggered the Strait between Svalbard and Greenland, Drake cooling of the polar regions are also part Passage between Tierra del Fuego and the of IPY. Planetary cooling began following Antarctic Peninsula, and the Southern Ocean the late Cretaceous 65 million years ago between Tasmania and Antarctica, may have (see Figure 16). Two signifi cant decreases in played a role in cooling and glaciation in both

37 Figure 16. This diagram shows variations in global temperature over the past 80 million years and projected future changes based on Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2001 scenarios. The historical record has been derived from oxygen isotope proxies in calcareous marine microfossils.

[Source: Barrett, P., Cooling a continent, Nature, 421, 221-223 (2003)]

polar regions. The opening and closing of fauna between North America and Asia, and the Bering Strait in response to changing sea in the ocean, between the Pacifi c and Arctic levels affected the circulation of the Arctic Oceans. Drilling, coring and geophysical and North Pacifi c Oceans and their associated studies in these key gateways during IPY will climates, as well as the exchange of fl ora and help document these changes.

38 7 THEME 3: GLOBAL LINKAGES Advancing our understanding on all scales of the links and interactions between polar regions and the rest of the globe and of processes controlling these

The global infl uence of polar regions, espe- global satellite communication connectivity cially in the climate system, is profound on polar residents and the impacts of world and far reaching. They contain some of the price variations on resource exploitation. world’s major resources such as fi sheries and minerals, hold massive stores of ice capable of causing signifi cant global sea level rise 7.1 GLOBAL CLIMATE PROCESSES under global warming, represent large carbon sinks that may ameliorate anthropogenic The state of the polar atmospheres and the carbon dioxide production and are home changes they undergo owing to natural or to peoples that contribute to global cultural anthropogenic causes have global reper- Figure 17. diversity. Just as the polar regions infl uence cussions. The atmosphere has no barriers The Arctic Oscillation, global processes, global processes also have and the atmospheric circulation patterns or Northern an impact on the poles. Examples of polar interconnect all regions of the globe within a Hemisphere impacts from global processes include the timescale of a few weeks. Moreover, through annular mode, formation of the ozone hole, the accumulation its interactions with the oceans and the refers to opposing of pollutants in the Arctic, the infl uence of cryosphere, any signifi cant perturbation atmospheric pressure patterns in northern middle Winter Arctic Oscillation index Summer Arctic Oscillation index and high latitudes. In positive phase the Oscillation results in low pressure over the polar region and high pressure at mid-latitudes, whilst the reverse occurs in negative phase. In recent times Winter Arctic Oscillation pattern Summer Arctic Oscillation pattern the positive phase has occurred more frequently bringing wetter weather to Alaska and Scandinavia and drier conditions in the USA and Mediterranean.

[Source: AMAP (2003) AMAP Assessment 2002: The Inﬂ uence of Global Change on Contaminant Pathways to, within, and from the Arctic. Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP), Oslo, Norway, xi+65 pp.] 39 to present circulation patterns will be felt circulation patterns many pollutants eventu- globally. This is true for atmospheric chemical ally penetrate the polar environments where composition and its physical state. they impact on the local chemistry of the atmosphere and, through deposition proc- IPY projects will address many aspects of esses at the surface, the local ecosystems these linkages. The intense IPY monitoring (see Figure 18). These processes will be of the upper atmospheric circulation and studied closely through many IPY projects. chemical composition will allow us to better As the polar weather and climate regime understand the impact that stratospheric changes, the inﬂ ux and ultimate fate of these cooling and circulation changes caused by pollutants will evolve, and may affect much increasing green house gases are having on larger areas of the temperate latitudes. It the ozone layer and its progress to recovery. is therefore important to understand the IPY atmospheric monitoring will also give processes that will govern this evolution. us new insights into the causes of global Through radiative effects, it impacts directly teleconnections and observed patterns of on the thermal structure of the troposphere variability, such as the Northern Hemisphere and the circulation; through deposition at annular mode (see Figure 17) which have a the surface and contamination of the food major impact on temperate latitude weather chain, it affects the local inhabitants of the patterns. polar regions.

Owing to their very cold temperatures, the The warming of the lower atmosphere will lack of solar radiation during the polar night of course impact directly on many climate- and the lack of local sources of industrial related processes at the surface. In the Arctic, pollution, the polar atmospheres also act as as the ice cover shrinks and larger open ocean sentinels. Through meridional atmospheric areas appear, the ﬂ uxes of heat and moisture

Paciﬁ c currents Atlantic currents other currents

river outﬂ ow

Figure 18. wind ﬂ ow Main atmospheric pathways from the industrialized C. = current regions of eastern Sev. = Severnaya USA, Europe and South-East Asia to the Arctic.

40 will bring major changes to the local weather gases such as methane contained within and climate. In turn, through the interactions the melting layers. Any signiﬁ cant local with mid-latitude circulation patterns, there increases in such surface emissions will could be significant modifications of the rapidly disperse and mix globally, accelerat- atmospheric wave regimes. There is also an ing global warming. indirect effect linked with atmosphere ocean interactions: changing polar wind regimes Many IPY projects will focus on better will modify the heat exchange between the understanding these complex interactions polar oceans and the atmosphere, and thus and processes. Results from this research have an impact on the so-called ocean con- will contribute to more accurate ocean–ice– veyor belt circulation. atmosphere circulation models, and eventually result in improved weather forecasting Polar precipitation regimes determine the and climate change projections. nourishment of Antarctic and Arctic glaciers, hence inﬂ uencing their dynamics and ultimately, through changes in glacier extent, 7.2 THERMOHALINE CIRCULATION IN THE producing global impacts through sea level GLOBAL OCEAN rise. Another indirect link is through the water discharge from circumpolar river The large-scale oceanic thermohaline circula- Figure 19. systems, changing the salinity and density tion plays a major role in the global climate This 3-D global of the Arctic Ocean, and thus its circulation system by transferring heat and freshwater overturning diagram patterns. Heating will accelerate the melting around the globe, as shown in Figure 19. illustrates some of of vast permafrost areas, which will not Abrupt changes in past climate have been the key roles of the only have local impacts on transport and attributed to changes in the thermohaline Southern Ocean in structures, but will also release greenhouse circulation, which is related to the production the climate system. The Southern Ocean buffers the rest of the world from the frigid conditions of the Antarctic continent, while meridional overturning across the Antarctic Circumpolar Current is the mechanism for the exchange of heat, carbon dioxide and other climate anomalies from the surface to the deep World Ocean. Water temperature is illustrated as warm (red) surface water and cold (blue) bottom water.

[Source: Lumpkin, R., and K. Speer (2007) Global meridional overturning. Journal of Physical Oceanography (in press)]

41 of cold dense water masses, particularly in help climate scientists better understand the high-latitude North Atlantic Ocean. In the the climate connections between low and North Atlantic, upper ocean water cools and high latitudes. The climate system exhibits becomes denser as it ﬂ ows northward until it a substantial degree of natural variability is subjected to deep convection, subduction in polar regions, for example, the Southern and mixing in the Labrador Sea and Nordic Hemisphere annular mode, which may be Seas and becomes dense enough to sink to related to non-polar modes of variability the abyssal depths of the ocean. From there such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation. it spreads back south across the equator. The The IPY data will help assess the sensitivity southern limb of the thermohaline circula- of these natural variability modes to forcing tion is driven by the production of Antarctic by global warming. Bottom Water, initiated by brine release into the upper ocean column in regions of intense sea ice production – typically coastal poly- 7.3 MARINE BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLING nyas. In the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, deep water from the adjacent ocean basins The Southern Ocean is both a primary source ascends and feeds into the surface and inter- of and a major sink for atmospheric carbon mediate waters to close the global meridional dioxide. Deep water upwelling along the overturning circulation. The intermediate Antarctic margin brings carbon dioxide to the waters spread back towards the equator surface and releases it into the atmosphere. supplying the source waters for subtropical Further north, at the frontal systems within and equatorial upwelling areas. the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, Antarctic surface waters sink and move towards the Both the warming of the ocean surface and equator, carrying carbon dioxide absorbed the enhanced run-off from land caused by from the atmosphere. This dissolution of ice melt are likely to reduce the density of carbon dioxide is making the Southern Ocean ocean water in the Norwegian-Greenland gradually more acid, posing a potential threat Sea, thereby reducing the sinking of dense to those organisms that manufacture calcium ocean surface water that drives this global carbonate skeletons, especially when they overturning circulation. Similarly, freshening are in the form of the mineral aragonite. of Antarctic coastal waters by ice melt may Studies of the rates and amounts of dissolu- reduce the production of Antarctic Bottom tion are key to comprehending not only the Water. Within IPY, researchers will investigate role of the oceans in global warming, but bipolar characteristics of the thermohaline also the rate and extent of acidiﬁ cation of circulation. Observational and modelling the ocean. studies will identify key regions of bottom water formation, estimate production rates The dissolution of carbon dioxide is but one of dense water and quantify the cascading aspect of the biogeochemical cycling of the of dense water towards the deep ocean. elements by the ocean. The trace elements Relationships between variability in inter- and isotopes dissolved in the ocean also play mediate, deep and bottom-water formation, a crucial role as regulators and recorders carbon dioxide uptake rates and large-scale of important biogeochemical and physical natural or anthropogenic climate forcing will processes that control the structure and also be investigated. productivity of marine ecosystems and the dispersion of contaminants in the marine Changes in the thermohaline circulation environment. Within IPY, multidisciplinary will ripple through the ocean, with knock- studies will be conducted in the Arctic and on effects on ocean chemistry and biota. Southern Oceans of the processes affecting Since the thermohaline conveyor belt marine biogeochemical cycling, particularly transports both heat and freshwater, such those controlling the distribution of key trace changes are expected to have widespread elements and isotopes, and their sensitivity effects on global climate. IPY studies will to changing environmental conditions. These

