Farm Management Handbook of Kenya

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FARM MANAGEMENT HANDBOOK OF KENYA

VOL. II

– Natural Conditions and Farm Management Information –

2nd Edition

PART B CENTRAL KENYA

Subpart B2

Central Province

This project was supported by German Technical Cooperation (GTZ)

2 3 Ministry of Agriculture

FARM MANAGEMENT HANDBOOK OF KENYA VOL. II

– Natural Conditions and Farm Management Information – 2nd Edition

PART B CENTRAL KENYA Subpart B2 Central Province

Dr. Ralph Jaetzold Prof. emeritus of Geography, University of Trier / Germany

Helmut Schmidt Former Farm Management Research Oﬃcer from the former German Agricultural Team of the GTZ in the Ministry of Agriculture, Nairobi

Dr. Berthold Hornetz Prof. of Agricultural Geography, University of Trier / Germany

Dr. Chris Shisanya Prof. of Agroclimatology, Dept. of Geography Kenyatta University, Nairobi

Contributions to the 1st Edition by: C.M. Kangé & J.G.M. Muasya – assessment of farm management data; Dr. Mechthild Kro- nen – soil requirements list; Prof. Dr. H. Kutsch – computing of crop-water relations for yield probabilities; F.N. Muchena, B.J.A. van der Pouw, W. Siderius and W.G. Sombroek – basic soil maps; H. Ritz – district climate tables; R. Swoboda – execution of Small Farm Survey; C.G. Wenner & S.N. Njoroge – soil conservation. Contributions to the 2nd Edition by: G. Awinyo – digitizing of soil maps into GIS; Th. Buettel – support by analyzing remote sensing data; M. Fiebiger – rainfall data analysis, probability calculations, yield probabilities by simulation programs; Heike Hoef- fler – project coordination in GTZ Nairobi; Philip Karuri – assistance in the Farm Survey; Elizabeth Kimenyi & Anne Njoroge – coordination of farm survey; M. Mueller – calculation and diagrams of growing periods, ENSO influence; Dr. Anne W. Muriuki & J.N. Qureshi – soil and fertiliser recommendation maps and information; Dr. Dorothy Mutisya – crops and fodder list; Birgit Schmidt – basics for maintaining and regaining soil fertility; Joshua Shivachi – analysing the Farm Survey data using SPSS software; J. Wieczorek – computerization of climatic and fertiliser maps, tables and diagrams for GIS and printing; W. Zettelmeyer – computing farm data.

4 Farm Management Handbooks of Kenya

VOL. I Labour Requirement Availability and Costs of Mechanisation

VOL. II Natural Conditions and Farm Management Information Part II/M General Part (Methodology)

Part II/A WEST KENYA Subpart A1 Western Province Subpart A2 Nyanza Province

Part II/B CENTRAL KENYA Subpart Bl Rift Valley Province, Middle and Southern Part Subpart B2 Central Province

Part II /C EAST KENYA Subpart C1 Eastern Province, Middle and Southern Part Subpart C2 Coast Province

VOL. III Farm Management Information - Annual Publications Part III/A Agriculture Land, Holdings and Farm Statistics Part III/B Costs and Prices, Gross Margins, Cash Flows and Farm Models

VOL. IV Production Techniques of Livestock Enterprises

VOL. V Production Techniques and Economics of Horticultural Enterprises

In addition, there are District Farm Management Guidelines produced by the District Agricultural Oﬃces Publisher Ministry of Agriculture, Kenya, in Cooperation with the German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ) VOL. II is supplemented by CD-ROMs with the information and maps in a Geographical Information System. Additionally there are wall maps of the Agro-Ecological Zones per district group (= the former large districts) for oﬃces and schools.

Vol. II/B2 Printed in Nairobi 2006 Design & Layout by Jan Wieczorek, Trier.

5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT for the Support to the First Edition

In compiling this Handbook, we have relied on the support of many oﬃcers from a variety of institutions too numerous to mention, who made available their data and experience. We would like to thank them for their invaluable assistance.

I would also like to thank my colleagues, the Research Oﬃcers, the District Land and Farm management Oﬃcers, for their cooperation, and a special thank you to those who typed the draft edition.

Our particular thanks go to Prof. Dr. Ralph Jaetzold, University of Trier, for his selﬂess support in compiling this handbook and for his assessment of the natural conditions including land and population. His deep understanding of the needs of agricultural extension oﬃcers and farmers was a great asset. Our thanks also to Dr. H. Kutsch, University of Trier, who computerized a large and complex amount of information involved in establishing the AEZs.

Many thanks also to the staﬀ of the Geographical Department of the University of Trier, Germany, for their major eﬀort in drawing up maps of outstanding quality, the centrepiece of the work.

Helmut Schmidt Farm Management Research Oﬃcer Nairobi, May 1982

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT for the Support to the Second Edition

In revising this Handbook, various personalities and institutions were relied upon to provide the necessary data required to update the previous data sets. In this regard, we would like to sincerely thank them for their invaluable input in the exercise.

Special thanks go to the Ministry of Agriculture staﬀ who undertook the Farm Surveys to elucidate on the fundamental changes that have taken place in farming at the household level.

We are indeed very grateful to the people of Germany, who despite their limited financial resources, have continued to support Kenya. Of importance here is the German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ) and the German scientists who have been working for Kenya over the years. Last but not least, thanks to Mr. Reimund Hoffmann, the PSDA Coordinator, Nairobi, whose office ably managed the Handbook revision project.

Chris Shisanya Elizabeth Kimenyi Prof. of Agroclimatology Assistant Director of Agriculture Dept. of Geography FMD, MOA Kenyatta University, Nairobi Kenya Nairobi, January 2007 Nairobi, January 2007

6 PREFACE to the Second Edition

Institutional memory is of paramount importance for planning and development. For any research or agricultural extension to be successful, information on the natural farming potential is equally important.

In an eﬀort to consolidate research - extension work of many years, the ﬁrst edition of the Farm Management Handbook (FMHB) of Kenya Vol II (Natural conditions and farm management information), which described the conditions of the Kenyan farming community at that time, was produced in 1982/83. The handbook was in three parts i.e.:

A – for Western Kenya (Western and Nyanza provinces) B – for Central Kenya (Central and Rift Valley provinces). C – for Eastern Kenya (Eastern and Coast provinces)

For more than two decades, the handbook has proved very valuable to researchers, planners, extensionists, developers etc. This is a document that has been sought for enormously and hence the need to revise it in order to accommodate the changes that have taken place in our country since the production of the ﬁrst edition. Some of these include: changes in the administrative boundaries, opening up of new farming areas due to population pressure, etc.

This second edition has been produced on the basis of Provincial administrative boundaries for the six Provinces i.e. West- ern, Nyanza, Rift Valley, Central, Eastern and Coast. The information will be availed in hard copies and in CD – ROMS to facilitate updating any future changes.

It is not possible to acknowledge the contribution of all the individuals who made this edition a reality but I need to mention the following:

Thanks to the Ministry of Agriculture staff, especially the Agribusiness Department formerly Farm Management Division staff at the headquarters (Mrs. E. W. Kimenyi, Mr. F. N. Nderitu, Mrs. A.W Njoroge, Mrs. A. W. Wanyama and Mr. P. T Karuri), and the District staff, for their selfless contribution; Prof. Chris Shisanya, leader of the revision team, for his tireless efforts and guidance; Prof. Ralph Jaetzold for his enormous knowledge on the definition of the agroecological zones and his great contribution to their mapping; Mr. George Awinyo (German Technical Cooperation (GTZ) – Private Sector Develop- ment in Agriculture (PSDA)) for his expertise and contribution in the area of Geographical Information Systems (GIS).

I also wish to thank the GTZ who have facilitated the production of this edition both financially and by the use of their personnel, specifically the late Prof. Werner von der Ohe who supported the idea of the revision, and Mr. Reimund Hoff- mann (GTZ – Programme Manager Private Sector Development in Agriculture PSDA), for supporting and taking up the task to completion.

Dr. Wilson Songa, OGW

AGRICULTURE SECRETARY

Nairobi, May 2007

7 8 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Acknowledgement for the Support to the First Edition 5 Acknowledgement for the Support to the Second Edition 5 Preface to the First Edition 6 Preface to the Second Edition 7 List of Abbreviations 11 Introduction to the Second Edition 12 1. GENERAL PART FOR CENTRAL PROVINCE 1.1 EXPLANATION OF THE EVALUATION OF THE NATURAL POTENTIAL 1.1.1 The Agro-Ecological Zonation for Kenya1) 15 Table I: Agro-Ecological Zones of the Tropics in Kenya 16 Table II: Subzones According to Growing Periods for Annual Crops 18

1.1.2 Major Soils in Central Province 20 Table III: A Broad Estimate of the Dominant Characteristics of the Major Soil Classiﬁcation Units in Kenya . 23 1.1.3 Soil Requirements List for Crops in Central Province 24 Table IV: Soil Requirements List for Crops in Central Province 24 1.2 PRESERVING THE NATURAL POTENTIAL FOR THE FUTURE OF CENTRAL KENYA 1.2.1 Beware of Degrading the Areas of Natural Vegetation in the Agro-Ecological Zones of Central Province to Maintain Water, Firewood and Even Medicinal Resources as well as the Grazing Potential! 29 1.2.2 Maintenance, Replenishment and Improvement of Soil Fertility in Central Province 30 Annex I: Conversion Table of Nutrients into Fertiliser 33 1.2.3 Physical Soil Conservation 35

2. CENTRAL PROVINCE 2.1 INTRODUCTION 41 Table V: Population Projections For Central Province Per District 41 Table VI: Absolute Poor Households and Persons in Central Province Per District 41 2.2 THE TEMPERATURE BELTS 42 2.3 RAINFALL AND AGROECOLOGICAL ZONES OF CENTRAL PROVINCE 43

2.4 RUNOFF-HARVESTING AGRICULTURE TO AVOID FAMINES IN SEMI-ARID LANDS OF CENTRAL PROVINCE 44 Tables VIIa & b: Distances for Runoﬀ-Harvesting Agriculture 46-47 2.5 THE IMPORTANCE OF FERTILISING AND NUTRIENT RECYCLING IN CENTRAL PROVINCE 48 Table VIII: The Decrease (%) of Organic Carbon pH and Available Nutrients in Central Province (During 5 Years of Maize Cultivation at the FURP Experimental Sites) 49 2.6 POSSIBLE CROPS AND VARIETIES IN CENTRAL PROVINVCE 51 Table IX: Agro-Climatological Crop List for Central Province of Kenya 52 Table X: Bioclimatologically Suitable Grasses and Other Fodder Crops for the Agro- Ecological Zones in Central Province 70

1) System Ralph Jaetzold. Method of calculation of growing periods and yield probabilities out of crop-soil water relations by Horst Kutsch, Berthold Hornetz and Chris Shisanya see General Part (Methodology) of Vol. II/MII/M

9 2.7 POSSIBILITIES FOR AGROFORESTRY IN CENTRAL PROVINCE 75 Table XI: Nutrient Composition of Various Biomass 75

3. DISTRICT INFORMATION AND STATISTICS 3.1 GENERAL REMARKS TO THE LAND USE POTENTIALS AND FERTILISER RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE DISTRICTS 77 3.2 NYANDARUA DISTRICT TABLE OF CONTENTS 79 3.3 KIAMBU & THIKA DISTRICTS GROUP TABLE OF CONTENTS 149 3.4 MURANG’A & MARAGUA DISTRICTS GROUP TABLE OF CONTENTS 247 3.5 NYERI DISTRICT TABLE OF CONTENTS 343 3.6 KIRINYAGA DISTRICT TABLE OF CONTENTS 425

10 List of Abbreviations

AEZ = Agro-Ecological Zone LU = Kenyan Livestock unit of 300 kg AEU = Agro-Ecological Unit M = Midland add. = additional m = medium a. o. = and others m. = mid, middle a.s.l. = above sea level mat. = maturing av. = average max. = maximum b. = beginning, begin min. = minimum

bl. = black MSS = Marketing Support Services br = bimodal rainfall NARS = National Agricultural Research Station C. = Cooperative norm. = normally ca. = circa, around O. = 2I¿FH Central Arid Zone Research Institute CAZRI = (Jodhpur, India) p = permanent CL = Coastal Lowland pa = per annum (= per year) comp. = composite p., per. = period DLC = Dry Land Composite Maize PET = Potential Evapotranspiration cv. = cultivar, cultivated variety pl. = planting e. = end pr. = precipitation E = evaporation of a water surface Private Sector Development of 0 PSDA = Agriculture (recent Project of GTZ) F. = Farmer, Farmers r. = rains, rainy season Food and Agriculture Organization of the FAO = United Nations res. = resistant f. i. = for instance R. = Reserve For. = Forest s = short Fertiliser Use Recommendation Project FURP = of the GTZ (1986-91) sec. = secondary GIS = Geographical Information System St., Stn. = Station gr. = growing; with crop name: green TA = Tropical Alpine Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammen- GTZ = arbeit (the German Agency for Technical TCF = Total crop failure Cooperation with Developing Countries) t = temperature; with yields: tons H = Highland; with crop name: hybrid tr = trimodal rainfall h. = heavy U = Upper ha = hectar u = uncertain i = intermediate rains ur = unimodal rainfall i.e. = item est (latin) = it means v = very IL = Inner Lowland Information Research and Communication var. = variety IRACC = Centre y. = year ISFM = Integrated Soil Fertility Management < = less than KARI = Kenya Agriculture Research Institute > = more than KCB = Katumani Composite Maize B ~ = about, nearly, around KSS = Kenya Soil Survey & = and L = Lowland, lower ^ = followed by a... l = long

11 INTRODUCTION to the Second Edition

1. In general, the Kenyan farmer is well informed as to the potential of his own land, the labour force of his family and the production techniques to be used when planting crops cultivated for generations. In the past, this was a perfectly satisfactory situation, but today, the farmer is called on to feed a rapidly increasing population and earn a major share of vital foreign currency through exports, i.e. he / she has to shoulder the cost of economic development in Kenya, in particular in the urban areas. Therefore the farmer is the most important person for the basis and the future of the nation. Traditional farming methods are no longer capable of meeting all the demands made on the farming community; widespread application of scientiﬁc methods is required, but knowledge of these methods is obtained, compiled and stored elsewhere, out of reach of the farmer.

The Handbook has been compiled primarily to assist the agriculture field advisor, who often has little scientific training but who is the most important officer in rural development. Extension work is organised within political units, i.e. location, division and district, and therefore information has been compiled according to AEZs per district resp. district groups, which in some cases has led to repetition. The layout and approach of the book has to be seen in this context.

A large number of oﬃcers working in many diﬀerent Ministries and institutions for rural development are also increasingly in need of information about farming as their contact with practical farming is often very low. But the handbook is designed for the interested farmers too, especially the young ones.

On the research side, it is not always clear what the needs of the farming community are. This results in an increasing amount of research distant to farmers, especially on-station-research, which swallows resources urgently needed to ﬁnd answers to more pressing problems; on-farm investigations (together with the farmers) we therefore need more and more.

Information ﬂow from research to the farmer, and vice versa, and among the various institutions involved in rural development is seriously hampered by the lack of a common source of reference.

Output of agricultural produce could be considerably increased if the knowledge already accumulated in Kenya is available to the farmer. The work output of the planning oﬃcer could also be doubled and its quality substantially improved if he had this knowledge on hand, which would go a long way towards improving the welfare of the rural population.

The increasing demand for information and communication calls for increased eﬀorts to make the information accumulated available.

2. This transfer of “know-how” to those who need it is a major task and can not be achieved by the Farm Manage- ment Division (FMD) of the Ministry of Agriculture alone - it requires a joint eﬀort. The Farm Management Division has now made a major eﬀort to establish and compile information required by the farmers and those who work for the farming community.

This information was published in ﬁve volumes of the Farm Management Handbook of Kenya of which Vol. II “Natural Conditions and Farm Management Information”1 is the centrepiece, ﬁrst published in 1982/83. Now it is a long time out of print but still very much looked for. In spite of very few funds available for it, the new edition has been prepared since 2003.

1 Farm management information which depends largely on ﬁnancial facts had to be excluded, like gross margins, cash ﬂows, farm models. It is published by the FMB occasionally and can be obtained from the Ministry of Agriculture, Kilimo House.

12 3. The Farm Management Approach is the most reliable method yet developed to assist farming. It is therefore very desirable that other institutions try to make use of the system. The use of the Handbook is compulsory for all oﬃcers of the Ministry of Agriculture. Due to pressure of other work and very few funds, the new edition of the Handbook had to be done as a sideline job2. Farm management information in particular is incomplete and there is much scope of improvement. Assistance and suggestions are most welcome.

It is of course evident that the information given cannot be blindly applied but requires assessment for its relevance to the actual case. Much of it, especially fertilizer recommendations, will be replaced within the next ten to twenty years. It is important to take note of these replacements.

The information is given per district and per subzones of the Agro-Ecological Zones, but the diversity of the farms in any AEZ and the limitations of the data base make it essential to evaluate the data supplied i. e. it is most important to read the accompanying explanations and to compare each subzone with the soil pattern to adjust the information to the diﬀerent Agro-Ecological Units.

4.. The Vol. II of the Farm Management Handbook consists of the following parts: a) A West, B Central, and C East Kenya, divided in seven smaller, better manageable subparts by six provinces and a general part and it is supplemented by b) Large AEZ maps of the district groups printed in colour (scale mainly 1:250 000) as wall maps for offices and schools c) A data bank and CD ROMs with a Geographical Information System (GIS) of all important agro-ecological information for each spot. All items are kept by the Farm Man- agement Research Officer (FMRO) of the Ministry of Agriculture. The Farm Management Research Officer (FMRO) of the Ministry of Agriculture keeps all items.

5. It was not possible to compile a complete list of authors of the sources used as in most cases they were unknown. Most information used and/or included was established or compiled by persons working in the Kenyan Civil Service or for the Government; thus the Kenyan Government owns the product of their work. We all are grateful to them.

6. The value of these books containing the natural conditions should not be overestimated.The yield potentials of the Agro-ecological subzones are only a rough guide. First of all the soils of the Agro-ecological units in the subzones must be carefully considered to evaluate their suitability and ability to improve and sustain their fertility, resp. Secondly the marked conditions play an important role in the decision what is suitable at a certain place at present times. Therefore the agro-economic conditions must always be considered in analysing the natural potentials of the Agro-Ecological Zones for recommendations or decisions.3

One of the diﬀerent samples of reduced economic use of the natural potential of Agro-Ecological Zones by worsening of the infrastructure is cotton. Mismanagement in the cotton cooperatives and the cotton board caused long delays and sometimes even reduced payments to the cotton farmers. This discouraged the planting of cotton very severely, especially where small farmers had often occurred debts of production means. So for many years there were large parts of the cotton zone without cotton in Kenya until a new initiative by the government encouraged cotton planting even beyond the cotton zones. Former cotton farmers have planted additional maize for market. The maize price has increased considerably

2 It was impossible to assess the large amount of statistical data in detail. - Also there was not enough time and money to undertake a new diﬀerentiated farm survey. Only a few questions, mainly about the possible increase of yields by good farm management could be placed systematically by the Agriculture Oﬃcers in typical Agro-Ecological Units. 3 Jaetzold, R.: The Agro-ecological Zones of Kenya and their Agro-economical Dynamics. Materialien zur Ostafrikaforschung, Vol. 6, Geographische Gesellschaft, University Trier 1987.

13 since 1990 due to population increase and famine. It should be kept high by the Government to encour- age farmers to plant enough to ensure national food security. Famine disasters are occurring, when a low maize price discouraged planting and then a drought diminished yields.

A general problem is the competition of maize with sorghum and millets, which increase the risk of famine in marginal areas. A high maize price encourages maize planting in the sorghum and millet zones instead of the more drought-resistant sorghum and millet varieties requiring less water. Only if the altitude is above 800 m maize outyields sorghum and millets, and only as long as there are at least 250 mm of well distributed rainfall during the growing season. But the higher risk with maize is taken because people rely on internationally aided famine relief in case of crop failure.

Due to social change and mobility, a farmer who eats sorghum und millet is considered backward in many countries. Due to changing nutritional habits, maize flour is also preferred to sorghum and millet flour, which can be slightly bitter, and the demand and price for these small grains is generally dropping. Finally the loss by birds is less with maize than with most small grain cereal varieties, and the children who in former times had to chase the birds away have now to go to school. In a situation where maize fetches at least 50% more money than sorghum or bulrush millet, the advice of the agro-ecologists to plant more sorghum and millet is not taken up in the marginal foot plains of the highlands of East and North East Africa. Therefore maize is planted as a staple food also beyond the economic limits of maize cultivation in the AEZ 5. Partly it would be more realistic to call it Livestock-Marginal Maize Zone instead of L.-Millet or L.-Sorghum Zone, but we keep to the well known system. In the drier parts of Zone 5 farmers have now realised that grass seeding in fenced plots is profitable.

7. In the ﬁrst edition of this handbook 1982/83 the main focus was to adjust agriculture to the diﬀerent climate conditions in an optimum way. This goal has been achieved to a great extent. But in the mean- time the decreasing soil fertility due the agro-mining by overpopulation has become the main problem. Recycling of exploited nutrients is a must for the long term survival of the country.

8. The population pressure has made people hungry in the search for land even in the risky areas shown in the ﬁrst edition of the Handbook. Now it is necessary to demonstrate to the people not only the risks but the potential for “chance -cropping” too..

Our best wishes are with the farmers. The editors and the authors.

Nairobi and Trier, August 2004

14 1.1 EXPLANATION OF THE EVALUATION OF THE NATURAL POTENTIAL

1.1.1 METHOD OF THE AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONATION by Ralph Jaetzold

Simple agro-ecological zones were established by FAO in 19781. They are suited to make decisions in international and long term agricultural policy. In order to give advice to farmers in the districts a more differentiated system showing yield probabilities and risks as well had to be developed:

1. The zone groups are temperature belts (Table I) defined according to the maximum temperature limits within the main crops in Kenya can flourish; cashew and coconuts for the lowlands, sugar cane and cotton for the lower midlands, Arabica coffee for the upper midlands (usually known as “Highlands” - the term ‘midlands’ is used here to denote their central importance), tea for the lower highlands, pyrethrum for the upper highlands. The highest zone is high altitude rough grazing i.e. tropical alpine (or afro-alpine) vegetation. The threshold values of annual mean temperatures have been established along similar lines to those of H.M.H. BRAUN2 but supplemented by limiting factors for many crops e.g. mean minimum temperatures, frost, etc.

2. The main zones (Table I) are based on their probability of meeting the temperature and water requirements of the main leading crops i.e. climatic yield potential, calculated by computer (see General Part). The zones are roughly parallel with Braun’s climatic zones of the Precipitation/Evaporation Index, but there are differences according to the influence of the length and intensity of arid periods, a factor also considered by the computer programme. In a first order the average annual precipitation is compared with the average annual evapotranspiration. The name of the main zones refers to potentially leading crops and many of them can be grown in other zones too:

Maize zones: LH 1-3; UM 1-4; LM 1-4 (+5); L 2-4 (+5) Hybrid maize in zones: LH 1-3; UM 1-3; LM 1-3 Wheat in zones: UH 2-3; LH 2-4 Unirrigated rice in zones: L 1-3; LM 1-2 Irrigated rice in zones: L 1-6; (7); LM 1-6, (7) Sorghum in zones: UM (1-3), 4-5; LM (1-3), 4-5; L (1-3), 4-5 Finger millet in zones: LH (1-3); UM (1-3), 4; LM (1-3), 4, (5); L (1-3), 4, (5) Groundnuts in zones: LM (1-2), 3-4; L (2-3), 4 Cotton in zones: LM (2), 3-4; L (2), 3-4

1 FAO (1978): Report on the Agro-ecological Zones Project. Methodology and Results for Africa. (= World Soil Resources Rep., 48/1), Rome. 2Kenya Soil Survey, (1982): Exploratory Soil Map and Agro-Climatic Zones Map of Kenya, scale 1:1 000 000, Rep. E 1, Nairobi.

15 16 ( ) mean that in these zones the crop is normally not competitive to related crops (f.i. dwarf millets to maize) Livestock is possible in all zones. Decreasing stocking rates from 1 to 7 (from 0.4 ha up to more than 25 ha per livestock unit of 300 kg) The colours assigned to the main zones become lighter at cooler higher zones altitudes (Table I). Addi- tionally they become more red in the drier climates. Rain starts earlier at higher altitudes. This is due to the fact that with the same amount of water, the production of biomass is still less in cooler altitudinal climates. Also, the chances to ripe a crop before the end of the rainy seasons become smaller in these higher belts because of the increasing length of growing periods. Therefore, the Ranching Zone which covers Zone 6 in the Lowlands occurs already in Zone 5 in the Lower Highlands and even in Zone 4 in the Upper Highlands.

3. For the necessary information to farmers, these main zones are divided into subzones according to the yearly distribution and the length of the growing periods on a 60% probability factor i.e. the given length of the growing period should be reached or surpassed in at least 6 out of 10 years (Table II). “Growing periods” are defined as seasons with enough moisture in the soil to grow most crops, starting with a supply for plants to transpirate more than 0.5 ETo, coming up to > ETo (in the ideal case) during the time of peak demand, and then falling down in the maturity phase again (calculated by the computer programme WATBAL)3. The length is normally given in decades (i.e. a ten day period) for medium soils. Figures are also available for heavy and light soils4, and they are also considered in the computer programmes MARCROP5 and WOFOST6 for the yield potential. These programmes compare the water requirements curves of almost all the main crops (as provided by the FAO 19777 and 19798), re-calculated by H. KUTSCH for Kenyan varieties and adapted to the different agro-climates, with the rainfall occurrences in Kenya from 1930 to 19909, in decades (10 day periods), and their effects on the water supply to the root zone for 3 soil groups and 3 plant population densities. On this basis, an ecological land use potential has been drawn up for each subzone, showing climatic yield expectations and chances. The length of the growing period is the key to selecting the right varieties of annual crops within an agro- ecological zone. The symbols used for the length of the growing periods are straightforward:

vl = very long l = long m = medium s = short vs = very short

3 WATBAL.MODULE 1. It was developed by H. Kutsch and H.J. Schuh (1983): Simplified computer-based modelling of water balance in defined crop stands.- In: L. Reiner & H. Geidel (eds.) (1983): Informationsverarbeitung Agrarwissenschaft. Miinchen. 4 Heavy soil means heavy loam; clay may have less available water for plants. Light soil means loamy sand. 5=WATBAL.MODULE 2 & 3. Callibrated for Kenya by B. Hornetz (see Hornetz and Shisanya in General Part), based on the mathematical approach of Kutsch and Schuh , described in the first edition of the Farm Management Handbook of Kenya (1982), Vol. II, Part A, p. 17-28. 6 See R. Rotter (1993): Simulation of the biophysical limitations to maize production under rainfed conditions in Kenya: Evalua- tion and application of the model WOFOST.- (= Materialien zur Ostafrika-Forschung, 12), Geographische Gesellschaft Univer- sitat Trier. 7 FAO (1977): Crop Water Requirements.- (= Irrigation and Drainage Paper, 24), Rome. 8 FAO (1979): Yield Response to Water.- (= Irrigation and Drainage Paper, 33), Rome. 9 If there were enough completely recorded years, the standard period 1961-90 was used. Recent data were not available in reasonable quantities or too expensive. It is only for important stations that they were used.

17 Th ese are further diff erentiated to give further information for choosing the variety with the most adequate growing period by the use of combined terms like “short to medium”, “medium to long”, etc. (Table II). If it is not desirable to subdivide the growing period in this way, the letter “f” for “fully” occurs before the symbol for the period. Th e growing period formula is put in brackets if there is a weak performance i.e. although the moisture content is suffi cient for growth, the peak demand which is ETo is not satisfi ed in the right time. Where there are two rainy seasons per annum (bimodal rainfall areas), this is shown by a plus sign (+) between the two growing periods to show the yearly pattern. If there is no distinct arid period of at least three decades (30 days) between humid growing periods, the sign “A” is introduced i.e. both periods are bridged together. Expressed in words, it means “... followed by”.

TABLE II: SUBZONES ACCORDING TO GROWING PERIODS FOR ANNUAL CROPS

Length of growing periods1 Samples of combination during Formula Cropping seasons exceeded in 6 out of 10 yrs. the year in Kenya

p normally permanent more than 364 days vl very long 285 – 364 days vl/l very long to long 235 – 284 „ l/vl long to very long 215 – 234 „ l long 195 – 214 „ l/m long to medium 175 – 194 „ m/l medium to long 155 – 174 „ m medium 135 – 154 „ m/s medium to short 115 – 134 „ s/m short to medium 105 – 114 „ s short 85 – 104 „ s/vs short to very short 75 – 84 „ vs/s very short to short 55 – 742 „ vs very short 40 – 543 „ vu very uncertain min. gr. p. < 6 out of 10 y.

Additional information: ur = unimodal rainfall, br = bimodal rainfall, tr = trimodal r. i = intermediate rains (at least 5 decades more than 0.25 ET0)4 ( ) = weak performance of growing period (in most decades less rain than ET0) + = distinct arid period between growing periods A = no distinct arid period between growing periods (“followed by”) f = full, i.e. no subdivision of growing periods, for inst. fm means 115 - 174 days

1 Growing period = enough moisture for cereals and legumes from seed to physical maturity. Figures show the time in which rain and stored soil moisture allow evapotranspiration of more than 0.5 ET0 (in medium soils of at least 60 cm depth), enough for most crops to start growing. During main growing time they need more of course (about full potential evapotranspiration ET0). 2 Lowlands and Lower Midlands, in UM, LH and UH 65 - 74 days 3 Lowlands, in LM 45 - 54 days, in UM 50 - 64 days, in LH and UH 55 - 64 days 4 Th at means moisture conditions are above wilting point for most crops

18 4. The climatic agro-ecological zones are printed on soil maps, derived from the Kenya Soil Survey Maps of the Districts in the Fertilizer Use Recomm. Project of the GTZ, to show the mosaic of agro-ecological units within the zones. In ﬁnal maps the soil units were roughly shaded where experiments have shown which inputs are needed for higher fertility (see maps of Fertiliser Recommendations and Farm Survey Areas).

The soil should be considered as closely as possible. The Fertiliser Use Manual of KARI10 makes the results of the FURP applicable for farmers. For many areas special reports from the Kenya Soil Survey also exist. The average yield expectations given for the Agro-ecological Zones of a district only show what is climatically possible (on prevailing soils) when other conditions are optimized.

5. Therefore, many other factors apart from soil and climate have to be considered such as technologically standard, possibilities of additional irrigation11 and so on. From the given agro-ecologically land use potential for each AEZ it has to be chosen carefully what is economically and sociologically reasonable for the time being12.The agro-ecological zones are illustrated by rainfall and water requirement diagrams. The curves in the diagrams are calculated or if proper data are not available they are estimated for optimum water requirements of crops from seeding to physical maturity. Harvest is later according to ripening stage, but then the plants need little or even no water.

10 A.W. Muriuki and J.N Qureshi: Fertiliser Use Manual. A comprehensive guide on fertiliser use in Kenya. KARI Nairobi 2001. 11 Artiﬁcial irrigation possibilities are normally not yet considered in the land use potentials of Agro-ecological Zones, because they go beyond the climatic natural potential. Nevertheless, we are able to calculate if requested decadically water requirements of irrigated crops for deﬁned sites. 12 R. Jaetzold: The Agro-Ecological Zones of Kenya and their Agro-Economical Dynamics. (= Materialien zur Ostafrika-For- schung, 6), Geographische Gesellschaft Universitat Trier 1987.

19 1.1.2 MAJOR SOILS IN CENTRAL PROVINCE According to the international FAO classiﬁcation

Acrisols Acrisols are acid soils with a low base status, which are strongly leached but less weathered than Ferralsols and appear in the southern and southeastern parts of Kirinyaga and Kiambu (but also in small areas of southern Nyeri and Murang’a) associated with Ferralsols and Luvisols. They are developing mainly on basement rocks like granites, but also on colluvium from volcanic rocks (e.g. on the western slopes of the Nyandarua Range). The base saturation percentage (BSP) of the B horizon is less than 50 %; thus indicating low fertility. The most common type is called orthic, but they also appear as humic (with an umbric A horizon, rich in humic substances), ferralo-chromic (with ferralitic properties due to stronger weathering or high chroma) and ando-humic.

Andosols Andosols are black, well drained, less weathered, mostly shallow soils which have developed on volcanic ashes in the Upper Highland Zones (UH) and the lower parts of the Tropical Alpine Zones (TA) of Mt. Kenya and the Nyandarua Range. Due to high fertility and suﬃcient rainfall in these areas, vegetation on these soils –particularly in the UH- is performing well, so that the topsoil is enriched with organic/humic substances; therefore, they mainly appear as humic and mollic types.

Arenosols Arenosols are coarse, weakly developed mostly sandy soils with an identiﬁable B horizon and a clay content of less than 18 % and appear in small areas of southeastern Kiambu District near Thika. They are developing on colluvial substrates from basement rocks. In Central Kenya Arenosols appear mostly as ferralic types with high sesquioxide contents. They have a low fertility and are exhausted already after a few seasons of cultivation.

Cambisols Cambisols are brown (forest) soils with cambic B horizons as a major feature; layers are diﬀerentiated and changing characteristically due to their (relatively) young age. In Central Kenya they are developing mainly on basement rocks (gneisses are dominating), associated with Ferralsols and Acrisols in some parts of southern and southeastern Thika and Kirinyaga Districts; they also occur on other various parent materials like basic igneous rocks. Cambisols are less weathered than most of the other soils of the humid tropics and contain quite high amounts of clay minerals with high nutrient reserves (like illites and montmorillonites), minerals (like phosphate, potassium etc.) as well as juvenile materials. Usually they appear as chromic types, but also calcic (on calcareous or petrocalcic materials), humic, nito- humic or nito-chromic (on igneous rocks).

Ferralsols Ferralsols normally are strongly weathered soils of the humid tropics with oxic horizons. Soil fertility is low to very low due to low mineral contents, kaolinites (as clay minerals) and a low CEC of less than 16 me/100 g of clay. They are developing mainly on basement rocks like granites, gneisses and quarzites, but also on igneous rocks (like trachytes, syenites, phonolites etc.) and are often associated with Acrisols and Luvisols. In Central Kenya Ferralsols are occurring in the southern and southeastern parts of Kirinyaga and Kiambu Districts (and in small areas of Nyeri District); they have developed in former times under more humid conditions, in particular on the tertiary peneplains, which are stretching from the highlands of Central Kenya down to the coastal hinterlands. The most common types here are the orthic and rhodic ones (with red to dusky red oxic B horizons), but also nito-rhodic.

20 Fluvisols Fluvisols are recent alluvial soils of the ﬂoodplains with depositional rather than pedogenetic proﬁles and mostly a high fertility due to high amounts of organic/humic and mineral substances as well as loamy and sandy fractions. The common eutric type possesses a high base content with a BSP of more than 50 %.

Histosols In Eastern Kenya Histosols are organic (peat) soils of the Tropical-Alpine Zones I and II on Mt. Kenya and the Nyandarua Range; on the upper parts of these mountains they are combined with rock outcrops, on Mt. Kenya with ice. They possess a low fertility due to imperfect drainage and a low base saturation of less than 50 %.

Lithosols Lithosols are shallow soils of less than 10 cm depth developed on hard rocks of diﬀerent origin. Very often they also appear as a result of strong soil erosion.

Luvisols Luvisols are strongly leached soils (lessivés), having argillic B horizons with a relatively high base status and BSP of more than 50 %. In Central Kenya they normally develop on basement rocks (mainly gneisses), but also on igneous rocks and colluvium. They mainly cover parts of the peneplains (like on the footslopes SE of Mt. Kenya) and are usually associated with Ferralsols. Most common are the chromic, ferralo-chromic, rhodic, but also orthic types. Nito-ferric Luvisols occur on the western slopes of the Nyandarua Range in Nyandarua District.

Nitosols Nitosols or Nitisols develop on tertiary and even older basic igneous rocks (like basalts, tuﬀs etc.) and contain emerging argillic horizons with prominent shiny clay skins. They are soils with normally high fertility due to high contents of montmorillonites (as dominating clay minerals), minerals and available soil water as well as a high Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) and mainly occur on the upper slopes of Mt. Kenya and the Nyandarua Range, covering the Lower Highland, Upper Midland and in smaller strips the Lower Midland Zones. These soils possess very good potentials for growing tea and coﬀee. Almost all types of Nitosols are occurring in Central Kenya. The dystric type has a moderate fertility with a relatively low base status and a BSP of less than 50 %; the eutric type has a relatively high base status and a BSP of more than 50 %, but is also moderately fertile. The mollic and humic types are more fertile and have a mollic/humic A horizon.

Phaeozems Phaeozems are well drained, less weathered clayey soils (the clays consist mainly of montmorillonites) with high contents of organic/humic substances in the topsoil as well as a high CEC and plant-available soil water; thus possessing a high fertility. In Central Kenya they have developed on tertiary basic igneous rocks like olivine basalts, phonolites and tuﬀs and occur mainly on the drier semihumid to semiarid high- level savannah plains northwest of Mt. Kenya (northern parts of Nyeri Districts stretching down north to the Laikipia Plateau) and west of the Nyandarua Range (Ol Kalou-Nyahururu area) (leeward sides of the mountains). The luvic type is dominating (verto-luvic, ando-luvic, chromo-luvic).

21 Planosols Planosols are soils with an albic E horizon, hydromorphic properties and a slowly permeable B horizon, developing on diﬀerent parent materials of the bottomlands. Larger areas of Planosols in Central Kenya occur on the imperfectly drained plateaus and high-level structural plains of Nyandarua District west of the Nyandarua Range (weathered on volcanic ashes and other pyroclastics). They appear as dystric (with a low base status and BSP of less than 50 %), eutric (high base status and BSP more than 50 %) and solodic types.

Regosols Regosols are weakly developed soils from unconsolidated materials like igneous and basement rocks, often associated with Lithosols. In Central Province they usually appear on the footslopes of inselbergs, hills and scarps as well as recent volcanoes. Dystric types with a low base status and BSP less than 50 % are as common as eutric ones with a high base saturation of more than 50 %. On recent volcanoes ando-calcaric types are occurring.

Vertisols Vertisols (“Black Cotton Soils”) are dark montmorillonite-rich, poorly drained cracking clays of the bottomlands with peloturbation processes. The clay content is higher than 30 %. They develop on alluvial and colluvial materials (so called “secondary Vertisols”) as well as on basic rocks (like basalts; so called “primary Vertisols”). Usually they contain high amounts of CaCO3 and other minerals with a high CEC due to the montmorillonitic clay minerals. The predominant pellic type is characterized by a low chroma of less than 1.5.

Reference: Landon, J.R. (Ed., 1991): Booker Tropical Soil Manual.-Longman Group, London, New York

22 Remarks Kikuyu Red loam Black Cotton soils cracking clay Vlei soils non saline or sodic soils of dry region. poorly drained soils peat soils Water Water holding capacity low to very low moderate moderate moderate to high high Prairie soils high moderate to low variable sodic (alkali)soils moderate to high moderate to high moderate to high low to very high high low moderate to good low moderate to good moderate to high variable young soils variable moderate to high moderate moderate moderate to good moderate to good moderate to poor moderate to poor pH (water) Drainage Workability Fertility variable good good moderate to high variable good good high high Ash soils Volcanic variablevariable poor poor poor moderate to poor low to moderate moderate to high high variable variable variable variable variable variablevariable poor poor variable Org.matter Content of topsoil variable variable variable variable variable very low very shallow soils moderate to high moderate to high low to moderate low to moderate moderate to high moderate to high moderate to high Depth very shallow Texture Texture topsoil peat variable very high below 5.5 Texture Texture subsoil Peat- clay : A BROAD ESTIMATE THE OF DOMINANT: A BROAD CHARACTERISTICS THE UNITS OF MAJOR SOIL CLASSIFICATION IN KENYA Major soilMajor class,unit FerralsolsLuvisols ClayAcrisols Clay clayArenosols Clay variable Sand variable variable variable variable sand variable variable variable variable variable above 5.5 low below good moderate 5.5 moderate to good low to moderate moderate to good moderate variable low good good Nitosols Clay clay deep Phaeozems ClayAndosols Clay variable variable clay high deep above 5.5 good good Rendzinas Clay clay variable high above 5.5 good good Cambisols variable Variable Fluvisols variable Variable variable variable variable variable variable variable variable variable moderate to high variable Alluvial soil VertisolsPlanosols Clay Clay clay variable variable variable Xerosols Clay variable variable variable above 5.5 variable variable variable variable Solonchaks ClaySolonetz Clay variable variable variable variable variable variable above 7 above variable 7 variable poor poor variable variable saline soils RegosolsRankers Clay Clay variable variable variable variable variable below 5.5 variable variable variable variable Lithosols Rock variable GleysolsGreyzems Clay Clay clay variable variable variable Histosols TABLE III TABLE H.M.H. Braun H.M.H. variable = more than 3 classes

23 TABLE IV: SOIL REQUIREMENTS LIST FOR CROPS IN KENYA

Crops Preferred texture pH Drainage Remarks GRAIN CROPS Not on very acid soils, Maize light to medium 5.5-8.0 Free draining not on water logging soils (Zea mays) soils at least moderately fertile soils.