42 Aurora are the most obvious visual indication in the polar regions of the interaction of the Earth’s magnetosphere and upper atmosphere. The polar regions offer unique platforms for studies of the atmosphere; the image illustrates the Super-DARN (Dual Auroral Radar Network) radar in Antarctica used for global ionospheric studies in conjunction with similar radar facilities in the Arctic. © BRITISH ANTARCTIC SURVEY © BRITISH ANTARCTIC

studies will determine the distributions of societies. Palaeoclimate archives will be selected trace elements and isotopes; evalu- used to determine the interplay of northern ate the oceanic sources, sinks and internal and southern polar processes in driving cycling of these; and provide a baseline and amplifying global climate. Improved distribution as a reference for assessing Earth system models, with full inclusion of past and future changes. Knowledge of the those components of the system that are processes controlling the distribution of trace important in polar regions, such as snow elements and isotopes in marine organisms, cover, permafrost and glaciers, and with especially in the skeletons of planktonic societal feedback, will be developed. organisms, will help unravel the history of environmental change, through studies of the fossil remains of these and related organisms 7.5 SOLAR–TERRESTRIAL LINKAGES in ocean sediments. Solar fl ares and mass ejections affect the composition and dynamics of the Earth’s 7.4 TERRESTRIAL ENERGY, HYDROLOGICAL upper atmosphere through their gamma- AND BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES ray, X-ray and ultraviolet emissions and through their infl uence on the solar wind, the Realistic estimates of future climate and sea stream of electrifi ed particles from the sun. level change and of the impacts of high-lati- To explore the processes involved and their tude environmental changes on ecosystems impacts, IPY scientists will bring together and human populations are required to enable two complementary research programmes, society to adapt. Several IPY projects will the International Heliophysical Year and investigate coupled systems to establish Interhemispheric Conjugacy Effects in how changes in polar regions will affect Solar–Terrestrial and Aeronomy Research regional and global biogeochemical, surface (ICESTAR). The International Heliophysical energy and water cycles, as well as human Year is an international programme

43 coordinating the use of current and forthcom- neutral constituents, their ionization density, ing spacecraft missions with ground-based magnetic signature and radio absorption observatory instruments to study the sun’s characteristics will be made. The resulting infl uence on the heliosphere. ICESTAR is observations and value-added data products an international initiative of the Scientifi c will be used together with state-of-the-art Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) to models and simulations to improve our coordinate research on magnetospheric and quantitative understanding of the near-Earth ionospheric responses to solar inputs, with space environment. emphases on the study of inter-hemispheric relationships. The link between solar activity, electrical currents in the outer atmosphere and weather The coupling processes between different remains poorly known. Does the global elec- atmospheric layers; their connection with trical circuit merely respond passively to both solar activity, energy and mass exchange meteorological and solar variations, or is between the ionosphere and the magneto- there an active input to weather and climate sphere; and inter-hemispheric similarities via electrically induced changes in cloud and asymmetries in geospace phenomena microphysics? Present research indicates have far-reaching scientifi c impacts. They that the best place to measure the global are of importance to society at large because electrical circuit is the high, dry, relatively space–weather phenomena adversely affect meteorologically stable Antarctic plateau. spacecraft operations and communications, The Greenland plateau provides an ideal humans in space and satellite-based position- northern hemisphere site. IPY programmes ing systems. During IPY, bipolar observa- will address the link between electrical cur- tions of the movement and energetics of the rents in the outer atmosphere, weather and near-Earth space environment’s charged and solar activity.

44 8 THEME 4: NEW FRONTIERS Investigating the frontiers of science in polar regions

There are many important scientifi c chal- environment in a way never done before. lenges yet to be investigated in the polar Using genomic techniques, often similar to regions. The regions beneath the polar ice those used by law enforcement agencies in sheets and under the ice-covered oceans molecular forensics, these teams will charac- remain largely unknown. Similarly, the pat- terize the identity of microbial populations. tern and structure of polar ecosystems still They will explore the characteristics of the need to be mapped in detail. Today the new most extreme environments on the surface of scientifi c frontiers in the polar regions are the Earth, such as subglacial environments, at the intersection of disciplines. Frontiers the dry cold Antarctic valleys and the high are both physical and intellectual, ranging in plateaus of the Greenland and Antarctic ice scale from the continental to the microscopic. sheets. The pattern and structure of polar Frontiers are accessible by ski-equipped air- ecosystems, including microbial organisms, craft and genomic imaging. Exploration and will be mapped in detail for the fi rst time, and discovery in IPY 2007–2008 will be very differ- variations in genetic and functional diversity ent from in previous Polar Years. Progress will will be probed in the largely unknown envi- be made not only using new observational ronments of the deep ocean, near sea-fl oor techniques, but also by interdisciplinary hydrothermal vents and beneath the ice cross-analysis of existing databases, utiliz- sheets. The ecology of rapidly changing ing the overwhelming recent advances in terrestrial environments and the impacts of computing capability. Although exploration invasive species in both marine and terrestrial is usually associated with discovering new environments will be assessed. Potential new physical features, exploration in IPY is defi ned applications of the bio-active properties of in a broader sense. polar organisms will also be studied.

8.1 ADAPTATION AND BIODIVERSITY IN 8.2 BENEATH THE ICE SHEETS POLAR ORGANISMS While vast continental terranes beneath the The extreme cold and marked seasonal vari- ice sheets of Antarctica and Greenland have ation in length of daylight and temperature not been fully investigated, these subglacial in polar regions confront organisms with regions are vital for understanding ice sheet a uniquely challenging set of conditions. development. The nature of the underlying Yet, the hostility of polar environments has bedrock is a crucial boundary condition for not precluded the development of complex the stability of the ice sheet. Since the dis- ecosystems whose constituent species tribution of highlands strongly deﬁ nes both have found novel ways to adapt to extreme how and when glaciation initiates, the nature physical conditions. Although considerable of subglacial topography is key to ice sheet progress has been made in understanding the modelling. With much of subglacial Antarctica adaptations of polar animals and plants, we and Greenland yet to be explored, the mind remain largely ignorant about the numerically boggles as to how these regions became dominant species in polar environments, the ice-bound. Major regions of Antarctica that microbes, which provide the very foundation are crucial to deciphering the intertwined of these ecosystems. Until we explore the geodynamic/climatic history puzzle remain to microbial world at the poles, we will lack be examined. For example, the Gamburtsev the basis for a comprehensive understand- Subglacial Mountains in East Antarctica ing of the functions of polar ecosystems cover an immense region larger than the and their susceptibility to climate change. European Alps, but are virtually unknown. During IPY, scientists will explore the polar Climate models show that the high elevation

45 of these mountains may have been crucial to capture the movement of water through a in localizing the ﬁ rst Cenozoic ice sheets previously unrecognized immense and inter- that formed 34 million years ago. This onset connected hydrologic system that includes of glaciation affected the entire earth, as large lakes and rivers. The tremendous impact global climate changed from the hothouse of water on ice sheet dynamics indicates world of the early Cenozoic era to the more that these are crucial components of the ice recent world in which whole continents are sheet system. While the extent and degree of covered in ice. International teams of IPY interconnection are unknown, the potential scientists will use surface, airborne and drainage system is larger than that of the satellite techniques to decode the origin of Mississippi River Basin. These subglacial the Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountains in environments have formed in response to Antarctica and the underlying tectonics of the complex interplay of tectonics and topog- the Greenland lithosphere in the Arctic. raphy with climate and ice sheet ﬂ ow over millions of years. Tantalizing evidence from Beneath the Antarctic Ice sheet are over studies of the overlying ice sheet indicate that 150 recently discovered subglacial lakes unique life-supporting ecosystems may be (see Figure 20) that range in size from Lake locked within these environments. Such life Vostok, a body the size of Lake Ontario, to forms must be adapted to the temperatures shallow frozen swamp-like features the size and pressures akin to the deep ocean, as of Manhattan. High-resolution imaging of well as to the extremely slow delivery of the ice sheet surface has enabled scientists nutrients from the overriding ice sheet. These

The microbial diversity of polar environments is proving far more substantial than previously assumed but is still very poorly documented. A signiﬁ cant target will be to study the biodiversity of hydrothermal vents and cold methane seeps recently identiﬁ ed in both the Arctic and Southern Oceans. The image shows a black smoker vent from which novel microorganisms tolerant of very high temperatures can be isolated. JIM CHILDRESS, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SANTA BARBARA JIM CHILDRESS, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SANTA

46 Figure 20. A computer generated image of the Antarctic Ice sheet showing the location of subglacial SSovetskayaovetskaya Lake Vostok and LLakeake VostokVostok two further large lakes. The imagery 990˚E0˚E LakeLake indicates how the underlying lakes inﬂ uence ice sheet morphometry.

[Source: Michael Studinger (2006), Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia RRidgeidge B University, New York, USA] 110000 kkmm

unique, subglacial environments provide years, since the ridge segments are isolated an unparalleled opportunity to advance our and water exchange between the Arctic Basin understanding of how climatic and geological and the global oceans is limited to shallow factors have combined to produce a unique depths. Therefore, the fauna ecosystems of and isolated biome that maybe occupied these deep water vent environments may by yet unknown microbial communities. contain a large number of endemic species Subglacial lake exploration poses one of the and provide constraints on the genetics and most challenging scientifi c, environmental evolution of sea-fl oor organisms. Evidence of and technological issues facing polar science hydrothermal activity in the Scotia Sea and today. Exploration of these environments Bransfi eld Strait suggests similarly isolated is only possible through concerted well- vent ecosystems may also be present in coordinated international efforts. During IPY, the Southern Ocean, as shown in Figure 21. remote-sensing tools and novel sampling During IPY the Arctic Basin and the Scotia techniques will be used to explore subglacial Sea will be studied with modern technol- lake systems in East and West Antarctica. ogy, such as remotely operated vehicles and autonomous underwater vehicles.

8.3 WITHIN THE POLAR OCEANS The intriguing and surprisingly diverse ecosystems found deep beneath some ﬂ oating The Gakkel Ridge, in the centre of the Arctic Antarctic ice shelves, and the glacial history in Basin, is the slowest spreading mid-ocean sea-ﬂ oor sediments now accessible following ridge on earth, yet study of this feature has the collapse of Antarctic Peninsula ice shelves been limited to only a few submarine and are other areas of discovery to be probed icebreaker expeditions. In addition, it displays during IPY. Marine biologists will use new abundant hydrothermal and volcanic activity. tools to investigate variations in ecosystems The long-lived Gakkel Ridge hydrothermal between the ice edge and regions deep within ecosystems may have been cut off from the the ice pack and the types of seasonality rest of the oceanic ecosystem for millions of found beneath the ice shelves.

47 Figure 21. Hydrothermal vent sites occur in both polar regions and are important IPY targets as they provide insight to the geological processes in the regions. These and cold methane seeps are likely to harbour a diverse ﬂ ora and fauna physiologically adapted to extreme environments. The map shows the position of the Polar Front (red line) and locations in the Southern Ocean of both hydrothermal activity and methane hydrate accumulation.

[Source: Katrin Linse, CHeSS Consortium]

48 9 THEME 5: VANTAGE POINT

Using the unique vantage point of polar regions to develop and enhance observatories from the interior of the Earth to the sun and the cosmos beyond

The unique position of the poles on the planet the Arctic, although observing conditions at makes them an ideal site for observation of these sites have not yet been quantiﬁ ed. diverse processes. Improved understanding of many processes and phenomena, such as Fundamental questions remain as to solar–terrestrial interactions, the rotation of the nature of the Big Bang, the earliest the Earth’s inner core and the strength of its moments of the universe and the forma- magnetic dipole, cosmic ray detection, and tion of galaxies and stars. These can only astronomy and astrophysics, are uniquely be addressed with new high-sensitivity beneﬁ ted by observations from both northern observatories. Programmes envisioned and southern polar regions. for the next generation of polar observatories include measurements of the cosmic microwave radiation background resulting 9.1 ASTRONOMY FROM POLAR REGIONS from the Big Bang, the use of optical and infrared telescopes to examine the forma- Owing to extremely cold, dry and stable tion of galaxies, sub-millimetre/far-infrared polar air, the polar plateaus provide the telescopes and interferometers to probe best sites on the Earth’s surface for the the dense molecular clouds where stars conduct of a wide range of astronomical are born, the search for other Earth-like observations at wavelengths from opti- planets in the Galaxy using interferomet- cal to millimetre. These exceptional site ric and micro-lensing techniques and the conditions enable observations to be made measurement of the earthshine from the of the cosmos with greater sensitivity moon to probe the variations in the Earth’s and clarity and across a wider part of the reflectivity associated with changing cloud electromagnetic spectrum than from any cover. During IPY the suitability of new other ground-based site. The extended polar sites for astronomy will be assessed. winter night facilitates long time-series Measurements will be made of the sky observations across broad areas of the sky. brightness from both auroral activity at Similarly, the polar summer facilitates long optical wavelengths and thermal emis- timeseries solar observations. sion in the infrared, the optical “seeing” — a measure of the “twinkling” of stars IPY scientists will obtain the baseline data — and of the transparency, precipitable necessary to quantitatively assess planned water vapour content and microturbulence astronomical facilities at sites such as Dome levels in the atmosphere. These astro- A, the 4 084-metre summit of the Antarctic Ice nomical data, along with meteorological Sheet. Potentially the pre-eminent location data, will advance the design of the new on the Earth for observational astronomy, generation polar astronomical science this site was visited by Chinese scientists in programmes. 2005. Testing at Dome C, the site of the new Concordia station operated by France and The nature of the fascinating multi-TeV pho- Italy, has already demonstrated excellent tons originating in the Crab supernova rem- astronomical observing conditions. Summit nant and near the super-massive black holes Station in Greenland (Denmark/United States of active galaxies highlights the unknown of America) and Ellesmere Island (Canada) energy band that can only be explored are also extremely cold and dry, and are with a large neutrino observatory. A new prospective astronomical observing sites in observatory will enable measurements in

49 The Ice Cube neutrino detector at the South Pole, over one kilometre in diameter and extending hundreds of metres into the ice sheet, is an example of the polar regions offering a valuable platform for space research. Proposals to establish the feasibility of locating a large optical observatory in East Antarctica are a further example.

[Source: Derived from work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant Nos. OPP-9980474 (AMANDA) and OPP-0236449 (IceCube), University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA]

the PeV (1015 eV) energy region, where the Station, opening these unexplored energy universe is opaque to high-energy gamma bands for astrophysics. rays originating from beyond the edge of our own galaxy, and where cosmic rays do Although costs of making observations in not carry directional information because of the Antarctic are potentially higher than from their deflection by magnetic fields. During observatories in dry temperate locations, the IPY an international one-cubic-kilometre developing scientiﬁ c air transport networks high-energy neutrino observatory will be are making access to remote Antarctic loca- installed in the ice below the South Pole tions increasingly easy.

50 10 THEME 6: THE HUMAN DIMENSION Investigation of cultural, historical and social processes that shape the sustainability of circumpolar human societies and identiﬁ cation of their unique contributions to global cultural diversity and citizenship

Previous Polar Years had no socio-cultural 10.1 INTEGRATION OF THE KNOWLEDGE AND studies within their official research OBSERVATIONS OF POLAR RESIDENTS programme. Historically, social and human- oriented polar research was advanced IPY 2007–2008 will become a true milestone independently of IPY initiatives and has been in polar studies because of the unprecedented focused on the key role played by such social level of engagement of polar residents, includ- factors as the economy, industrial developing polar indigenous people, in research ment, politics, demography and health in the planning, observation, processing and inter- overall increase of scientifi c knowledge of pretation of the various data sets created polar regions. A very strong social and human through IPY projects. Such engagement component was integrated into IPY 2007–2008 of polar residents — genuine, constructive programme planning from the outset, unlike and respectful — will play a dual role in IPY previous Polar Years. The social and human efforts. Firstly, it is an integral part of most component programmes will expand well projects that involve local communities and beyond the former range of topics. These will is recognized as a vital component of the include new fi elds such as the interactions data collection, monitoring, data analysis between the world economy, large-scale and data management processes. This refers societies and small polar communities; the primarily to social and human-oriented stud- new global role of polar resources in many ies but also, increasingly, to many projects critical fi elds, from energy supplies to the undertaken by scientists from physical and preservation of earth ecosystems; strategies biological disciplines: research in sea ice for economic and cultural sustainability for dynamics, climate variability, marine and polar residents; studies of local knowledge terrestrial ecosystem health and broad of the polar environment, or local ecologi- environmental change. Secondly, and at cal knowledge and the application of polar least as important, are the projects that are residents’ observations to the study of Arctic initiated and conducted by polar communities climate change. and regional organizations, involving their own knowledge and observations of local Two years of concerted IPY 2007–2008 processes and phenomena. The scope of research will leave a lasting legacy in polar such efforts will greatly increase through studies. Major contributions will be an IPY 2007–2008 to include the sustainable use unprecedented level of interdisciplinary of local resources, for example, in fi sheries, collaboration among polar scientists from exploitation of reindeer/caribou populations various disciplines and a new understanding and environmental-friendly tourism; indig- of the key role that human and societal fac- enous cultural and language sustainability; tors play in the scientifi c grasp of the Earth’s increased resilience of local economic and polar regions. social systems through co-management,