Moderately well In waterlogging Wheat light to medium 6.5-8.0 to well drained conditions very poor (Triticum aestivum) soils yields, moderately to highly fertile soils. Durum wheat Well drained Moderately drought (Triticum durum) light to medium 6.5-8.0 soils. tolerant. Tolerates salinity, Triticale medium to heavy 6.5-8.0 Well drained soils moderately drought (Triticum x secale) tolerant Intolerant of Barley medium 6.5-8.0 Well drained soils waterlogging, tolerates (Hordeum vulgare) salinity (-1%), moderately fertile soils

Oats Moderately Also on poor soils (Avena sativa) medium 6.5-8.0 drained soils

Foxtail millet Quickly growing but not (Setaria italica) medium 5.0-8.0 Well drained soils very drought tolerant

Proso millet Some varieties drought (Panicum miliaceum) medium 5.0-8.0 Well drained soils tolerant

Bulrush millet Drought tolerant tolerates (Pennisetum typhoides) light to medium 5.0-8.0 Well drained soils salinity

Finger millet Moderately Turcana varieties drought (Eleusine coracana) medium 6.5-8.0 drained soils tolerant

Moderately well Sorghum medium to heavy 4.5-8.5 to well drained Low to moderately fertile (Sorghum vulgare) soils soils

LEGUMINOUS CROPS

Tepary beans (Phasolous acutifolius) medium 6.0-7.5 Well drained soils Drought tolerant

Cow peas Free draining (Vigna unguiculata) light 5.0-7.5 soils Drought tolerant

Moth beans medium to light 6.0-7.5 Well drained soils Drought tolerant (Vigna aconitifolia)

Green grams (Vigna aureus) medium 6.0-7.5 Well drained soils Drought tolerant Black grams (Vigna mungo) medium 6.0-7.5 Well drained soils Drought tolerant

24 TABLE IV: Continued

Crops Preferred texture pH Drainage Remarks Chick peas = Yellow heavy (“Black Moderately to grams (Cicer arietinum) Cotton soils “) 5.0-7.5 well drained soils Fairly drought tolerant

Not drought tolerant, Beans medium 6.0-7.5 Free draining need moist soil (Phaseolus vulgaris) soils throughout the growing period.

Bonavist beans=Njahe Very drought tolerant (Dolichos lablab) medium 6.0-7.5 Well drained soils

Trop.lima beans Grows well also on (Phaseolus lunatus) various 6.0-7.0 Well drained soils infertile soils

Horse beans Moderately to (Vicia equine) medium 5.5-7.5 well drained soils Drought tolerant

Horse grams medium 5.5-7.5 Moderately to Drought tolerant ('ROLFKRVXQLÀRUXV) well drained soils

Until harvesting the Well drained soil must be moist, but Groundnuts light 6.2-7.5 to somewhat sensitive to impeded (Arachis hypogea) excessively drainage; moderately drained soils fertile soils.

Soil aeration must be adequate, not on heavy Bambarra nuts light 6.2-7.5 Well drained soils soils with pans; thrive (Voandzeia subterranea) better than groundnuts on poor soils.

5.5-7.5 Garden peas medium (see Well drained soils Some N good for start (Pisum sativum) beans)

Pigeon peas 5.0-7.5 Free draining Fairly drought tolerant (Cajanus cajan) light No info. 5.5-7.5 Moderately well Soya beans medium (opt.6.0- to well drained Moderately fertile soils (Glycine max.) 6.5) soils

OIL SEED CROPS

6XQÀRZHU Moderately (Helianthus annuus) medium (heavy) 6.0-8.0 drained soils Very drought tolerant

Linseed medium Moderately (Linum usitatissium) 5.5-7.5 drained soils Drought tolerant

Rai Moderately (Brassica juncea) medium to heavy 6.0-8.0 drained soils Drought tolerant Rapeseed Moderately (Brassica napus) medium 5.5-7.0 drained soils Not drought tolerant Simsim (Sesamum Free draining Moderately drought indicum) light to medium 6.0-7.5 soils tolerant

25 TABLE IV: Continued

Crops Preferred texture pH Drainage Remarks Tolerates salinity, 6DIÀRU Carthamus Moderately tinctorius) medium 6.0-8.0 drained soils moderately drought tolerant

Castor Free draining Moderately drought (Ricinus communis) medium 6.0-7.5 soils tolerant, not on saline soils.

TUBER CROPS various (wide Various but Sweet potatoes Drought tolerant, need (Ipomea batatas) range; swamps to various planted on ridges eroded areas) in swamps moderately fertile soils

Potatoes Free draining Not so drought tolerant, (Dolanum tuberosum) light to medium 4.5-8.0 soils need good supply of nutrients

Very drought tolerant, Cassava Free draining not on very stony or (Manihot esculenta) light to medium various soils shallow soils, sensitive to impeded drainage, thrives also on less fertile soils

Grows esp. well on Taro-Cocoyam light to medium 4.5-8.0 Tolerates riverbanks, demands a (Colocasia antiquorum) waterlogging fertile soil Moderately to White Guinea yam medium 4.5-7.0 weakly drained Moderately fertile soils. (Dioscorea rotundata) soils Greater yam (D.alata) “ “ “ “

Yellow Guinea yam (D.cayenensis) “ “ “ “

Buffalo gourds (Cucurbita foetidissima) light 6.0-7.5 Well drained soils Very drought tolerant

Marama beans (Tylosema esculenteum) medium 6.0-7.5 Well drained soils Very drought tolerant

Vigna (Vigna lobatifolia) light to medium 6.0-7.5 Well drained soils Very drought tolerant

FIBRE CROPS

Tolerates salinity (0,5- Cotton Well drained =0,6%); moderately to (Gossypium hirsutum) medium to heavy 6.0-8.0 soils, sensitive to high fertile soils; should impeded drainage contain bor

Flax 5.5-7.5 Moderately (Linum usitatissimum) medium drained soils

1HZ=HDODQGÀD[ Moderately (Phormium tenax) medium 5.5-7.5 drained soils

26 TABLE IV: Continued

Crops Preferred texture pH Drainage Remarks Tolerates salinity, 6DIÀRU Carthamus Moderately tinctorius) medium 6.0-8.0 drained soils moderately drought tolerant

Castor Free draining Moderately drought (Ricinus communis) medium 6.0-7.5 soils tolerant, not on saline soils.

TUBER CROPS various (wide Various but Sweet potatoes Drought tolerant, need (Ipomea batatas) range; swamps to various planted on ridges eroded areas) in swamps moderately fertile soils

Potatoes Free draining Not so drought tolerant, (Dolanum tuberosum) light to medium 4.5-8.0 soils need good supply of nutrients

Very drought tolerant, Cassava Free draining not on very stony or (Manihot esculenta) light to medium various soils shallow soils, sensitive to impeded drainage, thrives also on less fertile soils

Yellow Guinea yam (D.cayenensis) “ “ “ “

Buffalo gourds (Cucurbita foetidissima) light 6.0-7.5 Well drained soils Very drought tolerant

Marama beans (Tylosema esculenteum) medium 6.0-7.5 Well drained soils Very drought tolerant

Vigna (Vigna lobatifolia) light to medium 6.0-7.5 Well drained soils Very drought tolerant

FIBRE CROPS

Tolerates salinity (0,5- Cotton Well drained =0,6%); moderately to (Gossypium hirsutum) medium to heavy 6.0-8.0 soils, sensitive to high fertile soils; should impeded drainage contain bor

Flax 5.5-7.5 Moderately (Linum usitatissimum) medium drained soils

1HZ=HDODQGÀD[ Moderately (Phormium tenax) medium 5.5-7.5 drained soils

27 TABLE IV: Continued

Crops Preferred texture pH Drainage Remarks Pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum medium 5.6-7.5 Well drained soils cinerariaefolium)

Sensitive to water logging;groundwater Moderately well should be below1m Sugarcane light to medium 5.0-7.0 to well drained depth. On heavy soils (Saccharum spp.) soils cambered beds, ditches or furrows must be formed for drainage. Moderately fertile soils

Soil with good water retaining capacity is 4.0-6.0 Free draining essential, very sensitive Tea (Camellia sinensis) medium (4.5-5.5) soils to CaCO3 (0%) and CaS04 (0%),grows also on less fertile soils

Not on heavy or/and saline soils, very sensitive Tobacco (5.0) 5.5- Well drained soils to CaCO (>1% of the (Nicotiana tabacum) medium 6.5 3 ¿QHHDUWK DQG&D624 !RIWKH¿QHHDUWK

Tung Oil (Aleurites fordii) medium 4.5-6.5 Well drained soils Ye-eb nuts (Cordeauxia edulis) medium No info. Well drained soils Very drought tolerant

28 1.2 PRESERVINGTHE NATURAL POTENTIAL FORTHE FUTURE OF CENTRAL PROVINCE

1.2.1 BEWARE OF DEGRADINGTHE AREAS OF NATURALVEGETATION INTHE AGRO-ECO- LOGICALZONES OF CENTRAL PROVINCE TO MAINTAIN WATER, FIREWOOD AND ME- DICINAL RESOURCES AS WELL AS THE GRAZING POTENTIAL!

The Agro-Ecological Zones 0-3 are originally zones of forest according to the natural vegetation. AEZ 0 corresponds to everwet evergreen rainforest, AEZ 1 to evergreen rainforest, AEZ 2 to seasonal rainforest because of one or two dry months. AEZ 3 has three to ﬁve dry months, it corresponds to seasonal semi-deciduous moist forest or a high grass - broad leaved trees savannah, which might be caused edaphically by waterlogging soils (mbugas) or very poor leached senile soils, both unsuitable for most trees. On other soils, it might be a secondary vegetation caused by ﬁre outbreaks. The tall grass supresses the young trees and if it is set ablaze, it produces a lot of heat that kills most of the trees.

AEZ 4 corresponds to woodland, it is either deciduous in subzones with unimodal rainfall as towards West Kenya and in Tanzania, or hard-leaved evergreen in bimodal rainfall subzones with two dry seasons as in East Kenya, where plants have hard or hairy leaves to avoid sheding them oﬀ twice a year. The grass grows to about 1 m tall.

Forests (and woodlands) are necessary also for agriculture because they minimize surface-runoﬀ and store water in their deep, unhardened soils to recharge underground wells, creeks and streams during the dry seasons. It is partly for these reasons that the Nyandarua Forest as well as the smaller ones must be conserved. Forest protection is necessary for other reasons too: Firewood collection (not cutting!), timber, medicinal plants and genetic resources. A network of forest reserves is necessary to conserve biodiversity.

A network of protected areas is also a must for the drier Agro-Ecological Zones 4-6.The corresponding natural vegetation in AEZ 5 is a short grass savannah with small leaved thorny trees and bushes. Zone 6 is bushland with very short but still perennial grass, therefore it is suitable for ranching - if the grass (the standing hay for the dry season) is not eradicated by overgrazing.

Good management of the remaining natural vegetation by farmers especially herders is important: In AEZ 3 it is necessary to avoid burning which kills the regrowth of trees and ecologically valuable bushes. But the main danger here is overgrazing which puts the balance between grass and bushes to the bush side. Bush encroachment can finally finish the grazing potential. This is the same danger in AEZ 4 and 5 but with shrubby species (shrub encroachment, thorny in AEZ 5). In the first stage, poisonous or bitter herbs not eaten by livestock thrive abundantly, leading to some sort of ‘’green degradation’’.

In AEZ 6 the eradication of grass by overgrazing promotes at first dwarf shrubs (dwarf shrub encroachment), then in the better subzones thorny low shrubs grow up. The grazing potential has severely decreased, only goats as browsers remain. In a final stage, due to overuse and soil denudation, the shrubs disappear and desertification becomes evident. Reseeding fenced plots before it is so bad is now practised. Originally semi- desert indicates Zone 7, full desert Zone 8.

Another problem that is aggravating not only the cropland but even the grazing land is soil degradation. The animals take in nutrients through the vegetal material they ingest and release the same through dung. Farmers need to utilise these dung on their ﬁelds in order to replenish the depleted soil nutrients.

29 1.2.2 MAINTENANCE, REPLENISHMENT AND IMPROVEMENT OF SOIL FERTILITY IN KENYA

Soil fertility depletion has been described as the major biophysical root cause of the declining per-capita food availability in smallholder farms in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), with a decline from 150 to 130 kg per person over the past 35 years in production1). In the densely populated Western Province, for example, it went down to 60 kg for cereals! Emerging evidence attributes this to insufficient nutrient inputs relative to exports, primarily through harvested products, leaching, gaseous losses and soil erosion. This results in yields that are about 2-5 times lower than potential. Adequate and better solutions to combat nutrients depletion where known, are often limited in application because of the dynamics and heterogeneity of the African agro-ecosystems in terms of biophysical and socio-economic gradients. This calls for system-specific or flexible recommendations, rather than monolithic technical solutions such as blanket fertilizer recommendations.

Despite diversity of approaches and solutions and the investment of time and resources by a wide range of institutions, soil fertility degradation continues to prove to be a substantially intransigent problem, and as the single most important constraint to food security in the continent2). For example, soil loss through erosion is estimated to be 10 times greater than the rate of natural formation. Return to investment in soil fertility has not been commensurate to research outputs3). Farmers are only likely to adopt sound soil management if they are assured of return on their investment. Integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) is now regarded as a strategy that helps low resource endowed farmers, mitigate many problems and the characteristics of poverty and food insecurity by improving the quantity and quality of food, income and resilience of soil productive capacity.

Essentially, ISFM is the adoption of a systematic conscious participatory and broad knowledge intensive holistic approach to research on soil fertility and that embraces the full range of driving factors and conse- quences such as biological, physical, chemical, social, economic and political aspects of soil fertility degradation. The approach advocates for careful management of soil fertility aspects that optimise production potential through incorporation of a wide range of adoptable soil management principles, practices and options for productive and sustainable agroecosystems. It entails the development of soil nutrient management technologies for adequate supply and feasible share of organic and inorganic inputs that meet the farmers’ production goals and circumstances. The approach includes other important aspects of the soil complex; soil life, structure and organic matter content. The approach integrates the roles of soil and water conservation; land preparation and tillage; organic and inorganic nutrient sources; nutrient adding and saving practices; pests and diseases; livestock; rotation and intercropping; multipurpose role legumes and integrating the diﬀerent research methods and knowledge systems. The approach also includes a social and economic dimension.

The increasing adoption of ISFM as a long-term perspective and holistic approach derives its success on the emergence of a consensus on its guiding principles. This paradigm is closely related to the wider concepts of Integrated Natural Resources Management (INRM), thereby representing a significant step beyond the earlier, narrower concept and approach of nutrient replenishment/recapitalization for soil fertility enhance- ment2). ISFM thereafter embraces the full range of multiple options (MPOs) and driving factors and con- sequences (namely: biological, physical, chemical, social, economic and political), of soil degradation in different farming systems and land types. The ISFM MPOs may include: a) Integrated Nutrient Management (INM), which is the technical backbone of ISFM approach. It entails integrated use of organics as well as in-organic sources of plant nutrients; as well as the en tirety of possible combinations of nutrient-adding practices and nutrient saving techniques. The latter INM is perceived as the judicious manipulation of nutrient inputs, outputs and internal flows to achieve productive and sustainable agricultural systems4). b) Integrating the beneficial and deleterious effects of the relationship between abiotic factors (including tillage, soil and water management) and biotic stresses (including integrated pest and disease management; integrated crop management). c) Integration of crop and livestock production.

30 d) Integration and greater productive use of local and indigenous knowledge, innovations,practices and resources and science knowledge based-management system. e) Integration of policy and institutional framework, as well as on-site and oﬀ-site (landscape) eﬀects.

Fertiliser is a term used to refer to any inorganic or organic material, natural or synthetic in origin that is added to soil or other growing media to supply plant nutrients. Inorganic or mineral fertilisers originate from ores, air, sediments or ashes. Organic fertilisers originate from organic materials such as animal or human waste and compost. Fertilisers may be in solid, liquid or gaseous forms. The mineral nutrient content and solubility of a fertiliser in water determines its efficiency. Plant fertiliser use efficiency is influenced by climate (e.g. temperature and rainfall) and soil factors such as soil pH, mineral content and humus5. Gener- ally, the nutrient content of organic fertilisers is usually lower than that of inorganic fertilisers but it is more stable and not so much endangered by outwash or insoluble fixation (phosphorus to iron).

Most inorganic fertilisers are mined from ores or sedimentary deposits, except for those that contain nitrogen (N) which is synthesized with high energy input from the air. Because of the high element concentration and high solubility of the inorganic fertilisers, their beneficial effects on plant growth are quick and easy to recognise. There are two types of mineral fertilisers on the Kenyan market: straight and compound. Straight fertilisers contain one nutrient while compound fertilisers contain two or more nutrients. Every inorganic fertiliser has a particular grade. The fertiliser grade refers to the percent nutrient content of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Nitrogen is expressed in % N, phosphorus as % phosphate (P2O5) and potassium as % potassium oxide (K2O). It is mandatory that this N-P-K (i.e. N-P2O5-K2O) information be displayed on the outside of each fertiliser bag. For example, the fertiliser 17-17-17 contains 17% nitrogen, 17% P2O5 and 17% K2O in every 100 kg of fertiliser. The remaining 49 kg in the fertiliser is filler material. Important inorganic fertilisers found in the Kenyan market include: Ammonium sulphate (SA), Calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN), Urea, Single Super Phosphate (SSP), Triple Super Phosphate (TSP), Phosphate rock, Muri- ate of Potash (MOP), Sulphate of Potash, Lime (calcium carbonate).

Some common organic fertilisers used in replenishing soil fertility in Kenya include bone meal, crop residues (e.g. maize stover, bean trash, napier grass trash, tree/hedge cuttings) animal manure (e.g. cattle, sheep, goat, pig, poultry) and compost6). The nutrient contents in manure vary enormously depending on the source, method of processing, application and storage. Herbaceous legumes too are commonly used as green manure in Kenya. Usually, the legume is grown in pure stand and cut just before full bloom (or flowering stage), while the N content is at or near the maximum. After wilting the leaves, the green manure is incorporated with the soil to facilitate decomposition. Grain legumes can also contribute to a soil’s nitrogen budget when included as part of the rotation because of the nitrogen left behind in the roots and residue remaining after removal of the seed. In addition to herbaceous legumes, several tree species also fix nitrogen thereby substantially increasing the nitrogen capital of the soils. The most notable ones used for agroforestry are fast growing and belong to the following genera: Leucaena, Calliandra, Erythrina, Gliricidia and Sesbania. Slow growing nitrogen fixing fixing trees include: Albizia, Inga, Acacia and Faidherbia albida. Some soils need inoculation with the nitrogen fixing bacteria which make nodules on the roots of the Leguminosae family. Another green manure shrub worth mentioning is Tithonia diversifolia. Although not a legume itself, Titho- nia is considered an excellent green manure because of its ability to accumulate plant nutrients quickly, its rapid decomposition. Green manuring with Tithonia is being promoted vigorously in Western Kenya and Nyanza provinces, for example, to improve soil fertility in nutrient depleted soils and with promising results, particularly in maize and vegetable production.

Improved fallow systems offer a quick way to regenerate soil fertility because they require shorter fallow periods than natural fallow and the only investment required is seed. The plant species of choice should be fast growing high nitrogen fixers. Where soil fertility has declined tremendously, the performance of improved fallow can be increased by supplying the other limiting nutrients (other than nitrogen e.g. potassium and phosphorus) to the improved fallow. In Western Kenya, it has been proved scientifically that fields sown with maize and beans in which the improved fallow was Crotolaria gramiana or Tephrosia vogelii was used had higher economic return than where natural fallow was used or the continuous cropped fields6).

31 The improved fallow was most beneﬁcial when phosphorus (a limiting nutrient in the region) was applied at the time of planting the fallow. Extending improved fallow systems for soil fertility improvement should be reasonably easy in Kenya given that many smallholder farmers know the value of leaving land to fallow naturally. But with small and diminishing acreage per farm, there is almost no land left to regenerate in a fallow period in Central Province.

Conventional wisdom maintains that food security in Africa and Kenya in particular will be achieved by presenting smallholder farmers with a “basket” of crop and land management options from which they may choose the practices that best suit their site-specific needs and socio-economic conditions7). Several different, and often competing, soil fertility management “recommendations” for maize-legume intercrops are offered to farmers in Kenya through a variety of outreach activities.

These options include “Green Revolution” fertiliser technologies (FURP), soil nutrient replenishment with rock phosphate (PREP), fortiﬁed composting (COMP), relay intercropping with Lablab purpureus (LABLAB), staggered-row intercropping (MBILI) and short-term improved Crotolaria grahamiana fallows (IMPFAL). These management options have been examined in western Kenya along with maize control receiving no external inputs over three growing seasons7. Data were collected on crop yield, input costs, labour requirements and crop returns. Averaged over three seasons, production costs were (PREP = $119/ha) > (FURP = $101) > (MBILI = $98) > (COMP = $95) > (LABLAB = $74) > (IMPFAL = $67) > (No inputs

= $62). Average maize yield (LSD0.05 = 0.2) ranged between 1.5 t/ha (No inputs) and 2.8 t/ha (MBILI).

Average legume yields (LSD0.05 = 27) ranged between 203 kg/ha (No input bean) to 500 kg/ha (MBILI

bean). Overall benefit cost ratios (LSD0.05 = 0.17) were FURP (2.22) = No inputs (2.28) < COMP (2.48) = LABLAB (2.52) < IMPFAL (3.03) < MBILI (3.44). Clearly all these “recommended” technologies offer potential to many farmers in West Kenya, and Kenya at large, but the ability of farmers to provide the necessary input costs and labour remains uncertain. Perhaps it is time we focussed attention upon how farmers’ “basket of options” is filled rather than how full it has become.

NOTES: 1Nandwa, S.M. (2003): Perspectives on soil fertility in Africa. In: Gichuru et al. (Eds.). Soil fertility Management in Africa: A Re- gional Perspective. Academy Science Publishers (ASP) & Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility of CIAT (TSBF), Nairobi, pp. 1-50. 2Sanchez, P.A. and Leaky, R.R.B. (1997): Landuse transformation in Africa: Three determinants for balancing food security with natural resource utilization. European Journal of Agronomy, 7: 1-9. 3African Highlands Initiative (AHI) (1997): Phase 1 Report. ICRAF, Nairobi. 4Smaling, E.M.A., Fresco, L.O. and De Jager, A. (1996): Classifying, monitoring and improving soil nutrient stocks and ﬂows in African Agriculture. Ambio, 25: 492-496. 5Humus can store the given nutrients 25 times better than a senile tropical soil, thus preventing the outwash by heavy rains. 6Muriuki, A.W. and Qureshi, J.N. (2001): Fertiliser Use Manual: A comprehensive guide on fertiliser use in Kenya. Kenya Agri- cultural Research Institute (KARI), Nairobi, p. 149. 7Woomer, P.L. (2004): Cost and return on soil fertility management options in western Kenya. Abstracts of the International Symposium of the African Network for Soil Biology and Fertility (AfNET) of TSBF institute of CIAT, Yaounde, Cameroon, May 17-21, 2004, pp. 147-148.

32 33 34 1.2.3 PHYSICAL SOIL CONSERVATION By C. G. Wenner and S.N. Njoroge

Classification of land The land of a farm can be classified as to slope and soil, with the different classifications needing different considerations: 1) Flatland, sloping less than 2%, can usually be farmed without any special soil conservation measures except contour farming. 2) On gentle slopes between 2 and 12% terracing is not obligatory according to the present Agricul- ture Act, but terracing is usually desirable on slopes exceeding 5%. In semi-arid areas and in areas with erodible soils, even slopes less than 5% (2 – 5%) usually need to be terraced. 3) On slopes exceeding 12%, but not exceeding 55%, terraces (preferably developed bench terraces) should be used if the depth of the soil is more than about 0.75m. For very steep slopes modified bench terraces are recommended, i.e. narrow ledges cut into the slope, suitable for fruit trees, fodder trees, forest trees and coffee. 4) Slopes exceeding approximately 55% should be covered with grass and/or forest. Under certain conditions it might be permissible to cultivate tea, sugar cane or bananas with a layer of trash on the ground. 5) Soils which are rocky, stony or shallow, should be used as pasture or for forest or they should have stone terraces.

Soil conservation in general The basic protection of soil against erosion is good farm management: 1) Ploughing and planting along the contour 2) Rotation of crop and grass 3) Manure favouring the growth of crops 4) Leaving crop residue on the ground On slopes, good farm management by itself is not suﬃcient and it has to be combined with terraces.

Terraces Terraces can be made by machinery or, usually, by hand.

Terraces made by machinery Mechanised soil conservation can only be used on slopes which are not too steep (preferably 2 – 12%). Two types of terraces are used: 1) The channel terrace 2) The ridge terrace The V-shaped terrace, on one or both sides of a ridge, will usually be ﬁlled up by sediment and will thus develop into a bench terrace. But this could as well have developed from a grass strip.

Terraces made by hand Terraces can develop from: 1) unploughed strips 2) Grass planted in one or two rows 3) Trash lines laid along the terrace line In the strips, water ﬂows will be distributed between the grass stems and most of the water will be inﬁltrated into the ground.

To hasten the formation of a bench terrace you can make a ridge by digging a channel (2 feet wide, 2 -3 feet deep) and throwing the soil uphill, using the so-called “Fanya Juu” method.

Bench terraces are usually preferable to channel terraces, as the benches change the degree of slope. They also retain eroded soil, moisture and nutrients.

35 Length of terraces Terraces should not, if possible, be many hundreds of metres long. More than 400 m should be avoided.

Gradient of terraces Terraces can be level or graded. Level terraces should be constructed on gentle slopes in permeable soils in dry areas. For graded terraces the following gradients are recommended: in erosion resistant soils (clay) 1%, normally 0.5% and in erodible soils (silty, sandy) 0.25%.

36 Vertical interval between terraces The vertical interval (V.I) between terraces depends on the slope and has been calculated in three diﬀerent ways in Kenya:

A/ The ordinary formula-V.I. (in feet) = (percentage slope/ 4) + 2

B/ The bench formula-V.I (in feet) = (percentage slope/ 8) + 1

C/A constant V.I. of 5-6 or 2.5-3 feet (1.5-1.8 or 0.75 - 0.90m).

The method selected depends on the slope: 5-12% A, B or C, but the horizontal interval is preferably not greater than 80 Feet (24m) on erodible soils. 12-35% B or C 35-55% C or modiﬁed bench terraces. As shown above, a constant vertical interval (method C), corresponding to the eye height of a man can be used on slopes between 5% and 55%. The vertical interval will vary with the eye height of the person setting out of the terraces, i.e between 5 and 6 feet (1.5 and 1.8m). Such variation can be disregarded in setting out terraces. If terraces are needed on slopes between 2% and 5%, see table. The vertical intervals will then be less than the height of a person, because the horizontal interval should be a maximum of 24 m (80 feet):

Slope Vertical interval Horizontal interval % in meters in feet in meters in feet 2 0.5 1.7 24 80 3 0.7 2.3 24 80 4 1.0 3.3 24 80 5 1.2 4.0 24 80

Horizontal interval between terraces The horizontal interval (H.I.) between terrace edges (grass strips) is calculated as H.I.= (V.I x 100/% of slope) If the V.I. is expressed in feet, the H.I. will be in feet. If the V.I. is expressed in meters, the H.I. will be in meters.

CUTOFF DRAINS In general Large water flows coming from outside a farm have to be diverted from the farm by a cut off drain, e.g. collecting water from a hillside, or preventing water from a plateau from flowing down a terraced slope, or taking care of water from a roadside ditch . Cutoff drains should be dug only when there is evidence of large water flows which cannot be stopped through normal terracing. Below the banks of terraces channels can be excavated instead of making cutoff drains. In the survey of a cutoff drain, you should start with the outlet point. If you cannot discharge the water in a safe way do not dig any cutoff drain. Before measuring and setting out the pegs, you should walk along the proposed cutoff drain, checking that the drain is properly sited regarding houses, cultivation, rocky ground etc. Do not dig any cut off drain if the farmers do not agree to do terracing below the drain and to maintain the the channel by removing the soil sedimentation. Special forms should be used.

Length of cutoff drains As in terracing cutoff drains should usually not be larger than 400m. If it is difficult to find a natural waterway within 400m, it might be better to make the cutoff drain essentially longer than 400 m instead of

37 digging an expansive artiﬁ cial waterway. Gradient of cutoﬀ drains Th e same as for graded terraces (see previous page)

Intervals between cutoff drains Usually one cutoff drain only is needed on a slope. Only at very long slopes might an extra cutoff drain be dug in exceptional cases.

Size of cutoff drains As to design of cutoff drains, and for the approximate dimensions of the cutoff channel see the fi gure below on this page. A cutoff drain dug by hand is often 5 feet (1.5 m) wide at the top, 3 feet (0.9 m) wide at the bottom and 2 feet (0.6 m) deep, giving a cross-section of 0.7 m2. A cutoff drain constructed by a motor grader often has a V-shaped cross-section and is made 6-8 feet wide (1.8-2.4 m) and 2.5 feet deep (0.75 m), giving a cross-section of 0.7-0.9 m2. In semi-arid overgrazed areas cutoff drains, especially in silt and sandy soils, are useless without grazing control and establishment of grass cover on the ground round the gullies.

ARTIFICIAL WATERWAYS In general Th e water from cutoff drains as well as from terraces should be discharged into natural watercources (rivers) or onto nonerodible areas such as stony ground or permanent pasture with a good grass cover. If it is not possible to fi nd such an outlet point within a reasonable distance, the excess water has to be taken down the slope by an artifi cial waterway, covered with grass. A diffi culty in constructing waterways is that protec- tive grass cannot be established in the fi rst year or two. Consequently it would be reasonable to construct the artifi cial waterways and plant grass two years before the construction of the cutoff drains and terraces. Another way is to remove the grass before excavating the waterway and afterwards replace the grass as shown in the fi gure below on the next page.

38 A waterway should be wide (5 feet at least) and shallow (1 feet deep) to minimize erosion. Width of waterways Th e width can be varied depending on the size of the catchment area and the steepness of the slope. Th e necessary width in feet of an artifi cial waterway in erodible soils can be read from the table below: Catchment area of the Steepness of the slope waterways in acres less than 6% 6 - 12% more than 12% 5568 10 6 8 10 15 7 11 17 20 8 15 23 30 9 23 34 40 12 30 44 50 16 38 56 In erosion resistant soils such as clay and clay loam, the width as shown in the table can be much less, but not less than 5 feet. If the central 1/3 of the waterway is covered with stones, the width as shown in the table can be decreased by about a half. Experience has shown that farmers hesitate to accept even half of the widths recommended. An alterna- tive then is to construct check dams as recommended for the fl oor in gully control (see fi gure on the next page).

Depth of waterways Th e depth of a waterway is related to the width in the following way:

Width up to 10 feet 10 - 20 feet more than 20 feet Depth 1 foot 1 1/4 feet 1 1/2 feet

39 40 2. CENTRAL PROVINCE

2.1 INTRODUCTION Covering an area of 13,220 km2, that is approximately 2.3% of the total Kenya’s landmass, Central Province excluding Nairobi is the second smallest and third most densely [282 persons/km2] populated after Western and Nyanza, respectively. It is made up of seven districts namely: Kiambu, Thika, Nyeri, Nyandarua, Kirin- yaga, Murang’a and Maragua (see Table V). Straddling in the heartland of the Kenya highlands, it contains unique agro-ecological zones and subzones as well as magniﬁcent landforms that include forests and catch- ments. Based on the 1999 census1), Central Province had a population of 3,724,159 persons equivalent to 13.0% of the country’s total population. Using logistic regression2) functions, evidence suggest that the high fertility rates will persist resulting to serious implications including: unemployment, migration, landlessness and environmental degradation (Tables V & VI). In Kenya, Central Province boast of better living standards than any other rural region. Poverty3) is relatively modest: 31%, though its spatial distribution is likely to be skewed to the left.

TABLE V: POPULATION PROJECTIONS FOR CENTRAL PROVINCE PER DISTRICT (Source: CBS, Analytical Report on Population Projections Vol. VII: 32) District 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 KIAMBU 775,548 782,823 789,602 795,866 801,601 806,790 810,724 814,427 817,891 821,110 824,077 KIRINYAGA 475,535 478,868 481,877 484,554 486,891 488,880 490,096 491,161 492,072 492,826 493,419 MURANG‘A 356,939 352,981 348,667 344,004 339,001 333,664 327,724 321,618 315,352 308,928 302,352 NYANDARUA 506,171 517,986 529,598 540,984 552,118 562,975 573,038 583,006 592,869 602,614 612,230 NYERI 683,490 683,115 682,185 680,698 678,654 676,053 672,321 668,331 664,084 669,579 654,818 THIKA 667,525 667,159 666,251 664,799 662,802 660,262 656,617 652,721 648,572 644,173 639,523 MARAGUA 400,945 400,570 399,866 398,833 397,471 395,781 393,426 390,919 388,260 385,450 382,488 TOTAL 3,882,021 3,918,438 3,952,369 3,983,728 4,012,433 4,038,407 4,058,098 4,076,631 4,093,972 4,110,086 4,124,937

TABLE VI: ABSOLUTE POOR HOUSEHOLDS AND PERSONS IN CENTRAL PROVINCE PER DISTRICT 6RXUFH0RGL¿HGDIWHU&%6 District Households below poverty3) line 1999 Individuals below poverty3) line 1999 KIAMBU 44,330 225,117 KIRINYAGA 26,742 138,307 MURANG‘A 19,839 105,387 NYANDARUA 24,396 145,205 NYERI 39,442 200,047 THIKA 40,092 195,375 MARAGUA 21,205 117,389 TOTAL 216,047 1,126,826

1) Population and Household Census (1999), Counting Our People for Development: Population Distribution by Administrative Areas and Urban Centres, Volume I, Republic of Kenya. 2) Analytical Report on Population Projections (Vol. VII), Kenya 1999 Population and Housing Census 3)$FFRUGLQJWR3DUWLFLSDWRU\3RYHUW\$VVHVVPHQWUHSRUWRIGH¿QHGSRYHUW\³DVWKHLQDELOLW\>IRUKRXVHKROGVDQGRULQGLYLGXDOV@WR meet their basic needs including land, employment, food, shelter, education, health etc” cited from Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper

41 (September, 2001) p.13, CBS. Central Province is by nature the best province of Kenya: Young volcanic soils on rain-harvesting slopes in suitable table altitudes. Agriculture had the best conditions of Tropical Zones. Infrastructure is also the most developed of Kenya. But why are there today over a million poor people in Central Province?

1. It is the third overpopulated province of Kenya. In 1979 there were 173 people per km2 and still 0.34 ha per head of agricultural land. In 1999 the Census count 282 people per km2 and the agricultural land per head was reduced to 0.2 ha. Estimates for 2006 are 307 people/km2 and only 0.17 ha remained for each person, not enough to live from it (a farm has 0.8 ha average). This average looks still too positive due to larger areas in Nyandarua and Nyeri district, but in AEZ UM 2 of Kiambaa Division of Kiambu it is 0.4 ha only.

2. The problem is very much aggravated because the originally fertile soil is now depleted from many nutrients due to permanent cultivation and almost no return to the shambas. The average maize yields today per ha are less than half of those recorded in the ﬁrst Farm Survey 1977 in spite of higher inputs now!

3. The permanent low prices for the cash crops. especially coﬀee, keep farmers poor. The prices will not rise again because the number of producers increases but the number of consumers resp. buyers decreases.

To counteract this catastrophic situation, the farmers have to concentrate first on family planning. Three children are the maximum if the land is too small to be split into two farms. The second child may marry into another farm, the third has to find another job which is very difficult anyway with a relation of 3 farmers to a non- farmers job.

Secondly but even more important: Replenish the soil fertility by any means. If possible buy cattle manure from Maasai or sewage waste from the towns. Use alley-planted (4 m apart) deep rooting trees or bushes like Leucaena or Tithonia to pump nutrients from deep, less leached subsoil to the surface. Their twigs can be converted either directly by mulch to the soil or even more proﬁtable by feeding it to animals and put the manure back (see fertility chapter). Maintain the fertility by recycling the taken nutrients as much as possible: Mulched straw returns about 20 % of the nutrients only. Therefore the eaten ones must also be returned, may be by using covered pails as toilets, leave them until the dangerous germs are rotten, and then bury the contents in the ﬁelds. In the third place it is more important for the future to increase the production of food crops (instead of cash crops) because the prices for them will rise with the increasing demand in Kenya.

2.2 THE TEMPERATURE BELTS The annual mean temperature in Kenya has remarkably increased due to the global warming during the period since the ﬁrst edition of the Farm Management Handbook 1983. A 0.5°C increase in the eastern Lowland Zones counts for ca. 100 m rise of the upper limits of this thermal belt.

The increase in the Lower Midland Zones is a bit less due to more clouds. It is 0.35°C. This means that the upper limit for cotton has gone up for about 60 m, and the coﬀee at the former lower limit of the Upper Midland Zone is facing more diseases and quality problems.

The temperature in the Highland and Upper Midland Zones has not changed signiﬁcantly. The mean maxima rose by 0.2°C, but this was almost compensated by a decrease in the minimum temperature.

It has to be kept in mind, however, that the threshold mean temperature of 18°C for the upper boundary of the coffee zones is a conventional figure for the climatological system only. In fact due to local conditions and new coffee varieties, the coffee growing altitude may increase. Additionally, it has to be considered that microclimatic effects are affecting the zonal temperatures. The vicinity of forests can decrease the mean

42 maxima by shade and evaporative consumption of calories by the trees. The nightly ﬂow down of heavy cold air from Nyandarua Range may accumulate in depressions and ﬂat areas like the Kinangop Plateau and decrease the mean minimum temperature for almost 3°C. The microclimate has to be considered for temperature sensile crops like maize. Besides the danger of frost, temperatures below 8°C reduce the organic synthesis almost to zero.

2.3 RAINFALL AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES IN CENTRAL PROVINCE The average annual rainfall increases from less than 400 mm in the low eastern plains to more than 2200 mm on the southeastern windward side of the Nyandarua Range in 2200 – 2700 m, the main altitude for condensation and rain from the clouds of the SE Trade winds.

The distribution of rainfall is typically bimodal with two distinct rainy seasons, the ﬁrst one with its peak in April and the second with the peak in November; the intervening dry season is distinct, except in the misty and cloudy altitudes above 1800 m, and west of the Nyandarua Range and Mt. Kenya where middle rains induced from Western Kenya occur.

The pattern of the Agro-Ecological Zones is typical for the Eastern part of the Kenyan Highlands. It starts on Nyandarua Range with the Tropical Alpine Zones TA I and II. They are National Park now but some parts of TA I could possibly be opened up for seasonal grazing stock from the over-populated zones below the forest. The forest reserves are mainly situated in steep wet areas unsuitable for agricultural use UH( 0 and UH 1). The row of Agro-Ecological Zones LH 1, UM 1-5 and LM 3-4 occurs at descending altitudes towards the footplains in eastward direction. Towards the Laikipia Plateau and the Rift Valley rain shadow occurs, therefore the zones UH 2, 3 and LH 2, 3, 4, 5 indicate decreasing rainfall already in higher altitudes.

Agriculturally, there is a complicated situation on the northwestern side of the province because the two growing periods of the year are connected to the western middle rains, but they are weak and their occurrence is very unreliable here. This may cause extreme dry spells, especially when the growing of maize needs alot of water during the tusseling stage.

43 2.4 RUNOFF-HARVESTING AGRICULTURE

Central Province has not many areas of zones 4 and 5 fortunately, where this system is necessary to increase the moisture available for plants. Nevertheless it is good to practice it in wetter zones too (with smaller distances between the ridges), because it protects also from soil leaching, denudation and erosion. If the field is slopy, the runoff can be caught by ridges (matutas) which are made parallel to the contour lines. They have to be about 25 cm high and 50 cm wide. According to the expected rainfall and to the water requirement of the crop, the distance between the ridged rows has to be wider the lower the rainfall is and the higher the water requirement , which has to be fulfilled by the harvested water from the runoff surface (Table VIIa&b). It is at the average about 30 % of the rainfall. Different shapes are suitable for different areas and purposes (Fig.2.4.1 & 2.4.2). This matuta system protects from soil denudation by harvesting the runoff. Tie-ridging with short blocking ridges rectangular to the rows might be necessary to avoid water-concentration at the lowest point of a long ridge which can cause a break through of the water, opening an erosion channel. Holes for higher demanding crops like bananas (Fig. 2.4.1) collect higher amounts of water, and ridges like half moons (Fig. 2.4.2) avoid too long ridges.