51 local self-governance and information way many phenomena can be better under- exchange among local stakeholders; and stood through multi-disciplinary lenses, interactions with the ongoing industrial such as the impact of climate change on development of the polar regions, includ- polar ecosystems, wildlife and plant species, ing monitoring of local environmental and ocean and atmospheric circulation, soil social impacts, primarily in oil and gas, and and coastal processes, polar communities other mineral exploitation. and societal transitions. The challenges IPY researchers will address lie in the yet uncharted efforts to be made to accom- 10.2 SOCIETAL AND HUMAN ASPECTS OF modate other disciplines’ methods of data INTERDISCIPLINARY STUDIES collection and interpretation. For example, sea ice and weather/climate data series Projects in IPY 2007–2008 present unique have to be calibrated and scaled to the level opportunities to the various polar science applicable to multi-disciplinary interpreta- disciplines as they seek to answer question, so they can be useful in other fi elds as tions that require genuine interdisciplinary well as to the local stakeholders. cooperation and input. Interdisciplinary work in IPY will take place at many different levels. The fi rst level is collaboration among 10.3 HUMAN HEALTH AND WELL-BEING IN social scientists from various sub-fi elds of POLAR REGIONS social research, such as political science, anthropology, economics, and between Human health and well-being, primarily in the scientists and polar residents and their Arctic but also in the Antarctic, is a priority communal institutions or organizations. The of IPY 2007–2008. Targeted issues include second level will address the cooperation the human health impact of regional and between social and natural/physical science intercontinental transport of anthropogenic disciplines, such as biology, meteorology pollution to Arctic regions; the effect of and oceanography, along with their very contaminants and infectious diseases on different methods and approaches. For the traditional food supply; the spread of all of these disciplines, collaboration with infectious diseases, including tuberculo- social scientists and polar residents will sis, HIV/AIDS, hepatitis and new emerging help set the research agenda with regard infectious diseases, such as severe acute to local scaling and articulating the study respiratory syndrome (SARS); the status of focus so that it becomes relevant to local chronic diseases, both old and new, such as stakeholders. This will be a huge step for- cancer, obesity and diabetes; and behavioural ward in making polar research relevant to health issues, such as suicide, interpersonal broad societal needs. violence and substance abuse.

Many large-scale IPY projects are also fun- The effects of the changing Arctic envi- damentally interdisciplinary in that they seek ronment on the evolution, ecology, and to understand the coupling mechanisms of emergence of new health risks will also be human and natural processes and phenom- considered. Although the polar regions are ena. Also, the new interdisciplinary approach considered to have relatively low levels of aims at bringing the specifi c disciplinary pathogens, parasites and pollution, birds visions and understanding to larger ques- migrating between temperate regions and the tions of ecosystem change such as sea Arctic are potential vectors of diseases, as are ice and lower atmospheric interactions, some migrating animal and fi sh species. The the role of different factors in maintaining growing impact of polar fl yways on global environmental sustainability and the impact ecosystems is shown by the recent rapid of contaminants and industrial development spread of the West Nile virus (see Figure 22) in polar regions. The opportunities of such and avian infl uenza which are now threat- an interdisciplinary approach reside in the ening domestic animals and humans. IPY

52 2001 projects will address how animals cope with Figure 22. attacks on their health in an Arctic subject West Nile virus is to climate change and pollution. an example of an infectious disease A key element of IPY initiatives on human that will beneﬁ t from health will be the development of new, and climate change in its the expansion of existing, health surveil- dispersal. There is lance, monitoring and research networks clear evidence of its that are necessary to identify risk factors rapid spread from an and develop control strategies. These cir- original small focus cumpolar networks will enhance monitoring (see arrow in the top through the development of standardized 2002 diagram) into the protocols, data collection, laboratory meth- Arctic regions. ods and data analysis. Once established, these networks will facilitate the monitoring [Source: modiﬁ ed from of disease prevalence over time, the deter- Antarctic Climate Impact mination of risk factors and implementation Assessment] of disease prevention and control strategies. Networks will also provide opportunities for sustainable partnerships between communities and researchers through the community-based monitoring activities created during IPY. 2003

10.4 STUDIES IN POLAR HISTORY AND HUMAN EXPLORATION OF POLAR REGIONS

In the fi elds of polar history and archaeology, IPY 2007–2008 research will provide new insight into a wide range of subjects from the initial peopling of polar regions, to cultural artefacts and origins of the indigenous peoples of the North, to the early industrial exploitations of both polar regions. Dead birds submitted for testing Research in the history of polar explorations has always been an integral part of polar Tested positive for West Nile virus scholarship. For long, it was the only fi eld of the humanities in an otherwise strictly polar natural and physical sciences effort. The new IPY projects in the history of polar impact of polar studies on the overall develop- explorations will increase that humanities ment of science, public education and societal component by applying new approaches concern for the sustainable planet; on the developed in historical and societal research interplay of culture, history and politics in the and by looking at the issues that did not ways polar programmes have been launched exist or were not addressed during previous and run; on the development of the new IPY ventures. Aside from the history of the regimes for intergovernmental cooperation in IPY ventures themselves — the oldest and the politically fragmented world; and on the largest international scientifi c cooperative preservation of the artefacts of the human endeavours in science history — today’s advance to the poles as a part of the global researchers will explore such topics as the cultural heritage.

11 EDUCATION, OUTREACH AND COMMUNICATION DURING IPY 2007–2008

The polar regions provide a powerful context objective of attracting and developing the for teaching and learning, attracting a wide, next generation of polar scientists, experts diverse audience. IPY thus represents a sub- and leaders. stantial education and outreach opportunity. The education, outreach and communication The projects endorsed as part of IPY include strategy for IPY addresses the question, “Why 57 which focus on education and outreach are the polar regions and polar research initiatives. These aim at heightening public important to all people on Earth?”. They awareness of polar regions and the scien- do this through a series of nationally and tiﬁ c communities research activities there. internationally coordinated programmes pro- They feature new ﬁ lms, exhibits, books and viding a better understanding of the impor- atlases; university courses and educational tance of the poles globally. Implementing materials; and projects involving youth and this strategy requires interaction between polar communities in IPY through workshops all parties promoting and involved in IPY, and a range of other activities. In addition to including IPY National Committees, polar these education and outreach projects, all organizations and foundations, the polar other IPY-endorsed projects include a pro- science communities and people living in gramme of educative and outreach activities the polar regions. Education and outreach for communicating their research objectives will make a major contribution to the IPY and results to the general public.

12 IPY DATA AND INFORMATION MANAGEMENT

Building an integrated data set from the broad international standards for interoperability range of IPY research activities represents and for metadata. A successful IPY-DIS will one of IPY’s most daunting challenges. An engage and connect many national and enduring data set, accessible to scientists and international data centres and promote the the public during IPY and for many decades development of common formats, improved into the future, will represent one of IPY’s reference systems and geographic browsers. strongest legacies. In partnership with the Electronic Geophysical Year, IPY promotes behaviours and systems IPY starts from a strong and clear data policy, that ensure consistent and accurate acknowl- as stated in A framework for the International edgement of data sources by all data users. Year 2007–2008, a 2004 ICSU publication: “IPY Ensuring proper attribution across the IPY data, including operational data delivered in disciplines and data sets will highlight the real time, are made available fully, freely, need within science for a system of review openly and on the shortest feasible times- and citation of all data sets. cale”. Exceptions will only apply to protect conﬁ dentiality of information about human IPY-DIS and the long-term IPY data legacy subjects, respect needs and rights of holders will involve many innovative solutions driven of local and traditional knowledge and ensure by the need to integrate and preserve a vast that data release does not lead to harm of array of data combined with advances in endangered or protected resources. storage and communication technologies in real-time data assimilation and in concep- An IPY Data and Information Service (DIS) will tual systems for integrating and exchanging build on ICSU and WMO strategies for future information. In addition to these technical data systems. Planning and implementation and infrastructural solutions, IPY will set of IPY-DIS will be carried out in partnership a new standard in scientific cooperation with the concurrent Electronic Geophysical as rapid and unrestricted data exchange Year. The technical solutions necessary to becomes an accepted and enabling factor implement IPY-DIS will comply with advanced in daily research.