Fig. 2.4.1: Runoff-harvesting agriculture

44 Th e rotting crop residues have a mulching and composting eff ect to help maintaining the fertility. Fertilizer will not be washed away. Th e system can also be used for fodder plants and grass. It is most necessary in Zone 5 even for some subsistence crops. It functions best if the slopes are gentle and a compact subsoil has a slow infi ltration rate for the rain water. At these places it is helpful to soil and water conservation. In LH 4 and 5 the soils on volcanic ashes have a high infi ltration rate and little runoff . Th erefore these zones are not listet in Table VII.

Fig. 2.4.2: Runoff -harvesting agriculture

45 TABLE VIIa: DISTANCES FOR RUNOFF-HARVESTING AGRICULTURE FIRST RAINY SEASON (start normally end of March) AND MIDDLE RAINS (July - Sept.)

AEZ & Subzone Maize variety a) Suggested Distance of ridged Plant distance in intercrop b) rows c) row c)

UM 3-4 H 511, 5.. or EMCO 92 SR - 83 cm (2 ¾ feet) 30 cm (1 foot)

UM 4 s + s Katumani comp. B Early mat. beans 75 cm (2 ½ feet) 30 cm (1 foot) Very early mat. s/vs +s/vs Katumani comp. B beans 83 cm (2 ¾ feet) 30 cm (1 foot)

LM 4 s + s/vs Katumani comp. B Dolichos beans 75 cm (2 ½ feet) 30 cm (1 foot)

s/vs+s/vs Dryland composite Cowpeas 90 cm (3 feet) 30 cm (1 foot) Dryland comp. or dwarf s/vs + vs/s sorghum Cowpeas 90 cm (2 feet) 30 cm (1 foot) UM 5 V. e. mat. green vs/s + vs Katumani comp. B or grams like KVR 26 105 cm (3 ½ feet) 30 cm (1 foot) dwarf sorghum < 1600 m

a) Practice dry planting, or if late, the seeds should be soaked in water about 20 hours before planting, especially where the growing period is very short. b) If the April rains are below normal, the intercrops should be uprooted and used as a spinach. Complete mulching of unshaded interrows from mid May onward is important. c) Farmers should also try the next closer and wider spacing of the resp. AEZ to meet rainfall variability. In wet years the wide spaced plots give less yields but in dry years more than the normal spaced ones. This helps to DYRLGIDPLQH)DUPHUVLQWKHZHWWHU]RQHVDQGVKRXOGDOVRKDYHQRUPDO¿HOGVIRUKLJKHU\LHOGVLQQRUPDO DQGZHW\HDUV5LGJLQJSORXJKVDUHYHU\KHOSIXOIRUSUHSDULQJWKHUXQRIIFDWFKLQJ¿HOGV d) Bulrush millet (if possible awned var.) 120 x 20 cm, very early mat. foxtail or Proso millet 45 x 10 cm e) Bulrush millet (if possible awned var.) 120 x 25 cm, very early mat. foxtail or Proso millet 60 x 10 cm

46 TABLE VIIb: DISTANCES FOR RUNOFF-HARVESTING AGRICULTURE SECOND RAINY SEASON (start normally end of October)

AEZ & Subzone Maize variety a) Suggested Distance of ridged Plant distance in intercrop b) rows c) row c)

UM 3-4 H 511, 5.. or EMCO 92 SR - 83 cm (2 ¾ feet) 30 cm (1 foot)

UM 4 s + s Katumani comp. B Early mat. beans 75 cm (2 ½ feet) 30 cm (1 foot) Very early mat. s/vs +s/vs Katumani comp. B beans 83 cm (2 ¾ feet) 30 cm (1 foot)

LM 4 s + s/vs Katumani comp. B Cowpeas 90 cm (3 feet) 30 cm (1 foot)

s/vs+s/vs Katumani comp. B Cowpeas 90 cm (3 feet) 30 cm (1 foot)

s/vs + vs/s Dryland composite Cowpeas 105 cm (3 ½ feet) 30 cm (1 foot)

UM 5 Dryland comp. B or dwarf vs/s + vs sorghum - 125 cm (4 ¼ feet) 36 cm (1 ¼ foot) a) Practice dry planting, or if late, the seeds should be soaked in water about 20 hours before planting, especially where the growing period is very short. b) If the April rains are below normal, the intercrops should be uprooted and used as a spinach. Complete mulching of unshaded interrows from mid May onward is important. c) Farmers should also try the next closer and wider spacing of the resp. AEZ to meet rainfall variability. In wet years the wide spaced plots give less yields but in dry years more than the normal spaced ones. This helps to DYRLGIDPLQH)DUPHUVLQWKHZHWWHU]RQHVDQGVKRXOGDOVRKDYHQRUPDO¿HOGVIRUKLJKHU\LHOGVLQQRUPDO DQGZHW\HDUV5LGJLQJSORXJKVDUHYHU\KHOSIXOIRUSUHSDULQJWKHUXQRIIFDWFKLQJ¿HOGV d) Bulrush millet (if possible awned var.) 120 x 25 cm, very early mat. foxtail or Proso millet 60 x 10 cm

47 2.5 THE IMPORTANCE OF FERTILIZERS APPLICATION AND NUTRIENT RECY- CLING IN CENTRAL PROVINCE

Soils in the Central Province of Kenya are less variable than in the Western and Eastern Province due to the homogenous geological conditions of the area.

In most parts of the province soils on volcanic deposits, mainly basaltic lava, are dominating due to tectonic activities associated with the uplifting and rifting of the Rift Valley system during tertiary, pleistocene and recent times. On and around Mt. Kenya and the Nyandarua Range Nitosols, Andosols and Phaeozems are developing on those volcanic layers. Due to their high contents of nutrients, primary minerals and montmorillonitic clay with minerals, these juvenile soils (in most areas combined with favourable rainfall conditions) possess a high fertility. Population density within the rural areas is extremely high. Therefore, cultivation of cash and food crops is very intensive outside the protected areas (Forest Reserves, National Parks). Perma- nent cropping and lack of resources for replenishing soil nutrients is leading to serious soil degradation and exhaustion particularly in the smallholder farming areas.

Small pockets of strongly weathered and therefore leached soils like Ferralsols, Acrisols and Luvisols are dominating on basement rocks in the southern and southeastern parts of Thika, Maragua, Murang’a and Kirinyaga Districts. Like in the more fertile areas, here, a growing population is leading to continuous cultivation too, ﬁnally serious soil degradation, nutrient depletion and soil erosion (in the hilly areas) is going on.

As a consequence many people are forced to migrate to the urban areas (in particular Nairobi, Nakuru, Thika) but only a few ﬁnd jobs there.

Artificial fertilization can increase the yields of food crops considerably, as the Fertiliser Use Recommendation Project (FURP, 1987-1992) and the Fertiliser Extension Project (FEP, 1993-1994) have shown. But for sustainable farm management it is necessary to combine it with nutrient recycling by any kind of farm manure, biomass from hedges/trees, crop residues, even human sewage (under hygienic control!) and ashe residues from cooking fires. The addition of cost-effective microbiological substrates like EM (Effective Microorgan- isms), rhizobia and mycorrhizae to farm manure or soils directly is delivering promising results to soil fertility (Hornetz/Shisanya/Gitonga, 2000) 1).

The ﬁgures in Table VIII (and also others from the FURP experiments) demonstrate that continuous cultivation even on fertile Nitosols is depressing the pool of macro- and micronutrients like potassium in the soil. PH-ﬁgures are lowered too by the exhaustion of calcium, magnesium and micronutrients by crop roots. Similar observations can be made on Ferralsols like at NRRC Kiboko (on-station-experiments), where potassium was decreased by as much as 50 % within four cropping seasons (Hornetz, 1997) 2).

Artificial fertilizers seem to accelerate the decrease of pH as well as the reduction of the other nutrients because of the intensification of crop growth (Table VIII). During the FURP experiments the difference at Githunguri was not significant because of juvenile soils, but in the trial site of NARL the loss of potassium and Mg, for instance, was much higher with NP fertilizer than without (see Control). Potassium could be given artificially too (if payable by the smallholders), but the depleted micronutrients normally cannot be added because most of them are not yet known or measured. The content of organic materials in the soils (shown by the Org.C data) (Table VIII) is drastically decreasing due to continuous cultivation – thus affecting in particular soil physical conditions like infiltration, bulk density, water holding capacity, etc.. These measurements correspond to the observations of OKOBA (2005, 51-70) 3) on farmers’ fields in Gikuuri catchment of Runyenjes Division, Embu District, where rill erosion has become so serious that crop yields have decreased by more than 50 % on fields with typical erosion indicators like superficial stoniness and sedimentation. Altogether the permanent cultivation without nutrient recycling means depletion of the vital natural resources by agromining.4)

48 TABLE VIII: THE DECREASE (%) OF ORGANIC CARBON, PH AND AVAILABLE NUTRIENTS IN CENTRAL PROVINCE (during 5 years of maize cultivation at the FURP experimental sites) Treatment FURP Site Soil AEZ Org.C pH K Ca Mg Githunguri Humic LH 1- (Kiambu D.) Nitosols UM 1 -15.7 % -5.7 % -43.6 % -20.4 % -23.4 % Control ------NARL Humic UM 3 (Kiambu D.) Nitosols -13.6 % -6.8 % -20.7 % -7.8 % -2.5 % Githunguri Humic LH 1- P: 0 kg/ha (Kiambu D.) Nitosols UM 1 -7.9 % -9.2 % -33.0 % -18.6 % -19.0 % N: 75 kg/ha ------NARL Humic UM 3 (Kiambu D.) Nitosols -13.3 % -9.0 % -36.6 % -13.1 % -9.8 % Githunguri Humic LH 1- P: 75 kg/ha (Kiambu D.) Nitosols UM 1 -12.3 % -5.5 % -31.9 % -28.6 % -16.0 % N: 0 kg/ha ------NARL Humic UM 3 (Kiambu D.) Nitosols -18.2 % -3.0 % -36.2 % -0.2 % -5.3 % Githunguri Humic LH 1- P: 75 kg/ha (Kiambu D.) Nitosols UM 1 -8.8 % -3.4 % -24.4 % -18.4 % -4.8 % N: 75 kg/ha ------NARL Humic UM 3 (Kiambu D.) Nitosols -24.7 % -7.0 % -47.5 % 2.3 % -4.3 %

During the time of the FURP experiments it was observed that the application of farm yard manure is suited to ameliorate the decrease of soil fertility or even maintain the productivity of the soil. In some cases manure increases the loss due to its high N content, which favours crop growth too. According to observations of Lekasi et al. (2001)5) 95 % of the smallholders in the highlands of Kenya use livestock manure for crop production. Supply of cattle manure in the highlands of Kenya can be improved by ordering the dung material from the neighbouring pastoralist communities (like Maasai and Samburu) –as it was done in former times. However, in any case manuring must be supplemented as much as possible by other organic materials and ashes for recycling the nutrients.

Meanwhile a lot of research has been done on the management of soil fertility in the Kenyan highlands. A number of studies describe the positive impact of the use of biomass from mucuna, crotalaria, tithonia, calliandra and leucaena hedges/trees as well as manure for soil fertility improvement (e.g. Mugendi et al., 1999; Mutuo et al., 2000; all cited in: Mucheru et al., 2003) 6). In on-station-/off-farm-experiments on humic Nitosols at Chuka, Meru South District (UM 2), Mucheru et al. (2003) 6) found out, that grain yields of maize H 513 were increased up to three times (compared to the control) when using cattle manure or the pruned materials of the above-mentioned plants solely or in combination with small amounts (30 kg/ha) of inorganic N fertilizer; best results were obtained over four seasons by tithonia and tithonia plus 30 kg/ha of inorganic N (4.7 t/ha and 4.8 t/ha, respectively.). The hedges were also decreasing the rate of soil erosion. After introducing the new technologies in farmers’ field days, similar experiments were performed by farmers. The results demonstrate that yields of maize H 513 generally improved as a result of using the introduced fertilizer measures; however, the improvements of grain yields varied significantly with the differences in the day-to-day management of the materials by the farmers (e.g. labour requirement).

49 Other technologies to prevent soil erosion were introduced into the smallholder farming systems several years ago like Fanya Juu terraces, Matuta ridges, contour ploughing and strip farming. Those soil and water conservation measures are practised widely in Central Kenya and are very eﬀective in the hilly/mountainous areas. They can be combined with techniques of organic and inorganic fertilizing in order to maintain soil fertility as a whole.

1) Hornetz, B., Shisanya, C.A. and N.M. Gitonga (2000): Studies on the ecophysiology of locally suitable cultivars of food crops and soil fertility monitoring in the semi-arid areas of Southeast Kenya .- (= Materialien zur Ostafrika-Forschung, Heft 23), Trier, 133pp. 2) Hornetz, B. (1997): Ressourcenschutz und Ernährungssicherung in den semiariden Gebieten Kenyas.- Reimer Verlag, Berlin, 301pp. 3) OKOBA, B.O. (2005): Farmers’ indicators for soil erosion mapping and crop yield estimation in central highlands of Kenya.- (= Tropical Resource Management Papers, 62), Wageningen, 143pp. 4) In Germany farmers calculate that, apart from nitrogen and the micronutrients, 5 tons of maize per ha need a replacement of 50 – 70 kg Phosphorus P2O5, 125 – 140 kg of Potassium K2O, 30 – 50 kg Calcium CaO and 30 – 50 kg Magnesium MgO plus some Sulphur, Iron, Manganese, Zinc, Boron, Molybdenum and Copper, normally present in volcanic soils, but in the long run the one or another may be worked out too which reduces the yields. 20 tons of potatoes need 20 – 30 kg P2O5, 110 – 130 kg K2O, 2 – 10 kg CaO and 6 – 20 kg MgO. If it is not possible to buy it, return it by natural ways. 5) Lekasi, J.K., Tanner, J.C., Kimani, S.K. and P.J.C. Harris (2001): Manure management in the highlands of Kenya.- Second edition, HDRA Publications 6) Mucheru, M., Mugendi, D., Kangai, R., Mugwe, K.J. and A. Michini (2003): Organic resources for soil fertility management in Eastern Kenya.- In: Savala, C.E.N. et al. (Eds., 2003): Organic resource management in Kenya: Perspectives and guidelines.- FORMAT Nairobi, 184pp.

50 2.6 POSSIBLE CROPS AND VARIETIES IN CENTRAL PROVINCE

To have the right seed at the right time and at the right place is crucial for agricultural development besides soil fertility. Therefore many crops and varieties are listed here. Most of them are commercially available, although this means they are very diﬃcult to get for the poor farmers in areas far from big centers. Many seed centers with credit facilities are necessary.

In the Table IX the diﬀerentiation of the growing period into physical maturity and harvest was only made for the main food crop maize because for other crops the data are unknown or scattered. The chapter includes additionally a Table X with fodder crops. As natural grazing becomes scarce and the rest is destroyed by overuse, planting of grasses, legumes, fodder trees and shrubs is an esseential task for the survival of livestock.

Several listed varieties are in experimental stage, not yet available. Others are mentioned here as possibilities for the future. They are either already successful in other countries or have a promising potential so that experimenting with them should be done or repeated. One of these are the buﬀalo gourds (Cucurbita foetidissima) from Arizona. The tubers and seeds are a native food for the Indians living in the semi-desert there. This subtropical plant does not ﬂower under tropical seasonal constant daylight duration. But it produces remarkable tubers. They increase season by season until they are needed in a drought when other crops fail. The starchy tubers are bitter but this bitterness can be washed out by salty water. Research is going on at the Department of Agriculture, University of Tucson, Arizona. Another native tuber crop are the Marama beans (Tylosema esculentum) of the Kalahari which have also ed- ible seeds.

Very early maturing foxtail and hog millets and moth beans are bred in the Central Arid Zone Research Insti- tute (CAZRI) in Jodhpur, India, as well as rai (Brassica juncea), an oil seed crop related to rapeseed. These are crops for the fringe of the semi-desert, growing with 150 – 180 mm in two months or less. The yield potential cannot be high with such a short vegetative cycle, but they are security crops if the rainy seasons become too short.

In the AEZ-potentials of the districts, these crops are printed in italics to indicate that something still has to be done for their introduction and ecological distribution.

Fortunately, the Central Province has very small semi-arid areas with very short growing periods. Here in the highlands, especially the Kinangop Plateau, the high-altitude crops are more important, for instance a potatoe from Peru, which is resistant to night frost.

51 *3 4) a 3) 50 5 000 kg/ha " - " 7 000 kg/ha " - " 9 000 kg/ha 550 – 800450 – 700600 – 950 6 000 kg/ha 7 000500 kg/ha – 750 7 000 kg/ha 7 000 kg/ha 500 – 750 7 500 kg/h fall in growing growing in fall 2) 1400 – 1700 1800 – 2200 1200 – 1600 1400 – 1700 1800 – 2200 1000 – 2000 550 – 800 450 – 700 600 – 950 6 000 kg/ha 7 000 kg/ha 7 000 kg/ha 500 – 750 7 000 kg/ha 1200 – 1600 1000 – 2000 " - " - 7 000 kg/ha " - " - 9 000 kg/ha 160 800 – 1800 500 – 750 7 500 kg/h – 160 800 – 1800 /"-" /"-" / " - " / " - " 1400 –/"-" 1700 1800 – 2200 /"-" / " - " 1200 – 1600 / " - " 1000 – 2000 / " - " " - " / " - " " - " "-"/"-""-" "-"/"-""-" Dryland Composite 70 – 84 / 85 - 104 700 – 1400 240 – 430 2 500 kg/ha LAGROTECH Katumani CB 85 – 104 / 105 - 114 85 – 104 /105 114 0 – 1500 700 – 1500 240 – 450 260 –450 2 300 kg/ha 3 500 kg/ha (or place of breeding) No. of days to Av. Altitudes according Required well Opt. yields 1) H 518 120 – 150 – 120 H 518 MAIZE/ m.mat.: MU99301 ( Muguga 1 ) 120 – 150 MAIZE/ m.mat.: H520, H521 ( MZ058 ) 150 – 160 / 170 - 180 1400 – 1700 500 – 750 4 000 kg/ha H614 " - / " - " " - " PAN 5195; PAN 5355 5195; PAN PAN MAIZE/ m.mat.: H512 120 – 150 “ 120 – 150 / " - 1000 – 1500 1000 –1800 500 – 750 500 – 700 5 5 000 kg/ha 000 kg/ha MAIZE/ e.mat.: Coast composite 67 PAN / " - 105 – 114 0 – 1800 120 – 150 / 135 – 160 800 – 1800 550 – 700 3 000 kg/ha *1 500 – 750 7 500 kg/h H627, H628, KH600 -11D H627, H628, KH600 -11D " - / " - " " - " (Range according period resp. p. yr. yr. p. resp. min.-opt.) period (mm; according altitudes) (Range to Medium MAIZE/ m.mat.: PHB 30H83 ( MLZ029 ); H522 MLZ026 ) Medium WH 501 99; MAIZE/ m.mat.: PAN WH 904;WH509; H519; MAIZE/ m.mat.: 135 – 154 / 150 - 170 H523 150 – 180 / 170 - 200 135 –154 1000 – 2000 1000 – 1700 Medium to long H614 MAIZE/ l.mat.: H612; H613 500 – 1600 500 – 750 8 000 kg/ha 6 000 kg/ha 160 – 180 / 190 230 1500 – 2100 600 – 950 6 000 kg/ha H513; 515; 516 120 –150 120 H513; 515; 516 5243 PAN 120 – 150 / " - 800 – 1800 500 – 750 7 000 kg/ha *4 Short MAIZE/ e.mat.: Cobber Short Double 78 Maseno Double Cobber; 77 DH 01; 02; 03 – 5; 08 85 – 104 / " - 85 – 104 / " - 1000 – 1600 900 – 1600 500 – 750 300 – 600 4 000 kg/ha 3 800 kg/ha (approx.) phys. maturity / to growing periodsdistributed rain- periodsdistributed growing to / asl) OF KENYA maturity LIST FOR CENTRAL PROVINCE CROP IX: AGRO-CLIMATOLOGICAL TABLE (m harvest Growing period phys. (approx.) to Crop/variety GRAIN CROPS Short to very short MAIZE/ v.e.mat.: Short to medium 94 MAIZE/ m.mat.: KSTP MAIZE/ e.mat.: KH 634A Medium to short PAN 67 PH 1 MAIZE/ m.mat. : EMCO 92 SR - 134 / 115 105 – 114 PH 4 1350 – 1800 - 130 / 110 90 – 110 120 – 150 / 135 160 1400 – 1800 1300 – 1900 500 – 750 4 000 kg/ha 450 – 700 120 450 – 700 – 150 / 135 – 5 000 kg/ha 160 – 130 / 110 80 – 110 5 – 130 500 kg/ha *2 / 115 80 – 115 800 – 1800 1000 – 1500 1000 – 1500 500 – 750 400 – 700 450 – 750 7 500 kg/h 4 500 kg/ha 5 400 kg/ha MAIZE / l.mat.: H614D; H625; H626Long to medium 180 – 220 / 225 - 270 MAIZE H627, H628, KH600 -11D 1500 –2100 MAIZE/ l.mat.: H611 600 – 950 8 000 kg/ha 180 – 200 / 225 - 245 1800 – 2100 600 – 900 5 900 kg/ha

52 4) 3) 700 – 1100600 – 950 7 000 kg/ha 9 000 kg/ha 400 – 620350 – 600400 – 650 4 000 kg/ha 2 880 kg/ha 3 330 kg/ha 350 – 600 3 510 kg/ha fall in growing growing in fall 2) 2100 – 2400 1800 – 2100 1500 – 2100 600 – 950 9 000 kg/ha 2400 – 2800 2100 – 2400 1800 – 2100 2100 – 2400 / 230 - 275 1500 – 2100 145 145 2100 – 2400 1800 – 2100 350 – 600 400 – 650 2 880 kg/ha 3 330 kg/ha – 145 – 145 125 – 140 140 – 155 High Alt. Composite High 210 – 240 / 250 280 2400 – 2700 (if frost free) 650 – 1000 6 000 kg/ha K.Bongo 160 – 180 2200 – 2400 500 – 750 3 500 kg/ha Kenya Heroe 140 – 155 2100 – 2400 350 – 600 3 510 kg/ha (or place of breeding) No. of days to Av. Altitudes according Required well Opt. yields 1) l.mat.: PAN691; PAN683; H611D; WH699 H611D; PAN683; PAN691; MAIZE/ l.mat.: H629; 6210; 6211 180 – 230 / - 270 180 – 240 1700 – 2400 / 230 - 275 1500 – 611C MAIZE/ l.mat.: H 611B, 2100 700 – 1100 7 000 kg/ha K.Kiboko;K.Ngiri;K.Nungu; K. Nyangumi; 210 – 240 / 225 - 285K.Kifaru; K. Zebadi;K 6927-1(=K.Paa); K6928-1(= K.Kongoni) > 2300 (if frost free) 600 – 950 / m.mat.: Kenya Kongoni WHEAT 5 500 kg/ha 120 – 140 ““ “ “ 1800 – 2400 “ “ 350 – 600 3 600 kg/ha 130 – 145 125 – 140 2100 – 2400 2400 – 2800 430 – 630 400 – 620 4 000 kg/ha 4 000 kg/ha K.Tembo; K.Fahari; l.mat.: K.Tembo; WHEAT/ K.Kifaru; K.Ngiri; K 6928-1 K.Kiboko;K.Ngiri;K.Nungu; K. Nyangumi; 140 – 165 K.Kifaru; K. Zebadi;K 6927-1(=K.Paa); K6928-1(=K.Kongoni) 2400 – 2800 350 – 550 3 700 kg/ha MAIZE/ l.mat.: H6213 MAIZE/ l.mat.: H613D 160 – 190 / 220 180 – 230 / 190 270 1600 – 2200 1500 – 2100 700 – 1100 700 – 1100 9 500 kg/ha *5 8 000 kg/ha Medium to long WHEAT/ Kenya Kudu Kenya Kudu 155 – 175 140 – 155 2400 – 2800 2100 – 2400 450 – 650 4 000 kg/ha 450 – 650 4 000 kg/ha (Range according period resp. p. yr. yr. p. resp. min.-opt.) period (mm; according altitudes) (Range to (approx.) phys. maturity / to growing periodsdistributed rain- periodsdistributed growing to / asl) maturity (m harvest Growing period phys. (approx.) to Crop/variety PAN691; PAN683; H611D; WH699 180 – 230 / 230 - 270 1700 – 2400 MAIZE/ l.mat.: KH600-15A; 16A; H612D 180 – 240 / " - MAIZE/ l.mat.: H 611 MAIZE/ l.mat.: H613B 1800 – 2500 Long MAIZE/ Long to very long H6212 700 – 1100 Medium to short 190 – 250 / 240 - 285 200 – 220 / 245 270 mat.: 7 000 kg/ha MAIZE/ v.l. 2000 – 2300 2100 – 2400 Mayo Tembo;K.Fahari; e.mat.: Kenya WHEAT/ 130Popo – 145 – 125 Tembo;K.Fahari; e.mat.: Kenya 110 WHEAT/ Medium – 130 115 Africa Kenya 700 – 1100 600 – 900 Tausi; m.-l.mat.: K.Tumbili; WHEAT/ 130– Mamba; 145 Kwale; 7 000 kg/ha m.mat.: K.Leopard; Fanfare 1800 – 2100 WHEAT/ 120 – 210 5 Yombi 800 kg/ha 2100 – 2400 “ 180 – 240 / " - 125 – 140 Kenya Kenya 1500 – 2100 “ “ 350 – 530 350 – 530 1800 – 3000 “ : Kenya Mbuni;K.Pasa Bounty “ 3 300 kg/ha 1800 – 2100 3 300 kg/ha 600 – 980 350 – 600 10 000 kg/ha – 130 115 450 – 650 2 880 kg/ha 120 –145 4 000 kg/ha 2100 – 2400 1800 – 2400 400 – 620 350 – 600 4 000 kg/ha 6 000 kg/ha l.mat. : WHEAT/ Kenya Heroe

53 4) 3) 2 500 kg/ha 2 500 400 – 600400 – 600400 – 600 4 050400 kg/ha – 600 3 780 kg/ha 400 – 620 4 500 kg/ha 400 4 – 000 620 kg/ha 2 500 kg/ha 2 500 kg/ha 500 – 900 3 500 kg/ha fall in growing growing in fall 2) 1800 – 2100 > 2100 1800 – 2400 > 2400 > 2100 1800 – 2400 > 2400 0 – 2400 2400 – 2800 150 155 155 > 2100 1800 – 2400 > 2400 400 – 600 400 – 600 4 400 – 600 500 kg/ha 3 780 kg/ha 4 000 kg/ha – 150 – 155 – 155 120 – 150 120 – 150 145 – 165 2400 – 2800 100 – 160 400 – 620 2 500 kg/ha & Kenya 125 – 145 2100 – 2400 400 – 600 4 500 kg/ha m.mat.: K.Mwewe; – 125 115 1800 – 2100 400 – 600 3 000 kg/ha ( Kashmir ) 55 – 75 1300 – 1800 150 – 300 2 000 kg/ha Procto r e.mat.: Kat/PM3 e.mat.: Kat/PM1; 60 – 90 60 – 90 250 –1150 250 – 1150 160 – 290 220 – 320 1 2 300 kg/ha 800 kg/ha K.Bongo 180 –200 2400 – 2800 500 – 750 3 500 kg/ha (or place of breeding) No. of days to Av. Altitudes according Required well Opt. yields T 50 T l.mat.: 125 – 155 1600 – 2100 450 – 650 4 500 kg/ha *6 1) m.mat. : Ngao 120 – 150 1500 – 1800 180 – 350 3 240 kg/ha l.mat.: “ “ “ “ 140 – 155 155 – 175 2100 – 2400 2400 – 2800 400 – 620 400 – 620 4 200 kg/ha 4 200 kg/ha K.Njiwa, K. Kungewa Research for malting, B 106 ( stock feed) Local 100 – 160 0 – 2400 500 – 9003kg/ha – 500 500 120– 150 2400 Karne 135– Sabini 155 – Bima 0 160 ““““ – 100 120 – 150 Lanet/FM 1 Local 1800 – 2100 400 – 600 4 050 kg/ha to altitudes) period resp. p. yr. yr. p. resp. period altitudes) min.-opt.) to (mm; Short “ “ 75 – 115 1800 – 2800 180 – 350 2 000 kg/ha 000 2 350 – 180 2800 – 1800 115 “ – “ short to Very Short 75 “ BARLEY/ v.e.mat.: “Medium to short BARLEY/ m.mat.: for maltingTumaini BARLEY/ e.mat.: – 125 110 140 – 155 2100 – 2400 2100 300 – 500 – 2400 3 500 kg/ha 400 – 620 4 200 kg/ha “ “ 125 – 140 2100 – 2500 400 – 6003 000 kg/ha 000 6003 – 400 2500 – 2100 140 Medium to short TRITICALE/ K.Njiwa, K.– Kungewa “WHEAT/ DURUM Medium 125 “ BARLEY/ Medium Karne (approx.) phys. maturity to growing periodsdistributed rain- periodsdistributed growing to asl) (m maturity according Growing period phys. (approx.) (Range WHEAT/ Crop/variety Long Bahati 130 – 150 1500 – 1800 350 – 600 5 140 kg/ha 140 5 600 – 350 1800 – 1500 150 – Sabini 135– 155 130 Ahadi Bahati MILLET/ m.mat.: Ekalakala 6 ALL m.mat.: Suregrain, OATS/ MILLET/ m.mat.: P224; Gulu E; 90 – 120 90 – 110 FINGER Short to very short FINGER 130 – 145 Short “ FINGER MILLET/ e.mat.: Kat/FM1 Medium – 1750 1150 Lanet/FM 1 MILLET/ 0 – 2100 Local 75 – 90 1900 – 2400 short to Very PEARL Kat/PM2 380 – 800 MILLET/ PEARL 230 – 500 400 2 000 kg/ha – 620 250– 1150 2 800 kg/ha 2 500 kg/ha 135 – 155 230 – 500 1 000 kg/ha 2400 – 2800 400 – 600 4 500 kg/ha ““““ 145–165

54 4) 3) 620 – 1000620 – 1000 2 500 kg/ha 3 000 kg/ha 320 – 590230 – 450230 – 450 2 700230 kg/ha – 450 3 400 kg/ha 2 000 kg/ha 2 300 kg/ha 200 – 280 2 800 kg/ha fall in growing growing in fall 2) 1750 – 2400 1750 – 2400 1750 – 2400 250 – 1750 250 – 1500 250 – 1750 250 – 1800 0 – 1500 250 – 1500 800 – 1300 230 1750 – 2400 620 – 1000 2 500 kg/ha – 230 105 105 115 120 250 – 1750 0 – 1500 250 – 1500 320 – 590 230 – 450 2 700 kg/ha 230 – 450 2 000 kg/ha 2 300 kg/ha – 105 – 115 – 120 210 – 230 90 – 105 55 – 65 90 - 100 1300 - 1700 220 – 320 1 000 kg/ha 1 75 – 90 0 – 1250 250 – 450 4 000 kg/ha 45 – 55 0 – 800 160 – 290 1 800 kg/ha (Jodhpur) 40 – 50 0 – 800 160 – 290 1 500 kg/ha IS 8595 75 – 105 0 – 1500 200 – 430 3 800 kg/ha v.e.mat.: m.mat.: Kat/Fox-1 90 – 120 250 – 1500 380 – 800 1 800 kg/ha e.mat.: ISe 285 50 – 65 0 – 800 220 – 320 3 000 kg/ha e.mat.: Kentom 223 F : BJ 28; E 1291 210 – 230 (or place of breeding) No. of days to Av. Altitudes according Required well Opt. yields II, 2A, 3A, 6A, 26/9, 26/19 1) e.mat.: Serena e.mat.: Seredo 85 – 110 90 – 105 0 – 1500 220 – 480 ca. 3 500 kg/ha m.mat.: 2KX 17;IS 76 v.l.mat. 90 – 120 v.e.mat.: Ikinyaluka 210 – 230 1750 – 2400 620 – 1000 3 000 kg/ha KARI Mtama-1 90 – 105 250 – 1800 230 – 450 3 400 kg/ha “ “ BULRUSH MILLET/ e.mat.: 55 – 65 800 – 1300 200 – 280 2 800 kg/ha Serere Comp. II, 2A, 3A, 6A, 26/9, 26/19 (Jodhpur, India, Central Arid Z. Res. Inst.) India, Central (Jodhpur, “ “ 55 – 75 800 – 1300 160 – 290 1 800 kg/ha ““ “ “ 65 – 80 80 – 95 800 – 1300 1300 – 1800 220 – 320 220 – 320 3 000 kg/ha 3 000 kg/ha IS 6518 240 – 260 1750 – 2400 620 – 10003 400 kg/ha 10003 400 – 620 2400 – 1750 260 – 240 Ikinyaluka IS 6518 Short SORGHUM/ Short SORGHUM/ Gadam 90– 115 KARI Mtama-1 Gadam Short to medium Long to very long SORGHUM/ SORGHUM/ to altitudes) period resp. p. yr. yr. p. resp. period altitudes) min.-opt.) to (mm; (approx.) phys. maturity to growing periodsdistributed rain- periodsdistributed growing to asl) (m maturity according Growing period phys. (approx.) (Range Crop/variety short Very “ “ e.mat.: Serere 1 PROSO MILLET/v. 45 – 55 0 – 800 200 – 280 2 800 kg/ha Short BULRUSH MILLET/ e.mat.: local BULRUSH Short to very short 70 – 90 Short BULRUSH MILLET/ PROSO MILLET/ e.mat.: Kat Pro 1 (cream) 75 – 85 short Very 0 – 1250 Kat/Pro 1 (grey in colour) 0 – 1500 MILLET/ FOXTAIL 220 – 400 60 – 90 2 000 kg/ha 220 – 320 1 800 kg/ha 250 – 1150 220 – 320 2 300 kg/ha “ “ 50 – 70 800 – 1300 160 – 2901kg/ha – 500 160 1300 – 800 70 – “Short to very short 50 “ SORGHUM/ Very short Very mat.: HOG MILLET/ v.e Short to medium MILLET/ FOXTAIL Very short to Very MILLET/ FOXTAIL Short FOXTAIL MILLET/ FOXTAIL Short

55 4) 3) 800 – 2000* included *irrigation water 5 000 kg/ha 200 – 400 1 000 kg/ha 800 – 2000* 4 600 kg/ha fall in growing growing in fall 2) < 1300 1200 – 1800 < 1300 160 160 < 1300 < 1300 800 – 2000* 800 – 2000* 5 800 kg/ha 5 000 kg/ha 160 < 1300 800 – 2000* 5 100 kg/ha 160 < 1300 800 – 2000* 6 400 kg/ha 160 160 160 < 1300 < 1300 < 1300 800 – 2000* 800 – 2000* 5 300 kg/ha 5 800 – 2000* 500 kg/ha 9 000 kg/ha 160 < 1300 800 – 2000* 4 600 kg/ha – 160 – 160 < 1300 800 – 2000* 5 800 kg/ha – 160 < 1300 800 – 2000* 5 100 kg/ha – 160 < 1300 800 – 2000* 6 400 kg/ha – 160 – 160– 160– 160 < 1300 < 1300 < 1300 800 – 2000* 800 – 2000* 5 300 800 kg/ha – 2000* 5 500 kg/ha 9 000 kg/ha 60 – 90 120 – 160 < 1300 800 – 1 200* 9 000 kg/ha Ci cong Ai; TGR 78; TGR 78; Ai; Ci cong 120 – 160 (or place of breeding) No. of days to Av. Altitudes according Required well Opt. yields 1) BW 196; WaBis 675 (low swampy areas) swampy (low 675 kg/ha WaBis 000 4301196; – BW to blast *resistant 230 >1200 68 – 62 Kat/Bean 9 X92/TBR(GLP 22/TBR 22) Kat/Bean 2; Kat X 69 TBR11) 2 / Rosecoco (GLP 60 – 90 60 – 90 70 – 90 900 – 1600 1200 – 1800 1000 – 2000 230 – 430 200 – 400 1 250 – 450 200 kg/ha 1 000 kg/ha 1 800 kg/ha BW 96 120– 16096 IR 2035 –25-2, IR 8, 22* IR 2793- 80-1, IR 257* BW < 1300 120 – 160 120 – 160 800 – 2000* < 1300 9 000 kg/ha < 1300 800 – 2000* 800 – 2000* 5 6 500 400 kg/ha kg/ha Basmati 370 120– 160370 Basmati < 1300 800 – 2000* 5 300 kg/ha to altitudes) period resp. p. yr. yr. p. resp. period altitudes) min.-opt.) to (mm; Kat X 56 60 – 90 900 – 1600 230 – 4301kg/ha – 500 var. 230 and 1600 RICE/ m.mat.: BW 196; WaBisspecies 675– Short to medium diff. 900 Medium to long AMARANTH/ GRAIN 90 LEGUMINOUS CROPS BEANS /e. mat.: Kiboko (Bolivia) QUINOA/var.Sajama – short to Very 76 – 80 TEPARY BEANS/ v . e. mat .: 60 TEPARY 56 90 – 180 150 – 180 short to Very X Short to very shorte.mat.: Kat/Bean 1(Katheka); BEANS/v. 60 – 65 800 – 1300 Kat/Bean 2; 55 – 60 Kat X 0 – 2900 69 Kat 2300 – 3200 (low BEANS/ e. mat. : Mwitemania swampy areas) “ “ 200 – 320 300 – 800 900 -1600 190 – 800 0 – 800 1 600 kg/ha 3 500 kg/ha 3 000 kg/ha 60 – 75 TBM31) 1004 / Mwezi moja (GLP 230 – 430 160 – 250 65 – 90 1 200 kg/ha 1 200 kg/ha 800 – 1500 1000 – 1600 180 – 300 1 230 – 430 500 kg/ha 1 450 kg/ha IR 19090 12019090 – 160 IR < 1300 800 – 2000* 5 800 kg/ha AD 120 9246 – 160 < 1300 800 – 2000* 5 100 kg/ha UP 254 120– 160254 IR 2035 –25-2, IR 8,IR IR2793- 22*80-1, IR 257*BW 96 UP < 1300 120 – 160 120 – 160 800 – 2000* 6 400 kg/ha < 1300 120 – < 160 1300 800 – 2000* < 1300 800 – 5 2000* 500 kg/ha 6 400 kg/ha 800 – 2000* 9 000 kg/ha (approx.) phys. maturity to growing periodsdistributed rain- periodsdistributed growing to asl) (m maturity according Growing period phys. (approx.) (Range Crop/variety RICE/ m.mat.: Basmati 217* Short to medium Medium RICE/ e.mat.: Sindano 120 – 160 90 – 130 < 1300 750 – 1 070* 8 000 kg/ha Faya S.L. 120–S.L. 160 Faya < 1300 80 0 – 1 200* 9 000 kg/ha

56 4) 3) 250 – 450 1 000250 kg/ha – 450 1 800 kg/ha*8 fall in growing growing in fall 2) 1500 – 2000 1500 – 1800 250 – 450 1 000 kg/ha 75 – 90 7) 75 – 90 1500 – 1800 250 – 450 1 800 kg/ha*8 60 - 75 0 – 1000 190 – 380 1 500 kg/ha 6) KK 20, KK 22 (or place of breeding) No. of days to Av. Altitudes according Required well Opt. yields 1) New Mwezi Moja (GLP – X1127 / – X1127 New Mwezi Moja (GLP KK 8, KK 15; KK 20, KK 22 75 – 90 1000 – 1500 230 – 430 1 000 kg/ha *7 ICV11 75 – 90 0 – 1500 200 – 400 2200 kg/ha 2200 400 4501kg/ha – – 200 200 220 1500 <2000 – 90 0 – 90 75 – e mat .: Katuli COWPEAS/v. 1 Machakos 66 (M66) 75 Kunde ICV11 70 – 90 75 – 90 0 – 1500 1200 – 1500 200 – 400 1 900 kg/ha 220 – 450 1 500 kg/ha Kat X 56 (Katex 56) Pinto Bean (GLP- 92) 75 – 90 90 – 115 900 – 1800 1000 – 1500 022 KVU – 419 (Kunde 419);KCP 610 63; MTW MTW 230 – 430 200 – 270 1 500 kg/ha 1 200 kg/ha e.mat.: KVRGREEN GRAMS/ v. 26 60 – 65 0 – 1600 300 – 600 990 kg/ha to altitudes) period resp. p. yr. yr. p. resp. period altitudes) min.-opt.) to (mm; (approx.) phys. maturity/ to growing periodsdistributed rain- periodsdistributed growing asl) to (m maturity/ according Growing period phys. (approx.) (Range BEANS/ e. mat.: Red Haricot (Wairimu) Crop/variety 75 – 90 Short 1500 – 2000 (GLP – 528 / TBH21) / 528 – (GLP TBM22) Katumani (K 80) 75 – 90 < 1500 220 – 4501kg/ha – 800 220 1500 < 90 – 75 80) (K Short to very short Machakos 66 (M66) Katumani COWPEAS/ e.mat. : KVU 27-1 short to Very 75 – 90 MOTH BEANS (Jodhpur 75 – 90 600 – 1200 60 – 90 Arid Zone Res. Inst., India) Central 1200 – 1500 200 – 400 0 – 1500 1 500 kg/ha 220 – 450 1 500 180 – 400 kg/ha 1 600 kg/ha (GLP-24 / TBC21) / Short to medium (GLP-24 Wonder BEANS/ m.mat. : Canadian Short to medium Medium to short 90 – 105 BEANS/ m.mat.: Cuarentino a.o Medium “ Short to medium varieties Medium to long 90 – 110 1200 – 1800 HORSE BEANS Short to medium “ Different “ “ short to Very BEANS LIMA TROPICAL KVU – 419 (Kunde 250 – 450 800 – 1500 419);KCP “ 022 e.mat. : HB 48/10E; COWPEAS/v. “ 1 300 kg/ha 100 – 140 90 – 270 60 – 75 250 – 450 – 130 110 2 500 kg/ha 0 – 1800 0 – 2400 130 – 160 0 – 1200 1500 – 1800 140 – 180 400 – 750 1800 – 2400 (if no frost) 400 – 1200 250 – 450 250 – 450 190 – 300 1800 – 2700 2 ca. 500 kg/ha 4 000 kg/ha 2 500 kg/ha 2 500 kg/ha 1 200 kg/ha 400 – 700 2 000 kg/ha

57 4) 3) 400 – 650 1 500 kg/ha 250 – 450 3 000 kg/ha 200 – 400 1 000 kg/ha fall in growing growing in fall 2) 1800 – 2300 1800 – 2300 0 – 1600 1800 – 2300 250 – 450 3 000 kg/ha 90 – 120 Kat/ DL-2 105 – 120 0 – 2000 230 – 730 2 500 kg/ha Dengu 22 75 – 90 0 – 1600 200 – 400 1 000 kg/ha 422; 423 – 130 110 0 – 1500 370 – 600 1 400 kg/ha : Kat/DL – 1 e.mat. : Kat/DL 90 – 105 m.mat.: 0 – 2000 200 – 700 2 000 kg/ha m.mat. 100 – 110 0 – 1200 190 – 400 1 500 kg/ha l.mat.: Kat 81/3/3 165 – 180 900 – 1800 400 – 800 2 000 kg/ha e.mat.: Kat. Dengu 22 75 – 90 Composite m.mat.: Composite m.mat.: Katumani 60/8 120 – 140 120 – 150 0 – 1500 0 – 1800 400 – 650 400 – 650 2 000 kg/ha 2 000 kg/ha e.mat.: Kat/Mbaazi 3 e.mat.: 90 –105 0 – 1500 400 – 650 1 500 kg/ha (or place of breeding) No. of days to Av. Altitudes according Required well Opt. yields 1) ICEAP 00040 (Kat/Mbaazi 2) ICEAP 00068 ICEAP Kat 777 120 – 180 900 – 1800 120 – 180 400 – 800 0 – 1500 170 – 185 2 000 kg/ha 600 – 1500 400 – 650 2 000 kg/ha 400 – 800 1 500 kg/ha Kat 60/8 135 – 150 0 – 1800 400 – 650 2 000 kg/ha 000 2 650 – 400 1800 – 0 150 – PEAS/ 135 PIGEON Kat 60/8 Long Medium to short Medium to long PIGEON PEAS/ PIGEON PEAS/ Short to medium PIGEON PEAS/ Short PIGEON PEAS/ Medium to short PIGEON Short “ “ 120 – 140 2300 – 2700 250 – 450 3 000 kg/ha Kat/DL –3 105 – 120 0 – 2000 250 – 750 2800 kg/ha 2800 750 – 250 2000 – 0 120 – 105 Ngwiuinurare –3 Umubano, Kat/DL Medium to long Vuninkingi; Short to medium CLIMBING BEANS/ m.mat.: Flora FIELD OR GARDEN PEAS 120 – 150 90 – 120 1500 – 2200 450 – 1500 2 000 kg/ha Kat.Dengu 26 75 – 90 0 – 1600 200 – 4001 300 kg/ha 300 4001 – 200 1600 – 0 90 – BEANS/ 75 DOLICHOS Kat.Dengu 26 Short Short to medium DOLICHOS BEANS/ to altitudes) period resp. p. yr. yr. p. resp. period altitudes) min.-opt.) to (mm; BLACK GRAMS 85 – 100 0 – 1200 200 – 4001kg/ha – 500 200 rain- periodsdistributed1200 growing 4001kg/ha – to asl) – 500 0 (m 200 maturity 1600 100 according Growing period phys. (approx.) – – (Range / GRAMS/ e.mat. : KVR 22 Crop/variety 1200 GRAMS 85 110 Short GRAMS BLACK – “ GREEN 80 – 90 100 “ Long to very long Short to very short HORSE GRAMS 0 – 1600 MUNG BEANS/ “ “ 400 – 650 210 – 240 “ 1 260 kg/ha 0 – 1500 – 120 110 180 – 350 1200 – 1400 1 500 kg/ha 200 – 400 1 500 kg/ha

58 4) 3) fall in growing growing in fall 2) > 365 0 – 1800 200 – 500 7 000 kg/ha *10 150 – 330 1800 – 3600 450 – 1500 2 800 kg/ha 8) 5) 80 – 100 80 – 100 0 – 800 300 – 600 1 500 kg/ha *11 9) .mat.: Bukene .mat.: Makulu Red 90 – 100 90 – 100 0 – 1500 0 – 1500 500 – 700 500 – 700 2 720 kg/ha 1 530 kg/ha e.mat.: Manipintar Peanut e.mat.: Texas 90 – 100 90 – 100 Valencia e.mat.: Red 90 – 120 0 – 1500 0 – 1500 0 – 1500 500 – 700 500 – 700 2 450 kg/ha 1 360 kg/ha 280 – 550 1 800 kg/ha l.mat.: (bimodal) 180 – 260 0 – 1500 500 – 800 2 300 kg/ha

(or place of breeding) No. of days to Av. Altitudes according Required well Opt. yields 1) (North Cameroon) sculentum , Namibia) GROUNDNUTS/ GROUNDNUTS/e Perennial e BEANS ( Tylosema MARAMA to altitudes) period resp. p. yr. yr. p. resp. period altitudes) min.-opt.) to (mm; e. mat. (Zambia) GROUNDNUTS/ Short to medium Short “ GROUNDNUTS/e Short to medium “ GROUNDNUTS/ 100 – 120 800 – 1500 300 – 600 1 500 kg/ha *11 Perry – 41 130 – 150 0 – 2000 400 – 7501kg/ha rain- periodsdistributed– 800 7501kg/ha asl) growing 400 – 800 (m to maturity 2000 400 according Growing period phys. (approx.) – 2000 (Range Crop/variety 0 150 – 1893 Long to very BEANS/ e.mat.: Black Hawk Short – 0 150 PIGEON PEAS/ TGX 80 – 110 SOYA Short to very shortBEANS/ m.mat.: Hill BEANS/ e.mat. : Magoye, 130 Short e. mat. : Nyala, Gazelle – 41 1869, BEANS/v./v. SOYA 75 – 100 Short to medium SOYA SOYA 130 – GRAMS YELLOW CHICK PEAS = TGX 0 – 1200 100 – 120 Tanner ‘’ 130 – 150 Medium 85 – 100 Perry Red 800 – 1500 “ 0 – 1800 350 – 680 Medium to very long 0 – 2000 (Lupinus mutabilis) 0 – 1500 TARWI 2 300 kg/ha 350 – 500 nuts/ short Very 2 450 – 700 v.e.mat.: 500 kg/ha 400 – 750 Bambarra short to Very Composite; EAI 3600 200 – 390 3 900 kg/ha Short 2 000 kg/ha – 130 110 Bambarra nuts/ “ 1 500 kg/ha “ 60 –70 1200 – 1800 130 – 150 350 – 600 0 – 800 0 – 2000 70 – 80 2 300 kg/ha 400 – 750 200 – 400 800 – 1500 1 1 000 kg/ha *11 700 kg/ha 200 – 400 1 000 kg/ha *11

59 4) 3) fall in growing growing in fall 2) H 001 120 – 135 1500 – 2300 300 – 600 1 900 kg/ha m.mat.: Spanish (white)m.mat.: Serere 116 120 – 150 l.mat.: Mwitunde 100 – 135 130 – 160 0 – 1500 0 – 1500 0 – 1500 500 – 700 300 – 600 1 250 kg/ha 350 – 650 2 200 kg/ha 2 500 kg/ha (or place of breeding) No. of days to Av. Altitudes according Required well Opt. yields (Jodhpur, CAZRI) (Jodhpur, 60 – 80 800 – 2000 180 – 380 ? 1) PAN 7352 PAN H 893; H 898; 903 RAI / v.e.mat.: 120 – 150 130 – 135 1000 – 2200 1500 – 2400 300 – 600 350 – 650 1 2 000 kg/ha 900 kg/ha (partly rosette resistant) to altitudes) period resp. p. yr. yr. p. resp. period altitudes) min.-opt.) to (mm; H 067 130 – 140 1500 – 2400 350 – 650 2 000 kg/ha kg/ha kg/ha 000 000 6503000 2 – 650 2 650 350 – 2200 – 350 – 2400 350 2400 900 125 – 6001kg/ha – – 1500 – 400 140 1500 135 120 300 – 2700 H 8998 – SUNFLOWER/ m.mat. : Comet 130 Medium to short – 067 125 Medium PAN 7352 1800 A SUNFLOWER/ m.mat. : Hybrid S 301 –150 125 – 150 H 894 H 120 – 135 H 120 893; H LINSEED 898; H 903 Medium to long 1000 – 2600 Medium 0 –1800 White SUNFLOWER/ m.mat.: Kenya short to Very 300 – 600 140 – 175 Kenya Fedha; Shaba 120 – 150 130 – 135 1 350 – 650 900 kg/ha 2 800 kg/ha 1500 – 2300 130 – 135 1000 – 2200 1500 – 2400 350 – 700 1000 – 2300 2 300 200 kg/ha – 600 350 – 650 300 – 600 1 900 kg/ha 2 000 kg/ha 3 000 kg/ha Hybrid S 345 85 – 110 0 – 1500 280 – 5501kg/ha – 900 5001kg/ha 280 – 600 1500 250 – 1800 0 – 110 0 GROUNDNUTS/ – 110 Medium 85 GROUNDNUTS/ (partly rosette345 resistant) – SUNFLOWER/ e.mat.: Issanka SEED CROPS OIL S 90 Short 252 Hybrid 80 – 90 Short to medium SUNFLOWER/ m.mat.: MayokVympel, SUNFLOWER/ m.mat. : – 120 110 0 – 1500 0 – 1500 200 – 400 1 200 kg/ha 300 – 600 69/1229; RAPESEED/ m.mat.: Midas, SV Gulle 125 – 140 Short to medium 1 900 kg/ha Medium SV Target RAPESEED/ e.mat.: 71/1225 l.mat.: Nilla, SV 1800 – 2700 (Brassica juncea, also for mustard) 120 – 135 140 – 155 300 – 600 1 850 kg/ha 1800 – 2700 1800 – 2700 250 – 500 350 – 700 1 350 kg/ha 2 100 kg/ha (approx.) phys. maturity to growing periodsdistributed rain- periodsdistributed growing to asl) (m maturity according Growing period phys. (approx.) (Range Crop/variety Medium to short GROUNDNUTS/

60 4) 3) 900 10 000 kg/ha – 900 10 000 kg/ha 500 – 900 10 000 kg/ha 500 – 1000 20 000 kg/ha fall in growing growing in fall 2) 0 – 800 250 – 1500 105 365 – 420 local 60 – 90 0 – 1800 350 – 650 8 000 kg/ha local 120 – 180 0 – 1800 500 – 900 20 000 kg/ha local 270 and more 0 – 1700 750 – 1250 35 000 kg/ha mat. KSP 20 e. mat. KSP 90 – 120 m.mat. : Mtwapa 8 105 250 – 1750 l.mat.: SPK 013 120 – 150 0 – 1500 500 – 900 20 000 kg/ha 1200 – 1400 500 – 900 10 000 kg/ha 500 – 900 21 000 kg/ha e.mat. local 215 – 235 0 – 1500 500 – 1000 20 000 kg/ha (or place of breeding) No. of days to Av. Altitudes according Required well Opt. yields 1) (Wanjugu); KSP 11; CIP 42 CIP 11; KSP (Wanjugu); SPK 004 KEMB 10 POTATOES/ SWEET 90 – 120 90 – 120 1300 – 2000 1300 – 2000 500 – 900 500 – 900 13 000 kg/ha 16 000 kg/ha 22/77 105 0 – 800 500– 900800 10 000 kg/ha – 0 105 22/77 KME 1; Muchericheri 365 – 420 250 – 1500 500 – 1000 20 000 kg/ha Simama; Japanese; Muibai; 90 – 180 <2100 500 – 90010 000 kg/ha 000 90010kg/ha – 000 90010 500 – <2100 500 180 2000 – – 90 Muibai; 0 POTATOES/ 120 Japanese; Mafuta Jayalo SWEET Simama; Ex-Diani; Medium Mugande 120 – 150 1300 – 2000 500 – 90015 000 kg/ha 000 90015 – 500 2000 – 1; 1300 150 22/77 CK – Serere; 120 Mugande Tereka; Long to very longBAO l.mat.: Kaleso (4610/27),Perennial CASSAVA/ I 2200; e.mat. CASSAVA/ TMS 60142; KME 365 – 540 1; Muchericheri < 1500 500 – 1000 25 000 kg/ha KME 61 380 – 420 250 – 1500 500 – 100035 000 kg/ha 000 100035 – Short to medium 500 1500 POTATOES/ SWEET – 250 420 – 380 KME 61 Medium to per. Medium to per. long to per. Very “ “ “ “ / m.mat. / l.mat. to altitudes) period resp. p. yr. yr. p. resp. period altitudes) min.-opt.) to (mm; Medium CASTOR/Dwarf 130 – 170 500 – 1500 350 – 8001kg/ha 6501kg/ha – 200 – 200 350 1500 400 rain- periodsdistributed– 2100 asl) growing 500 170 – (m to – 0 maturity 365 according Medium 130 Growing period phys. (approx.) than (Range CASTOR/Dwarf Crop/variety more SAFFLOR Medium SIMSIM/ m.mat. Morada CASTOR/C-15 Perennial Medium ROOTS/TUBER CROPS short to 120 – 140 Very POTATOES/ 120 – 150 SWEET 0 – 1500 1200 – 1800 400 – 500 250 – 400 900 kg/ha 2 000 kg/ha

61 4) 35 000 kg/ha 3) 350 – 630 35 000 kg/ha fall in growing growing in fall 2) < 1500 > 2300 – 420 < 1500 35 000 kg/ha 000 35 1500 < – 420 90 – 120 > 365 0-1800 200 – 500? *14 500? – 200 0-1800 365 > 9) (or place of breeding) No. of days to Av. Altitudes according Required well Opt. yields 1) Tigoni; Asante 90 – 120 >2300 350 – 63035 000 kg/ha 000 63035 – 350 >2300 SS 4 and Migyera *12 120 – 90 365 – 420 Asante Tigoni; to altitudes) period resp. p. yr. yr. p. resp. period altitudes) min.-opt.) to (mm; (approx.) phys. maturity to growing periodsdistributed rain- periodsdistributedasl) growing (m to maturity according Growing period phys. (approx.) (Range Crop/variety Perennial Kerr’s Pink; Feldesloha 60 – 90 < 1500 350 – 630 25 000 kg/ha 000 25 630 – kg/ha 350 63030000 1500 - < 350 90 1500 – > 60 90 Feldesloha Tana; e.mat.: Roslin POTATOES/ MM 95/0183 *13 – Pink; Short 75 60 – 90 Kerr’s Anett Short to medium MM 96/1871, MM 96/4466, 96/ 5280, Medium m.mat.: Kenya Baraka POTATOES/ 1500 – 2300 Tigoni; Asante e.mat. POTATOES/ Medium to long Roslin Bvumbwe; Eburu (B53) 78 – 120 Kenya Dhamana; Chaguo Short to long 350 – 630 m.mat.: Desiree; Dutch robijn POTATOES/ 120 – 150 Long to very long 60 – 90 35 000 kg/ha >Perennial 2300 BEAN (Mexico) 100 – 130 YAM esculenta COCOYAMS/Colocasia TARO, Long to perennial 180 – 300 long to perennial Akiba, B 53 a.o. Very 1600 – 2600 Kenya YAM WHITE GUINEA YAM GREATER “ > 2300 / perennial var. TARO 1800 – 2900 (if frost free) 350 – 630 350 – 630 Perennial 900 – 1800 “ 350 – 630 90 – 270 20 000 kg/ha 30 000 kg/ha 140 – 170 35 000 kg/ha 180 – 300 350 – 630 BEANS (Namibia) MARAMA 1250 – 2000 more than 365 YAM GUINEA YELLOW 240 – 300 0 – 1800 15 000 kg/ha 30 000 kg/ha 1800 – 2900 0 – 1800 0 – 1800 300 and more 0 – 1800 500 – 1500 450 – 750 60 000 kg/ha 1000 – 1500 1300 – 2300 0 – 1800 35 000 kg/ha 30 000 kg/ha 20 000 kg/ha 1400 – 1800 45 000 kg/ha 1200 – 1800 40 000 kg/ha

62 4) 3) fall in growing growing in fall 2) (or place of breeding) No. of days to Av. Altitudes according Required well Opt. yields 1) Sugar loaf 77 – 91 800 – 2000 500 60 000 kg/ha 89M 81M; HART KSA 000 60 500 2000 120 – 150 – 800 0 - 1200 (W-1400) 91 500 – 700 Toledo Sugar snap; – 2 000 kg/ha 77 loaf Copenhagen market; Red acre Sugar Red rock 63 – 70 Prize drumhead 800 – 2000 105 – 112 500 800 – 2000 50 000 kg/ha 500 60 000 kg/ha to altitudes) period resp. p. yr. yr. p. resp. period altitudes) min.-opt.) to (mm; SISAL/local > 365 0 – 1800 550 – 900 800 – 2500 kg/ha 2500 kg/ha rain- periodsdistributed– 2500 asl) growing >600 800 900 (m to 1800 maturity – according Growing period - phys. (approx.) 550 (Range 0 Crop/variety 1800 365 FIBRE CROPS Medium to long – > (hybrid) 59/240 e.mat. : UKA COTTON/ long to 0 Very Medium to long 365 11648 N 26 BPA; bimodal var. COTTON/ Short to medium 120 – 150 velvet; > SISAL FLAX Perennial BEANS/ e.mat.: I.Kutuless (J12) 240 – 300 75 SISAL/local / BPA COTTON 45 – 60 KENAF PEAS/ e.mat.: Mammoth melting sugar; 60 – 70 White FRENCH CROPS green HORTICULTURE 0 – 1200(W-1400) SNOW Short emerald; 0 – 1250 pod Short 500 – 700 1000 – 1800 1500 – 2600 Green 120 – 150 long 1 945 kg/ha short Very Spineless; 550 – 700 350 – 680 CABBAGES/ e.mat.: Golden acre 150 – 210 150 – 220 Dwarf 70 – 140 Short 0 – 1200(W-1400) 5 000 kg/ha 1 800 kg/ha 4 000 kg/ha OKRA/ e.mat.: Pusa sawani; Clemson 56 – 70 Dwarf grey sugar; Oregon sugar pod; 500 – 700 1800 – 2700 40 – 54 Short to medium 0 – 2000 2 150 kg/ha cross; CABBAGES/ m.mat. :Fortuna;K–Y 800 – 2000 450 – 900 91 – 112 0 – 1600 Gloria F1 (Hybrid); Glory of Enkhuizen 500 – 700 1 700 kg/ha 70 – 84 500 3 000 kg/ha 800 – 2000 400 40 000 kg/ha 800 – 2000 500 8 000 kg/ha 500 100 000 kg/ha 50 000 kg/ha

63 4) 73 000 kg/ha 100 000 kg/ha 3) 500 8 000 kg/ha – 500 8 000 kg/ha fall in growing growing in fall 2) Green feast; 56 – 84 > 750 400 – 500 4 000 kg/ha e.mat.: 65 – 72 500 – 2000 300 – 500 30 000 kg/ha e.mat.: e.mat.: M-82 53 – 65 500 – 2000 300 – 500 57 000 kg/ha Roma VF; e.mat.: Roma 90 – 120 500 – 2000 300 – 500 34 000 kg/ha (or place of breeding) No. of days to Av. Altitudes according Required well Opt. yields e.mat.: Cal-J; Money maker; 65 – 80 500 – 2000 300 – 500 32 000 kg/ha 1) e.mat.: Butter Head; 45 – 90 800 – 2300 400 – 600 10 000 kg/ha l.mat.: Red Creole; 150 – 180 0 – 1900 500 – 700 17 000 kg/ha Baby Asian Kalahari; Silver Queen; Early extra sweet; Early Sunglow; Kandy Corn Creole; Texas Early Grano; Green Bunching; Texas Creole; Granex F1 Hybrid Yellow Bombay red; Early Beauty; Capitan; Tropic; Kenton 1; Kenton 2 kg/ha 2 000 Kenton 73 kg/ha 1; Ndume; 000 Kenton Elgon 100 Tropic; 1401; marmande; Capitan; Nema Super Beauty; VF; Marglobe; Early Parma Rubino; Parmamech; Ponderosa; Hot Set; Best of all; BWN 21; Zawadi; Fortune Maker Girl’s sweet; Sugar Pearl ; Sweetie; sweet; Sugar Pearl ; Sweetie; Girl’s Tristar 98 – 119 800 – 2000 500 90 000 kg/ha 000 90 500 2000 – 800 119 – 98 Tristar Oxheart 90 – 120 500 – 2000 300 – 500 20 000 kg/ha Manhatten (S 900) F1; Cherry King Short MAIZE BABY CORN/ e.mat.: Panar; Earlicrop 90 – ? BABY Onward; MAIZE Alderman; Short up to 2400 ? 10 000 kg/ha to altitudes) period resp. p. yr. yr. p. resp. period altitudes) min.-opt.) to (mm; (approx.) phys. maturity to growing periodsdistributed rain- periodsdistributedasl) growing (m to maturity according phys. (approx.) (Range short to Very LETTUCE/ Tropicana; Tropicana F1 Hybrid; White Lettuce Hybrid; Romaine F1 Lettuce; Tropicana Leaf Medium to long Tropicana; Musselburgh ONIONS/ Giant, TOMATOES/ short to Very Short v. TOMATOES/ LEEK: Broad Flat, Italian Giant, Bulgars 120 – 180 500 – 2500 500 – 700 10 000 kg/ha Marglobe; Super marmande; Elgon Ndume; Early Beauty; Capitan; Tropic; Kenton 1; Kenton 2 Short to medium Rubino; Parmamech; Parma VF; Nema 1401; TOMATOES/ Ponderosa; Hot Set; Best of all; BWN short to 21;Very Zawadi; Fortune Maker TOMATOES/ CHERRY Picardor; Spectrum; Nema 1400; 1200; Sun Marzano; Rutgers 10X Hybrid; Roma Nova; Rio Grande; Nantes 90 – 120 500 – 2000 300– 5002000 8 000 kg/ha – 500 120 – 90 Short to medium Nantes CARROTS/ m.mat.: Chantenay Super sweet 100 F1; Cherry 90 – 120 500 – 2000 300 – 500 4 000 kg/ha Growing period Crop/variety short to Very GARDEN PEAS/

64 4) 3) fall in growing growing in fall 2) harvest: 5yrs harvest: 5yrs 1400 – 1550 harvest; 5yrs 1500 – 1750 harvest: 5yrs 1750 – 1900 harvest: 5 yrs 1500 – 1750 1500 – 1650 harvest: 5 yrs 750 – 1200 1650 – 1900 750 – 1200 750 – 1200 harvest: 4yrs 46 kg/tree/year 750 – 1200 harvest: 3-4yrs 42 kg/tree/year – 2200 1100 750 – 1200 1600 – 2300 harvest: 3-4yrs 42 kg/tree/year 1600 – 2300 harvest: 3-4yrs 40 kg/tree/year 750 – 1200 1600 – 2300 40 kg/tree/year harvest: 3-4yrs 1600 – 2300 harvest: 3-4yrs 1600 – 2300 40 kg/tree/year harvest: 4yrs 1250 – 1800 1250 – 1800 – 2200 1100 1250 – 1800 5 000 kg/ha 1250 – 1800 3 500 kg/ha 1250 – 1800 3 000 kg/ha 1250 – 1800 3 800 kg/ha 3 900 kg/ha 1250 – 1800 4 200 kg/ha 3 000 kg/ha st st st st st st st st st st st st st e.mat.: Jwala; 56 – 70 0 – 2000 600 – 750 3 500 kg/ha Yolo wonder; e.mat.: Yolo 56 – 84 0 – 2000 600 – 750 10 000 kg/ha (or place of breeding) No. of days to Av. Altitudes according Required well Opt. yields 1) Cayenne Long Slim; Anaheim M.; Red Chilli; Cayenne Long Slim; Jalapeno M.; Fresno; AHP MN 11/96 AHP to altitudes) period resp. p. yr. yr. p. resp. period altitudes) min.-opt.) to (mm; Short CAPSICUMS/ Short (approx.) phys. maturity to growing periodsdistributed rain- periodsdistributedasl) growing Palomer; Crisp; (m to Victory; maturity Woodland according Growing period Hybrid phys. (approx.) Green; (Range Colorado fellow; Ashley; Poinsett; CUCUMBER/ e.mat.: Crop/variety Long pepper)/ Giant; Fortunes; 50 – 80 Short Long London (Hot White Globe; Top TURNIPS/ e.mat.: Purple Resistant 56 – 70 Early Short CHILLIES Keystone up to 1700 Short Wonder; > 900 500 California White Globe; Golden Ball Top Snow-ball; Red AND FRUITS OTHER CASH CROPS 400 – 600 25 000 kg/ha Perennial 20 000 kg/ha Emerald Giant; Ruby Giant ; Mercury; MACADAMIA/ MRG –20 to 1 Dur. “ MACADAMIA/EMB – 1 Dur. to 1 1 to to 1 Dur. Dur. to 1 3 Dur. – 1 – 1 1 2 47/7 15 1 25; MACADAMIA/EMB to “ MACADAMIA/EMB to to TTW “1 KP MACADAMIA/KRG- to “ MRU “ Dur. MRG Dur. S15/10 Dur. 25; to AHP “ Dur. 303/259 KMB 25; 12/12 TEA/AHP Dur. “ 12/19 29E30; “ 31/8; TEA/TRF7/3 “ TEA/TRF “ TEA/TRF AHPCG “ TEA/TRF MACADAMIA/ MRG 2; KMB 4; “ “ MACADAMIA/ MFU 2; MRU 24; to 1 Dur. to 1 Dur. TEA/TRF 6/8; 303/178 7/14; 11/4; to 1 Dur. PMC 61; TEA/AHP 2; 3; 45; 46; 51; 59 to 1 Dur.

65 4) 3) fall in growing growing in fall 2) harvest: 4yrs – 2200 1100 harvest: 4yrs – 2200 1100 harvest: 3-4yrs 1600 – 2300 1250 – 1800 harvest:.3-4yrs 1600 – 2300 2 000 kg/ha harvest: 3-4yrs 1250 – 1800 1600 – 2300 harvest:.3-4yrs 1600 – 2300 1250 – 1800 5 000 kg/ha 1250 – 1800 harvest: 4yrs harvest: 3-4yrs 3 200 kg/ha – 2200 1100 1600 – 2300 harvest:.3-4yrs 3 000 kg/ha 1600 – 2300 1250 – 1800 harvest: 3-4yrs 1600 – 2300 1250 – 1800 harvest: 3-4yrs 1600 – 2300 harvest: 3-4yrs 3 600 kg/ha 1600 – 2300 harvest: 3-4yrs 3 100 kg/ha 1600 – 2300 1250 – 1800 1250 – 1800 1250 – 1800 harvest: 3-4yrs 1200 – 1900(E) 2 000 kg/ha 1250 – 1800 3 900 kg/ha 4 300 kg/ha 1250 – 1800 harvest:.2-3yrs 1400 – 2000 1250 – 1800 3 400 kg/ha 1250 – 1800 3 300 kg/ha 960 – 1500 4 000 kg/ha 4 100 kg/ha 1 800 kg/ha 2 000 kg/ha > 1000 ( E. of RV), harvest: 9 m. 0 – 1900 harvest: 18 - 1300 – 1800 harvest: 3 yrs. 1000 – 1500 1500 – 2000 750 – 1800 35 000 kg/ha 100 000 kg/ha 1000 – 1500 27 000 kg/ha st st st st st st st st st st st st st st st st st st (or place of breeding) No. of days to Av. Altitudes according Required well Opt. yields 1) to altitudes) period resp. p. yr. yr. p. resp. period altitudes) min.-opt.) to (mm; (approx.) phys. maturity to growing periodsdistributed rain- periodsdistributedasl) growing (m to maturity according Growing period phys. (approx.) (Range Crop/variety Perennial 609; CA AHP PMC 67; TEA/AHP to 1 Dur. AHP MN2 10/51 1 MN2 347/314 to 1 AHP 347/26; Dur. 1 to “ V.) 1 1 338/13; to 1/99 “ Dur. 303/216 “ Rift to (W) to TRF S Dur. 303/156 “ to.1 TRF W.of Dur. CG 17/81; AHP “ MN 11/96; AHP 303/577 2100 “ Dur. SC 12/28;AHP TEA/AHP SKM 30/52; TEA/AHP “ TRF local Dur. TEA/ var. and SF 186; AHP “ CHM 61/60; AHP TEA/TRF to 1 Dur. “ SC 12/29; AHP 301/4 11/9 20/13; 31/37; 11/1; – TEA/TRF 31/11 “ TEA/ TRF 303/259; TEA/ for 56/89; 303/999;months yrs. “ local (in transplanting “ TRF 303/179; 303/186; 337/138; 337/3; TEA/TRF 1500 months “ /TRF 7/9; 303/178 TEA to 1 canning, Dur. 10 10 COFFEE/Arabica TEA/TRF 108/82; 100/5; 1150 54/40; 303/152 “ after CG 28U864; TEA/AHP 28V929 to 1 10 Dur. “ (for – yield: > months Waimanalo 1300) 1 to 1 Dur. TEA/TRF 303/231; 303/1199 – “ to 1 st harvest: 4yrs Dur. 9 full – 2200 to 1 1100 Dur. 24 TRF 301/5 EJULU-LGWK6/8; TEA/GW Sunrise; “ below to to 1 Dur. 9 “ to Cayenne Solo; to 1 Dur. Puebla also Dur. 1250 – 1800 34; Ruiru 11 COFFEE/Arab. K7; SL28; SL to 1 Dur. “ Fuerte, Smooth 4 000 kg/ha Nabal, cons. PYRETHRUM/4743 AVOCADO: “ PYRETHRUM/Ks/70/64 Haas, Dew; Kifu; Mountain; PAWPAW/Honey to 1 Dur. Cayenne; PINEAPPLE/Wild Duration to peak prod. Duration to peak prod. 1800 – 2100 1700 – ? to 1 Dur. 950 – 1300 950 – 1300 600 kg/ha 1 000 kg/ha

66 4) 3) fall in growing growing in fall 2) harvest: 7yrs 2000 – 3000 harvest: 7 yrs 2000 – 3000 1000 – 1800 harvest: 3-4yrs 1600 – 2300 20 000 kg/ha harvest: 3-4yrs 1000 – 1800 1600 – 2300 harvest: 20 000 kg/ha 1000 0 – 1800 1000 harvest: 3-4yrs 1000 – 1800 20 000 kg/ha harvest: 3-4yrs 1000 – 1800 harvest: 3-4yrs 0 – 1500 24 000 kg/ha 1000 harvest: 3-4yrs 1000 – 1500 > 900 > harvest: 3-4yrs 900 0 – 1500 harvest: 3-4yrs 17 000 kg/ha 0 – 1500 > 900 26 000 kg/ha > harvest: 3-4yrs 900 26 000 kg/ha 1000 – 1500 harvest: 3-4yrs 0 – 1500 harvest: -3yrs > 900 26 000 kg/ha 0 – 2000 26 000 kg/ha > 900 > 900 harvest: 4-5yrs 26 000 kg/ha 800 – 1500 > 900 26 000 kg/ha 30 000 kg/ha > 900 30 000 kg/ha 650 – 1500 47 000 kg/ha 15 000 kg/ha st st st st st st st st st st st st st st st (or place of breeding) No. of days to Av. Altitudes according Required well Opt. yields Dur. to 1 to Dur. sweet 1) Duncan; Thomson Dur. to 1 Uganda Red; Muhato; Mukubu; Gitigi to Dur. Thomson Duncan; Kahua Kula WK-11-26; Beau mont; Babcock; Frandkin; Florida Sun Pineapple Valencia; Hamlin; to 1 Dur. Atkins Tommy Vandyke; Haden Dodo; to altitudes) period resp. p. yr. yr. p. resp. period altitudes) min.-opt.) to (mm; (approx.) phys. maturity to growing periodsdistributed rain- periodsdistributed growing to asl) (m maturity according Growing period phys. (approx.) (Range Crop/variety Perennial Winter APPLE/ e.mat.: Blenheim Orange; to 1 Dur. King of Thompkin County Thompkin ; of Jonathan Seedling; APPLE/ l.mat.: Bramley’s Wanjare “ King to 1 Dur. “ Cavendish; Dwarf 1 Banana; Scoops Early; Rome Beauty; BANANAS/ “ 1 Paz; to Uganda Red; Muhato; Mukubu;to Gitigi 13-17; Yellow Hall’s Texas; PEACHES/ 1 “ blush Dur. to 1 Dur. Bears Dur. “ to Kara Red Tahiti; Lacatan; Giant Cavendish ; Valery; Dur. MANDARIN/Satsuma; “ LIME/Mexican; Lemon “ 15 – 18 months Navel ORANGE/Washington SWEET “ Rough to 1 Dur. GRAPE FRUIT/ March Seedless; “ to 1 Dur. “ Villafranca LEMON/Eureka; Lisbon; Malherbe; Fan Retief; to 1 GUAVA/ Dur. Hong Kong Pink; Ruby X Supreme; to 1 Dur. Apple; Kessington; MANGOES/ to 1 Dur. “ PEARS Dur. to 1 to Dur. PEARS “

67 4) 3) fall in growing growing in fall 2) picking 900 – 1500 picking below 1400 380 - 400 380 - 400 2 000 kg/ha 2 000 kg/ha st st harvest: 4-5 yrs. 1800 – 2200 500 - 900 4 500 kg/ha nuts *15 st (or place of breeding) No. of days to Av. Altitudes according Required well Opt. yields 1) Tiffan Hybrid; Honey Dew; Cresso F1; Tiffan Crimson Sweet Speight G 28; E2; NC95 = very early maturing variety = medium “ = very late “ For some crops, esp. wheat, it is wise to use several and new varieties minimize the risks m.mat. e.mat. l.mat. v.l.mat. = early “ = late “ (see recommendations of National Research Stations) EHUHDFKHGLQDWOHDVWRXWRI\HDUVDPRUHUHOLDEOH¿JXU HWKDQWKHDYHUDJH \LHOGV6HH%(*(0$11)(FRJHRJUDSKLF'LIIHUHQWLDWLRQRI%DPEDUUD*URXQGQXWLQWKH&ROOHFWLRQRIWKH,QWHUQDWLRQDO,QVWLWXWHRI7URSLFDO$JULFXOWXUH Fachverlag, Giessen, Germany 1988 Wissenschaftl. (I.I.T.A.).- Namibia. Windhoek, Botanical Garden, v.e.mat. Most suitable altitudes in Kenya. Growing periods increase upwards and decrease downwards beyond the noted ranges until ecolog ical limits are reached. /RZHU¿JXUHIRUIDLUUHVXOWVKLJKHUIRUYHU\JRRGUHVXOWVZLW KVRPHFRUUHFWLRQVGXHWRUDLQIDOOGLVWULEXWLRQHYDSRUDWLRQDQ GUXQRIIORVVHV7KLVUDLQIDOOVKRXOG $SSUR[LPDWH¿JXUHVRQZHOOVXLWDEOHVRLOVZLWKPDQXUHUHVSIHUWLOL]HUDQGJRRGKXVEDQGU\ ORZHUVLGHRIWKHRSWLPXPLQH[SHULPHQWVLWPD\EHKLJKHU Ibadan, Nigeria. It can bring a crop even with only two weeks of rain, but then lower reliable TVsu 395 and 501 from I.I.T.A., Landrace, available as Agriculture/Ibadan, Nigeria Tropical Major germplasm center at the International Institute of 1979, p. 77). Increases nitrogen in the soil. Washington Legumes. Trop. Ac. of Sc.: Gives also very good fodder or hay (7-10 t hay/ha, see Nat. 1979, p. 86-92 Washington Legumes. Tropical Acad. of Science: Information see Nat. 1979, p. 68-74. Seeds from Washington Legumes. Tropical Acad. of Science: esculentum, it produces tubers and beans. Information see Nat. Tylosema to altitudes) period resp. p. yr. yr. p. resp. period altitudes) min.-opt.) to (mm; (approx.) phys. maturity to growing periodsdistributed rain- periodsdistributed growing to asl) (m maturity according Growing period phys. (approx.) (Range Crop/variety Short Short to medium Gray; Congo; WATERMELON/Charles Virginia/ e.mat.: /Flue-cured TOBACCO/ 85 - 104 days days to 1 105 – 114 Fairfax; Sugar Baby; Chilean Black; up to 1500 1) 400 – 600 2) 3) 20 000 kg/ha 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) NOTES “ JOJOBA Dur. to 1 e.mat.: /Fire-cured/ TOBACCO/ “ to Western Dur. days to 1 105 – 114 Heavy Perennial JOJOBA “ TUNG OIL more than 365 600 – 1500 700 – 1200 3 000 kg/ha

68 SPECIAL CROP PHYSIOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES *1 Good heat and leaf rust tolerance *2 Streak resistance *3 Resistance to Maize Streak Virus, tolerant to low Nitrogen levels, drought tolerant, good husk cover. *4 Tolerant to Grey Leaf Spot, resist. to lodging, good husk cover. *5 Resistant to Folia diseases and pests. Good husk cover hence good storage. Sweet for roasting and ugali. Very popular. *6 Performs better than wheat in marginal areas and on acidic soils *7 “New release” but yields are much lower, more resistance, tolerant to anthracose *8 All these 5 varieties are resistant to bean root rot and bean stem maggot. *9 Nodulates well with indigenous soil bacteria (i.e. promiscuous). Adoption success story from Zimbabwe. Currently introduced in Kenya, but is susceptible to Fusarium wilt at high altitudes, e.g. in Meru. *10 Very drought tolerant, from Kalahari, big tubers much more important than the beans (see root crops). *11 Drought tolerant and thrives in poor soils *12 Both varieties are resistant to ACMD (mosaic virus) *13 All MM varieties promising for resistance to ACMD *14 Food security crop, very drought tolerant (from Kalahari) *15 Nuts give technical wax. Jojoba (Simmondsia sinensis) needs a cold period below 15°C mean temperature for at least 2 PRQWKVWRLQGXFHÀRZHULQJ,Q(DVWHUQ3URYLQFHWKLVFDQEHIRXQGRQO\DWKLJKDOWLWXGHVRIWKHOHHZDUGVLGHRI0W.HQ\D

Sources: Kenya National Crop Variety List, Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Service (KEPHIS) 2003; Kenya Agricultural Research Institutes’ Annual Reports; Internet and international crop handbooks

69 TABLE X: BIOCLIMATOLOGICALLY SUITABLE GRASSES AND OTHER FODDER CROPS FOR THE AGRO- ECOLOGICAL ZONES IN CENTRAL PROVINCE

UPPER HIGHLAND ZONES (norm. above 2300 m a.s.l.) Grasses: Kikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum) UH 1,(2) Rye grass (Lolium perenne), except in wheat areas (dangerous weed) UH 1,2,3,(4) Cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata) UH 1,2,3,4 Tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) UH 1,2,3,4 Blue grass (Andropogon gayanus) UH 1,2,3

Cereals: Oats (Avena sativa) UH 1,(2) Fodder barley (Hordeum vulgare)/m.mat. var.B 106 UH 2 Fodder barley (Hordeum vulgare)/e.mat. var.Amani UH 3,4

Legumes: Lucerne (Medicago sativa) cv. Hunter river UH 1,2,3 cv. Trifecta UH 1,2,3 FY+XQWHU¿HOG 8+ Kenya white clover (Trifolium semipilosum) cv. Safari UH 1,2,3 White clover (Trifolium repens) UH1,2,3 Alsike clover (Trifolium hybridum) UH 1,2,3 Tarwi (Lupinus mutabilis) UH 1,2,3 Subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum) UH 3,4 Purple vetch (Vicia benghalensis) UH 1,2,3 Calopo (Calopogonium mucunoides) UH 1,2,3 Glycine (Neonotonia wightii) cv. Cooper UH 1,2,3 cv. Tinaroo UH 1,2,3 Shrubby stylo (Stylosanthes scabra) cv. Seca UH 1,2,3 cv. Fitzroy UH 1,2,3 Common stylo (Stylosanthes guianensis) cv. Alupe Composite UH 1,2,3 cv. Cook UH 1,2,3

Trees and Shrubs: Calliandra (Calliandra calothyrsus) UH2,3 Leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) cv. K8 UH 1,2,3 cv. Peru UH 1,2,3 cv. Cunningham UH 1,2,3

LOWER HIGHLAND ZONES (norm. between 1 800 and 2 300 m a.s.l.)