57 G. DARGAUD, INTERNATIONAL POLAR FOUNDATION 13 CONCLUSION

The International Polar Year 2007–2008 — a polar data for monitoring and process stud- short period of a concentrated and internation- ies into the future. Some of these activities ally coordinated multidisciplinary science in are already fully funded; many more are both the Arctic and Antarctic — has received supported by signifi cant funding that covers enthusiastic support from the research com- their core activities. An increasing apprecia- munity and the general public. The response tion by many national governments of the to calls for projects contributing to the IPY global importance of polar regions and of 2007–2008 objectives has been almost over- the threat of anthropogenic change should whelming, and in the short period that these ensure additional funding and logistic support IPY projects have had to develop, they have for further activities during IPY 2007–2008. grown to be increasingly integrated and Indeed, a major success of IPY 2007–2008 interdisciplinary and to involve the widest has been the allocation of signifi cant new international representation. Endorsed IPY funds by many national agencies, over and projects involve participation from scientists above the established levels of support for from more than 60 nations, including those not polar research. traditionally involved in polar research. They also include widespread participation of polar March 2007 to March 2009 will be an exciting residents, including indigenous peoples. and productive period of concentrated and coordinated research activity in the Arctic The endorsed IPY projects address major and Antarctic. The International Polar Year issues in each of the six IPY themes, include 2007–2008 will significantly advance our a strong emphasis on social science and have ability to meet the major science challenges many cross-thematic links. IPY projects will of the polar regions — and it will leave a tackle the most challenging and urgent issues rich legacy in a new understanding of proc- of the polar regions: issues that include rapid esses there and of their global linkages, change to climate and ecosystems, critical large-scale baseline data sets against which links between polar processes and the rest future change can be assessed, novel and of the globe, the impacts of societal and enhanced observing systems and a new environmental change on polar residents and generation of scientists and leaders trained new scientifi c advances on the threshold of and determined to carry this legacy into the discovery. IPY 2007–2008 will see major new future. The broad international effort of the projects initiated addressing these challenges, International Polar Year promoted by ICSU signifi cant enhancement of many existing and WMO aims to contribute to a future of large-scale international programmes and increased cooperation between scientists, the development of improved space, land and organizations and nations in the knowledge ocean-based observing systems to provide and rational use of our planet.

14 APPENDICES

IPY structure and organization

From the outset, IPY has mainly been a bot- observations, data policy and management, tom-up process driven by the research com- and education, outreach and communication. munity. The numerous proposals were initially An open consultative forum has been held sorted by the ICSU/WMO Joint Committee at least once a year to provide a mechanism for IPY 2007–2008 into clusters based on for national committees and various national discipline. These clusters were then encour- and international organizations (Appendix I) aged to develop large international projects to communicate with the Joint Committee. and those meeting the criteria developed by the Joint Committee were subsequently As IPY has developed, additional man- endorsed. The endorsed projects are shown agement elements have been created. To I APPENDIX in the honeycomb chart in Figure 2 on page provide advice and assistance for projects 14, and are also listed in Appendix III. National in the Eurasian Arctic, an IPY International Committees were formed by many countries Programme Sub-Offi ce has been set up in to coordinate national contributions to IPY, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation (see and these are listed in Appendix II. Appendix I). Canada and Norway have also set up IPY offi ces to support Arctic research The management structure outlined in the and, with the St. Petersburg Sub-Offi ce, offer IPY framework document was implemented circum-Arctic coverage. The Observations by the Joint Committee, which the spon- Subcommittee established a Space Task sors, ICSU and WMO, created in 2004 to Group (see Appendix I) to provide greater succeed the original Planning Group. The focus on satellite remote-sensing plans. Joint Committee (see Appendix I) includes ex- offi cio membership from ICSU and WMO, as Developing the next generation of polar well as the Intergovernmental Oceanographic researchers is a priority of IPY and two groups Commission, the Scientifi c Committee on have emerged from the projects: Youth in Antarctic Research and the International IPY and the Young Career Scientist Network. Arctic Science Committee. Arctic Council and Both of these are informally overseen by the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM) Education, Outreach and Communication representatives attend Joint Committee Subcommittee rather than formally estab- meetings as observers. A structure diagram lished by the Joint Committee. Similarly a of IPY created around the Joint Committee committee called the Heads of IPY Secretariats, is shown in Figure 23. which is open to all National Committees, has recently been formed and managed by the An International Programme Offi ce (IPO) International Programme Offi ce to provide a (see Appendix I) was established by ICSU more focused forum for detailed discussion and WMO in Cambridge to support the Joint of key issues which can then be reported to Committee and implement its decisions. the Joint Committee via the International Three subcommittees (see Appendix I) were Programme Offi ce. These unoffi cial groups also created to provide specialist advice are shown as dashed boxes in the manage- to the Joint Committee. These dealt with ment structure diagram in Figure 23.

63 Figure 23. This diagram outlines the management structure of IPY. The Polar Year has been largely a bottom-up process with a light management touch. Formally approved components are shown in solid boxes and more recent informally established components are shown in dashed line boxes.

[Source: Cynan Ellis-Evans, IPY 2007-2008 International Programme Ofﬁ ce]

IPY 2007–2008 JOINT COMMITTEE MEMBERSHIP (as of January 2007)

Invited members - Ian Allison, Co-Chair, Australian Antarctic Division and Antarctic Climate Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre, Hobart, Australia - Michel Béland, Co-Chair, Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, Montreal, Canada - Robin Bell, Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Columbia University, New York, USA - Qin Dahe, China Meteorological Administration, Beijing, China - Kjell Danell, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden - Edith Fanta, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil - Eberhard Fahrbach, Alfred Wegener Institute, Bremerhaven, Germany - Yoshiyuki Fujii, National Institute of Polar Research, Tokyo, Japan - Grete Hovelsrud, Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research, Oslo, Norway - Vladimir Kotlyakov, Russian Academy of Science Institute of Geography, Moscow, Russian Federation - Igor Krupnik, Smithsonian Institution National Museum of Natural History, Washington, USA

64 - Jeronimo Lopez-Martinez, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain - Tillmann Mohr, European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (retired) - Chris Rapley, British Antarctic Survey, Cambridge, UK

Ex-ofﬁ cio members - Carthage Smith/Leah Goldfarb, International Council for Science - Eduard Sarukhanian, World Meteorological Organization - Colin Summerhayes, Scientiﬁ c Committee on Antarctic Research - Volker Rachold/Odd Rogne, International Arctic Science Committee Secretariat - Keith Alverson, Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, UNESCO

IPY 2007–2008 INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMME OFFICE STAFF

- David Carlson, Director - Cynan Ellis-Evans, Senior Advisor - Odd Rogne, Senior Advisor - Nicola Munro, Administrator - Rhian Salmon, Education, Outreach and Communication Coordinator - Camilla Hansen, Events Coordinator

Eurasian International Programme Sub-Ofﬁ ce, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation - Sergey Priamikov, Head of Ofﬁ ce - Victoria Razina, Web Design and News - Roman Vlasenkov, Database Manager - Oleg Golovanov, Mapping - Elena Berezina, Administration

IPY 2007–2008 SUBCOMMITTEES MEMBERSHIP (as of January 2007)

Observations Subcommittee - Wenjian Zhang, Chair, China Meteorological Administration, China - David Williams, Co-Chair, Space Task Group, British National Space Centre, UK - Mark Drinkwater, Co-Chair, Space Task Group, European Space Agency - Jan Bottenheim, Science and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, Montreal, Canada - Peter Dexter, Australian Government Bureau of Meteorology, Australia - Lene Kielsen Holm, Inuit Circumpolar Council, Nuuk, Greenland - Kenneth Jezek, Ohio State University, Columbus, USA - Mark Majodina, South African Weather Service, South Africa - Antoni Meloni, Instituto Nazionale di Geoﬁ sica e Vulcanolgia, Italy - Árni Snorrason, Hydrological Service, National Energy Authority, Iceland

65 - Craig Tweedie, University of Texas at El Paso, USA - Tatiana Vlassova, Russian Academy of Science Institute of Geography, Russian Federation

Space Task Group - David Williams, Co-Chair, British National Space Centre, UK - Mark Drinkwater, Co-Chair, European Space Agency - Vasilii Asmus, Russian Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring, Russian Federation - Jean-Marc Chouinard, Canadian Space Agency, Canada - Craig Dobson, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA - Manfred Gottwald, German Aerospace Centre, Germany - Kenneth Holmlund, European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites - Chu Ishida, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, Japan - Seelye Martin, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA - Eric Thouvenot, Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales, France - Licheng Zhao, China Meteorological Administration, China

Data Policy and Management Subcommittee - Mark Parsons, Co-Chair, National Snow and Ice Data Center, USA - Taco de Bruin, Co-Chair, Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research, Netherlands - Nathan Bindoff, Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre, Australia - Joan Eamer, GRID-Arendal, Norway - Hannes Grobe, World Data Center for Marine Environmental Sciences, Alfred Wegener Institute, Germany - Ray Harris, University College London, UK - Ellsworth LeDrew, University of Waterloo, Canada - Vladimir Papitashivili, University of Michigan, USA - Hakan Olsson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden - Birger Poppel, University of Greenland, Nuuk, Greenland - Alexander Sterin, All-Russian Research Institute of Hydrometeorological Information, World Data Centre, Russian Federation - Li Xin, World Data Centre for Glaciology and Geocryology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China

Education and Outreach Subcommittee - Sandra Zicus, Co-Chair, Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre, Tasmania, Australia - Margarete Pauls, Co-Chair, Alfred Wegener Institute, Bremerhaven, Germany - Linda Capper, British Antarctic Survey, Cambridge, UK

66 - Lars Kullerud, University of the Arctic, Norway - Louise Huffman, Teachers Experiencing Antarctica and the Arctic, USA - Tove Kolset, Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research, Oslo, Norway - Rachel Hazell, shared seat, Hazell Designs Books, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK - Linda Mackey, shared seat, Polar Artists Group - Mark McCaffrey, Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences Education Outreach Program, University of Colorado at Boulder, USA - Birgit Kleist Pedersen, University of Greenland, Nuuk, Greenland - Jean de Pomereu, International Polar Foundation, Cambridge, UK - Rodion Sulyandziga, Center for Support of Indigenous Peoples of the North, Moscow, Russian Federation - Patricia Virtue, University of Tasmania, Australia