Grasses: Kikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum) LH 1,2 Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) in lower places (up to 2000m) cv. Clone 13 LH 1,2 cv. Bana LH 1,2,3 Nandi setaria ( Setaria sphacelata) LH 1,2,3 Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana) in lower places up to 2000 m cv. Elmba Rhodes and Boma Rhodes LH 1,2,(3)

70 Congo grass (Brachiara ruziziensis) LH2,3 Signal grass (Brachiaria decumbens) cv. Basilisk LH 1,2,3 Urochloa (Urochloa mossambicensis) LH 1,2,3 Paspalum (Paspalum dilatatum) LH 1,2,3 Andropogon (Andropogon gayanus) LH 2,3 Rye grass (Lolium perenne), not in wheat areas (weed) LH 1,2,3,(4)

Root crops: Sweet potato vines (Ipomea batatas) LH 1, 2,3 Fodder beets (Beta vulgaris)/cv. alba DC LH 1,2 Fodder radish (Raphanus sativus) LH 1,2 Yam bean (Pachyrhizus tuberosus), up to 2000 m LH 1,2,3 Yam bean/var. with short veg.cycle LH 3,(4)

Legumes: Common stylo (Stylosanthes guianensis), lower places cv. Alupe Composite LH 1,2,3 cv. Cook LH 1,2,3 Shrubby stylo (Stylosanthes scabra) cv. Seca LH 1,2,3 cv. Fitzroy LH 1,2,3 Green leaf desmodium (Desmodium intortum) LH 1,2 Silver leaf desmodium (Desmodium uncinatum) LH 1,2,(3) Glycine (Neonotonia wightii) cv. Cooper LH2,3,(4) cv. Tinaroo LH2,3,(4) Caribean stylo (Stylosanthes hamata) cv. Verano LH 1,2,3 Subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum) LH 3,4 Calopo (Calopogonium mucunoides) LH 3 Lucerne (Medicago sativa) cv. Hunter river LH 1,2 FY+XQWHU¿HOG /+ cv. Trifecta LH 1,2 Purple vetch (Vicia benghalensis) LH2,3 Alsike clover (Trifolium hybridum) LH 1,2,3 Tropical kudzu (Pueraria phaseoloides) LH2,3,4 Velvet bean (Mucuna pruriens) LH 3,4 Lablab bean (Lablab purpureus) cv. Rongai LH 3,4 cv. K1002 LH 3,4 Jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis) LH 3,4 Sunhemp (Crotalaria ochroleuca) LH 3,4 Lupins (Lupinus albus) cv. Ultra LH 1,2 Lupins (Lupinus angustifolia) LH 1,2

Trees and shrubs: Calliandra (Calliandra calothyrsus) LH2,3 Leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) 1) cv. K8 LH 1,2,3 cv. Peru LH 1,2,3 cv. Cunningham LH 1,2,3 Leucaena tricandria LH 1,2,3 0H[LFDQZLOGÀRZHU 7LWKRQLDGLYHUVLIROLD /+

1) Leucaena leucocephala is attacked by the psyllid, Leucaena tricandria is resistant to it.

71 UPPER MIDLAND ZONES (E of the Rift Valley between 1 300 and 1 800 m) Grasses: Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) cv. Bana UM 1,2,3,(4) cv. Bajra UM 1,2,3,(4) Nandi setaria ( Setaria sphacelata) in higher places UM 1,2,3,4 Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana) in higher places cv. Pokot Rhodes UM 1,(2) cv. Mbarara Rhodes UM 1,2,(3) cv. Masaba Rhodes UM 1,2,(3) cv. Elmba Rhodes UM 2,3,(4) cv. Boma Rhodes UM2,3,(4) Star grass (Cynodon dactylon) UM 1,2,3 Maaai love grass (Eragrostis superba) UM 3,4 Congo grass (Brachiaria ruziziensis) UM 2,3 Signal Grass (Brachiaria decumens) cv. Basilisk UM 2,3 Giant panicum (Panicum maximum)/var. Makueni UM 3,(4) Guinea grass (Panicum maximum) UM 1,2,3 Coloured guinea grass (Panicum coloratum) UM 2,3 Buffel grass, African Foxtail (Cenchrus ciliaris) UM 4,(5) Andropogon (Andropogon gaianus) UM 3,4,5 Rye grass (Lolium perenne) UM2,3,4,(5) Columbus grass (Sorghum halepense) UM 1,2, 3, Enteropogon (Enteropogon macrostachyus) UM4,5 Plume chloris (Chloris roxburghiana) UM 4,5

Root crops: Sweet potato vines (Ipomea batatas) UM 1, 2,3,4 Flemingia ( Flemingia vestita or congesta) 2) UM 1,2,3 Yam bean (Pachyrhizus tuberosus) UM 1,2,3,(4) Psoralea patens/P.cinerea UM 3,4

Legumes: Siratro (Macroptilium atropurpureum) UM2,3,4 Common stylo (Stylosanthes guianensis) UM 1,2 Desmodium species UM 1,2 Glycine (Neonotonia wightii) cv. Cooper UM2,3,(4) cv. Tinaroo UM2,3,(4) %XWWHUÀ\SHD &OLWRULDWHUQDWHD 80 Townsville lucerne (Stylosanthes humilis) UM2,3 Barrel medic (Medicago truncatula) UM 3,4,(5) Moth bean (Vigna aconitifolia) UM4,5 Tropical kudzu (Pueraria phaseoloides) UM 1,2,3 Shrubby stylo (Stylosanthes scabra) cv. Fitzroy UM2,3,4,(5) cv. Seca UM2,3,4,(5) cv. fruticosa 41219A UM4 Carribean stylo (Stylosanthes hamata) cv. Verano UM 3,4 Lablab bean (lablab purpureus) cv. Rongai UM 3,4 cv. K1002 UM 3,4 Archer axillaris (Macrotyloma axillare) cv. Archer UM 1,2,3

2) Suitable cover legume between coﬀee rows.

72 Velvet bean (Mucuna pruriens) UM 1,2,3,4 Calopo (Calopogonium mucunoides) UM 3,4 Purple vetch (Vicia benglanesis) UM 3,4 Lupins (Lupinus albus) cv. Ultra UM 1,2,3 Lupins (Lupinus angustifolia) UM 1,2,3 Centro (Centrosema pascuorum) cv. cavalcade UM4 cv. virginianum UM4 Aeschynomene americana cv.Glenn UM4 Macrotyloma (Macrotyloma africanum) UM 3,4,5 Alysicarpus rugosus cv. CPI 14384 UM 3,4 Jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis) UM 3,4 Sunhemp (Crotalaria ochroleuca) UM 3,4 Desmanthus virgatus cv. CPI 144576 UM 3,4

Trees and shrubs: Leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) 1), cv. Peru, K 8, Cunningham UM 2,3,4 Leucaena tricandria UM2,3,4 Saltbush (Atriplex nummularia) UM4,5,(6) Gao tree (Acacia albida) UM4,5,(6) 0HVTXLWH 3URVRSLVMXOLÀRUD 80 Algarrobo (Prosopis chilensis) UM5,6 Sesbania (Sesbania sesban) UM 1,2,3,4 Mulberry (Morus alba) UM 1,2,3,4 Calliandra (Calliandra calothyrsus) UM 1,2,3 Cassia (Chamaecrista rotundifolia cv.Wynn) UM 3,4 0H[LFDQZLOGÀRZHU 7LWKRQLDGLYHUVLIROLD 80

L0WER MIDLAND ZONES (norm. between 800 and 1300/1500 m a.s.l) Grasses: Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) cv. Bana LM 1,2,3,(4) cv. Bajra LM 1,2,3,(4) Maasai love grass (Eragrostis superba) LM 3,4 Guinea grass (Panicum maximum) LM2,(3) Guinea grass (Panicum maximum)/cv. Makueni LM 3,(4) Buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris) LM 3,4,(5) Plume Chloris (Chloris roxburghiana) cv. horse tail grass LM 3,4,5,6 Columbus grass (Sorghum halepense) LM2,3,4 Enteropogon (Enteropogon macrostachyus) LM 5,6

Root crops: Sweet potato vines (Ipomea batatas) LM 2,3,4 Psoralea patens/P.cinerea LM 3,4,(5)

Legumes: Common stylo (Stylosanthes guianensis) cv. Alupe Composite LM 1,2 cv. Cook LM 1,2 Townsville stylo (Stylosanthes humilis) LM 2,3 %XWWHUÀ\SHD &OLWRULDWHUQDWHD /0 Siratro (Macroptilium atropurpureum) LM2,3,(4) Glycine (Neonotonia wightii) LM 2,3,(4) cv. Cooper LM2,3,(4) cv. Tinaroo LM2,3,(4)

73 Centro (Centrosema pubescens) LM2,3,4 Moth bean (Vigna aconitifolia) LM4,5 Sunhemp (Crotalaria ochroleuca) LM2,3 Velvet bean (Mucuna pruriens) LM2,3,4 Lablab (Lablab purpureus) cv. Rongai LM2,3,4 cv. K1002 LM2,3,4 Lupins (Lupinus albus) cv. Ultra LM2,3 Jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis) LM2,3,4 Stylo (Stylosanthes guinanensis) cv. seca LM 4,5 6KUXEE\VW\OR 6W\ORVDQWKHVVFDEUD FY¿WUR\ /0 cv. fruticosa 41219A LM4,5 Desmanthus virgatus cv. CPI 144576 (under experiment) LM 4,5 Centro (Centrosema pascuorum) cv. cavalcade LM 4,5 Centro (Centrosema pascuorum) cv. virginianum LM 4,5 Macrotyloma (Macrotyloma africanum) LM4,5

Trees and shrubs: Leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) 1) cv. Peru LM 3,4 cv. K8 LM 3,4 cv. Cunningham LM 3,4 Leucaena diversifolia LM2,3,4 Leucaena tricandria LM 3,4 Saltbush (Atriplex nummularia) LM4,5,(6) Gao tree (Acacia albida) LM4,5,(6) 0HVTXLWH 3URVRSLVMXOLÀRUD /0 Algarrobo (Prosopis chilensis) LM5,6 0H[LFDQZLOGÀRZHU 7LWKRQLDGLYHUVLIROLD /0 Sesbania (Sesbania sesban, improves the soil) LM 1,2,3,4 Cassia (Chamaecrista cassia rotundifolia) cv Wynn LM 4,5 Cassia siamea LM2,3,4 Gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium, improves the soil) LM 2,3,4

Sources: Kenya National Crop Variety List, Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Service (KEPHIS) 2003; Kenya Agricultural Research Institutes’ Annual Reports.

1) Leucaena leucocephala is attacked by the psyllid, Leucaena tricandria is resistant to it.

74 2.7 POSSIBILITIES FOR AGROFORESTRY IN CENTRAL PROVINCE

Planting of trees, bushes and shrubs by the farmers is a system, which has six beneﬁts: Firewood, timber, fodder, fruits or nuts, green manure and medicine. In the Agro-Ecological Zones 1–3 it can replace partly the forest ecosystem, which was the natural climax vegetation. But in agroforestry, one has to carefully consider if the accompanying crops require optimal light conditions or shade. Maize, for example, requires more light, and, therefore shading trees or bushes must be planted some distance from the maize rows. On the contrary, many vegetables and legumes require less light and can easily be grown in the shade and mixed with higher plants. Another problem is the competition for water and nutrients or suppression by other plants. For instance, eucalyptus trees are very demanding in water and nutrients, and their leaves don’t give a good humus layer because they contain inhibitors for soil life and other plants. It is better to plant macadamia nuts (in UM 2-3), mangoes (in LM 3–4) or other useful agroforestry trees (e.g. Grevillea robusta and Melia volkensii).

Important are the bushes for green manuring which can be planted as hedges. Best results, which almost tripled the maize yields in experiments, were obtained with twigs and leaves of the Mexican tithonia (Ti- thonia diversifolia) incorporated into the soil through biomass transfer technology (tested in Zone UM 2 near Chuka, but it grows in LH 2–3, UM 3 and LM 1–3 too)1. One major advantage of tithonia is that it produces large quantities of biomass and tolerates regular pruning, which is a favourable characteristic for its use for biomass transfer. Compared to many other plants, the biomass contains high levels of nutrients as shown in Table 1. Though tithonia is mainly found on the roadside, a lot of labour is required for collecting it. To reduce the labour, farmers can plant their own tithonia on their farms. Suitable places to grow tithonia on the farm include external boundaries and along soil erosion control structures where they will also be useful for controlling soil erosion especially if the land is sloping. It is advisable to plant it as near as possible to places where crops will be planted in order to reduce labour for carrying the biomass.

The biomass transfer of leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala and Leucaena tricandria, in LH 1–3, UM 2–4, LM 3-4) and calliandra (Calliandra calothyrsus, in LH 2–3, UM 1–3) also results in an impressive increase in maize yield2. Leucaena tricandria is generally a new species in Kenya, which was recently identiﬁed to be resistant to leucaena psyllid insect pest (Heterophylla cubana) by researchers at Embu. Farmers are familiar with Leucaena leucocephala that had been brought into the country earlier but was attacked by the psyllid and is no longer a very useful species in most areas of Kenya. The leaves of L. tricandria are rich in nutrients and contain on average 3.7% nitrogen, 3.3% potassium, 0.26% phosphorus, 1.2% calcium and 0.3% mag- nesium3. The leaves decompose faster than those of calliandra due to its lower tannin content.

TABLE XI: NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS BIOMASS

Species Nitrogen (%) Phosphorus (%) Potassium (%) Tithonia diversifolia 3.6 0.3 4.3 Grevillea robusta 1.4 < 0.1 0.6 Maize stover 0.9 0.1 0.4 Bean stover 0.7 0.1 1.4 Source: Mugendi, D. et.al. (2004: 49)

Calliandra is a small leguminous tree belonging to the family Mimosoideae that originated from Central America. Prunings harvested from calliandra contain substantial amounts of nutrients in the leaves averag- ing: 3.5% Nitrogen, 1.6% Potassium, 0.21% Phosphorus, 0.6% Calcium, and 0.24% Magnesium3. Be- cause of its high tannin content, it decomposes slower than either tithonia or leucaena. Its response in terms of improving crop production has been observed to be slower and usually good response is obtained after the second season of incorporation.

75 As fodder, there are many trees, bushes and shrubs suited for each Agro-Ecological Zone (see list in the general part). Here below, we give only a few important examples: Leucaena (L. leucocephala, tricandria and diversifolia), tithonia and calliandra are typical for the humid and semi-humid zones as described above. For farmers with livestock, it is possible to feed prunings to animals and as a result get increased milk. Calliandra and leucaena is highly palatable fodder, rich in crude protein, which is desirable for high milk production. Research has shown that 3 kg of fresh prunings of calliandra or leucaena give the same milk response as 1 kg of dairy meal3. Because on average farmers feed 2 kg of dairy meal per day, it has been recommended that 6 kg of fresh biomass of calliandra or leucaena can be used to substitute for 2 kg of dairy meal. While feeding this amount, a farmer would need about 500 trees to feed one cow for one year. To improve soil fertility, manure from animals should be recycled to the farms. This is advantageous because the farmer will beneﬁt from increased milk yields and improved manure quality. Sesbania (Sesbania sesban) and mulberry (Morus alba) are useful and grow well in the transitional Zone 4. For the semi-arid zones, the most suitable trees are the Gao tree (Acacia albida, in UM, LM and IL 4, 5, (6) ) and the saltbush (Atriplex nummularia, in UM, LM and IL 4-6). The competition with crops for the limited rain water has to be put into consideration.

The above mentioned Australian saltbush is very suitable for the productivity restoration of denuded places. It thrives well even in semi-deserts. Livestock do not usually like eating much of it and hence it grows until a point in time when another drought is in place and no apparent forage is available, except its leaves. This is the time when livestock have no choice but to browse the leaves of the saltbush for survival.

For further information please contact: World Agroforestry Centre, P.O. Box 30677, Nairobi. Email: [email protected], Website: http://www.cgiar.org/icraf . Saroneem Biopesticides Ltd., P.O.Box 64373, Nairobi. Email: [email protected] (Involved in the promotion of the neem tree in agriculture)

1 Mucheru, M., Mugendi, D. et al. 2003: Organic Resources for Soil Fertility Management in Eastern Kenya. In: Organic Resource Management in Kenya: Perspectives and Guidelines. Edited by Savala, C.E.N., Omare, M.N. & Woomer, P.L. - FORMAT, Nairobi, p. 26–33. 2 Murithi, F.M. et al.1994: Report of a Survey on Agroforestry Technologies Used for Fodder Production and Soil Fertility Improvement in Meru District, Kenya. National Agroforestry Regional Project, Regional Research Centre, Embu, Kenya. 3 Mugendi, N., Mucheru-Muna, M., & Mugwe, J. (EDS.) (2004): Soil Fertility Extension Manual (Draft). Nairobi, 90pp.

76 3. DISTRICT INFORMATION AND STATISTICS

3.1 GENERALREMARKS ON THE LAND USE POTENTIALS AND FERTILISER RECOMMENDA- TIONS FOR THE DISTRICTS

The land use potentials given in the following pages are climatically based. Good husbandry, crop protection and rotation are also essential, especially for combating diseases (for instance fungus in the wet climates)1) and insect pests. The yield expectations given in the AEZ are only valid if these farm management standards are optimal and the soils are suitable, well manured and fertilised.

It must be remembered that the classiﬁcation of yield potentials in > 80 % = very good, 60–80 % = good, 40-60 % = fair and 20-40 % of the optimum = poor (under ﬁeld conditions) is still a rough calculation or even only an estimate (for these crops for which exact water requirements are not yet available). Mainly those crop varieties are listed who give the highest quantities of yields compared to a low risk (see Tables 5a, b,...). A fair potential of a high yielding maize variety can produce more than a good potential of an early maturing , more safe, but naturally less yielding one.

The growing seasons and yield potentials are calculated for medium textured soils, if not otherwise stated. For heavy soils they are roughly 1-2 decades longer (if the agro-humid period is not weak), on light soils about one decade shorter.2) There are very good volcanic soils in this region but also very poor ones which need considerable improvement. The soil maps and descriptions are derived from the district soil maps of the Kenya Soil Survey in the Fertiliser Use Recommendation Project of the GTZ. The symbols are simpliﬁed to make it easier for non-specialists to use them. An introduction is given to the soils of each district group.

The crop potentials are basically calculated by the computer program MARCROP (named after MARginal CROPs) of Berthold Hornetz 3). The annual crops in the potentials are listed in the following order: cereals; pulses; tubers; oil seed; real cash crops; fruits and vegetables4). The perennial crops are listed more or less according to their importance. The diagrams of the growing periods and the detailed tables of the yield expectations are prepared only for the marginal and semiarid zones near the fringe of rainfed cultivation. They are included as an appendix after the driest AEZs (to which they belong) to visualise the risks and chances there. The calculation could not include cotton because there exists no specific water requirement profile for the bimodal variety. The calculation of the growing periods for the subzones and diagrams is done by the more basically, related program WATBAL (named after WATer BALance) of B. Hornetz and H. Kutsch. As a more zonal climatic program, it does not consider the deep rooting of specific crops. Therefore it is possible that even with a short growing period, a specific crop can yield something due to deep roots still reaching the deeper moisture. This is the reason that the potentials in the text and yield tables are better than in the small tables below the diagrams of the growing periods. Explanations of both programs see Vol. II/M Methodology.

Some new crops are recommended, e.g. the early and very early maturing varieties of the cereals foxtail and proso millet, or the perennial drought tolerant crops buﬀalo gourds and Marama beans5). The information available about them is still limited but they may be suitable for drier areas beyond the limits of reliable maize cultivation. Although these new crops may not ﬁt into the present nutrition patterns, customs will change due the population pressure on food supplies. In the potentials they are printed in italics to indicate that they are not yet commonly available.

Very little information exists about pasture and forage apart from real rangeland (Pratt and Gwynne 1977)6). The recommendations given are therefore only a very rough guide, and fodder cultivation depends on many factors besides climate and soil. The main problems outside the largescale farming area and Maasailand are overgrazing and soil erosion, which are destroying the means of livelihood of coming generations. The livestock unit (LU) in our estimated stocking rates is 300 kg liveweight (a local bull or nine sheep or eleven goats). This is for smallholders with partly indigenous cattle a more realistic ﬁgure nowadays than the

77 Standard Stock Unit (SSU) of 1000 lb (450 kg) introduced by the British. The LU corresponds to the Tropical Livestock Unit (TLU) which means a local cow of the Tropics (250 kg, a bull has 300 kg).

Some remarks on the Fertiliser Recommendation Tables: The increase of yield by the two fertilizing elements Nitrogenium and Phosphorus is not sustainable. For such a productivity, for instance, every 1,000 kg of 7) maize needs a replacement of 25 kg N (partly naturally: H2NO3 synthesis by lightning, N ﬁxing nodulation

of rhizobias on beanroots), 4 kg P and 24 kg Potassium (K2CO3), additionally Calcium, Magnesium, and Micronutrients like Bor, Copper, Cobalt, Molybdenium and others. If in the tables these elements are not marked, it means that they were not yet in deficit during the years of the experiments of the Fertiliser Use Recommendation Project of the GTZ and KSS 1987-92. But since this time, continuous cultivation without sufficient fertilizing and manuring may have caused deficiencies. Cassava which is now being extensively grown on the exhausted soils still needs for sustainability of yields per 10,000 kg7) 30 kg N, 10 kg P, 70 kg K, 20 kg Ca and 10 kg Mg. Groundnuts are a demanding crop, 1,000 kg of unpeeled nuts need 60-70 kg N, 5-6 kg P, 40-50 kg K, 20-30 kg Ca and 8-17 kg Mg plus micronutrients.The yield potentials given are for non-eroded and non-depleted soils. The yields on eroded soils go down to a third8), on depleted soils they are even lower.

Higher fertiliser rates as recommended may become uneconomic, at least after some years, because enforced production by two fertilisers only brings the others more quickly to the yield limiting minimum content in the soil. Recycling of taken nutrients by any way (even excrements) is the ﬁnal answer to achieve sustainable soil fertility for coming generations.

1) Phytosanitary aspects could not be considered here, see special handbooks like that from IRACC mentioned below or the Crop Protection Handbook. 2) Heavy soil means heavy loam, clay may have less available water for plants. 3) Details see Hornetz, B., Shisanya, Chr. & Gitonga, N.: Crop water relationships and thermal adaptation of kathika beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) and green grams (Vigna radiata) with special regard to temporal patterns of potential growth in the drylands of SE-Kenya.- Journal of Arid Environments 48, 2001, 4) It was impossible to list all vegetables which may be grown in each AEZ. Information about vegetables not mentioned may be found in Vol. V of the Handbook, or obtained from IRACC: Small Holder Farming. Handbook for Self Employment.- Marketing Support Services Ltd., Nairobi 1997. 5) Buffalo gourds and Marama beans produce big tubers after some seasons. Bitter substances may be washed out by salty water. Seeds contain protein and oil but there is little or no flowering in the Inner Tropics. Marama beans see Nat. Academy of Sciences: Tropical Legumes. Washington, D.C. 1979; Buffalo gourds see Nat. Academy of Science: Underexploited Plants with Promising Economic Value. Washington 1975. New information is obtainable in the internet. Seeds may be ordered from the experimental stations: Very early mat. millet from Central Arid Zone Research Institute (C.A.Z.R.I.) in Jodhpur, India; buffalo gourds from University of Tuscon, USA; Marama beans from Botanical Garden in Windhoek, Namibia. 6) Pratt, D.J. and Gwynne, M.D. (Eds.): Rangeland Management and Ecology in East Africa. London 1977. 7) Figures by chemical analyzis of the crop, averages printed in international handbooks. They are approximates, depending on varieties too. 8) Okoba, O.: Farmer´s indicators for soil erosion mapping and crop yield estimation in central highlands of Kenya. - Trop. Resource Man. Papers 62, Wageningen University 2005, T. 8 p. 88.

78 NYANDARUA 1

3.2 NYANDARUA DISTRICT

TABLE OF CONTENTS District Page

3.2.1 Natural Potential 3 Introduction 3 Annual Rainfall Map 5 Table 1: Annual Rainfall 6 Table 2: Temperature 7 Table 3: Potential Evapotranspiration 7 Seasonal Rainfall Maps 8 Table 4: Climate in the Agro-Ecological Zones 10 Agro-Ecological Zones Map 11 Agro-Ecological Zones and Subzones (=Legend to the AEZ Map), with Land Use Potentials and Water Availability &Requirement Diagrams 12 Soil Map 20 Soil Distribution, Fertility and Major Characteristics with Legend to the Soil Map 21

3.2.2 Population and Land 24

Table 5: Population 24 Table 6: Composition of Households 27 Table 7: Available Land Area per AEZ and Household 30

3.2.3 Agricultural Statistics 31 Development and Trends of Major Cash Crops 31 Table 8: Pyrethrum 31 Distribution of Farming Activities During the Year 32 Tables 9 a-g: Farming Activities in the Agro-Ecological Zones 32

3.2.4 Farm Survey 37 Table 10: Farm Survey Sites Representative of the Dominating Agro-Ecological Subzones and Units 37 Farm Survey Areas and Fertiliser Recommendations Map 39 Tables 11 a-e: Assets, Land Use, Farming Intensity and Inputs 40 Tables 12 a-e: Cropping Pattern 47

3.2.5 Introduction to the Actual Land Use Systems and to the Potential Intensiﬁcation by Better Farm Management in Dominating Agro-Ecological Subzones 54

Tables 13 a-e: Increase of Yields by Better Farm Management 55-62 UH1 vl i of the Sheep-Dairy Zone 54 UH2 vl/l of the Pyrethrum-Wheat Zone 56 UH3 (l) i (vs/s) of the Wheat-Barley Zone SW of Ndaragwa 58

79 2 NYANDARUA

UH3 (l/vl) of the Wheat-Barley Zone SE of Ol Kalou 58 UH3 (l/vl) of the Wheat-Barley Zone of North Kinangop 58

3.2.6 Fertiliser and Manure Recommendations for Important Agro-Ecological Units 63 Map of Important Agro-Ecological Units 65 Tables 14 a-e: Fertiliser and Manure Recommendations: 67-71 UH1 vl^i or two, MV2 and RB3 of the Sheep-Dairy Zone 66 UH2 vl/l or two, UBP1 of the Pyrethrum-Wheat Zone 66 UH2-1 vli-p,UV1 of the transitional Pyrethrum-Wheat Zone 68 UH3 l/vl or two & (l/vl), LPC of the Wheat-Barley Zone 68 UH3 (l/vl), LP2 of the Wheat-Barley Zone 70

80 NYANDARUA 3

3.2.1 NATURAL POTENTIAL

INTRODUCTION

The Nyandarua District consists mainly of the Kinangop Plateau, Oljororok Plateau and the Ol Kalou Salient, both situated in the rainshadow of the Nyandarua Range. For this reason the rains decrease rapidly from east to west, with the annual average diminishing from more than 1400 mm at the foot of the Range to 700 mm in the Malewa Valley. The district consists of six divisions namely: North Kinangop, South Kinan- gop, Kipipiri, Oljororok, Ndaragua and Ol kalau. There are 26 Locations and 75 Sub-locations.

The diﬀerence in the 66 % reliability of rainfall1) during the agrohumid periods is even greater, from more than 1000 mm to less than 300 mm in the ﬁrst rainy season 600 to 100 mm in the second one, The reason is that the rains become more scattered throughout the year and are not concentrated enough to create long pronounced agro-humid periods. The number of agrohumid decades (10 day periods), i.e. growing periods for cultivated plants, decreases from 36 on the southeastern border of the district to less than 5 on the lowest point in the southwest. Also towards the Laikipia Plateau the rains are decreasing quickly, therefore the agrohumid periods become not only shorter but in intensity.

On the southeastern side of the Kinangop Plateau there are two main peaks of rainfall, one in April-May and one in October (see Diagram Sasumua, p. 12), and there is enough rain or mist in most of the other months. The humid period lasts normally from March to December/January. The reliability of these rains is so high that in four out of ﬁve years the months April - November have suﬃcient moisture for the successful growing of crops, and even permanent crops like pyrethrum do well.

However, a few kilometers westward the picture is quite different (see Diagram North Kinangop, p. 13). The additional rains caused by the upward flow of the easterly trade winds cease and the two rainy seasons are not so pronounced. The months July/August and January/February can be really dry, because the area lies in the rain-shadow. Fortunately, in normal years there is so much moisture in the soil that deep rooting crops get still sufficient water, but dry years make pyrethrum cultivation difficult, as the columns in the diagram indicate.

Towards the western rim of the plateau, the main rainy season becomes so short (March to May), that soil moisture is not suﬃcient to last beyond June. August can be dry below the wilting point as the middle rains are very weak. The second rainy season (or, if the small middle rains are called “second rains”, the third rains) which cause slightly sub-humid conditions from November to December are also uncertain and not heavy enough to ensure successful cultivation. Therefore permanent crops or a second crop are not advisable here.

The northern areas, the Ol Kalou Salient, show a remarkable contrast to the other rainfall areas (see Diagram Ol Kalou, p. 15). The instability of the air near the equator causes rain especially from July to September, between the sub-humid periods April - une and November. For annual crops it would be better to have the high water surplus ﬁrst, and for permanent ones the dry season is too dry (below 0.25 PET from Decem- ber - February).

The main climatic problem is the low night temperature. Cold air, generated during clear nights on the moorlands of the Nyandarua Range, flows down to the Kinangop Plateau and Ol Kalou Salient, causing night frosts which makes maize cultivation too hazardous.3) Only the western parts of the plateaus, further away from the Aberdare Range and where valleys give an outlet to this stream of cold air, have some months free of frost but there it is often too dry for maize. Absolute minimum temperatures are shown on table 2. Near the ground the temperatures can be up to 3.5°C lower than the given figures of the weather huts. Micro-climate is important, so that mixed areas between LH (no frost) and UH (with frosts) occur. Frost temperatures last only a few hours before sunrise. For special crops like sensitive vegetables or strawberries, simple protection with sheets of plastic would be sufficient. The main soil problem on the Kinangop Plateau and in the Ol Kalou Salient is waterlogging (see Soil Map

81 4 NYANDARUA

and description).2) The best area of the district lies west of the Ol Kalou Salient. It is a hilly upland in the Rift Valley of suﬃciently high altitude to attract enough rain to meet the requirements of agro-ecological zones UH 1, 2, and LH 2.

1) The amounts will be surpassed normally in 10 out of 15 years. 2) More detailed information in RACHILO, J.R.: Soil Conditions in the Kinangop Area. Kenya Soil Survey, Site Eval, rep, no, 34. Nairobi 1978 3) See Table 2 Geta Forest Station and former Mkungi Estate. Station Sasuma Dam is not typical because the big water is a temperature reserve.

82 NYANDARUA 5

83 6 NYANDARUA

TABLE 1: RAINFALL FIGURES FROM SELECTED TYPICAL STATIONS HAVING AT LEAST 15 YEARS OF RECORD

Agro Ecol. Annual Monthly rainfall in mm No. and Kind of Name of Station Zone & rainfall altitude records J FMAMJ J ASOND Subzone mm 8936015 Nyahururu, UH 3-2 Average 968 33 38 55 117 92 86 131 152 68 42 82 71 2354 m K.C.C. (closed) l/vl or two 66% 792 0 2 14 70 55 45 82 95 56 12 14 12 9036025 North Kinangop, UH 2 Average 1123 41 61 75 114 167 92 71 93 106 99 106 71 2624 m Forest Stn. (closed) vl i or two 66%1 1010 23 28 60 114 123 64 51 68 82 77 85 47 9036055 Ol Kalou, Railway UH-LH 3 Average 774 29 14 34 88 88 83 91 127 61 52 76 30 2361 m Station (closed) (l/vl) 66%1 685 5 0 13 60 70 51 73 110 45 35 40 5 9036065 Naivasha, Nanga UH 3 Average 838 54 60 88 158 109 42 29 42 48 58 84 67 2432 m Gerri (closed) m i (vs/s) i 66%1 750 29 35 70 124 80 31 18 33 35 42 59 32 9036116 Deighton Downs LH 4 Average 783 31 29 68 96 59 56 102 106 42 40 82 73 2128 m Airstrip (closed) (vs^s)+(vs) 66%1 7006 1235763840807830185037 9036135 KARI Oljororok. UH 2 Average 990 33 31 47 116 111 99 140 158 78 54 68 55 2371 m Res. Station vl/l or two 66%1 820 8 15 36 60 77 69 130 137 63 36 52 25 9036188 Sasumua Dam UH 1 Average 1620 79 97 155 325 254 86 64 65 57 149 199 90 2475 m (closed) p or l/vl^m 66%1 1450 50 76 93 275 216 75 46 46 43 105 153 57 9036241 Geta UH 2 Av. 1199 41 46 71 164 167 108 108 119 121 106 91 57 2590 m Forest Station vl i or two 66%2 9036264 N. Kinangop UH 2 Av. 1099 57 42 57 162 184 100 98 110 102 82 71 34 2478 m Mawingo Scheme vl/l or two 66%2 9036289 Wanjohi UH 3 Av. 947 34 32 48 117 127 78 95 135 89 77 75 40 2465 m Chief´s Camp (l/vl) 66%2 9036290 Malewa Farmer LH 4 Av. 717 33 31 38 107 97 71 69 86 66 55 48 16 2311 m Co-op Society (l) 66%2 9036303 Ragia UH 1 Av. 1518 66 78 132 295 258 93 64 50 60 148 177 97 2523 m Forest Station p or l/vl^m 66%2 9036304 Mirangi-Ini UH 1-2 Av. 1251 17 22 72 136 186 161 152 126 127 88 143 21 2677 m &KLHIV2I¿FH vl i or two 66%2 9036305 Silibwet UH 2 Av. 1151 30 40 25 117 164 149 163 166 109 62 87 39 2585 m Dispensary vl/l or two 66%2 9036307 Kangui UH 2 Av. 977 24 25 33 103 132 101 124 202 87 61 52 33 2584 m Secondary School vl/l or two 66%2 9036312 Chamata Gate UH 2 Av. 1091 31 29 65 145 119 102 108 158 87 67 96 84 2827 m vl/l or two 66%2

17KHVH¿JXUHVRIUDLQIDOOUHOLDELOLW\VKRXOGEHH[FHHGHGQRUPDOO\LQRXWRI\HDUV 2 Not calculated because not enough years available to GTZ.

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TABLE 2: TEMPERATURE DATA Temperature in°C No. and Name of AEZ1 Kind of Belt altitude Station records J F M A M J J A S O N D Yr. limits

Mean max. 21.5 22.7 22.9 21.6 20.8 20.1 19.6 19.9 21.9 22.0 20.1 21.0 21.2 3200 m UH 8936068 Ol jororok UH-LH Mean temp. 15.7 16.2 16.5 16.1 14.5 14.0 13.5 13.6 13.9 15.0 15.1 15.4 14.9 2348 m Farmers T.C. 2-3 Mean min. 9.9 9.6 10.0 10.5 8.2 7.8 7.4 7.2 5.9 7.9 10.1 9.8 8.7 2330 m Abs. min. 4.1 4.3 3.0 4.8 3.7 1.6 1.5 2.2 2.5 2.5 3.6 4.0 3.2 LH

Mean max. 22.5 23.4 23.5 22.2 21.9 20.9 19.5 19.4 21.0 21.5 20.4 20.7 21.4 3050 m KARI. 9036135 UH Mean temp. 14.0 14.5 15.1 15.0 14.3 13.3 12.9 12.9 12.9 13.7 13.9 13.7 14.0 UH Ol Jororok. 2371 m Agr. Exp. Stn. 2-3 Mean min. 5.5 5.5 6.7 7.7 6.7 5.6 6.3 6.3 4.7 5.8 7.4 6.9 6.3 2160 m Abs. min. -0.8 -1.3 0.6 1.7 0.0 -0.3 -0.7 0.3 -0.3 -1.1 0.1 -0.6 -1.3 LH

Mean max. 19.7 20.4 20.1 18.7 18.0 17.3 16.3 16.5 17.6 18.2 18.1 19.1 18.3 2940 m 9036241 Geta Forest Mean temp. 12.2 12.6 12.9 12.7 12.2 11.1 10.7 10.8 11.3 12.2 12.2 12.0 11.9 UH 2 UH 2590 m Station Mean min. 4.7 4.7 5.7 6.6 6.3 4.8 5.0 5.1 4.9 6.2 6.2 4.8 5.4 2030 m Abs. min. -1.1 -1.1 -0.6 1.1 1.0 -1.1 1.1 1.0 2.0 1.1 2.0 -1.1 -1.1

1 AEZ = Agro-ecological zone

TABLE 3: AVERAGE POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION Average Potential Evapotranspiration PET in mm Av. Rainfall Type1) No. and Name of Station altitude AEZ Year % J F M A M J J A S O N D Year in mm of PET

8936068 Ol jororok UH - 144 137 155 126 103 91 93 101 93 128 116 133 1422 ca. 970 ca. 68% 2348 m Farmers T. C. LH 2 9036135 KARI UH 2 130 128 144 121 115 100 94 100 65 120 107 121 1345 990 74% 2371 m Agric. Res. Stn.

1) Type of equation: calculated by formula of PENMAN & MCCULLOCH with albedo for green grass 0.2; see MCCULLOCH (1965): Tables for the Rapid Computation of the PENMAN Estimate of Evaporation.- East African Agricultural & Forestry Journal, Vol. 30, No.3, p. 286-295. AEZ = Agro-Ecol.Zone, explaining table see general part.

85 8 NYANDARUA

86 NYANDARUA 9

87 10 NYANDARUA

TABLE 4: CLIMATE IN THE AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

UH 1 p or l/vl^m 1150-1600 750-1000 300-550 200 or more 150-160 350-360 Sheep and l/vl^m 2400-3000 14.6-10.0 Steep slopes, Forest Reserve or National Park Dairy Zone vl i > 1200 > 800 > 200 200 or more ca. 100 ca. 300 vl i or two 1000-1200 600-750 200-300 190 or more 140-150 330-340 UH 2 Pyrethrum- l i m/s 2400-3000 14.6-10.0 950-1100 450-600 200-400 190 or more 120-130 310-320 Wheat Zone vl/l or two 950-1100 500-650 180-220 180 or more 110-120 290-300 l/vl or two 900-1100 500-650 130-200 170 or more 100-110 270-280 (l/vl) 850-1050 350-550 120-180 170 or more 90-100 260-270 UH 3 Wheat-Barley (l) i (vs/s) 2370-2430 14.7-13.7 800-1100 500-600 150-180 160 or more 70-90 230-250 Zone (l/m) i (s) Small, see Nyeri District m i (vs/s) i 870-990 350-500 140-200 140-160 70-90 220-250 UH 4 u r i 2280-2370 14.9-13.5 850-950 300-450 4) 100-150 – – – Ranching Zone

LH 3 (l/vl) 800-900 500-550 130-180 150 or more 60-70 210-220 Wheat/ 2250-2280 15.2-15.0 (Maize)-Barley (l/m) i 850-950 450-600 150-200 150 or more 60-70 210-220 Zone (vs/s) LH 4 (l) 800-900 300-400 90-150 140 or more 60-70 200-210 Cattle-Sheep 2190-2280 15.6-15.0 (vs)^(s) Barley Zone 800-900 350-450 100-150 90 or more 30-40 – +(vs)

LH 5 u r i 700-750 250-300 5) 50-100 – – – Lower High- 2070-2190 16.6-15.6 land Ranching 5) Zone t r 750-850 250-350 50-100 – – –

1) Amounts surpassed normally in 10 of 15 years, falling during the agro-humid period which allows growing of most cultivated plants. First rainy season plus middle rains. 2) More if growing cycle of cultivated plants continues into the period of second rainy season. 3) Only added if rainfall continues at least for survival (>0.25 PET) of certain long term crops, and this time is included. 4) No cultivation due to frequent night frosts. 5) Unsuitable distribution for crops.

88 NYANDARUA 11

89 12 NYANDARUA

AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES AND SUBZONES

TA = TROPICAL-ALPINE ZONES TA I + = Tropical-Alpine Moor and Heathlands II Here National Park Limited grazing potential

UH = UPPER HIGHLAND ZONES UH 0 = Forest Zone UH 1 = Sheep and Dairy Zone UH 1 = Sheep and Dairy Zone p or with permanent cropping possibilities, dividable in a long to very long cropping season l/vl^m followed by a medium one (see Diagram Kinangop, Sasumua Dam) Upper places very steep and too important as a catchment area, therefore Forest Reserve or Nat. Park. Small strip of outside lower places cleared, there:

Good yield potential (av. 60 –80%) of the optimum) 1st rainy season, start norm. mid March: Oats (Apr.-S., ~60%); peas, potatoes1); late mat. rapeseed (~60%); cabbage, carrots, kohlrabi, celery, radish, endive, rampion, leek, spinach 2nd rainy season, start norm. mid Oct.: Oats (Oct.-F.); peas, potatoes1); med. mat. rapeseed; vegetables

90 NYANDARUA 13

Fair yield potential (av. 40-60% of the optimum) 1st to 2nd rainy season: Very late mat. maize3), late mat. triticale 2nd rainy season: Medium mat. triticale (b. of S.-m. Jan.) m. mat. wheat Whole year: Pears and plums below 2600 m Pasture and forage About 0.5 ha/LU on secondary pasture of Kikuyu grass; very suitable for grade dairy cows; rye grass (Lolium perenne)6) and Kenya white clover to improve pasture; fodder oats and others (see Table X) UH 1 = Sheep and Dairy Zone with a long to very long cropping season followed by a medium l/vl^m one Steep slopes, Forest Reserve or National Park UH 1 = Sheep and Dairy Zone with a very long cropping season and intermediate rains vl i Small, see Nakuru District

UH 2 = Pyrethrum-Wheat Zone UH 2 = Pyrethrum-Wheat Zone vl i with a very long cropping season and intermediate rains, dividable in two variable or two cropping seasons and i.r. (see Diagram N- Kinangop)

91 14 NYANDARUA

Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. end of March: Triticale, oats; horse beans (below 2700m), peas; late mat. potatoes4); rapeseed; cabbages, kales, carrots (70-80%), kohlrabi, celery, endive, rampion, leek, radish, spinach 2nd rainy season, start indistinctly around Aug.: Oats, l. mat. wheat3) like Kenya Bongo (b. of June- e. of Dec.), m. mat. barley; peas, rapeseed, cabbages, kales, carrots, celery, endive, rampion, leek, radish Whole year, best pl. time March/Apr.: Pyrethrum (70-80%); rhubarb Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: Very late mat. maize like Kenya Kudu (March/Apr.-Jan.) on frost-free slopes, late mat. wheat3) 2nd rainy season: E. mat. wheat; potatoes; kohlrabi, spinach Whole year: Pears, plums, apples below 2600m Pasture and forage 0.6-0.8 ha/LU on secondary pasture of Kikuyu grass and tufted grass2); Merino and Corriedale sheep best above 2700m, grade dairy cows below that; rye grass (Lolium perenne)6), tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) and cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata) to improve pasture, Kenya white clover for dairy cows; other fodder crops see Table X UH 2 = Pyrethrum-Wheat Zone l i m/s with a long cropping season, intermediate rains and a medium to short cropping season Almost the same as UH 2 vl i because mists are bridging the two rainy seasons UH 2 = Pyrethrum-Wheat Zone vl/l with a very long to long or two cropping seasons or two or two (see Diagram Nyahururu) Potentials are mainly for the hilly northern and eastern parts of the district. On the Kinangop plateau extended water-logging soils and frosts are excluding several crops

92 NYANDARUA 15

Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. end of March: M. mat. wheat varieties (see Table IX)3)5) (b. of May- m. Oct.), late mat. wheat like Kenya Kudu3), triticale, m. mat. barley like Sabini; peas3), horse beans (below 2700m); rapeseed; potatoes3)4); carrots, cabbages, celery, endive, rampion, leek, raddish, kohlrabi, kales, spinach 2nd rainy season, start indistinctly around June/July: E. mat. wheat like K. Tembo and other var. (see Table IX); potatoes; carrots, celery, endive, rampion, leek, radish, kales Whole year: Pyrethrum Fair yield potential 2nd rainy season: Peas, rapeseed; cabbages, kohlrabi Whole year: Pears, plums, apples < 2600m (like most other crops not on the water-logging soils of the Kinangop Plateau) Poor yield potential 1st rainy season: High alt. maize on frost-free places Pasture and forage Suitable for Merino sheep and grade dairy cows; around 0.8 ha/LU on secondary pasture of Kikuyu and tufted grass2); perennial rye grass6) for improving pasture on suitable soils, other grasses and fodder crops see Table IX.

UH 2 = Pyrethrum-Wheat Zone (l/m) i (s) with a (weak) long to medium cropping season, intermediate rains, and a (weak) short one Small, potential see Nyeri District UH 3 = Wheat-Barley Zone UH 3 = Wheat-Barley Zone l/vl with a very long cropping, dividable in two variable cropping seasons or two Good yield potential 1st rainy, start norm. end of March: Late mat. wheat (April-Oct./N.), m. mat. wheat (May-O./N.), m. mat. barley (June-N.), m. mat. triticale (April-S., 60-70%); seed peas (March- June/July, a SRWDWRHV 0DUFK-XO\ UDSHVHHG $SULO0D\ERI6HS OLQVHHGRUÀD[JUHHQ RQLRQV VKDOORWV FDEEDJHVFDXOLÀRZHUNRKOUDELFDUURWV Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: Very late mat. maize (only on microclimati frost-free places, ~ 40%), oats (April- E RI 6HS P PDW VXQÀRZHU OLNH &RPHW ORZHU IURVWIUHH SODFHV FDUURWV NDOHV FHOHU\ endive, rampion, leek, radish 2nd rainy season, start norm. around Aug. but no distinct dry period before that: E. mat. barley; potatoes4) and e. mat. vegetables Whole year: Pyrethrum, apples, pears, plums Pasture and forage More than 1 ha/LU on secondary pasture of mixed grasses; suitable for grade beef cattle, dairy cows and Merino sheep; barley B 106 for stockfeed; rye grass6), cocksfoot and tall fescue to improve pasture; subterranean and Kenya white clover for dairy cows UH 3 = Wheat-Barley Zone (l/vl) with a (weak) long to very long cropping season (see Diagram Ol Kalou)

Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. end of March: M. mat. barley like Sabini, late mat. wheat3)(~60%), m. mat. wheat (May-b. of Oct.); potatoes (~60%, frost free places)4) Fair yield potential 1st UDLQ\ VHDVRQ 2DWV SHDV EURDG EHDQV UDSHVHHG OLQVHHG ÀD[ FDEEDJH NDOHV WR nd rainy VHDVRQ FDUURWVNRKOUDELFDXOLÀRZHUWXUQLSV 2nd rainy season, start indistinctly around July (with a 3rd very small peak in Oct.): Potatoes (frost- free places), carrots, turnips :KROH\HDU3\UHWKUXP1HZ=HDODQGÀD[ EHORZP DSSOHVSHDUVSOXPV

93 16 NYANDARUA

Poor yield potential 1st rainy season: Very late mat. maize 2ndUDLQ\VHDVRQ&DEEDJHFDXOLÀRZHUNRKOUDEL Whole year: Citrus

Pasture and forage Moor and grassland, well suited for Merino sheep, less for grade beef cattle and dairy cows; around 1.3 ha/LU on natural pasture of mixed grasses; fodder crops and other forage see Table X

UH 3 = Wheat-Barley Zone (l) i with a (weak) long cropping season, intermediate rains, and a (weak) very short to short (vs/s) one No reliable good yield potential Fair yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. mid March: E. and m. mat. wheat, m. mat. barley like Sabini; potatoes Whole year: Pyrethrum (on deep soils), apples, pears, plums Pasture and forage $ERXWKD/8RQQDWXUDOSDVWXUHKD/8RQDUWL¿FLDOSDVWXUHRIU\HJUDVV6); subterranean or Kenya white clover and barley B 106 for additional forage; well suited for Merino sheep and grade beef cattle

94 NYANDARUA 17

UH 3 = Wheat-Barley Zone m i with a medium cropping season, intermediate and a (weak) very short to short one (vs/s) (see Diagram Naivasha Nanga Gerri)

No reliable good yield potential. Many places waterlogged Fair yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. March: E. and m. mat. wheat, m. mat. barley like Sabini; linseed; potatoes, peas, cabbages, carrots Whole year: Pyrethrum (like other crops on deep, free draining soils) Pasture and forage $ERXWKD/8RQQDWXUDOSDVWXUHKD/8RQDUWL¿FLDOSDVWXUHRIU\HJUDVV6) or cockfoot; subterr. or Kenya white clover and barley B 106 for additional forage; Merino sheep, dairy cows and grade beef cattle do well

UH 4 = Upper Highland Ranching Zone UH 4 = Upper Highland Ranching Zone ur i with unimodal rainfall and intermediate rains Not suited for agriculture due to low rainfall and frequent night frosts. Some chances with frost resistant crops and varieties from Bolivia or Peru

Grassland and forage Around 2 ha/LU on natural grassland

95 18 NYANDARUA

LH = LOWER HIGHLAND ZONES LH 3 = Wheat/(Maize)-Barley Zone LH 3 = Wheat/(Maize)-Barley Zone (l/vl) with a (weak) long to very long cropping season7) (see Diagram Ol Kalou) Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. e. of March/mid April: Late mat. wheat like Kenya Bongo, m. mat. barley like Kenya Research; potatoes (e. of March-July) Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: L. mat. maize of H6...series a.o. var. (see Table IX); peas, rapeseed, linseed or ÀD[PPDWVXQÀRZHUOLNH&RPHWFDEEDJHNDOHVFDUURWVFDXOLÀRZHUEHHWURRWVSLQDFK 2nd rainy season, start norm. e. of June/July: E. mat. wheat like Kenya Tembo (b. of June-b. of N.) a. o. var. (see Table IX), e. mat. barley like Tumaini; m. mat. beans (lower places); rapeseed; potatoes; tomatoes, kales, beetroot Whole year: Black wattle, oranges and other citrus (lower places) Pasture and forage Good for grade beef cattle and Merino sheep. Around 1.5 ha/LU on natural grassland; 0.7-1.2 KD/8RQDUWL¿FLDOSDVWXUHRI1DQGL6HWDULDEDUOH\%IRUVWRFNIHHGDQGRWKHUIRGGHUFURSV (see Table X)

LH 3 = Wheat/(Maize)-Barley Zone (l/m) i with a (weak) long to medium cropping season, intermediate rains, and a (weak) very (vs/s) short to short one Potential almost the same as above but no late mat. wheat, and all planting during 1st rainy season LH 4 = Cattle-Sheep-Barley Zone LH 4 = Cattle-Sheep-Barley Zone (l) with a (weak) long cropping season Fair yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. b. of April: Late mat. wheat like Kenya Bongo, m. mat. wheat like .HQ\D5HVHDUFKSRWDWRHVPPDWVXQÀRZHUOLNH.HQ\D:KLWH UDSHVHHGOHDYHVDV a vegetable 2nd rainy season, stary norm. e. of June (middle rains): E. mat. wheat like Kenya Tembo (~ 40%) a.o. var. (see Table IX), e. mat. barley like Tumaini; potatoes, tomatoes, green onions Pasture and forage About 2-3 ha/LU on natural grassland; barley B 106 or subterranean clover as additional forage for high grade cattle LH 4 = Cattle-Sheep-Barley Zone (vs)^(s/m) with a (weak) very short cropping season, followed by a (weak) short to medium one + (vs) and a (weak) very short cropping season (See Diagram Ngobit, Deighton Downs) Fair yield potential 1stUDLQ\VHDVRQVWDUWQRUPHQGRI0DUFK1RWVXI¿FLHQWIRUFURSV 2nd rainy season, start norm. mid June: E. mat. barley like Tumaini; rapeseed as vegetable Poor yield potential 1st rainy season: Late mat. wheat like Kenya Bongo (to 2nd rainy season) 2nd rainy season: E. mat. wheat like K. Ngiri a.o. var. (see Table IX); green onions Pasture and forage 3-4 ha/LU on natural grassland; subterr. clover as add. forage for high grade cattle

96 NYANDARUA 19

LH 5 = Lower Highland Ranching Zone LH 5 = Lower Highland Ranching Zone with trimodal rainfall tr Not suitable for rain-fed agriculture Pasture and forage Normally 5-6 ha/LU on natural short grass savanna. No proper forage LH 5 = Lower Highland Ranching Zone with unimodal rainfall and intermediate rains ur i Almost the same as above but forage or hay important for bridging longer dry season

End Notes 1)Spraying against fungus diseases important 2) The bad tufted grass Eleusine jeageri and Pennisetum schmperi are expanding if the areas are overgrazed 3) Sometimes frost damage, esp. S.-F., local micro-relief important. (Lakes of cold air) 4) Blight resistant varieties important 5) Med. mat. varieties ﬁt better into the moisture supply than late mat. ones 6) Not in wheat areas because it is a bad weed 7) LH 3-UH 3, depending on microclimate, inversion makes bottomlands full of cold air at night

97 20 NYANDARUA

98 NYANDARUA 21

SOIL DISTRIBUTION, FERTILITY AND MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS

The physiography of the Nyandarua District is dominated by the Aberdare Range in the east. The landscape around it consists of undulating to rolling typography, the volcanic foothills of the range. The plateaus mostly occur in the central and southern part of the district. Miscellaneous land types and swampy areas occur east and southeast of Ol Joro Orok. An uplifted volcanic bloc arises west of this town.

The higher parts of the mountains contain soils of unit MV 2 which are of moderate to high fertility and with a humic topsoil of high fertility are found. Soils of the hills are generally variably fertile and many places have shallow, stony soils or the steep slopes are unsuitable for cultivation (unit HV 1). The uplands in the western part of the district are of moderate to high fertility (units RB 3 and UBP 1), in the southern part they have a thick humic topsoil and are highly fertile (UV 1 and UP 1).

On the plateaus, various soils are found: in the northern part, unit LPC, composed mainly of highly fertile soils, and in the southern part, diﬀerent types of heavy plateau soils with very poor drainage and moderate to low fertility (LV 1 and LV 2). In the western part, soil units LP 1 and LPC with soils of high fertility are found.

LEGEND TO THE SOIL MAP OF NYANDARUA DISTRICTS

1. Explanation of the ﬁrst character (physiography)

M Mountains and Major Scarps H Hills and Minor Scarps L Plateaus and High-Level Structural Plains F Footslopes R Volcanic Footridges U Uplands, Upper, Middle and Lower Levels S Swamps V Minor Valleys

2. Explanation of second character (lithology)

B Basic and Ultra-Basic Igneous Rocks (basalts, nepheline phonolites; older basic tuffs included) BP do with influence of volcanic ash predominant P Pyroclastic Rocks V Undifferentiated or Various Igneous Rocks

99 22 NYANDARUA

3. Soil description

MV1 Imperfectly drained, shallow to moderately deep, dark greyish brown, very friable, acid humic to peaty, loam to clay loam, with rock outcrops and ice in the highest parts: - dystric HISTOSOLS, lithic phase, with LITHOSOLS and Rock Outcrops

HV1 Well drained, shallow, dark reddish brown, friable strongly calcareous, bouldery or stony loam to clay loam; in many places saline: - LITHOSOLS; with calcic XEROSOLS, lithic, bouldery and saline phase and Rock Outcrops

LB4 Well drained to moderately well drained, deep, very dark greyish brown, ﬁrm, cracking clay with a (thick) humic topsoil: - verto-luvic PHAEOZEMS

LB6 Imperfectly drained, deep, black to dark grey, very ﬁrm, cracking clay; in places with a topsoil: - pellic VERTISOLS and verto-luvic PHAEOZEMS

LP1 Well drained, moderately deep to very deep, dark brown, friable and slightly smeary, clay loam to clay; with a humic topsoil: - ando-luvic PHAEOZEMS

LP2 Imperfectly drained, deep, very dark grayish brown, mottled, ﬁrm clay, abruptly underlying a thick topsoil of friable silty clay loam: - dystric and eutric PLANOSOLS

LP3 Poorly drained, deep, very dark grayish brown to very dark grey, mottled, very ﬁrm clay, abruptly underlying 30-45 cm of silty clay loam to clay loam: - dystric PLANOSOLS

LP4 Poorly drained, deep, very dark greyish brown to very dark grey, mottled, slightly sodic, very ﬁrm clay, abruptly underlying 25-45 cm of silt loam: - solodic PLANOSOLS

LPC Complex of: well drained, deep to very deep,very dark grayish brown to dark brown, friable and slightly smeary, clay loam; with a humic topsoil: - ando-luvic PHAEOZEMS and: imperfectly drained, deep, very dark greyish brown to black, ﬁrm, moderately calcareous, cracking clay; with a humic topsoil: - verto-luvic PHAEOZEMS

RB1 Well drained, extremely deep, dark reddish brown to dark brown, friable and slightly smeary clay, with an acid humic topsoil: - ando-humic NITISOLS; with humic ANDOSOLS

100 NYANDARUA 23

RB2 Well drained, extremely deep, dusky red to dark reddish brown, friable clay, with an acid humic topsoil: - humic NITISOLS

RB3 Well drained, extremely deep, dusky red to dark reddish brown, friable clay; with inclusions of well drained, moderately deep, dark red to dark reddish brown, friable clay over rock, pisoferric or petroferric material: - eutric NITISOLS; with nito-chromic CAMBISOLS and chromoc ACRISOLS and LUVISOLS, partly lithic, pisoferric or petroferric phase

RB5 Well drained, moderately deep to deep, dark reddish brown, friable to ﬁrm clay, with a humic topsoil: - chromo-luvic PHAEOZEMS.

FV1 Well drained, deep to very deep, reddish brown, friable clay, with an acid humic topsoil: - ando-ACRISOLS

UBP1 Well drained, deep to very deep, dark reddish brown to dark red, ﬁrm clay; with inclusions of imperfectly drained, moderately deep, dark grayish brown clay: - nito-ferric/chromic LUVISOLS; with gleyic LUVISOLS

UP1 Well drained, very deep, dark reddish brown to dark brown, very friable and smeary, silty clay loam, with a humic topsoil: - mollic ANDOSOLS

UV1 Well drained, deep to very deep, dark reddish brown to very dark greyish brown, friable and slightly smeary clay, with a humic topsoil: - ando-luvic PHAEOZEMS

S1 Poorly drained to very poorly drained, very deep, dark grayish brown to dark olive grey, ﬁrm to very ﬁrm, strongly calcareous, strongly saline, strongly sodic clay; in many places with fragipans at various depths: - gleyic SOLONCHAKS, sodic phase and partly fragipan phase

VC Complex of: Well drained to poorly drained, shallow to deep, dark reddish brown to black, ﬁrm, silty clay to clay; in places calcareous and /or cracking; in places rocky and stony: - GLEYSOLS, FLUVISOLS, CAMBISOLS, VERTISOLS etc.

NOTES for deﬁnitions (of underlined words): 1. mollic Nitisols and chromo-luvic Phaeozems: soils are equally important 2. mollic Nitisols, with chromic-luvic Phaeozems: Nitisols are prevalent 3. in places: in < 30% of the area 4. in many places: in 30-50% of the area 5. predominantly: in > 50% of the area 6. deeper subsoil: below 80 cm

101 24 NYANDARUA

3.2.2 POPULATION AND LAND

NYANDARUA DISTRICT

Nyandarua district is the most expansive in Central Province, occupying an area of 3,304 km2. Moreover, it is the least densely populated. According to the Population and Household Census of 1999, the total population stood at 479,902 people while the total number of households was 104,401. Population density rose from 66 persons/km2 in 1979 to 145 persons/km2 in 1999. This phenomenal population growth rate can partly be attributed to internal migration from the neighbouring districts. It suﬃces to note that its population has doubled in the last two decades resulting to an increased pressure on land use resources.

Nyandaraua district is made up six administrative divisions: Ol Kalou, Ol Joro Orok, Kipipiri, South Kinan- gop, North Kinangop and Ndaragwa with 26 Locations and 79 Sub-locations and varying population density patterns (Table 5). Table 6 shows household distribution as well as composition. With cold agro- ecological zones and other diﬃcult climatic conditions, agricultural productivity and livestock husbandry practices are restricted (Table 7).

TABLE 5: POPULATION IN NYANDARUA DISTRICT PER DIVISION, LOCATION AND SUB-LOCATION (Source: Census 1999)

DIVISION / LOCATION / Area SUB-LOCATION Male Female Total Households in km2 Density OL KALOU 48,868 49,938 98,806 21,247 592.2 167 OL KALOU 6,541 6,702 13,243 3,016 101.9 130 Mawingo 2,535 2,714 5,249 1,082 50.5 104 Munyeki 4,006 3,988 7,994 1,934 51.4 156 TUMAINI 4,154 3,990 8,144 1,757 77.7 105 Kanjuiri 2,960 2,796 5,756 1,215 55.6 104 Upper Gilgil 1,194 1,194 2,388 542 22.1 108 KAIMBAGA 6,920 7,275 14,195 3,287 112.1 127 Gichungo 4,268 4,508 8,776 2,135 47.6 184 Kandutura 2,652 2,767 5,419 1,152 64.5 84 RURII 9,841 10,198 20,039 4,329 132.7 151 Rurii 3,946 4,193 8,139 1,736 62.6 130 Matura 3,938 4,125 8,063 1,645 33.9 238 Passenga 1,957 1,880 3,837 948 36.2 106 NGORIKA 5,577 5,763 11,340 2,491 45.7 248 Ngorika 5,577 5,763 11,340 2,491 45.7 248 NDUNDORI 15,835 16,010 31,845 6,367 122.1 261 Matindiri 1,465 1,517 2,982 545 27.1 110 Sabugo 6,717 6,653 13,370 2,790 32.8 408 Ruiru 2,744 2,744 5,488 1,080 24 229 Melangine 4,909 5,066 9,975 1,952 38.2 261 OL JORO OROK 32,311 32,918 65,229 14,844 381.9 171 GATIMU 8,044 8,067 16,111 4,106 73.8 218 Kanguo 1,320 1,296 2,616 576 25.4 103 Gikingi 2,849 2,815 5,664 1,608 9.9 572 Gatimu 3,875 3,956 7,831 1,922 38.5 203 GATHANJE 12,083 12,209 24,292 5,168 130.9 186 Gathanje 3,374 3,373 6,747 1,401 55.6 121

102 NYANDARUA 25

TABLE 5: Continued

DIVISION / LOCATION / Area Density SUB-LOCATION Male Female Total Households in km2 Silibwet 5,827 6,032 11,859 2,528 49.8 238 Ngano 2,882 2,804 5,686 1,239 25.5 223 OL JORO OROK 5,008 5,133 10,141 2,447 71.2 142 Oraimutia 1,159 1,151 2,310 530 29.1 79 Nyairoko 825 792 1,617 384 20.2 80 Lesirko 3,024 3,190 6,214 1,533 21.9 284 WERU 7,176 7,509 14,685 3,123 106 139 Weru 2,932 3,110 6,042 1,285 55.5 109 Gatumbiro 1,858 2,007 3,865 836 27.4 141 Kirimangai 2,386 2,392 4,778 1,002 23.1 207 KIPIPIRI 38,162 40,731 78,893 16,527 543.8 145 Kipipiri 8,891 9,463 18,354 3,875 143.5 128 Miharati 4,508 4,848 9,356 1,943 58.3 160 Githioro 4,383 4,615 8,998 1,932 85.2 106 WANJOHI 8,834 9,310 18,144 3,830 146.7 124 Wanjohi 5,656 5,958 11,614 2,469 66.8 174 Gatondo 1,748 1,792 3,540 729 49.5 72 Rironi 1,430 1,560 2,990 632 30.4 98 MALEWA 5,824 6,236 12,060 2,493 93.1 130 Malewa 2,670 2,939 5,609 1,172 40.5 138 Ndemi 3,154 3,297 6,451 1,321 52.6 123 GETA 9,436 10,096 19,532 4,129 64.7 302 Geta 2,653 2,853 5,506 1,176 20.4 270 Mikeu 2,280 2,477 4,757 1,005 18.5 257 Kiambogo 2,249 2,332 4,581 1,011 15.8 290 Makumbi 2,254 2,434 4,688 937 10 469 LERESHWA 5,177 5,626 10,803 2,200 95.8 113 Lereshwa 2,216 2,463 4,679 986 28.4 165 Kiriko 2,961 3,163 6,124 1,214 67.4 91 SOUTH KINANGOP 41,544 42,829 84,373 18,663 348.1 242 NYAKIO 13,409 14,037 27,446 5,723 109.3 251 Mukeu 2,820 3,102 5,922 1,197 20 296 Karangatha 3,427 3,503 6,930 1,494 12.9 537 Rwanyambo 3,091 3,087 6,178 1,247 13.2 468 Githabai 1,788 1,912 3,700 807 37.7 98 Koinange 2,283 2,433 4,716 978 25.5 185 MAGUMU 13,047 13,394 26,441 6,315 84.6 313 Gitwe 2,547 2,458 5,005 1,202 11.9 421 Karati 3,028 3,058 6,086 1,187 30.6 199 Matura 3,130 3,268 6,398 1,523 22.8 281 Bamboo 4,342 4,610 8,952 2,403 19.3 464 NJABINI 15,088 15,398 30,486 6,625 154.2 198 Njabini 3,904 3,948 7,852 1,793 30.8 255

103 26 NYANDARUA

TABLE 5: Continued

DIVISION / LOCATION / Area Density SUB-LOCATION Male Female Total Households in km2 Tulaga 3,786 3,830 7,616 1,376 70.2 108 Muruaki 3,638 3,822 7,460 1,576 30.2 247 Kiburu 3,760 3,798 7,558 1,880 23 329 NORTH KINANGOP 32,762 34,594 67,356 13,983 475.3 142 N. KINANGOP 15,397 16,082 3,1479 6,657 242.1 130 Mikaro 1,420 1,512 2,932 579 61.2 48 Nandarasi 4,650 4,819 9,469 2,141 45.2 209 Mkungi 3,105 3,153 6,258 1,290 30.6 205 Kitiri 2,277 2,309 4,586 911 63.4 72 Kinja 3,945 4,289 8,234 1,736 41.7 197 ENGINEER 17,365 18,512 35,877 7,326 233.2 154 Murungaru 5,525 6,071 11,596 2,381 72.6 160 Kahuru/Muruaki 7,329 7,840 15,169 2,918 96 158 Gathara 4,511 4,601 9,112 2,027 64.6 141 NDARAGWA 41,405 43,840 85,245 19,137 683.6 125 KAHUTHA 8,694 8,841 17,535 4,064 197.1 89 Kariki 1,674 1,704 3,378 820 47.6 71 Muricho 3,056 2,993 6,049 1,468 45 134 Kianjogu 1,423 1,509 2,932 634 52.1 56 Kiriogo 1,317 1,388 2,705 588 18.9 143 Uruku 1,224 1,247 2,471 554 33.5 74 SHAMATA 10,269 10,746 21,015 4,535 177.7 118 Shamata 2,634 2,889 5,523 1,187 31.6 175 Simbara 1,004 1,071 2,075 450 19.9 104 Pesi 1,481 1,385 2,866 641 50 57 Kirima 2,671 2,777 5,448 1,166 53.3 102 Karandi 2,479 2,624 5,103 1,091 22.9 223 LESHAU 5,673 6,231 11,904 2,636 98.8 120 Karagoini 2,819 3,106 5,925 1,269 48 123 Mbuyu 2,854 3,125 5,979 1,367 50.8 118 KIRIITA 7,730 8,341 16,071 3,731 43.4 370 Shauri 2,591 2,883 5,474 1,152 18.5 296 Mairo-inya 5,139 5,458 10,597 2,579 24.9 426 MATHINGIRA 4,893 5,310 10,203 2,246 80.5 127 Leshau 3,559 3,832 7,391 1,611 61.5 120 Ndivai 1,334 1,478 2,812 635 19 148 KANYAGIA 4,146 4,371 8,517 1,925 86.1 99 Kanyagia 1,387 1,446 2,833 671 18.8 151 Kihara 1,090 1,109 2,199 526 36.3 61 Muruai 1,669 1,816 3,485 728 31 112

104 NYANDARUA 27

TABLE 6: COMPOSITION OF HOUSEHOLDS IN NYANDARUA DISTRICT PER DIVISION, LOCATION AND SUB-LOCATION (Source: Census 1999)

Farmer’s Family DIVISION / LOCATION / Total Number of Persons per SUB-LOCATION Households 15 years and Under 15 Household above years OL KALOU 21,247 2.5 2.1 4.7 OL KALOU 3,016 2.4 2.0 4.4 Mawingo 1,082 2.6 2.2 4.9 Munyeki 1,934 2.2 1.9 4.1 TUMAINI 1,757 2.5 2.1 4.6 Kanjuiri 1,215 2.6 2.2 4.7 Upper Gilgil 542 2.4 2.0 4.4 KAIMBAGA 3,287 2.3 2.0 4.3 Gichungo 2,135 2.2 1.9 4.1 Kandutura 1,152 2.5 2.2 4.7 RURII 4,329 2.5 2.1 4.6 Rurii 1,736 2.5 2.2 4.7 Matura 1,645 2.6 2.3 4.9 Passenga 948 2.2 1.9 4.0 NGORIKA 2,491 2.5 2.1 4.6 Ngorika 2,491 2.5 2.1 4.6 NDUNDORI 6,367 2.7 2.3 5.0 Matindiri 545 3.0 2.5 5.5 Sabugo 2,790 2.6 2.2 4.8 Ruiru 1,080 2.7 2.3 5.1 Melangine 1,952 2.8 2.4 5.1 OL JORO OROK 14,844 2.4 2.0 4.4 GATIMU 4,106 2.1 1.8 3.9 Kanguo 576 2.4 2.1 4.5 Gikingi 1,608 1.9 1.6 3.5 Gatimu 1,922 2.2 1.9 4.1 GATHANJE 5,168 2.5 2.2 4.7 Gathanje 1,401 2.6 2.2 4.8 Silibwet 2,528 2.5 2.2 4.7 Ngano 1,239 2.5 2.1 4.6 OLJOROROK 2,447 2.2 1.9 4.1 Oraimutia 530 2.4 2.0 4.4 Nyairoko 384 2.3 1.9 4.2 Lesirko 1,533 2.2 1.9 4.1 WERU 3,123 2.5 2.2 4.7 Weru 1,285 2.5 2.2 4.7 Gatumbiro 836 2.5 2.1 4.6 Kirimangai 1,002 2.6 2.2 4.8 KIPIPIRI 16,527 2.6 2.2 4.8 KIPIPIRI 3,875 2.6 2.2 4.7 Miharati 1,943 2.6 2.2 4.8

105 28 NYANDARUA

TABLE 6: Continued

Farmer’s Family DIVISION / LOCATION / Total Number of Persons per SUB-LOCATION Households 15 years and Under 15 Household above years Githioro 1,932 2.5 2.1 4.7 WANJOHI 3,830 2.6 2.2 4.7 Wanjohi 2,469 2.5 2.2 4.7 Gatondo 729 2.6 2.2 4.9 Rironi 632 2.6 2.2 4.7 MALEWA 2,493 2.6 2.2 4.8 Malewa 1,172 2.6 2.2 4.8 Ndemi 1,321 2.6 2.2 4.9 GETA 4,129 2.6 2.2 4.7 Geta 1,176 2.5 2.2 4.7 Mikeu 1,005 2.6 2.2 4.7 Kiambogo 1,011 2.4 2.1 4.5 Makumbi 937 2.7 2.3 5.0 LERESHWA 2,200 2.6 2.3 4.9 Lereshwa 986 2.6 2.2 4.7 Kiriko 1,214 2.7 2.3 5.0 SOUTH KINANGOP 18,663 2.4 2.1 4.5 NYAKIO 5,723 2.6 2.2 4.8 Mukeu 1,197 2.7 2.3 4.9 Karangatha 1,494 2.5 2.1 4.6 Rwanyambo 1,247 2.7 2.3 5.0 Githabai 807 2.5 2.1 4.6 Koinange 978 2.6 2.2 4.8 MAGUMU 6,315 2.3 1.9 4.2 Gitwe 1,202 2.2 1.9 4.2 Karati 1,187 2.8 2.4 5.1 Matura 1,523 2.3 1.9 4.2 Bamboo 2,403 2.0 1.7 3.7 NJABINI 6,625 2.5 2.1 4.6 Njabini 1,793 2.4 2.0 4.4 Tulaga 1,376 3.0 2.5 5.5 Muruaki 1,576 2.6 2.2 4.7 Kiburu 1,880 2.2 1.9 4.0 NORTH KINANGOP 13,983 2.6 2.2 4.8 N. KINANGOP 6,657 2.6 2.2 4.7 Mikaro 579 2.7 2.3 5.1 Nandarasi 2,141 2.4 2.0 4.4 Mkungi 1,290 2.6 2.2 4.9 Kitiri 911 2.7 2.3 5.0 Kinja 1,736 2.6 2.2 4.7 ENGINEER 7,326 2.6 2.3 4.9 Murungaru 2,381 2.6 2.2 4.9

106 NYANDARUA 29

TABLE 6: Continued

Farmer’s Family DIVISION / LOCATION / Total Number of Persons per SUB-LOCATION Households 15 years and Under 15 Household above years Kahuru/Muruaki 2,918 2.8 2.4 5.2 Gathara 2,027 2.4 2.1 4.5 NDARAGWA 19,137 2.4 2.1 4.5 KAHUTHA 4,064 2.3 2.0 4.3 Kariki 820 2.2 1.9 4.1 Muricho 1,468 2.2 1.9 4.1 Kianjogu 634 2.5 2.1 4.6 Kiriogo 588 2.5 2.1 4.6 Uruku 554 2.4 2.1 4.5 SHAMATA 4,535 2.5 2.1 4.6 Shamata 1,187 2.5 2.1 4.7 Simbara 450 2.5 2.1 4.6 Pesi 641 2.4 2.1 4.5 Kirima 1,166 2.5 2.2 4.7 Karandi 1,091 2.5 2.2 4.7 LESHAU 2,636 2.4 2.1 4.5 Karagoini 1,269 2.5 2.2 4.7 Mbuyu 1,367 2.4 2.0 4.4 KIRIITA 3,731 2.3 2.0 4.3 Shauri 1,152 2.6 2.2 4.8 Mairo-inya 2,579 2.2 1.9 4.1 MATHINGIRA 2,246 2.5 2.1 4.5 Leshau 1,611 2.5 2.1 4.6 Ndivai 635 2.4 2.0 4.4 KANYAGIA 1,925 2.4 2.0 4.4 Kanyagia 671 2.3 1.9 4.2 Kihara 526 2.3 1.9 4.2 Muruai 728 2.6 2.2 4.8

107 30 NYANDARUA

1) Person

per in ha Household

Agricultural land

LH 5 LH

LH 4 LH LH 3-4 LH

(Source: Reports) Calculated from DAOs LH 3 LH

2 UH - LH 3 LH - UH (AEZs)

in ’00 ha = km UH 4 UH

Total Area Area in Agro-Ecological ZonesTotal

UH 3 UH

UH 2 UH

UH 1 UH

(incl. ranching land) ranching (incl. Agricultural Land Land Agricultural 2,251 375.6 787.4 830.5 173 32.0 96.0 21.0 361.8 96.0 2.19 0.48

2 Non-Agricultural Lands Non-Agricultural

in ’00 ha = km Total Land Total 382606684 31544 26 150823 351 223 526 534 25.0 304 321 63.0 161.2 70.4 519 169.0 14.3 56.1 119.6 202.9 137.6 112 234.6 200.0 98.1 86.6 31.0 15.4 341.2 7.0 28.5 25.0 - - 3.6 25.0 - 45.0 - - 21.0 14.0 - 44.0 8.4 - - 117.6 - - 16.0 194.9 80.0 2.66 2.36 5.3 - 1.97 0.57 0.52 0.44 - 1.94 0.41 1.59 0.34 AVAILABLE LAND AEZ AND PER DISTRICT AREA HOUSEHOLD IN NYANDARUA AVAILABLE including ranching land DIVISION without township Orok Ol Joro Ol Kalou Ndaragwa Kipipiri Kinangop (S & N) AREA TOTAL 3,039 734 TABLE 7: 1)

108 NYANDARUA 31

3.2.3 AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS: Development and Trends of Major Cash Crops in Nyandarua District The agriculturally potential land in Nyandarua is approximately 201,100 ha. The farms are a result of post independence settlement schemes; hence portray uniform size and organization. Besides food crops especially Irish potatoes, forage and livestock are major economic enterprises. The main cash crops are wheat, pyrethrum and cut-ﬂowers. The trend in pyrethrum production has been on the decline due to delayed pay- ment by Pyrethrum Board of Kenya (PBK), while that of cut-ﬂowers has been on upward trend.

TABLE 8: NYANDARUA DISTRICT, PYRETHRUM AREA, PRODUCTION AND YIELD TRENDS (Source: Ministry of Agriculture DAOs Annual Reports and PBK)

Year Area Production tons Yields ha LQPHWULFWRQVRIGULHGÀRZHUV kg/ha 1980/81 3,764 1,401 372 1981/82 4,736 1,894 400 1982/83 5,694 1,500 263 1983/84 3,750 1,404 374 1984/85 4,013 1,290 321 1985/86 4,230 1,353 320 1986/87 2,800 843 301 1987/88 2,970 1,039 350 1988/89 3,175 1,329 419 1989/90 3,480 1,392 400 1990/91 3,730 1,492 400 1991/92 3,980 1,470 369 1992/93 4,435 2,218 500 1993/94 4,649 2,325 500 1994/95 3,537 1,415 400 1995/96 4,100 2,050 500 1996/97 4,000 1,310 328 1997/98 3,500 1,999 571 1998/99 3,632 2,179 600 1999/00 1,176 366 311 2000/01 3,701 1,405 380 2001/02 3,550 1,415 399 2002/03 3,765 1,499 398 2003/04 3,110 916 294 2004/05 1,120 387 345

109 32 NYANDARUA

DISTRIBUTIONOF FARMING ACTIVITIES DURING THE YEAR PER WEEK AND AGRO-ECOLOGI- CAL ZONES

110 NYANDARUA 33

111 34 NYANDARUA

112 NYANDARUA 35

113 36 NYANDARUA

114 NYANDARUA 37

3.2.4 FARM SURVEY IN NYANDARUA DISTRICT

In Nyandarua district, according to the 2004 FS, three major agro–ecological zones were surveyed (Table 10). Even though comparatively similar agro–ecological zones and subzones were covered in the 2004 FS, the 1978 FS was too general and less informative. For instance, in the 2004 FS, AEZ UH 3 was divided into three Subzones deﬁned by speciﬁc agro–climatic regimes and soil types. In the 1978 FS, mean household farm sizes were: UH 2 – 4 (- LH 3): 14.0 ha and UH 2: 9.0 ha. In the 2004 FS, mean household farm sizes were: UH 1 (5.0 ha), UH 2 (2.8 ha), UH 3 [5.9 ha, 4.7 ha & 7.5 ha for the respective Subzones]. By all indications, mean household farm sizes have substantially reduced in size by greater proportions. This can easily be attributed to the rapid population growth rates and intra – district migration1), especially from Kiambu – Thika, Nakuru and Nyeri districts. In the long run the implications are of this reduced farm sizes likely to be more serious and impact negatively on food production potential per household as well livestock production potential capacities.

Smaller mean household farm sizes in the Sheep & Dairy AEZ UH 1 and Pyrethrum – Wheat AEZ UH 2 are an indication of clustered population hot spots. Such high density population spots are a function of three main factors, namely: network accessibility and markets, climate and soils. These two AEZ are geo- graphically strategic and well positioned as transitional points to urban centres in Central Kenya and the Rift Valley, especially Nyahururu, Nakuru and Nyeri. Equally, mean annual rainfall is high and well distributed in the year. Temperatures are moderately cool and comfortable. Soils are fertile, deep and well drained. On the other hand, the vast AEZ UH 3 and its Subzones exhibit large mean farm sizes (5.0 ha/farmer). Basically, this is a large-scale farming region. For example, the Subzone UH 3 (l) i (vs/s), with mean household farm size of ca. 6.0 ha, as represented by Kandutura sub–location of Kaimbaga location of Ol Kalau division, is the dominant wheat growing area (Table 12c). Mechanized farming and ranching are the common land use practices (see details in Subzone discussions).

In terms of crops and seasonality, a symmetry pattern emerges. The dominant annual crop in both seasons for both UH 1 & UH 2 AEZs is Irish potatoes besides pears and plums. An increased diversity of crop potential exists in UH 3 as shown by the mean number of crops grown per year (Tables 11c to 11e), ranging from 4.4 in Kandutura to 9.2 in Kanyagia location of Ndaragwa division.