Ex-ofﬁ cio members - Representatives from the International Programme Ofﬁ ce, IPY Youth Steering Committee, International Council for Science, World Meteorological Organization

INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS ENDORSING OR SUPPORTING IPY 2007–2008

- Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting - Arctic Climate Impacts Assessment - Arctic Council - Arctic Ocean Sciences Board - Australian Government Bureau of Meteorology - British National Space Centre - Canadian Space Agency - Census of Marine Life - Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research - Centre for Support of Indigenous Peoples of the North, Russian Federation - Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales - China Meteorological Administration - Chinese Academy of Sciences - Climate and Weather of the Sun-Earth System - Climate of the Arctic and its Role for Europe - Commission for the Geological Map of the World - Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs - Electronic Geophysical Year - European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites - European Science Foundation Polar Board - European Space Agency

67 - Forum of Arctic Research Operators - German Aerospace Center - Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, UNESCO - International Arctic Science Committee - International Arctic Social Scientists Association - International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme - International Heliophysical Year - International Hydrographic Bureau - International Permafrost Association - International Polar Foundation - International Science Initiative in the Russian Arctic - International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing - International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics - International Union of Geological Sciences - International Union of Radio Science - International Year of Planet Earth - Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency - Meteorological Service of Canada - National Aeronautics and Space Administration - National Energy Authority, Iceland - National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration - National Snow and Ice Data Center - Royal Netherlands Academies of Arts and Sciences - Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research - Russian Academy of Science Institute of Geography - Russian Federal Service of Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring - Scientifi c Committee on Antarctic Research - Scientifi c Committee on Oceanographic Research - Scientifi c Committee on Solar–Terrestrial Physics - Surface Ocean-Lower Atmosphere Study Programme - The National Academies, USA - The Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters - The Royal Academies for Science and the Arts of Belgium - The Royal Society, London - The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences - United Nations Environment Programme - University of the Arctic - World Climate Research Programme (WCRP) - WCRP Climate and Cryosphere Project - WCRP International Programme for Antarctic Buoys - WCRP Southern Ocean Climate Variability and Predictability Project

68 Nations involved in IPY (63)

Argentina • Australia • Austria • Belgium • Bermuda • Brazil • Bulgaria • Canada • Chile •

China • Colombia • Czech Republic • Denmark • Egypt • Estonia • Finland • France •

Germany • Greece • Hungary • Iceland • India • Indonesia • Ireland • Israel • Italy • Japan •

Kazakhstan • Kenya • Kyrgyzstan • Latvia • Lithuania • Luxembourg • Malaysia • Mexico •

Monaco • Mongolia • Morocco • Netherlands • New Zealand • Norway • Peru • Philippines • APPENDIX II APPENDIX Poland • Portugal • Romania • Russian Federation • Slovakia • Slovenia • Spain • South Africa •

Republic of Korea • Sweden • Switzerland • United Republic of Tanzania • Turkey • United

Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland • Ukraine • Uruguay • United States of America

• Uzbekistan • Venezuela • Vietnam

Nations with National Committees (31)

Argentina • Australia • Belgium • Brazil • Canada • Chile • China • Denmark • Greenland

(local committee) • Finland • France • Germany • Iceland • India • Italy • Japan •

Malaysia • Netherlands • New Zealand • Norway • Poland • Portugal • Russian Federation •

South Africa • Republic of Korea • Spain • Sweden • Ukraine • United Kingdom of Great

Britain and Northern Ireland • United States of America • Uruguay

IPY National Points of Contact (3)

Austria • Czech Republic • Switzerland

Endorsed IPY projects (as of February 2007)

The table below lists the 228 projects endorsed by the IPY Joint Committee. It contains the project number, full project title, information on the project’s geographical focus

(Arctic, Antarctic or both poles) and the broad category (Earth, land, people, ocean, ice, atmosphere, space, data or education and outreach) under which the project is placed in the honeycomb diagram (see Figure 2). APPENDIX III

Project Title Geographical Category No. focus 6 Dynamic social strategies in Arctic environments: long-term perspectives on movement Arctic people and communication 8 Synoptic Antarctic shelf-slope interactions study Antarctic ocean 10 Large-scale historical industrial exploitation of polar areas Bipolar people 11 Arctic wildlife observatories linking vulnerable ecosystems Arctic land 13 Sea level and tidal science in the polar oceans Bipolar ocean 14 Integrated Arctic Ocean Observing System Arctic ocean 16 Hydro-sensor-FLOWS — Arctic and Antarctic glacier hydrosystems as natural sensors Bipolar ice for recent climatic variations 19 Metal pollution in the Canadian High Arctic: pollution trend reconstruction of noble Arctic atmosphere metals (Pd and Pt) 20 Air–ice chemical interactions – IPY coordinated studies Bipolar ice 21 U.S. National Park Service. Understanding environmental change and its biological, Arctic land physical, social, subsistence and cultural effects in national parks and protected areas of Alaska, Chukotka and the Yukon through research, monitoring, education and outreach 22 POLARSTERN expedition “HERMES — the Nordic margin” in the framework of the Arctic ocean EU-funded integrated project HERMES (Hotspot Ecosystem Research on the Margins of European Seas) 23 Bipolar Atlantic thermohaline circulation Bipolar ocean 26 The Pan-Arctic cluster for climate forcing of the Arctic marine ecosystem Arctic ocean 27 Changing trends in polar research as reﬂ ected in the history of the International Polar Bipolar people Years 28 Climate of the Arctic and its role for Europe/Arctic system reanalysis Arctic atmosphere 29 The Bering Strait, rapid change and land bridge paleoecology Arctic Earth 30 Representations of Sami in nineteenth-century polar literature: the Arctic ‘other’ Arctic people 32 Polar study using aircraft, remote sensing, surface measurements and modelling of Arctic atmosphere climate, chemistry, aerosols and transport (POLARCAT) 33 Antarctic and sub-Antarctic permafrost, periglacial and soil environments Antarctic land 34 Impact of climate-induced glacial melting on marine and terrestric coastal communities Antarctic ocean on a gradient along the western Antarctic Peninsula 35 International Polar Year GEOTRACES: an international study of the biogeochemical Bipolar ocean cycles of trace elements and isotopes in the Arctic and Southern Oceans 36 Arctic Ocean warming in the past Arctic ice 37 The dynamic response of Arctic glaciers to global warming Arctic ice

71 Project Title Geographical Category No. focus 38 Ocean–atmosphere–sea ice–snow pack interactions affecting atmospheric biogeo- Arctic ice chemistry and ecosystems in the Arctic 39 Arctic palaeoclimate and its extremes Arctic ice 40 Developing Arctic modelling and observing capabilities for long-term environmental Arctic ocean studies 41 Concordia, a new French-Italian facility for international and long-term scientiﬁ c Antarctic atmosphere activities on the Antarctic Plateau 42 Subglacial Antarctic lake environments — uniﬁ ed international team for exploration Antarctic ice and discovery 45 POLAR: WMT — Paving the way for online learning in Arctic regions using wireless and Arctic education mobile technologies 46 Monitoring of oil development in traditional indigenous lands of the Nenets, Arctic people Autonomous Okrug, northwestern Russia 48 International study of Arctic change Arctic ocean 49 International Polar Year (IPY) Data and Information Service (DIS) for distributed data Bipolar data management 50 Permafrost Observatory Project: a contribution to the thermal state of permafrost Bipolar land (TSP-125) 51 International Polar Year publications database Bipolar education 52 Antarctic Biological and Earthquake Science (ABES): Southern Ocean broadband Antarctic ocean seismo/acoustic observatories 53 A census of Antarctic marine life Antarctic ocean 54 Antarctic climate evolution Antarctic land 55 Microbiological and ecological responses to global environmental changes in polar Bipolar land regions 56 Quantifying the relationship of solar variability with the atmosphere, weather and Bipolar space climate (particularly via the global electric circuit and ozone variability associated with solar activity) 58 Change and variability of the Arctic systems — Nordaustlandet, Svalbard Arctic ice 59 Terrestrial ecosystems in Arctic and Antarctic: effects of UV light, liquefying ice and Bipolar land ascending temperatures 63 ICESTAR/IHY — Inter-hemispheric conjugacy in geospace phenomena and their Bipolar space heliospheric drivers 66 ANDEEP – SYSTCO (Antarctic benthic deep-sea biodiversity: colonization history and Bipolar ocean recent community patterns — system coupling) 67 Origin, evolution and setting of the Gamburtsev Subglacial Highlands: exploring an Antarctic Earth unknown Antarctic territory 69 International Congress of Arctic Social Sciences VI in Nuuk, 2007–2008. Arctic education 70 Monitoring of the upper ocean circulation, transport and water masses between Africa Antarctic ocean and Antarctica. 71 Polar aquatic microbial ecology Bipolar ocean 72 Network for Arctic climate and biological diversity studies Arctic land 76 Atmospheric monitoring network for anthropogenic pollution in polar regions Bipolar atmosphere 77 Plate tectonics and polar gateways in earth history Bipolar Earth 78 Synchronized observations of polar mesospheric clouds (PMC), aurora and other large- Bipolar space scale polar phenomena from the International Space Station (ISS) and ground sites 79 IPY book series on environmental research Bipolar education

72 Project Title Geographical Category No. focus 80 Determining breeding and exposition conditions for selected Arctic and Antarctic Bipolar education marine organisms at the Gdynia Aquarium in Gdynia, Poland. 81 Collaborative research into Antarctic calving and iceberg evolution Antarctic ice 82 LICHEN: the Linguistic and Cultural Heritage Electronic Network Arctic education 83 SCAR-MarBIN: the information dimension of Antarctic marine biodiversity Antarctic ocean 86 US Geological Survey participation in the International Polar Year Bipolar land 88 Antarctic surface accumulation and ice discharge (ASAID) Antarctic ice 90 Arctic Circumpolar Coastal Observatory Network Arctic land 91 Global Inter-agency IPY Polar Snapshot Year (GIIPSY) Bipolar space 92 Integrated analyses of circumpolar climate interactions and ecosystem dynamics in the Antarctic ocean Southern Ocean — International Polar Year 93 International collaborative expedition to collect and study fi sh indigenous to sub- Antarctic ocean Antarctic habitats, 2007 95 The state of the Arctic sea ice cover: physical and biological properties and processes Arctic ice in a changing environment 96 Go Polar!: an international network of children’s museums to bring polar science to Bipolar education children and families 97 Investigating the cryospheric evolution of the Central Antarctic Plate (ICECAP): Antarctic land internationally coordinated long-range aero-geophysics over Dome A, Dome C and the Aurora Subglacial Basin of East Antarctica 99 Ozone layer and UV radiation in a changing climate evaluated during IPY Bipolar atmosphere 100 Polar fi eld stations and IPY history: culture, heritage, governance (1882–present) Bipolar people 104 The Arctic Hydrological Cycle Monitoring, Modelling and Assessment Program Arctic land 105 The state and fate of the cryosphere Bipolar ice 107 IPY on the Antarctic Peninsula — ice and climate Antarctic ice 108 Sea ice from space for IPY Arctic ice 109 Geodynamics of the West Antarctic Rift System (WARS) in remote Ellsworth Land and Antarctic Earth its implications for the stability of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet 110 Antarctic mission: multi-media exploration of the science of climate change in Antarctic education Antarctica 112 Circumpolar Center for Learning and Indigenous Knowledge Systems Arctic education 113 Understanding deep permafrost: interdisciplinary studies related to understanding the Arctic land structure, geology, microbiology, thermal state, physical properties and fl uid fl uxes in thick permafrost leading to a long-term observatory. 114 Climate change in the Arctic with special emphasis on Alaska Arctic ice 116 The Royal Society of Victoria’s two international research expedition polar Antarctic education inter-disciplinary voyages 117 International Partnerships in Ice Core Science (IPICS) — International Polar Year Bipolar ice Initiative 118 The Greenland Ice Sheet: stability, history and evolution Arctic ice 120 Northern high-altitude climate variability during the past 2 000 years: implications for Arctic ice human settlement 121 Improved numerical weather forecasting and climate simulations by exploitation of Bipolar atmosphere in-situ, airborne remote-sensing and satellite data, advanced modelling systems and basic research into polar processes and into polar–global interactions 122 Ecosystem West Greenland Arctic ocean

73 Project Title Geographical Category No. focus 123 Globalization — Language, Literature and Media among Inuit and Sami people Arctic people 1. Language planning, 2. Computer-assisted linguistics, 3. From oral tradition to rap, 4. Citizenship, consumerism and media 124 Astronomy from the Polar Plateaus Bipolar space 125 Ice and snow mass change of Arctic and Antarctic polar regions using GRACE satellite Bipolar ice gravimetry 130 Bipolar climate machinery — A study of the interplay of northern and southern polar Bipolar ocean processes in driving and amplifying global climate as recorded in paleoclimate archives and their signifi cance for the generation of realistic estimates of future climate 131 Integrated circumpolar studies of Antarctic marine ecosystems to the conservation of Antarctic ocean living resources 132 Climate of Antarctica and the Southern Ocean — ocean circulation cluster Bipolar ocean 133 Circumpolar Biodiversity Monitoring Program Arctic land 134 Polar bear (Ursus maritimus) circumpolar health assessment in relation to toxicants and Arctic ocean climate change 135 A multidisciplinary and international conference with presentations focussed on Bipolar education technical and administrative issues associated with the protection and preservation of historic scientifi c bases and in particular earlier IPY stations in polar regions and taking the form of a series of presentations and discussions that will ultimately be published for distribution in book and electronic form 137 Evolution and biodiversity in the Antarctic: the response of life to change Antarctic ocean 138 Cold land processes in the northern hemisphere continents and their coastal zone: Arctic land regional and global climate and societal-ecosystem linkages and interactions 139 Greening of the Arctic: circumpolar biomass Arctic land 140 Hydrological impact of Arctic aerosols Arctic atmosphere 141 Antarctic sea ice in the International Polar Year Antarctic ice 142 The development of a polar-based photo-bioreactor for the production of bioactive Bipolar ocean compounds by indigenous micro-algae and cyanobacteria 145 Workshop/Conference summarizing the results of the Arctic Monitoring and Arctic education Assessment Program’s Human Health Assessment Group (AMAP HHAG) Research Program (2002–2008) 147 International Antarctic Institute Antarctic education 151 Present-day processes, past changes and spatiotemporal variability of biotic, abiotic Arctic land and socio-environmental conditions and resource components along and across the Arctic delimitation zone 152 Trans-Antarctic scientifi c traverses expeditions — Ice divide of East Antarctica Antarctic land 153 Marine mammal exploration of the oceans pole to pole Bipolar ocean 155 Ecosystem studies of sub-arctic and Arctic regions Arctic ocean 156 Geomatics for the North — Circumpolar conference on basic geospatial information for Arctic education northern development 157 Community adaptation and vulnerability in Arctic regions Arctic people 158 Comparative studies of marine Arctic and Antarctic ecosystems and the potential Bipolar education consequences of climate change 160 Arctic change: an interdisciplinary dialog between the Academy, northern peoples and Arctic education policy makers 162 Starting the clock for the CARMA network: impacts on human–rangifer systems in the Arctic land Circum-Arctic 164 Inuit and scientifi c descriptions of the narwhal, connecting parallel perceptions: Arctic ocean interdisciplinary studies of the narwhal with a focus on tusk function

74 Project Title Geographical Category No. focus 166 Sea ice knowledge and use: assessing Arctic environmental and social change Arctic people 167 Arctic Human Health Initiative Arctic people 168 International Polar Year Youth Steering Committee (IPY YSC) Bipolar education 169 Network for present and future circumpolar freshwater lake research and data Arctic land management 170 Aliens in Antarctica Antarctic land 171 POLAR-AOD: a network to characterize the means, variability and trends of the climate- Bipolar atmosphere forcing properties of aerosols in polar regions 172 Health of Arctic and Antarctic bird populations Bipolar land 173 Biogeography and geological diversity of hydrothermal venting on the ultra-slow Arctic Earth spreading Arctic Mid-Ocean Ridge 175 Fate, uptake and effects of contaminants in the Arctic and Antarctic ecosystem Bipolar atmosphere 176 A polar atlas for education and outreach based on a spatial data infrastructure Bipolar education framework 179 Extending IPY themes to the undergraduate Earth system science education community Bipolar education 180 Antarctic climate and atmospheric circulation Antarctic atmosphere 183 Arctic resiliency and diversity: community response to change Arctic people 185 Polar Earth-observing network Bipolar land 186 Engaging communities in the monitoring of zoonoses, country food safety and wildlife Arctic people health 187 Exchange for local observations and knowledge of the Arctic Arctic people 188 International Tundra Experiment (ITEX): impacts of long-term experimental warming Arctic land and climate variability on tundra ecosystems 189 The University of the Arctic: providing higher education and outreach programmes for Arctic education the International Polar Year 191 The Sixth Continent Initiative — Capacity-Building in Antarctic Scientifi c Research Antarctic education 196 International Arctic systems for observing the atmosphere Arctic atmosphere 201 Northern material culture through International Polar Year collections, then and now: in Arctic people the footsteps of Murdoch and Turner 202 Arctic Freshwater Biodiversity Monitoring and Research Network Arctic land 206 Legal and constitutional frameworks for protecting traditional ecological knowledge in Arctic people northern Canada 208 Remote sensibility — a multimedia project exploring and refl ecting the immaterial Arctic education relationship global industrial culture has with the circumpolar North 210 Global change — social challenges processes of socio-economic changes in the Arctic people circumpolar North, with focus on gender and inter- and intra-generational relations 213 Environmental baselines, processes, changes and impacts on people in sub-arctic Arctic land Sweden and the Nordic Arctic regions 214 Retrospective and prospective vegetation change in the polar regions: back to the Bipolar land future 217 The structure and evolution of the polar stratosphere and mesosphere and links to the Bipolar space troposphere during IPY 227 The political economy of northern development Arctic people 244 Antarctic anthology, a collaborative book incorporating literary, visual and scientifi c Antarctic education representations of the continent, to commemorate this IPY 246 Arctic biosphere–atmosphere coupling across multiple scales Arctic land