TABLE 10: FARM SURVEY SITES IN NYANDARUA DISTRICT

Agro-Ecological Unit District No. in Farm Survey Sites Kenya AEZone Subzone Soil Unit

RB 3 & Oljororok Division & Location, 111 UH 1-2 v l i UBP 1 Nyairoko Sub-location

UBP 1 & Ol Kalou Division & Location, 112 UH 2-1 vl/ l RB 3 Ndundori Sub-location

NYANDARUA Ol Kalou Division, Kaimbaga Location, 113 UH 3 (l) i (s/vs) RB 1 Kandutura Sub-location

N. Kinangop Division, Engineer Location, 114 UH-LH 3 (l/ v l) LP 2 Kahuru South Sub-location

Ndaragwa Division, Kanyagia Location, 115 UH 3 (l/ v l) RB 1 Kihara South Sub-location

1) Nyandarua is the largest district in Central Province. It is quite expansive and partly semi-arid along the Laikipia border.

115 38 NYANDARUA

In all Subzones, mean use of certiﬁed seeds at planting is very low: < 25%. No farmer reported using improved seeds in Kahuru South sub–location in Engineer location of North Kinangop division. The reason may be danger of frost, then the money for improved maize seeds would be lost. Application of both N and P fertilizers is not systematic. Farmers indicated greater preference in applying more P to N fertilizers on their farms in all Subzones (Tables 11a – 11e).

Farming for business is a concept that smallholder farmers must pursue in order to achieve their expectations of higher living standards. Diversifying and integrating farming enterprises and targeting production for the market are the most dependable ways of survival in smallholder farming in Central Kenya. Eﬃcient and innovative utilization of available organic resources can greatly improve and sustain production in a smallholder farming system. Farmers need to be better trained and provided with information on the various management approaches. Organizations both belonging to the public and private sectors must work more closely with small-scale farmers, and, to learn from them as clearly many farmers have discovered important solutions to problems experienced elsewhere. Marketing produce is a major constraint to many small-scale farmers because they are not well organized and positioned to complete with established enterprises. Access to credit has to be improved to enable farmers diversify into various income generating enterprises.

116 NYANDARUA 39

117 42 NYANDARUA

TABLE 11a: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ UH 1 -2 OF NYANDARUA DISTRICT

Subzone: vl i, Soil unit: RB 3 & UBP 1 Survey Area 111 (Nyairoko) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Range Land Family Casual Number of ha Sheep & Adults Labourers children Dairy Cross Goats Poultry under 14 years Avg.0 5.02 3.6 0.07 5.27 4.27 2.6 2.6 1.73 Avg.1 5.02 4.32 2 9.29 9.85 2.6 3.71 2.6 Up. Qu. 3.55 5 0 8 10 2 2 3 Lo. Qu. 0.75 1 0 0 0 2 0 0

Land Use Permanent pasture & Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Forage Fallow Other Use Range ha ha Fodder Crops ha ha ha ha Avg.0 1.17 0.12 1.70 0.01 0.01 0.28 Avg.1 1.17 0.46 2.83 0.20 - 0.36 Up. Qu. 1.85 0.03 1.3 0 0.2 0.17 Lo. Qu. 0.52 0 0.06 0 0.04 0.13

Farming Diversity & Stocking Intensity Stocking Rate

Cropping Farm Land Permanent pasture & Fodder Range Diversity TLU/ha Crops Improved Cattle Crops/year TLU/ha % of total Sheep & Sheep & Dairy Cross Goats Dairy Cross Goats Avg.0 3.3 1.20 0.06 19.00 2.33 0.03 36.79 81.1 Avg.1 3.3 1.44 1.39 1.34 1.68 1.19 1.56 97.3 Up. Qu. 4 1.55 0 - 4.23 0 - 100 Lo. Qu. 2 1.47 0 ---- 100 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied

Fertilizer applied as pure nutrient Improved kg/ha Plant protection seed used Manure Range applied t/ha % of area NPO K O Insecticide Fungicide 2 5 2 kg/ha kg/ha AC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC Avg.0 16.4 8.9 - 91.2 - --3.8 - --2.24 - Avg.1 30.7 88.6 - 94.3 - --8.8 - --2.4 6.1 Up. Qu. 28.6 0 0 89.2 - --1.6 - --2.2 - Lo. Qu. 0 0 - 72.1 - --0---1.0 -

NOTES: Avg.0 = average of all sample farms Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. Qu. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these AC = Annual crops PC = Perennial crops

118 NYANDARUA 43

TABLE 11b: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ UH 2 - 1 OF NYANDARUA DISTRICT

Subzone: lv/l, Soil unit: UBP 1 & RB 3 Survey Area 112 (Ndundori) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Range Land Family Casual Number of ha Sheep & Adults Labourers children under Dairy Zebu Goats Poultry 14 years Avg.0 2.79 3.97 0 4.4 0 3.93 0.47 2.57 Avg.1 2.79 3.97 0 5.5 - 3.93 1 2.85 Up. Qu. 3.64 5 0 7.25 0 4.25 1 4 Lo. Qu. 1.55 2.75 0 1 0 3 0 1

Land Use Permanent pasture & Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Fallow Other Use Range ha ha Fodder Crops ha ha ha Avg.0 1.57 0.10 0.13 0.02 0.90 Avg.1 1.57 0.19 0.13 - 0.90 Up. Qu. 2 0.2 0.2 0.04 1.24 Lo. Qu. 0.8 0 0 - 0.75

Farming Diversity & Stocking Intensity Stocking Rate Cropping Farm Land Permanent pasture & Fodder Improved Range Diversity TLU/ha Crops TLU/ha Cattle % of Crops/year total Sheep & Sheep & Dairy Zebu Goats Dairy Zebu Goats Avg.0 4.4 1.60 0 0.32 33.39 0 6.73 100 Avg.1 4.4 1.60 0 0.40 33.39 0 8.42 100 Up. Qu. 6 1.53 0 0.40 27.5 0 7.25 100 Lo. Qu. 3 1.95 0 0.13 - - - 100 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied Fertilizer applied as pure nutrient Improved kg/ha Manure Plant protection seed used applied Range % of area NPO K O t/ha Insecticide Fungicide 2 5 2 kg/ha kg/ha AC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC Avg.0 20.6 2.5 41 62 - - - 4.0 - --0.9 - Avg.1 38.5 9.2 76 62 - - - 4.2 - --1.9 - Up. Qu. 26.8 3.5 35 60 - - - 3.5 - --0.6 5.7 Lo. Qu. 00-75------0-

119 44 NYANDARUA

TABLE 11c: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ UH 3 O F NYANDARUA DISTRICT

Subzone: (l) i (vs/s), Soil unit: RB 1 Survey Area 113 (Kandatura) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Range Land Family Casual Number of ha Sheep & Adults Labourers children under Dairy Zebu Goats Donkey Poultry 14 years Avg.0 5.90 5.87 2.23 25.23 0.16 0 2.90 3.97 1.06 Avg.1 5.90 6.74 5.75 30.08 1 - 3.21 12.3 1.94 Up. Qu. 881320 0 4 1 2 Lo. Qu. 1.2 2 0 5 0 0 2 0 0

Land Use Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Pasture & Fodder Fallow Other Use Range ha ha ha ha ha Avg.0 2.07 0.14 2.12 0.02 1.55 Avg.1 2.07 0.14 2.12 0.02 1.55 Up. Qu. 2.4 0.1 2.8 1.1 1.6 Lo. Qu. 0.8 0 0.05 0.27 0.08

Farming Diversity & Stocking Intensity Stocking Rate Cropping Farm Land Permanent pasture & Fodder Crops Improved Range Diversity TLU/ha TLU/ha Cattle % of Crops/year total Sheep & Sheep & Dairy Zebu Goats Dairy Zebu Goats Avg.0 5.74 1.09 0.38 0.86 3.05 1.05 2.38 76.6 Avg.1 5.74 1.26 0.97 1.02 3.50 2.72 2.84 87.95 Up. Qu. 7 1.1 0.13 0.8 3.14 0.36 2.29 100 Lo. Qu. 4 1.83 0 0.83 44 0 20 75 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied Fertilizer applied as pure nutrient Improved kg/ha Manure Plant protection seed used applied Range % of area NPO K O t/ha Insecticide Fungicide 2 5 2 kg/ha kg/ha AC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC Avg.0 15.5 2.1 - 22.7 - --2.8 - --1.0 - Avg.1 25.3 6.6 - 24.3 - --2.9 - --1.3 - Up. Qu. 23.4 2.1 - 33.3 - --2.5 - --0.9 - Lo. Qu. 0 0 - 12.5 - --1.3 - --0-

120 NYANDARUA 45

TABLE 11d: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ UH - LH 3 OF NYANDARUA DISTRICT

Subzone: l/vl, Soil unit: LP 2 Survey Area 114 (Kahuru South) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Range Land Family Casual Number of ha Sheep & B/ Adults Labourers children under Dairy Zebu Goats Donkey Rabbits hives Poultry 14 years Avg.0 4.68 5.93 0.6 5.8 0.03 0.7 0.17 7.43 2.93 1.33 2.57 Avg.1 4.68 6.14 2.25 8.7 1 7 5 10.14 3.03 3.08 3.35 Up. Qu. 4.62 7.25 1 9.25 0 0 0 12.75 4 2 4 Lo. Qu. 1.4 3.75 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0.75

Land Use Permanent pasture & Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Forage Fallow Other Use Range ha ha Fodder Crop ha ha ha ha Avg.0 1.40 0.06 2.95 0.01 0.01 0.17 Avg.1 1.40 0.08 2.95 0.08 - 0.17 Up. Qu. 1.86 0.1 2.46 0 - 0.2 Lo. Qu. 0.8 0 0.44 0 0.16

Farming Diversity & Stocking Intensity Stocking Rate Cropping Farm Land Pasture & Fodder Improved Range Diversity TLU/ha TLU/ha Cattle % of Crops/year total Sheep & Sheep & Dairy Zebu Goats Dairy Zebu Goats Avg.0 9.23 1.42 0.42 2.75 2.21 0.27 4.27 89.14 Avg.1 9.23 1.47 1.53 1.14 2.29 0.98 1.77 92.21 Up. Qu. 11.25 1.90 0.53 3.51 3.24 0.31 6 100 Lo. Qu. 6 2.95 0 - 9.43 0 - 86.93 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied Fertilizer applied as pure nutrient Improved kg/ha Plant protection seed used Manure Range applied t/ha % of area NPO K O Insecticide Fungicide 2 5 2 kg/ha kg/ha AC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC Avg.0 - 0.6 15.0 19.2 - - - 1.7 - - - 0.9 - Avg.1 - 6.1 - 21.4 - - - 3.3 - - - 0.9 - Up. Qu. - 0 - 21.5 - - - 0.3 - - - 0.8 - Lo. Qu. - 0 - 13.3 - - - 0 - - - 0.5 -

121 46 NYANDARUA

TABLE 11e: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ UH 3 OF NYANDARUA DISTRICT

Subzone: l/vl, Soil unit: RB 1 Survey area 115 (Kihara) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Range Land Family Casual Number of ha Sheep & Poultry Poultry Adults Labourers children under Dairy Zebu Goats (Local) (Exotic) 14 years Avg.0 7.46 6.13 0.2 17.13 3.17 3.33 3.13 2.93 2.43 Avg.1 7.46 6.57 6 20.56 23.75 100 3.13 3.38 3.04 Up. Qu. 11.4 7 0 25 0 0 3 5 3 Lo. Qu. 2 2.75 0 7 0 0 2 1 1

Land Use Permanent pasture & Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Fallow Other Use Range ha ha Fodder Crops ha ha ha Avg.0 2.38 0.08 4.79 -- Avg.1 2.38 0.29 4.79 -- Up. Qu. 2.5 0.03 6.48 - 2.39 Lo. Qu. 0.8 0 0.7 - 0.5

Farming Diversity & Stocking Intensity Stocking Rate Cropping Farm Land Permanent pasture & Fodder Improved Range Diversity TLU/ha TLU/ha Cattle % of Crops/year total Sheep & Sheep & Dairy Zebu Goats Dairy Zebu Goats Avg.0 4.27 0.93 0.21 0.47 1.41 0.04 0.72 91.3 Avg.1 4.27 1.00 0 0.57 1.51 0 0.86 100 Up. Qu. 5 0.68 0 0.44 1.19 0 0.77 100 Lo. Qu. 3 1.51 0 0.7 4.32 0 2 100 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied Fertilizer applied as pure nutrient Improved kg/ha Manure Plant protection seed used % applied Insecticide Fungicide Range of area NPO K O t/ha 2 5 2 kg/ha kg/ha AC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC Avg.0 24.5 2.2 - 24.0 - - - 1.2 - - - 0.4 - Avg.1 27.2 13.5 - 26.6 - - - 1.6 - - - 1.0 8.1 Up. Qu. 28.1 0 - 18.0 - - - 2.1 - - - 0.4 - Lo. Qu. 14.0 0 - 12.5 - - - 0.2 - - - 0 -

122 NYANDARUA 47

TABLE 12a: CROPPING PATTERN IN AEZ UH 1 - 2 OF NYANDARUA DISTRICT

Subzone: vl i, Soil units: RB 3 & UBP 1 Survey Area 111 (Nyairoko)

First Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Irish potatoes 0.77 0.77 1.3 0.2 23.0 68.35 Maize 0.28 0.39 0.4 0 8.5 25.26 Maize & fodder 0.04 0.43 0 0 1.3 3.86 Peas 0.01 0.13 0 0 0.25 0.74 Pyrethrum 0.02 0.60 0 0 0.6 1.78 Total Sample Area 1.12 33.65 100

Second Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Irish potatoes 0.67 0.78 1.2 0.2 20.2 87.07 Maize & fodder 0.05 1) 0.70 0 0 1.4 6.03 Peas 0.05 1.60 0 0 1.6 6.90 Total Sample Area 0.77 23.2 100

1)KDFRQWLQXLQJIURP¿UVWUDLQ\VHDVRQ

Perennial Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Pears 0.08 0.40 0 0 2.4 60 Trees 0.05 1.60 0 0 1.6 40 Total Sample Area 0.13 4.0 100

NOTES: Avg.0 = average of all sample farms Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these

123 48 NYANDARUA

124 NYANDARUA

125 NYANDARUA

TABLE 12b: CROPPING PATTERN IN AEZ UH 2 - 1 OF NYANDARUA BISTRICT Subzone: vl/l, Soil units: UBP 1 & RB 3 Survey Area 112 (Ndundori)

First Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Cabbages 0.13 0.39 0.56 0 3.9 8.48 Irish potatoes 0.71 0.82 3 1 21.2 46.09 Kales 0.01 0.3 0 0 0.3 0.65 Maize 0.53 0.62 2 1 16 34.78 Maize & beans 0.03 0.8 0 0 0.8 1.74 Peas 0.04 0.4 0 0 1.2 2.61 Pyrethrum 0.09 0.65 0 0 2.6 5.65 Total Sample Area 1.54 46.0 100

Second Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Cabbages 0.13 0.43 0.56 0 3.9 14.23 Kales 0.01 0.3 0 0 0.3 1.09 Maize & beans 0.03 0.8 0 0 0.8 2.92 Peas 0.04 0.4 0 0 1.2 4.38 Irish potatoes 0.71 0.82 3 1 21.2 77.37 Total Sample Area 0.92 27.4 100

Perennial Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile Total Sample Area of 30 Farms ha ha ha ha ha % Pears/plums 0.10 0.20 0.2 0 3.13 99.37 Tea 0.00 0.02 0 0 0.02 0.63 Total Sample Area 0.1 3.15 100

NOTES: Avg.0 = average of all sample farms Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these

126 NYANDARUA 49

TABLE 12c: CROPPING PATTERN IN AEZ UH 3 OF NYANDARUA DISTRICT

Subzone: (l) i (vs/s), Soil unit: RB 1 Survey Area 113 (Kandutura)

First Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.02 0.2 0 0 0.6 0.97 Cabbages 0.01 0.1 0 0 0.3 0.48 Cabbages & kales 0.00 0.04 0 0 0.75 1.21 Carrots 0.02 0.14 0 0 0.35 0.56 Maize 0.13 0.5 0 0 4 6.45 Maize & beans 0.53 0.63 0.8 0.2 16.5 26.61 Maize & peas 0.03 0.33 0 0 1 1.61 Onions 0.01 0.4 0 0 0.4 0.65 Peas 0.06 0.15 0.1 0 4 6.45 Irish potatoes 0.19 0.22 0.2 0.1 5.85 9.44 Irish potatoes & beans 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.16 Irish potatoes & peas 0.01 0.2 0 0 0.4 0.65 Pyrethrum 0.15 0.27 0.2 0 4.55 7.34 Vegetables 0.01 0.1 0 0 0.2 0.32 Wheat 0.90 3.5 0.2 0 23 37.10 Total Sample Area 2.07 62.0 100

Second Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.02 0.13 0 0 0.5 6.19 Cabbages 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.1 1.24 Cabbages & kales 0.01 0.15 0 0 2.75 34.03 Carrots 0.01 0.12 0 0 0.38 4.70 Peas 0.05 0.15 0.1 0 1.6 19.80 Irish potatoes 0.17 0.21 0.2 0.1 2.35 29.08 Irish potatoes & beans 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 1.24 Potatoes & peas 0.01 0.2 0 0 0.2 2.48 Vegetables 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 1.24 Total Sample Area 0.27 8.08 100

127 52 NYANDARUA

TABLE 12d: Continued Perennial Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Apples 0.007 0.03 0.00 0 0.20 19.42 Loquats 0.001 0.02 0 0 0.02 1.94 Pears 0.004 0.02 0 0 0.13 12.62 Plums 0.023 0.03 0.03 0 0.68 66.02 Total Sample Area 0.034 1.03 100

NOTES: Avg.0 = average of all sample farms Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these

128 NYANDARUA 53

TABLE 12e: CROPPING PATTERNS IN AEZ UH 3 OF NYANDARUA DISTRICT Subzone: (l/vl), Soil unit: RB 1 Survey area 115 (Kihara)

First Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Broad beans 0.05 0.2 0.03 0 1.4 2.11 Cabbages 0.04 0.24 0 0 1.2 1.81 Garden peas 0.01 0.15 0 0 0.2 0.30 Kales 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.15 Maize 0.55 0.87 0.8 0 16.5 24.89 Maize & peas 0.01 0.4 0 0 0.4 0.60 Maize, beans & peas 0.3 0.69 0.45 0 9 13.57 Irish potatoes 0.44 0.49 0.6 0.2 13.3 20.06 Irish potatoes & peas 0.01 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.30 Pyrethrum 0.08 0.42 0 0 2.5 3.77 Wheat 0.72 4.32 0 0 21.5 32.43 Total Sample Area 2.21 66.3 100

Second Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.01 0.1 0 0 0.2 1.52 Cabbages 0.03 0.27 0 0 0.8 6.06 Maize 0.01 0.2 0 0 0.2 1.52 Peas 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.76 Irish potatoes 0.38 0.45 0.45 0.2 11.7 88.64 Irish potatoes & peas 0.01 0.2 0 0 0.2 1.52 Total Sample Area 0.44 13.2 100

Perennial Crops Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Citrus 0.043 0.65 0 0 1.3 59.09 Oranges 0.02 0.2 0 0 0.6 27.27 Passion fruits 0.003 0.1 0 0 0.1 4.55 Plums 0.003 0.1 0 0 0.1 4.55 Tree tomatoes 0.003 0.1 0 0 0.1 4.55 Total Sample Area 0.073 2.2 100

NOTES: Avg.0 = average of all sample farms Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these

129 54 NYANDARUA

3.2.5 INTRODUCTION TO THE ACTUAL LAND USE SYSTEMS AND POTENTIAL INTENSIFICATION BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT

A more detailed description can be found together with calculations of rentability in the Farm Manage- ment Guidelines of each district and in the KARI Fertilizer Use Manual (Muriuki and Qureshi, 2001). An additional important reference material is “Small Holder Farming Handbook for Self Employment. First published in 1997 by Information Research and Communication Centre (IRACC) & Marketing Support Services Ltd, Nairobi.”

The main Agro-ecological Zones in which farm surveys were conducted are:UH 1, UH 2 and UH 3.

Subzone UH 1- 2 vl i of the Upper Higland Sheep - Dairy Zone with tendency to the Pyrethrum - Wheat Zone

This is the Sheep – Dairy Zone with a very long cropping season and intermediate rains represented by Nyairoko sub–location in Ol Joro Orok division of Nyandarua district. Mean annual rainfall amounts between 1200 – 1400 mm with 66 % probability of 400 – 800 mm and 600 – 700 mm during the 1st and 2nd rains season, respectively. The 60 % reliability length of growing cereals and legumes during the st1 and 2nd rains season is more than 100 days and 240 – 250 days, respectively. A combination of soil types prevails namely: eutric Nitosols (dominant) with nito-chromic Cambisols, chromic Acrisols and Luvisols are in this Subzone.

In this Subzone, mean household farm size is 3.3 ha with an average of 3.6 dairy cows per farmer. Out of the sample no farmer reported keeping local zebu animals but instead, improved cross breeds were reported: mean 0.07 cows/farmer (Table 11a). In addition, mean household adult and casual labour force engaged is 2.6 persons/farmer. The dependants, i. e. < 14 years population reported a mean of 1.7 children/farmer. Growing of forage is a common land use: mean acreage of 0.01 ha/farmer, used largely for feeding the dairy animals.

This Subzone does not exhibit a diversity of crops and cropping patterns (Table 12a). Dominant annual crops in both seasons, in the order of importance are: Irish potatoes, maize, maize & fodder intercropped, pyrethrum and peas. The only major permanent crops reported here are: pears and trees. It was not easy to establish the type of trees farmers were referring to. Application of N is selective and random as evidenced by a low mean of about 9.0 kg/ha, though farmers seems to prefer applying P fertilizers (mean: 91.2 kg/ha) on their annual crops. This, however, does not translate into better yields (Tables 11a & 13a). Application of organic farm manures is discouraging, with high input farmers just applying less than 2.0 t/ha! Without exaggerating, this Subzone contains very high agricultural potentials largely under–utilized and unexploited. To optimize and accelerate the pace of rural development, the government should review and initiate a proper land tenure policy so as to attract investors. On the other hand, farmers should be encouraged to adopt sound land use management techniques [e.g. recycling crop residues, minimum tillage, mulching] coupled with advisory information.

130 NYANDARUA 55

TABLE 13a: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNITS1) OF ZONE UH 1 - 2, vl i. RB 3 & UBP 1 Survey Area 111 (Nyairoko) AEZ: UH 1 - 2 SHEEP – DAIRY ZONE Subzone: v l i (Period in days2): 1st rainy season: 100 or >; 2nd rainy season: 240–250) RB 3 Crop, Yields3) Unit with predom. Soil: = eutric NITOSOLS; with nito-chromic CAMBISOLS and and Inputs chromic ACRISOLS and LUVISOLS, partly lithic, pisoferric or petroferric phase Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season: 2nd rainy season: 600 – 700 mm in 400- 800 mm at least 10 out of 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level Maize local pure I=low II=med.4) III= high5) AEU Pot.6) I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) stand Yields3) kg/ha --- Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize diff. varieties Yields3) kg/ha - 3288 3375 4500 Fertilizer: N kg/ha - 0 37

P2O5 kg/ha - - - K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha - 7.5 15.7 Maize local intercropped with peas Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Hybrid maize intercropped with peas Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha

Notes 1) Source: Small Farm Survey (2004) 2) Figures of these cereals growing periods should be reached or surpassed in 6 out of 10 years; growing periods may be considered longer due to immediately following second rainy season by middle rains. Then the second growing period is VKRUWHUWKDQWKHJLYHQ¿JXUHV 3) Achieved average yields with average rainfall 4) Farmers with medium inputs 5) Farmers with high inputs of fertilizer, insecticides, soil and water conservation 6) Potential yield according to crop list and local climate of this Agro-Ecological Unit if soils are optimally fertilized, plus optimal crop management

131 56 NYANDARUA

Subzone UH 2, vl /l of the Upper Highland Pyrethrum - Wheat Zone

This is aPyrethrum – Wheat Zone, with a very long to long or two cropping seasons as represented by Ndundori sub–location and location of Ol Kalau division in Nyandarua district. Mean annual rainfall amount is 950 – 1100 mm with 66 % probability of 500 – 600 mm and 150 – 180 mm during 1st and 2nd rains season, respectively. The 60 % chances of growing length of cereals and legumes more than 180 days and between 110 – 120 days during 1st and 2nd rains season, respectively. The fertile Luvisols soil type dominates this Subzone.

According to the 1978 FS, mean household farm sizes were 9.0 ha/farmer. Compared to the 2004 FS, mean household had dropped to a third (ca. mean: 2.72 ha) as shown in Table 11b. While dairy domestication is common (mean: 4 cows/farmer), poultry rearing and keeping of local zebus were not reported. Large family sizes exist here as evidenced by means of 4 adults/farmer, 0.5 casual/farmer and 2.6 children/farmer. Use of certiﬁed seeds at planting is very low: ~ 21 %. Very few farmers apply agro- fertilizers as well as manures, thus yields are quite low (Tables 11b & 13b).

Crops and cropping diversity is low. In order of importance, Irish potatoes, maize and cabbages are dominant in the 1st rainy season, while during the 2nd rainy season, Irish potatoes and cabbages are grown. Other annual crops grown, again in the order of importance are: pyrethrum, peas and kales. Pears and plums are the major permanent crops in this here, though some farmers seem to have started experimenting growing tea in this Subzone.

132 NYANDARUA 57

TABLE 13b: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN AGRO-ECOLOGICAL UNITS1) OF ZONE UH 2 - 1, vl/l, UBP 1 & RB 3 Survey Area 112 (Ndundori)

AEZ: UH 2 - 1 WHEAT – PYRETHRUM ZONE Subzone: v l/l (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season: 100 or >; 2nd rainy season: 170 - 200) Crop, Yields3) and Inputs Unit with predom. Soil: UBP 1 = nito-ferric/chromic LUVISOLS; with gleyic LUVISOLS Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season: 2nd rainy season: 450 – 650 mm in 300 – 500 mm at least 10 out 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level Maize local pure 4) 5) 6) 4) 5) 6) stand I=low II=med. III=high AEU Pot. I=low II=med. III=high AEU Pot. Yields3) kg/ha --- Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize diff. varieties 3) Yields kg/ha 641 900 2121 4000 Fertilizer: N kg/ha 0 3.5 7.25

P2O5 kg/ha 60 60 - K2O kg/ha - - - Manure t/ha 3.5 5 11.8 Maize local intercropped with peas Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha

Hybrid maize intercropped with peas Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha

133 58 NYANDARUA

Subzones UH 3, (l) i (s/vs) and (l/v l) of the Upper Highland Wheat-Barley Zone

These are the Wheat – Barley Zones, with a (weak) long cropping season, intermediate rains, and a (weak) short to very short one, and two other subzones with a (weak) long to very long cropping season as characterized by

Kandutura sub–location (hereafter = Sb 1) of Kaimbaga location in Ol Kalau division and Kahuru South

sub-location (hereafter = Sb 2) of Engineer location in North Kinangop division, and Kihara sub-location

Kanyagia location (hereafter = Sb 3) in Ndaragna division. It is important to understand the overlap and

naming identity of these agro – ecological Subzones (see Table 10). In Sb 1, the mean annual rainfall amount is between 800 – 1100 mm, with 66 % chances of 500 – 600 mm and 150 – 180 mm during the 1st and 2nd rainy seasons, respectively. Moreover, the 60 % reliability of length of cereals and legumes growing in the 1st and 2nd rainy seasons is more than 160 days and between 70 – 90 days, respectively. The major soil type is a

deep fertile ando-humic Nitosol. Similarly, in the latter Subzones (Sb 2 and Sb 3) mean annual rainfall is 900 – 1100 mm with 66 % probability of 500 – 650 mm and 130 – 200 mm during the 1st and 2nd rainy seasons, respectively. The 60 % reliability of length of growing period for cereals and legumes is more than 170 days

and between 90 – 110 days, respectively. The dominant soil types here are dystric to eutric Planosols in Sb 2,

and ando- and verto-luvic Phaeozems in Sb 3.

Covered by three Subzones, this AEZ UH 3portrays a complex of land use systems and cropping patterns.

Mean farm household size were comparable in Sb 1 and Sb 2 (ca. mean: 5.9 and 5.0 ha, respectively), as well

as number of dairy cows per farmer: ~ 6 cows/farmer. The mean household farm size in bS 3 is 7.5 ha and

an average of 6 dairy cows/farmer (Tables 11c - 11e). No poultry keeping was reported in Sb 1 while mean

local poultry was 7.4 birds/farmer in Sb 2. In Sb 3, both local and exotic birds are kept with averages of 3.2 and 3.3 per farmer, respectively. However, one farmer of Level II reported rearing only exotic birds: ~ 100. Donkeys, rabbits and bee–keeping, with respective means: 0.03, 0.7 & 0.17 per farmer were reported in

Sb 2. This evidence is a pointer to the diverse domestication and complicated land use patterns prevalent in this AEZ.

By comparing the mean numbers of people per household in Sb 1, Sb 2 and Sb 3 (Tables 11c – 11e), family

adults in Sb 1 and Sb 2 are quite similar (2.90 & 2.93) but greater in Sb 3: (3.13). The pattern for children

< 14 years (dependants) is higher in Sb 2 (2.57) & Sb 3 (2.43) and almost half in Sb 1 (1.06). Use and ap-

plications of agro–fertilizers is very low across this AEZ. Ranging from nil in Sb 2 to ~ 25 % in Sb 3 use of certiﬁed seeds at planting as well as application of ~ 1 kg/ha to 2.2 kg/ha of N fertilizers potential maize yields are sub–optimal throughout this Subzone (Tables 13c – 13e). Within these Subzones farmers show

greater preference for P fertilizers, at least 19 kg/ha in Sb 2 and a far lesser tendency in applying farm manures especially in Sb 1 (low input farmers: 1.3 t/ha).

Crops and cropping patterns in both seasons is closely similar throughout the zone. As Table 12c shows, in st Sb 1, during the 1 rain season, maize & beans intercrop dominate annual crops followed by wheat, Irish potatoes, pyrethrum and peas. During the 2nd planting season very few crops are grown. In order of importance, these are: cabbages & kales intercrop, Irish potatoes, peas and beans. Permanent crops are dominated st by intercrops of apples & oranges, pear and plums. In the Subzone Sb 2, during the 1 planting season, the annual crops grown, in order of importance are: Irish potatoes, cabbages, carrots and wheat. During the 2nd rains season the crops grown in order of importance are: Irish potatoes, peas, oats, cabbages, carrots and wheat. The plums, apples, and loquats in that order dominate the permanent crops (Table 12d). Finally, in

Sb 3, wheat, maize, Irish potatoes intercrop of maize, bean & peas in that order are important annual crops during season the 1st rains season, while in the 2nd rains season Irish potatoes and cabbages are the dominant crops. Citrus fruits and oranges are dominant over passion fruits, plums and tree tomato (Cyphomandra batacea) or ‘ribena’ trees as permanent crops (Table 12e). Tree tomato or ‘ribena’ were introduced in this region only 10 years ago. A tree can produce about 20 kg of fruit a year, yields of 15 – 17 tonnes per hectare in well established systems. In the local market, a kilogram of the ‘ribena’ fruits fetches at least USD 0.2. An acre under ‘ribena’ in the current spacing regime can net over USD 400 per month compared to USD 40 from an acre of well managed tea crops1).

High crop yields can be achieved in this agroecological zone if farmers invest organic resources back into the

134 NYANDARUA 59 soil. The most crucial factor is how farmers identify those resources and decide on appropriate approaches to effectively utilize them. The farming system produces different by-products from various farm enterprises. These by-products are important resources and when well processed and strategically applied result in much more efficient nutrient cycling and livestock-interactions2).

Notes 1) Esipisu, I. (2005): Gatanga farmers torn between tea and ‘ribena’. In: Horizon, Daily Nation. Thursday, November 24, 2005, pp. 26 – 27. 2) Lekasi, J. K., Tanner, J. C., Kimani, S. K. and Harris, P. J. C. (2001): Managing Manure to Sustain Small- holder Livelihoods in the East African Highlands. HYDRA Publications. Kenilworth, UK.

135 60 NYANDARUA

TABLE 13c: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN A MAIN AGRO-ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) ZONE OF UH 3, (l) i (s/vs), RB 1

Survey area 113 (Kandutura) AEZ: UH 3 WHEAT – BARLEY ZONE Subzone: (l) i (s/vs) (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season: 160 or >; 2nd rainy season: 75 – 90) Crop, Yields3) and Inputs Unit with predom. Soil: RB 1 = ando-humic NITISOLS; with humic ANDOSOLS Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season: 2nd rainy season: 150 – 180 mm in 500 – 600 mm at least 10 out 15 years Maize local pure Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level stand I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: --- N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize diff. varieties Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize local intercropped with peas Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha

Hybrid maize intercropped with peas Yields3) kg/ha - 1800 1854 3500 Fertilizer: N kg/ha 0 2.5 3.3 P O kg/ha 20 35 40 2 5 - - - K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha 2 3 4.3

136 NYANDARUA 61

TABLE 13d: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN A MAIN AGRO-ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) OF ZONE UH(-LH) 3, (l /vl), LP 2 Survey area 114 (Kahuru South) AEZ: UH 3 WHEAT – BARLEY ZONE with tendency to LH 3 Subzone: (l/v l) (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season: 170 or >; 2nd rainy season: 100 - 110) Crop, Yields3) and Inputs Unit with predom. Soil: LP 2 imperf. drained dystric and eutric PLANOSOLS Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season: 2nd rainy season: 130 – 200 mm in at least 10 500 – 650 mm out of 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level 4) 5) 6) 4) 5) 6) Maize local pure I=low II=med. III=high AEU Pot. I=low II=med. III=high AEU Pot. stand --- Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize diff. varieties Yields3) kg/ha - 900 1110 3000 Fertilizer: N kg/ha - 0 8.5

P2O5 kg/ha - - - K2O kg/ha - - - Manure t/ha - - 2.8 Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Hybrid maize intercropped with peas Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha

Notes 1) Source: Small Farm Survey (2004) 2) Figures of these cereals growing periods should be reached or surpassed in 6 out of 10 years; growing periods may be considered longer GXHWRLPPHGLDWHO\IROORZLQJVHFRQGUDLQ\VHDVRQE\PLGGOHUDLQV7KHQWKHVHFRQGJURZLQJSHULRGLVVKRUWHUWKDQWKHJLYHQ¿JXUHV 3) Achieved average yields with average rainfall 4) Farmers with medium inputs 5) Farmers with high inputs of fertilizer, insecticides, soil and water conservation 6) Potential yield according to crop list and local climate of this Agro-Ecological Unit if soils are optimally fertilized, plus optimal crop management

137 62 NYANDARUA

TABLE 13e: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN A MAIN AGRO-ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) OF ZONE UH 3, (l/vl), RB 1 Survey area 115 (Kihara) AEZ: UH 3 WHEAT – BARLEY ZONE Subzone: (l/v l) (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season: 170 or >; 2nd rainy season: 90 – 100) Crop, Yields3) and Inputs Unit with predom. Soil: RB 1 = ando- humic NITOSOLS, with humic ANDOSOLS Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season: 2nd rainy season: 120- 180 mm in 350 – 550 mm at least 10 out of 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level Maize local pure 4) 5) 6) 4) 5) 6) stand I=low II=med. III=high AEU Pot. I=low II=med. III=high AEU Pot. Yields3) kg/ha --- Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize diff. varieties Yields3) kg/ha - 4416 4489 6000 Fertilizer: N kg/ha - 0 9.7

P2O5 kg/ha - - 56 K2O kg/ha - - - Manure t/ha - 5.4 6.6 Maize local intercropped with peas Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Hybrid maize intercropped with peas Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha

138 NYANDARUA 63

3.2.6 FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPORTANT AGRO-ECOLOGICAL UNITS

The Fertiliser Use Recommendation Project of the GTZ (1986 - 92) had four trial sites in the Nyandarua district, one on Nitisols at Charagita in UH 2, the second at Oljororok Agricultural Research Center in UH 3 on fertile Phaeozems, the third atTulaga which is UH 3 on Planosols with poor drainage and low fertility, and the fourth at Njabini on fertile Phaeozems in UH 2. For the other zones, subzones and units Muriuki and Qureshi showed which results from other districts could be representative (see map of Fertiliser Rec- ommendations and Farm Survey Areas) and made curves for fertiliser response1.

Recommended rates of an AEU increase into a wetter subzone and decrease into a drier one if the soil unit extends there (see dark and light grey shades in the small maps). We have tend to lower the rates due to the low ﬁnancial basis of the smallholder farmers. The optimum can be calculated from the curve formulas in Muriuki & Qureshi Fertiliser Use Manual, KARI, Nairobi 2001. In the long run the minimum amount must be given to maintain the nutrient content. Some quantities for this can be seen at the end of this chapter and in the chapter 3.1 General Remarks.

Higher recommendations are given in the Smallholder Farming Handbook of the IRACC and MSS, Nai- robi 1997, but the economic investment and risk is too high for the local farmers here. A rural small credit system for the inputs could help a lot. Where scientific sources for quantifying the rates are lacking, some conclusions could be taken from the difference of inputs and yields between the low and high production levels of the Farm Survey 2004/05. An empty column Other Nutrients Recommended does not mean that there is nothing to be applied, but it is because of lack trials data. Signs of deficiencies and methods of ame- liorating these can be seen in Muriuki, A.W. and Qureshi, J.N. (2001), Table 1&2, p.22-23.

Finally it must be mentioned again that fertilising alone will increase the yields only for some years. The micronutrients not included in the fertiliser become exhausted. Manuring almost up to the full return of the extracted nutrients is a must in order to have a stable agrobiological system with continuous production2.

On the other hand even macronutrients like potassium (K) which is not yet mentioned because there is still enough in the soil, must be given in the long run because 1 t of maize needs 23 kg K, 1 t of sorghum even 45 kg, 1 t of groundnuts 50 kg. Cassava is less demanding, only 7 kg K per t, but needs additionally 2 kg of cobalt (Co) and 1 kg of magnesium (Mg)3.

1 Muriuki, A.W. & Qureshi, J.N.: Fertiliser Use Manual. Nairobi kari . 2 Southern China has parts with similar soils to Kenya and stabilized productivity there for hundreds of years by returning to the ﬁelds as much as possible, even the ashes, excrements and urea. 3 Figures in handbooks, from international experience.