75 Project Title Geographical Category No. focus 247 Bering Sea sub-network of community-based environmental monitoring, observation Arctic people and information stations 248 Arctic Indigenous Community-based Monitoring and Information Stations Network: Arctic people Arctic Community-based Research Alliance 251 Circumpolar monitoring of the biology of key-species in relation to environmental Antarctic ocean changes 256 Antarctic continental margin drilling to investigate Antarctica’s role in global Antarctic Earth environmental change 257 Wildlife health: assessing the cumulative impacts of multiple stressors Arctic ocean 258 Multidisciplinary study of the Amundsen Sea Embayment Antarctic ice 259 Conservation hunting in the Arctic: an analysis of constraints and opportunities Arctic people 262 Response of Arctic and sub-Arctic soils in a changing Earth: dynamic and frontier Arctic land studies 266 Remote-sensing monitoring and forecast of surging glaciers’ evolution with the Arctic ice investigation of modern fl uctuations of surging glaciers of the Alaska, Svalbard and high elevated Asian glaciers 267 Comprehensive meteorological data set of active IPY Antarctic measurement phase for Antarctic atmosphere scientifi c and applied studies 275 Polar disturbance and ecosystem services: links between climate and human well-being Arctic people 276 Initial human colonization of the Arctic in changing palaeoenvironments Arctic people 282 The Nunavut Arctic Research and Educational Base Camp Arctic education 284 Development of a system of complex monitoring and elaboration of information- Arctic land analytical system on protected natural areas of the polar zone 285 Northern genealogies: development of an ethno-demographic informational system on Arctic people the peoples of Siberia and the Russian North 293 Arctic shelf tracking and physics array Arctic ocean 294 International Polar Year Circumpolar Exchanges — proposed exchanges of students Arctic education and young northern professionals from Canada and other circumpolar countries during International Polar Year 2007–2008 295 Popularization of northern scholarly articles for public interest Bipolar education 296 IPY histories: International Polar Year activities past and present, museum and virtual Bipolar education exhibitions 299 International summit and working group conference on the development and deploy- Arctic education ment of energy resources in the Arctic, including remote and rural villages 300 Arctic biodiversity of chars — network for monitoring and research (revised) Arctic land 304 Seasonality of the Drake Passage pelagic ecosystem: biodiversity, food webs, Antarctic ocean environmental change and human impact, present and past 305 Consortium for coordination of observation and monitoring of the Arctic for assessment Arctic ocean and research 310 The impacts of oil and gas activity on peoples in the Arctic using a multiple securities Arctic people perspective 313 The Prydz Bay, Amery Ice Shelf and Dome A Observatories — a Chinese key Antarctic ice international programme for IPY 315 Tectonic map of the Earth’s polar regions Bipolar education 318 TUNU-Programme: marine fi shes of northeast Greenland — diversity and adaptation Arctic ocean 322 International Polar Year — a multi-tracer approach to study heat and salt fl uxes through Arctic ice sea ice, pollutant transport and surface ocean hydrography

76 Project Title Geographical Category No. focus 325 Marine and estuarine ecosystems in the eastern, central and western Canadian Arctic Arctic ocean 327 Intercontinental atmospheric transport of anthropogenic pollutants to the Arctic Arctic atmosphere 328 Integrated communication, education and evaluation Bipolar education 329 The Canadian Antarctic Research Program Antarctic land 330 International Polar Year: the search for the Franklin expedition: a new perspective Arctic education based on Inuit oral tradition 333 Arctic ocean diversity (ArcOD) Arctic ocean 336 IPY Global Snowfl ake Network (GSN) Bipolar education 337 Dynamics of circumpolar land use and ethnicity Arctic people 338 Arctic quest — Northwest Passage 100-year celebration Antarctic education 339 Measurement and attribution of recent Greenland Ice Sheet changes (MARGINS) Arctic ice 341 Taking the Antarctic Arctic polar pulse — IPY 2007–8 human biology and medicine Antarctic people research 343 Students on ice — IPY Youth expeditions to the Arctic and Antarctic Bipolar education 349 Course in Arctic wildlife medicine and welfare Arctic education 355 The economy of the North Arctic people 357 Spitsbergen Climate System Current Status — SCSCS Arctic atmosphere 367 Neogene ice streams and sedimentary processes on high-latitude continental margins Bipolar ice 372 Polar View: The Polar Information Centre Bipolar space 373 Carbon pools in permafrost regions Bipolar land 378 Impact assessment with indigenous perspectives Arctic education 379 IPY operational oceanography for the Arctic Ocean and adjacent seas Arctic ocean 384 Integrity of the traditional food system and environmental health in the circumpolar Arctic people North 385 Towards an international astronomical observatory at Dome C in Antarctica Antarctic space 386 Survey of living conditions in the Arctic — remote access analysis system Arctic people 388 Arctic Portal developed by Arctic Council and affiliates Arctic education 389 Yukon IPY Community Liaison Arctic education 390 Biodiversity and climate-induced lifecycle changes of Arctic spiders Arctic land 395 Building the next generation of polar scientists, engineers and logisticians by engaging Arctic education youth from Nunavut and the Northwest Territories in International Polar Year activities 396 Indigenous Peoples’ Forum on Environmental Monitoring in the Arctic Arctic education 397 International Polar Year 2007–2008 @ Grand Valley State University Bipolar education 399 Reindeer herders vulnerability network study: reindeer pastoralism in a changing Arctic people climate 400 ANTLER Network secretariat and workshop series Arctic education 402 International school education on polar issues Bipolar education 405 Meltdown 3D/2D, a National Geographic giant screen fi lm Bipolar education 408 Social-science migrating fi eld station: monitoring the human–rangifer link by following Arctic land herd migration 410 Inuit voices: observations of environmental change Arctic education 411 Norwegian and Russian Arctic resources: prospects for social and economic Arctic people development

77 Project Title Geographical Category No. focus 417 INTERPOLAR Trans-national Art Science Consortium Bipolar education 423 Pan-Arctic lake ice cover under contemporary and future climate conditions Arctic land 430 Pan-Arctic tracking of belugas Arctic ocean 431 ARCTEC: a cumulative effects toolbox for northern ecological and social systems Arctic people 432 The Phoenix Mars polar lander and Antarctic analog studies Antarctic land 433 Pressures and impacts on the health and well-being of indigenous people of the Arctic: Arctic education invitational international symposium and symposium publication 435 Culturally and scientifi cally signifi cant materials recovered from melting ice and Arctic people cryosols: recovery, research, stabilization and community education 436 Moved by the State: perspectives on relocation and resettlement in the circumpolar Arctic people North 438 International Polar Year Arctic nations exhibition and activities including symposia, Arctic education seminars, workshops, residencies, documentation and event coordination 439 Temporal and spatial distribution of mercury and methyl–mercury source types, transfer Arctic ocean and impact in the North American Arctic and sub-Arctic food web using seabird eggs and feathers 440 Top, bottom and middle Earth: a popular book about the importance of the poles to the Bipolar education global environment, economy and society 441 Bringing the poles to life Bipolar education 443 The use of radionuclides and other contaminants as tracers of climate change effects Bipolar atmosphere in the North 446 Circumpolar Indigenous Youth Conservation Project Arctic education 448 People and wilderness resources in arctic. Is local subsistence harvest and exclusive Arctic people wilderness tourism a road to sustainable well-being or a source of confl ict? 451 Antarctic touring exhibition Antarctic education 452 Internationally coordinated studies on Antarctic environmental status, biodiversity and Antarctic land ecosystems 453 IPY Polar gateways: IPY education and outreach centres in polar communities Bipolar education 454 Enhancing the environmental legacy of IPY in Antarctica Antarctic education 455 IGLO (International action on global warming) Bipolar education 456 Practical applications for sustainable development in Arctic communities Arctic people 457 Ice stories: educational resources for the International Polar Year Bipolar education 459 Ice Cube South Pole Neutrino Observatory Antarctic space 460 Cape Farewell, the science, education and culture of climate change Arctic education

78 Acronyms

AMAP Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme

DIS Data and Information Service

GPS Global Positioning System

HIV/AIDS Human Immunodeﬁ ciency Virus / Acquired Immunodeﬁ ciency Syndrome

ICESTAR Interhemispheric Conjugacy Effects in Solar–Terrestrial and Aeronomy Research APPENDIX IV APPENDIX ICSU International Council for Science

InSAR Interferometric analysis of satellite synthetic aperture radar data

IOC Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission

IPY International Polar Year

MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

OAR Ofﬁ ce of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research

PMEL Paciﬁ c Marine Environmental Laboratory

SCAR Scientiﬁ c Committee on Antarctic Research

THORPEX The Observing System Research and Predictability Experiment

WCRP World Climate Research Programme

WMO World Meteorological Organization