139 64 NYANDARUA

140 NYANDARUA 65

141 66 NYANDARUA

142 NYANDARUA 67

TABLE 14a: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO-ECOLOGICAL UNITS UH1 vl i or two, MV2 and RB3 of the SHEEP- DAIRY ZONE Av. Yield Av. Yield Av. Exp. Yield + Recommended Increase if Increase if Other Nutrients Crop varieties and 5 t/ha Manure Season Response-curve Fertiliser Rates this Rate is Recommended kg/ha kg/ha Applied 1) are Applied2) kg/ha kg/ha

First Rainy Season

3080 + 7 N Hybrid maize not economical * Lime, Mg + 4.7 P now, but in the long run 20 P are Hybrid maize & peas 3070 + 9N good Lime, Mg

43,620 + 84 P Cabbages 3) 50 P + 50 N 9,200 Lime, Mg + 2 NP

There is no typical second rainy season as an own growing period, the late maturing FURSVFRQWLQXHIURPWKH¿UVWUDLQ\VHDVRQ

Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 121; IRACC: conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004

1) Double rates will bring almost double increase if climate is suitable and there are no pests and diseases. 2) MURIUKI & QURESHI recommend an application every 5 years 3) Phosphate strongly recommended for sustainability of the yields; * No data available

TABLE 14b: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO-ECOL- OGICAL UNIT UH2 vl/l or two, UBP1 of the PYRETHRUM-WHEAT ZONE Av. Yield Av. Yield Av. Exp. Yield + Recommended Increase if Crop varieties and Increase if Other Nutrients Season Response-curve Fertiliser Rates this Rate is 5 t/ha Manure kg/ha kg/ha Applied 1) are Applied 2) Recommended kg/ha kg/ha

First Rainy Season

Hybrid maize Almost similar to UH 1 vl i Hybrid maize & peas

43,620 + 84 P Cabbages 50 P + 50 N 9,200 + 2 NP There is no typical second rainy season as an own growing period, the ODWHPDWXULQJFURSVFRQWLQXHIURPWKH¿UVWUDLQ\VHDVRQ Semi-perennial crops

1 teaspoon of DSP ca. 600-700 Pyrethrum 300 per planting hole 4)

Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 121; IRACC: Smallholder Farming Handbook for Self Employment, Nairobi 1997, p. 183; conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004

143 68 NYANDARUA

144 NYANDARUA 69

TABLE 14c: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT UH 2-1 vl i - p, UV1 of the TRANSITIONAL PYRETHRUM- WHEAT ZONE Av. Yield Av. Yield Crop varieties and Av. Exp. Yield + Recommended Increase if Increase if Season Response-curve Fertiliser Rates this Rate is 5 t/ha Manure Other Nutrients (not suitable for Recommended 1) kg/ha kg/ha Applied are Applied maize) kg/ha kg/ha First Rainy Season 830 + 13.7 N + Peas 50 N + 25P 2260 74 P - 0.43 P2 23245 + 305 N + * C.A.N. is M. mat. cabbages 1.66 N2 + 50 N + 20 P 17200 bur better than 383 P - 1.57 NP recommended ammonium-N every year fertilisers in 14000 + 86.6 N + this area of high Potatoes 50 N + 20 P 10100 except for 327 P - 1.97 P2 carrots rainfall 2813 + 125 N + Carrots 499 P 50 N + 25P 18700

There is enough moisture almost the whole year, these crops may be planted 2 - 3 times

Semi-perennial crops

1 teaspoon of DSP ca. 600-700 Pyrethrum 300 per planting hole 2)

Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 121; IRACC: Smallholder Farming Handbook for Self Employment, Nairobi 1997, p. 183; conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004

1) For maize it is too cold here, fertilising would be uneconomical. 2) After 2 months 1 kg of C.A.N. or A.S.N. per 80 m of row (see IRACC, p. 183); * No data available

TABLE 14e: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT UH3 (l/vl), LP2 of the WHEAT-BARLEY ZONE Av. Yield Av. Yield Av. Exp. Yield + Recommended Increase if Crop varieties and Increase if Other Nutrients Season Response-curve Fertiliser Rates this Rate is 5 t/ha Manure kg/ha kg/ha Applied 1) are Applied Recommended kg/ha kg/ha First Rainy Season Hybrid maize 3865 2) ** Hybr. maize & peas 2814 + 0.14 NP not economical - * * Peas 1630 * *

10234 + 50 P 25400 * * Cabbages 831 P - 6.46 P2 Potatoes 5090 + 48 P 100 P 4800 * * There is no typical second rainy season as an own growing period, the ODWHPDWXULQJFURSVFRQWLQXHIURPWKH¿UVWUDLQ\VHDVRQ E. mat. varieties of peas, cabbages and potatoes (on frost-free places) can be planted 2nd time in middle rains

Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 121; IRACC: conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004

1) Double rates will bring almost double increase if climate is suitable and there are no pests and diseases. 2) Exp. yields near Tulaga on well drained unexhausted soils, transitional to LH 3; * No data available

145 70 NYANDARUA

146 NYANDARUA 71

TABLE 14d: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO-ECOL- OGICAL UNITS UH3 l/vl or two & (l/vl), LPC of the WHEAT-BARLEY ZONE Av. Yield Av. Yield Av. Exp. Yield + Recommended Increase if Increase if Crop varieties and Other Nutrients Season Response-curve Fertiliser Rates this Rate is 5 t/ha Manure kg/ha kg/ha Applied 1) are Applied Recommended kg/ha kg/ha First Rainy Season Hybrid maize 6900 in l/vl 2) * 3) P 3) Hybr. maize & peas 6550 in l/vl 2) * 3) P 3)

715 + not economical 3) 3) Peas 2.6 N - 0.03 N2 * P Cabbages 62400 2) * 3) P 3) Potatoes 27200 2) * 3) P 3) There is no typical second rainy season as an own growing period, the ODWHPDWXULQJFURSVFRQWLQXHIURPWKH¿UVWUDLQ\VHDVRQ E. mat. varieties of peas, cabbages and potatoes (on frost-free places) can be planted 2nd time in middle rains

Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 121; IRACC: conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004

1) Double rates will bring almost double increase if climate is suitable and there are no pests and diseases. 2) Exp. yield near Oljororok, transitional place to LH 3, very good soils. 3))DUPHUV)DUPHUV¿HOGVDUHSDUWO\H[KDXVWHG3DQGPDQXUHDUHPRVWQHFHVVDU\ ¿HOGV DUH SDUWO\ H[KDXVWHG 3 DQG PDQXUH DUH PRVW QHFHVVDU\ * No data available

147 148 KIAMBU & THIKA 1

3.3 KIAMBU AND THIKA DISTRICTS GROUP

TABLE OF CONTENTS District Page

3.3.1 Natural Potential 3 Introduction 3 Annual Rainfall Map 4 Table 1: Annual Rainfall 5 Seasonal Rainfall Maps 7 Table 2: Temperature 9 Table 3: Potential Evapotranspiration 9 Table 4: Climate in the Agro-Ecological Zonesand Subzones 10 Agro-Ecological Zones Map 11 Agro-Ecological Zones and Subzones (=Legend to the AEZ Map), with Land Use Potentials and Water Availability &Requirement Diagrams 12 Soil Map 20 Soil Distribution, Fertility and Major Characteristics with Legend to the Soil Map 21

3.3.2 Population and Land 24

Kiambu District Table 5: Population in Kiambu District 24 Table 6: Composition of Households in Kiambu District 28 Table 7: Available Land Area in Kiambu District per AEZ and Household 32 Thika District Table 8 Population in Thika District 33 Table 9: Composition of Households in Thika District 36 Table 10: Available Land Area in Thika District per AEZ and Household 39

3.3.3 Agricultural Statistics 40 Development and Trends of Major Cash Crops in Kiambu District 40 Table 11: Coﬀee 40 Table 12: Tea 41 Table 13: Pyrethrum 41 Development and Trends of Major Cash Crops in Thika District 42 Table 14: Coﬀee 42 Table 15: Tea 43 Distribution of Farming Activities During the Year 44 Tables 16 a-s: Farming Activities in the Agro-Ecological Zones 44

3.3.4 Farm Survey 54 Table 17: Farm Survey Sites Representative of the Dominating Agro-Ecological Subzones and Units 54 Farm Survey Areas and Fertiliser Recommendations Map 55

149 2 KIAMBU & THIKA

Tables 18 a-g: Assets, Land Use, Farming Intensity and Inputs 56 Tables 19 a-g: Cropping Pattern 63

3.3.5 Introduction to the Actual Land Use Systems and to the Potential Intensiﬁcation by Better Farm Management in Dominating Agro-Ecological Subzones 74

Tables 20 a-g: Increase of Yields by Better Farm Management 75-87 Kiambu District LH1 fl i m of the Tea and Dairy Zone 74 UM2 m + s/m of the Main Coffee Zone 76 LH3 s/m + (s/vs) of the Wheat/Maize-Barley Zone 78 Thika District LH1 p or l/vl^m of the Tea and Dairy Zone 80 UM1 fl i m of the Tea and Coffee Zone 82 UM2 m/l i m/s of the Main Coffee Zone 84 LM4 s/vs + s/vs of the Marginal Cotton Zone 86

3.3.6 Fertiliser and Manure Recommendations for Important Agro-Ecological Units 89 Map of Important Agro-Ecological Units 90 Tables 21 a-h: Fertiliser and Manure Recommendations: 91-97 LH1 p or l/vl^m, RB 1 of the Tea and Dairy Zone 91 LH1 fl i m, RB 2 of the Tea and Dairy Zone 92 UM1 fl i m, RB 2 of the Tea-Coffee Zone 92 UM2 m + s/m, RB 2 of the Main Coffee Zone 92 UM2 m/l i m/s, RB 2 of the Main Coffee Zone 92 UM3 m/s + s, RB 3 of the Marginal Coffee Zone 94 LH3 s/m + (s/vs) & s/m + (vs/s), RB 3 of the Wheat/Maize-Barley Zone 94 UM4s/m+s,s+s& s + s/vs, LBC and LB 1 of the Sunflower-Maize Zone 96

150 KIAMBU & THIKA 3

3.3.1 NATURAL POTENTIAL

INTRODUCTION

The Agro-Ecological Zones of the Kiambu and Thika district group extend in a typical pattern along the eastern slopes of the Nyandarua (Aberdare) Range parallel to the isohypses. The Marginal Cotton Zone (LM 4) ends at about 1350 m. The Sunflower-Maize Zone (UM 4) starts immediately above it, except for the areas in the rain shadow of the Kamba Hills, where maize growing is feasible only above 1450 m in the northeast and above 1550 m in the southeast. This omits the Athi Plains, which areLivestock-Sorghum Zone (UM 5). The same tendency towards increasing dryness is oberserved on the lower coffee margin, which rises from 1530 m near Thika to about 1630 m near Nairobi. The Marginal Coffee Zone (UM 3) obtains good yields with additional irrigation. This is not necessary in the Main Coffee Zone (UM 2) because normally there is enough rainfall above 1570 m in the northeast and above 1740 m in the southwest.

The potential for tea also exists in the present coffee area at about 1800 m near Murang’a District. Due to the southeastward - but also southwestward - decreasing rainfall, tea growing is possible around Githunguri only above 1900 m, and at the southwestern end of the Tea-Dairy Zone (LH 1) near Limuru at 2200 m, therefore leaving a gap between coffee and tea which is mainly filled by maize cultivation although there is potential for pyrethrum and for vegetables in valleys (Maize/WheatPyrethrum Zone LH 2). The word “wheat” in that zone refers to the general zonation, but here, topography and farm scale are not suitable for it. A similar problem regarding terminology occurs in the Sheep-Dairy Zone above the upper tea limit (2300 m), which got its name from the Molo area. Here it is forest reserve or cultivated with vegetables which are the mainstay of farming here, due to the smallness of the farms and their favourable situation to Nairobi markets. In the rain shadow of the Nyandarua Range and the Rift Valley escarpment, the potential decreases gradually down to the Ranching Zones (UM and LM 6).

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TABLE 1: RAINFALL FIGURES FROM SELECTED TYPICAL STATIONS HAVING AT LEAST 15 YEARS OF RECORD

Agro Ecol. Annual Monthly rainfall in mm No. and Kind of Name of Station Zone & rainfall altitude records J FMAMJ J ASOND Subzone mm 9036061 Kirita UH 1 Average 1370 67 71 128 308 234 71 42 41 46 105 157 100 2438 m Forest Station l/vl^m 66% rel. 1 1230 33 34 92 250 165 36 30 22 23 60 105 59 9036162 Kijabe LH 3 Av. 831 55 50 64 201 168 49 27 25 25 34 67 66 2196 m Railway Stn. s/m + (vs/s) 66%3 9036191 Kerita UH 1 Av. 1276 58 66 113 288 222 63 47 38 40 104 154 83 2591 m Kinale p or l/vl^m 66%1 1150 40 45 89 243 168 50 24 30 28 80 118 60 9036220 Thika Karuga UM 1-2 Av. 1526 55 53 140 351 247 67 42 45 43 149 229 105 1520 m Farm ÀLP 66%1 1385 25 30 80 275 180 45 23 30 24 95 162 50 9036286 Chania LH 1 Av. 2015 78 154 227 390 342 105 60 50 59 207 229 114 2190 m Dam p or l/vl^m 66%3 9037005 Thika, UM 2-3 Av. 1052 37 48 115 257 151 34 20 20 26 87 171 86 1520 m Githumbwini Est. m + s/m 66%1 960 13 14 60 218 108 17 9 13 8 50 125 51 9037010 Nyakio UM 3-2 Av. 1010 39 42 112 248 150 32 19 24 27 84 154 79 1551 m Estate m/s + s 66% 2 940 17 11 62 202 98 16 10 15 13 55 130 40 9037016 Mitubiri, Kitito UM 3-4 Av. 1014 45 41 117 255 111 17 7 7 13 83 216 102 1460 m Coffee Estate m/s + s 66%2 9532516901753871034514867 9037028 Mwitumberia UM 3-4 Av. 1038 41 38 114 263 127 19 7 9 12 93 214 101 1490 m Estate m/s + s 66%2 865138682208573345017240 9037130 Thika Horticult. UM 3-2 Av. 1074 50 48 130 265 185 25 20 27 10 75 165 74 1600 m 5HV6WQ2I¿FH m/s + s 66%3 9136007 Ruiru Sukari UM 4 Av. 780 39 39 81 169 125 30 15 15 18 47 135 67 1570 m Ranch s + (vs/s) 66%1 648 8 11 52 146 75 13 4 5 4 30 90 38 9136014 Kamundu Estate, UM 2 Av. 1246 50 56 127 288 209 57 32 33 38 87 174 95 1825 m Kiambu m + s/m 66%3 9136015 Kiambu Riara UM 2-3 Av. 1038 44 46 106 235 174 47 24 27 29 69 150 87 1703 m Coffee Estate m + s/m 66%3 9136016 Kikuyu LH 3 Av. 893 30 46 93 222 174 36 18 18 24 51 108 73 2073 m Railway Station s/m + (s/vs) 66%3 9136018 Kiambu UM 2-3 Av. 968 43 43 107 241 102 44 28 26 28 75 148 83 1651 m Doondu Estate m + s/m 66%3 9136022 Uplands Lari UH 1 Av. 1414 56 68 139 329 264 67 37 37 41 105 171 100 2415 m Forest Station p or l/vl^m 66% 2 1210 32 23 80 255 221 46 24 25 26 67 130 51 9136028 Kiambu District UM 2-3 Av. 1025 44 50 106 231 164 50 25 25 31 69 148 82 1767 m 2I¿FH m/s + s 66% 2 905 15 15 69 192 119 31 11 18 15 45 110 52 9136029 Thika, Karamaini UM 3 Av. 932 33 41 103 226 135 36 19 22 24 72 153 68 1555 m Estate m/s + s 66%3 9136031 Ruiru Iganjo UM 3 Av. 843 32 34 87 197 126 30 17 20 22 67 138 73 1615 m Farm m/s + s/vs 66%3 9136032 Kiambu, UM 2 Av. 1325 48 54 125 307 233 61 32 39 43 93 194 96 1890 m Kacharoba Ltd.Ltd. m + s/m 66%3 9136034 Limuru, Tigoni LH 1-2 Av. 1067 50 46 99 251 182 47 29 29 34 69 156 75 2192 m Police Station ÀLP 66%3 9136035 Limuru, LH 1 Av. 1231 43 55 115 246 244 65 33 36 45 94 163 92 2342 m Mabroukie Fact. ÀLP 66%3 9136037 Kiambu, UM 3 Av. 950 45 48 91 215 153 44 20 23 28 63 141 79 1635 m Kigwa Estate m/s + s/vs 66%3 9136043 Muguga LH 2 Av. 1000 51 47 84 249 179 45 20 25 27 68 120 85 2067 m Forest Station m/s + (s) 66%3 9136047 Guabi Ltd., UM 3 Av. 970 49 48 94 215 163 45 21 23 27 64 143 78 1727 m Kiambu m/s + s/vs 66%3 9136049 Ruiru Water LH 1 Av. 1451 51 52 123 345 258 68 44 46 44 117 200 103 1945 m Scheme ÀLP 66%3 9136054 Kiambu, UM 3-2 Av. 961 40 46 109 247 73 47 32 28 30 75 152 82

153 6 KIAMBU & THIKA

TABLE 1: Continued

Agro Ecol. Annual Monthly rainfall in mm No. and Kind of Name of Station Zone & rainfall altitude records JFMAMJJASOND Subzone mm 1707 m Kianjibbi Estate m/s + s 66%3 9136060 Kiambu, UM 2 Av. 1083 41 45 102 253 180 46 30 30 33 74 161 88 1707 m Anmer Estate s/m + s 66%3 9136063 Ruiru Gatundu UM 2 Av. 1109 42 46 88 273 195 45 24 30 31 82 172 81 1707 m $JULF2I¿FH m/l i m/s 66%2 1027 34 20 60 220 165 32 15 12 20 67 150 52 9136064 Githunguri LH 1 Av. 1428 47 47 143 342 264 67 43 42 45 99 198 91 1999 m Agri. Station ÀLP 66%2 1231 40 26 80 282 170 46 30 35 25 66 90 51 9136084 Ruiru Jacaranda UM 2-3 Av. 1039 44 44 97 245 175 43 27 27 31 75 153 78 1603 m Coffee Res. Stn. m + s/m 66%3 9136110 Newlands LH 1 Av. 1438 62 58 119 346 264 66 37 38 44 108 196 100 2150 m Farm ÀLP 66%3 9136112 Yala LH 1 Av. 1218 51 55 116 295 146 61 30 38 40 96 188 102 1978 m Estate ÀLP 66%3 9136121 Muguga LH 3 Av. 954 53 47 71 238 166 42 25 22 26 57 127 80 2095 m E.A.A.F.R.O. s/m + (s/vs) 66%2 803 15 34 42 148 92 30 10 14 16 32 82 48 9136161 Limuru District LH 1-UH 1 Av. 1388 68 71 118 298 238 70 33 31 27 101 214 119 2279 m 2I¿FH ÀLP 66%3 9136165 Kikuyu LH 2-3 Av. 985 47 47 83 234 164 31 23 23 32 64 137 100 2130 m $JULF2I¿FH m/s + s 66%3 9136192 Kikuyu Steel LH 2 Av. 952 53 36 89 213 251 28 2 27 13 48 126 66 2036 m Rolling Mills Co. m/s + (s) 66%3 9136218 Kirirana LH 1 Av. 1522 65 67 133 358 269 66 42 36 44 128 212 102 2102 m Estate Ltd. ÀLP 66%3 9036220 Thika, UM 1-2 Av. 1385 25 30 80 275 180 45 23 30 24 95 162 50 1520 m Karuga Farm ÀLP 66%3 9136228 Tigoni Agric. LH 1-2 Av. 1096 25 45 89 288 217 52 40 16 5 100 151 68 2131 m Station ÀLP 66%3 9137002 Sassa Coffee, UM 4 Av. 808 33 31 105 202 93 20 9 9 11 69 153 73 1470 m Kenya Canners s + s/vs 66%2 690 13 6 65 165 58 11 4 3 2 35 130 40 9137006 Mitubiri, UM 4 Av. 876 40 37 114 215 89 22 7 9 13 73 175 82 1520 m Nanga Estate s + s/vs 66%2 815128651855062433514355 9137013 Thika, Chania UM 3 Av. 860 33 40 100 200 124 32 19 18 21 65 141 67 1524 m Estate m/s + s 66%3 9137018 Thika UM 4 Av. 786 36 40 90 187 101 26 13 15 5 60 146 67 1494 m 'LVWULFW2I¿FH s/m + s 66%2 710 14 11 60 145 65 13 4 6 2 33 130 42 9137019 Ruiru Juja UM 5 Av. 710 27 37 94 159 95 18 10 7 13 47 138 65 1463 m Sisal Farm vs/s + vs 66%2 540810351144642101810027 9137048 National Hort. UM 4 Av. 879 33 35 111 214 121 24 17 14 19 70 152 69 1460 m Res. Stn. Thika s/m + s 66%2 81098651855673443213345 9137053 Mitubiri UM 4 Av. 884 36 34 108 221 95 11 6 7 9 66 211 80 1471 m Chui Estate s + s 66%3 9137083 Ruiru, Juja Farm UM 5 Av. 706 31 44 73 146 103 10 16 4 17 45 159 58 1465 m Manager´s Hse. vs/s + vs 66%3 9037130 Thika Horticult. UM 3-(2) Av. 1074 50 48 130 265 185 25 20 27 10 75 165 74 1600 m 5HV6WQ2I¿FH m/s + s 66%3

17KHVH¿JXUHVRIUDLQIDOOUHOLDELOLW\VKRXOGEHH[FHHGHGQRUPDOO\LQRXWRI\HDUV 2 Estimate of this reliability by correlation, no detailed data available to GTZ for enough years. 3 Not calculated because not enough years available to GTZ.

154 KIAMBU & THIKA 7

153 8 KIAMBU & THIKA

156 KIAMBU & THIKA 9

TABLE 2: TEMPERATURE DATA Temperature in°C No. and Name of AEZ1 Kind of Belt altitude Station records J F M A M J J A S O N D Yr. limits

Mean max. 20,3 21,0 20,5 19,2 17,9 16,5 14,9 15,1 17,7 18,7 18,2 19,3 18,3 3000 m 9036233 Kimakia Mean temp. 13,4 14,1 14,4 14,2 13,3 11,9 11,0 10,9 12,1 13,3 13,3 13,2 12,9 UH UH 0 2439 m Forest Station Mean min. 6,4 7,1 8,2 9,2 8,7 7,3 7,0 6,7 6,4 7,9 8,3 7,0 7,5 2240 m Abs. min. 0,0 0,5 0,3 4,0 3,5 1,4 0,1 0,2 0,3 1,5 1,6 0,3 1,1 LH

Mean max. 22,4 23,2 23,2 21,6 19,9 18,9 18,2 18,8 21,0 22,1 20,7 21,3 20,9 2250 m 9136121 Muguga Mean temp. 16,8 17,4 17,7 17,1 15,8 14,4 13,6 13,9 15,2 16,6 16,2 16,3 15,9 LH 3 LH 2096 m KARI Mean min. 11,1 11,5 12,2 12,5 11,6 9,8 8,9 9,0 9,4 11,0 11,7 11,3 10,8 1720 m Abs. min. 5,6 6,4 7,3 9,5 5,6 3,9 1,9 2,8 3,0 5,8 6,8 4,5 5,3

Mean max. 26,3 27,7 27,4 25,7 24,5 23,3 22,4 22,7 25,2 26,3 24,5 24,8 25,1 Ruiru 1790 m 9136084 Mean temp. 19,3 20,2 20,5 20,3 19,4 17,8 16,9 17,2 18,6 19,9 19,3 19,0 19,0 Jacaranda UM 2 UM 1608 m Mean min. 12,3 12,6 13,6 14,9 14,2 12,3 11,4 11,7 11,9 13,4 14,0 13,1 13,0 Coffee R.S. 1250 m Abs. min. 7,2 6,3 8,0 10,0 7,5 5,7 4,7 4,0 5,6 7,2 8,1 6,1 6,7

Mean max. 26,2 27,2 27,6 25,8 25,0 23,9 22,6 23,6 26,5 27,2 25,2 25,0 25,5 Nat. Hort. 1710 m 9137048 & Agromet. Mean temp. 19,8 20,4 20,7 20,5 19,8 18,1 16,9 17,3 19,6 20,3 19,5 19,1 19,3 UM 4 UM 1477 m Res. Station Mean min. 13,3 13,6 13,7 15,1 14,5 12,3 11,2 10,9 12,6 13,4 13,7 13,1 13,1 Thika 1180 m Abs. min. 7,5 8,0 7,5 10,1 10,0 8,0 6,8 6,8 8,5 9,0 10,4 9,0 8,5

1 AEZ = Agro-ecological zone

TABLE 3: AVERAGE POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION Average Potential Evapotranspiration PET in mm Av. Rainfall Type1) No. and Name of Station altitude AEZ Year % J F M A M J J A S O N D Year in mm of PET

9037130 Thika Horticult. UM 149 145 152 122 111 93 90 98 93 135 121 136 1445 1074 74% 1600 m 5HV6WQ2I¿FH 3-2 9136084 Ruiru JacarandaJacaranda UM 146 145 154 125 111 92 90 100 95 139 122 131 1450 1060 73% 1608 m Coffee Res. Stn. 2-3 9136121 Muguga LH 3 176 169 182 140 113 99 92 103 101 161 141 154 1631 954 58% 2096 m KARI 9136208 Kabete Univ. LH 151 142 157 125 106 89 88 97 96 141 125 135 1451 993 68% 2089 m Field (Agromet.) 2-3 9137048 Nat. Horticult. UM 4 176 167 178 145 129 116 134 126 106 176 155 162 1770 879 50% 1477 m Res. Stn. Thika

157 10 KIAMBU & THIKA

TABLE 4: CLIMATE IN THE AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

66% reliability 60% reliability of cereal and Agro- Ann. mean Ann. av. Altitude of rainfall 1) legumes growing period Ecological Subzone temperature rainfall in m Zone in°C in mm 1st rainy s. 2nd rainy s. 1st rainy s.2) 2nd rainy s. Total 3) in mm in mm in days in days in days UH 0 Forest Reserve Forest Zone UH 1 p or l/vl^m 1200-2000 900-1100 400-620 220 or more 135-145 355-365 Sheep and 2280-2550 15.2-13.5 Dairy Zone l/vl^m 1200-1600 700-900 250-450 220 or more 130-140 350-360 UH 2 Pyrethrum- l i m/s Very small, see Nyandarua District Wheat Zone LH 1 p or l/vl^m 1500-2000 850-1100 470-600 220 or more 135-145 355-365 Tea-Dairy 1820-2280 18.0-15.2 Zone ÀLP 1300-1500 700-850 250-470 210 or more 130-140 340-350 LH 2 m + (s/m) 1100-1300 500-700 170-280 140-150 105-120 – Wheat/Maize- 1980-2280 17.6-15.2 Pyrethrum m/s + (s) 900-1200 400-500 150-220 115-135 85-100 – Zone LH 3 s/m+(s/vs) 900-1200 350-450 150-200 105-115 75-80 – Wheat/ 1950-2070 17.4-16.4 (Maize)-Barley s/m+(vs/s) 800-1000 280-360 150-180 105-115 65-70 – LH 4 Cattle-Sheep s + (vs) Small transitional strips Barley Zone LH 5 Lower High- b r Small, not suitable for rain-fed agriculture land Ranching Zone UM 1 Coffee-Tea ÀLP 1700-1820 18.7-18.0 1300-1600 700-850 400-480 180 or more 130-140 310-330 Zone UM 2 m/l i m/s 1100-1400 520-700 300-400 160 or more 115-135 275-300 Main Coffee 1580-1760 19.5-18.4 Zone m + s/m 1000-1300 480-680 250-380 135-155 105-115 – UM 3 m/s+s 900-1100 300-480 210-280 115-135 85-105 – Marginal 1520-1580 19.9-19.5 Coffee Zone m/s + s/vs 800-1100 300-470 190-250 115-135 75-85 – s/m+s 800-900 350-400 250-300 105-115 85-105 – s/m+(s/vs) 780-880 300-350 180-200 105-115 75-80 – UM 4 s+s 770-870 260-300 190-220 90-105 85-100 – 6XQÀRZHU 1360-1520 20.7-19.9 Maize Zone s + s/vs 760-850 250-290 180-210 85-105 75-85 – s + (vs/s) 750-800 240-280 150-180 85-100 65-70 – s/vs+(vs/s) 730-780 200-250 150-170 75-85 65-70 – UM 5 Livestock- vs/s + vs 1360-1520 20.9-19.9 600-730 170-200 150-160 65-75 50-65 – Sorghum Zone LM 4 Marginal s/vs+s/vs 1200-1360 21.9-20.9 800-900 250-320 200-250 75-85 75-85 – Cotton Zone

1) Amounts surpassed normally in 10 of 15 years, falling during the agro-humid period which allows growing of most cultivated plants. 2) More if growing cycle of cultivated plants continues into the period of second rainy season. 3) Only added if rainfall continues at least for survival (>0.25 PET) of certain long term crops, and this time is included.

158 KIAMBU & THIKA 11

159 12 KIAMBU & THIKA

AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES AND SUBZONES

UH = UPPER HIGHLAND ZONES UH 0 = Forest Zone UH 1 = Sheep and Dairy Zone UH 1 = Sheep and Dairy Zone or Vegetable Zone p or with permanent cropping possibilities, dividable in a long to very long cropping season l/vl^m followed by a medium one Upper places very wet, steep and too important as a catchment area, therefore Forest Reserve. Small strips in lower places cleared, there. Good yield potential (av. 60-80% of the optimum) 1st rainy season, start norm. mid March: Oats (April- Sep.); horse beans, peas, tarwi, potatoes1); late mat. rapeseed; cabbage, kales, carrots, kohlrabi, celery, radish, endive, rampion, leek 2nd rainy season, start norm. mid Oct.: Oats (Oct-F.); peas, potatoes1); med. mat. rapeseed, vegetables as in 1st rainy season Fair yield potential (av. 40-60% of the optimum) 1st rainy season: Very late mat. maize (lower places), late mat. triticale 2nd rainy season: Med. mat. triticale Whole year: Pyrethrum; pears, plums Pasture and forage About 0.5 ha/LU on secondary pasture of Kikuyu grass; very suitable for grade dairy cows; rye grass (Lolium perenne) and Kenya white clover to improve pasture UH 1 = Sheep and Dairy Zone l/v/^m with a long to very long cropping season followed by a medium one Potential almost the same as above but oats in 2nd rainy season fair

UH 2 = Pyrethrum-Wheat Zone

UH 2 = Pyrethrum-Wheat Zone l i m/s with a long cropping season, intermediate rains, and a medium to short one Very small, potential see Nyandarua District UH 2 vl i (almost the same because mists are bridging the two rainy seasons)

LH = LOWER HIGHLAND ZONES LH 1 = Tea- Dairy Zone LH 1 = Tea-Dairy Zone p or with permanent cropping possibilities, dividable in a long to very long cropping season l/vl^m followed by a medium one Very good yield potential (av. > 80% of the optimum) 1st rainy season, start norm. mid March: Peas, cabbages, lettuce 2nd rainy season, start norm. mid Oct.: Peas Good yield potential (av. 60-80% of the optimum) 1st rainy season: Lima beans, carrots, leek, kales, endive 2nd rainy season: Potatoes (Sep.- Jan.); cabbages, carrots, kales, lettuce Whole year, best pl. time mid March: Tea (high quality), loquats, passion fruits (lower places) Fair yield potential (av. 40 - 60% of the optimum) 1st rainy season (to 2nd rainy season): Late mat. maize (May-Dec.); m.mat. beans (2 times, 2nd end of July-N.)2), potatoes (March-July/Aug.)1) 2nd rainy season: M. mat. beans, leek Whole year: Pyrethrum (higher places), plums Pasture and forage About 0.4 ha/LU on secondary pasture of Kikuyu grass, suitable for grade dairy cows; clover and other fodder crops (see Table X) for higher productivity

160 KIAMBU & THIKA 13

LH 1 = Tea- Dairy Zone f l i m with a fully long cropping season, intermediate rains, and a medium one Potential almost the same as LH 1 p because of predominantly heavy soils with good water storage capacity

LH 2 = Wheat/Maize3)- Pyrethrum Zone LH 2 = Wheat/Maize-Pyrethrum Zone m+(s/m) with a medium cropping season and a (weak) short to medium one Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. end of March: M. mat. wheat, m. mat. Durum wheat, m. mat. triticale, PPDWEDUOH\SHDVSRWDWRHVPPDW6XQÀRZHUOLQVHHGQHDUO\DOOYHJHWDEOHV 2nd rainy season, start norm. end of Oct.: V.e. mat. barley Whole year: Pyrethrum (lower places); apples, pears and plums (all higher places), strawberries Pasture and forage 0.6- 1.0 ha/LU on secondary pasture of Kikuyu grass; higher stocking capacity with Napier grass up to 2000 m, Nandi Setaria above that, green maize (silage for 2nd dry season), fodder beets, Louisiana white clover a. o. (see Table X)

LH 2 = Wheat/Maize-Pyrethrum Zone season m/s+(s) with a medium to short and a (weak) short cropping season Potential almost the same as above but e. mat. wheat better, pyrethrum higher places also fair; stocking rates about 10% less

161 14 KIAMBU & THIKA

LH 3 = Wheat/(Maize)- Barley Zone LH 3 = Wheat/(Maize) - Barley Zone s/m + with a short to medium and a (weak) short to very short cropping season (s/vs) Transitional strip, potential between LH 2 m/s + (s) and the next subzone

LH 3 = Wheat (Maize) - Barley Zone s/m + with a short to medium and a (weak) very short to short cropping season (vs/s) Good yield potential 1st rainy season: E. mat. wheat, e. mat. barley, e. mat. maize; e. mat. peas and beans, e. mat. SRWDWRHVPPDWVXQÀRZHU ORZHUSO 2nd rainy season, start norm. end of Oct.: V. e. mat. barley Whole year: Black wattle Pasture and forage KD/8RQVHFRQGDU\JUDVVODQGKLJKHUFDSDFLW\RQDUWL¿FLDOSDVWXUHRI1DQGL6HWDULD Barley Amani and subterr. clover a. o. (Table X) for add. forage

LH 4 = Cattle-Sheep-Barley Zone Small transitional strip, potential about 20% less than LH 3 s/m + (vs/s)

LH 5 = Lower Highland Ranching Zone LH 5 = Lower Highland Ranching Zone br with bimodal rainfall Small, not suitable for rain-fed agriculture (except for v. e. mat. barley, 1st rainy season fair) Pasture and forage Normally 2 – 5 ha/LU on natural short grass savanna; no proper forage; severe erosion danger if overgrazed; on eroded places and rocky soils stocking rate much less

UM = UPPER MIDLAND ZONES UM 1 = Coffee-Tea Zone UM 1 = Coffee - Tea Zone f l i m with a fully long cropping season, intermediate rains, and a medium one Very good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. mid March: Lima beans, cabbages, kales 2nd rainy season, start norm. mid Oct.: M. mat. beans like Cuarentino (Aug.-Dec./Jan.) Whole year, best pl. time mid March: Passion fruits, black wattle Good yield potential 1stUDLQ\VHDVRQ/DWHPDWPDL]H¿QJHUPLOOHWVZHHWSRWDWRHVODWHPDWVXQÀRZHURQLRQV lettuce 2ndUDLQ\VHDVRQ6ZHHWSRWDWRHVHPDWVXQÀRZHU ORZHUSODFHV PPDW KLJKHUSO FDEEDJHV (Aug.- Dec.), kales, onions, tomatoes Whole year: Tea (higher places), Arabica coffee (lower places); bananas, mountain paw paws, yams, loquats, avocados Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: Cold tolerant sorghum, Meru foxtail millet (July-Oct.); sweet potatoes, beans; tomatoes, lettuce 2nd rainy season: M. mat. maize (Sep.-Jan.), late mat. (July-Jan.), cold tol. sorghum (Aug.–Feb.), ¿QJHUPLOOHWSRWDWRHV $XJ±'HF Whole year: Arabica coffee (higher places, above 1900 m even marginal), tea (lower places), pineapples, citrus, taro7) Pasture and forage Around 0.5 ha/LU on secondary pasture of Kikuyu grass; much higher capacity feeding Napier grass, bananas stems and leaves, sweet potato vines, maize stalks a. o. (see Table X)

162 KIAMBU & THIKA 15

UM 2 = Main Coffee Zone UM 2 = Main Coffee Zone m/l i m/s with a medium to long cropping season, intermediate rains, and a medium to short one4) Very good yield potential 1stUDLQ\VHDVRQVWDUWQRUPPLG0DUFK0PDWVXQÀRZHUOLNH+\EULG6$ 2nd rainy season, start norm. mid Oct.: Beans (Sep./Oct.- Jan./Feb.) Whole year, best pl. time mid March: Arabica coffee (~80%), loquats, mountain paw paws Good yield potential 1st rainy season: M. mat. maize, ratoon of sorghum (lower places); m. mat. beans, potatoes1), sweet potatoes; cabbages, kales, tomatoes7), onions 2nd rainy season: E. mat. Maize, mat. foxtail millet, e. mat. sorghum like 2 KX 17; sweet potatoes $XJ6HS-DQ HPDWVXQÀRZHUNDOHVFDEEDJHV7), onions, tomatoes7) Whole year: Bananas, citrus, avocados, passion fruits, pineapples, taro in valleys Fair yield potential 2ndUDLQ\VHDVRQ0PDWORFDOPDL]H $XJ6HS-DQ)HE ¿QJHUPLOOHWHPDWSRWDWRHV Whole year: Cassava (lower places), sugar cane (lower and wet places)7), tea fair to marginal Pasture and forage 0.5 - 1.0 ha/LU on secondary pasture, but land too valuable for grazing; much higher capacity, feeding Napier or Bana grass, banana leaves a.o. forage (see T.X) UM 2 = Main Coffee Zone m+s/m with a medium cropping season and a short to medium one Potential and stocking rates almost the same as UM 2 m/l i m/s less about 10% because of more intensive drought; all vegetables better in valleys, coffee yields good, tea marginal

UM 3 = Marginal Coffee Zone UM 3 = Marginal Coffee Zone m/s + s with a medium to short and short cropping season5) Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. mid to end of March: E. mat maize like Katumani Comp. B6), ratoon of e. mat. sorghumHPDWVXQÀRZHUYHPDWEHDQVRQLRQVFDEEDJHV 2nd rainy season, start norm. mid Oct.: E. mat. foxtail millet; v. e. mat. sorghum like IS 8595 Whole year: Pineapples (best pl. time end of March), Macadamia nuts, perennial castor Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: Med. mat. maize (50 - 60%)6)PPDW¿QJHUPLOOHWH PPDWEHDQVVZHHW potatoes; kales, tomatoes 2ndUDLQ\VHDVRQ(PDWPDL]HHPDWVRUJKXP DOPRVW YHPDWEHDQVHPDWVXQÀRZHU cabbages7), kales7), tomatoes7) :KROH\HDU$UDELFDFRIIHH ORZHUSODFHVSRRUDGGLUULJDWLRQSUR¿WDEOH EDQDQDV ORZHUSODFHV marginal)7), citrus7), paw paws, cassava Pasture and forage 0.6-1.1 ha/LU on secondary high grass savanna with zebra grass (Hyparrhennia rufa) predominant: much higher capacity feeding Napie or better Bana grass, glycine a.o. forage (see Table X)

163 16 KIAMBU & THIKA

UM 3 = Marginal Coffee Zone m/s + with a medium to short and a short to very short cropping season8) s/vs Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. mid to end of March: E. mat. maize like Katumani Comp. B, e. mat. VRUJKXPYHPDWEHDQVHPDWVXQÀRZHURQLRQVFDEEDJHV7) 2nd rainy season, start norm. end of Oct.: E. mat. foxtail millet Whole year: Pineapples, Macadamia nuts Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: Almost the same as UM 3 m/s + s, m. mat maize ca. 10% less 2nd rainy season: Dryland comp. maize, e. mat. sorghum like 2 KX 17, v. e. mat. sorghum like IS 8595 (50 – 60%); v. e. mat. beans; e. mat. cabbages Whole year: Almost the same as UM 3 m/s + s but a bit more marginal Pasture and forage Almost the same as UM 3 m/s + s but stocking rates are about 10% lower

UM 4 = Sunflower-Maize Zone or Upper Sisal Zone10)

UM 4 = 6XQÀRZHU0DL]H=RQ s/m + s with a short to medium and a short cropping season Very small, potential see Maragua District

164 KIAMBU & THIKA 17

UM 4 = 6XQÀRZHU0DL]H=RQH s/m + with a short to medium and a (weak) short to very short cropping season9) s/vs Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. mid to end of March: E. mat. maize like Katumani C. B (~ 60%), e. PDWVRUJKXPOLNH.;HPDWEHDQVHPDWVXQÀRZHU Whole year: Sisal, pineapples Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: M. mat. maize (~ 40%)6)¿QJHUPLOOHWGROLFKRVEHDQVVZHHWSRWDWRHV9LUJLQLD tobacco; tomatoes, onions, cabbages 2nd rainy season, start norm. end of Oct.: E. mat. foxtail millet; v. e. mat. beans, late mat. pigeon peas (to 1stUDLQ\VHDVRQ HPDWVXQÀRZHU Whole year: Cassava, castor Pasture and forage 0.8 – 1.5 ha/LU on natural savanna with Zebra grass (Hyparrhenia rufa) predominant; much higher capacity feeding Bana grass, Siratro (Macroptilium atropurpureum), horse tamarind (Leucaena tricandria), silage (of green maize or green fodder sorghum) a. o. (Table X) UM 4 = 6XQÀRZHU0DL]H=RQH s + s with two short cropping seasons Small, potential see Maragua District UM 4 = 6XQÀRZHU0DL]H=RQH s + s/vs with a short and a short to very short cropping season Small, potential in 1st rainy season almost as UM 4 s + (vs/s), in 2nd one as in UM 4 s/m + s/vs UM 4 = 6XQÀRZHU0DL]H=RQH s + (vs/s) with a short cropping season and a (weak) very short to short one11) Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. mid to end of March: E. mat. sorghum like Serena, e. mat. beans (~ HPDWVXQÀRZHU Whole year: Sisal Fair yield potential 1stUDLQ\VHDVRQ(PDWPDL]HOLNH.DWXPDQLFRPS%HPDW¿QJHUPLOOHWHPDWIR[WDLODQG proso millet (lower places); dolichos beans, chick peas (late planted on heavy black soils), cowpeas; sweet potatoes (40-50%); tomatoes, onions, e. mat. cabbage like sugar loaf 2nd rainy season, start norm. end of Oct.: E. mat. foxtail millet; late mat. pigeon peas (~ 40 %, from 2nd to 1stUDLQ\VHDVRQ VXQÀRZHU Whole year: Cassava (almost poor yields), castor Pasture and forage 1.5 – 2 ha/LU on mixed savanna; much higher capacity feeding Bana grass, horse tamarind, saltbush (Atriplex nummularia) a. o. (see Table X) UM 4 = 6XQÀRZHU±0DL]H=RQH s/vs + with a short to very short and a (weak) very short to short one (vs/s) Transitional strip. Potential almost the same as UM 4 s + (vs/s) but good yield expectations there are here only fair, some crops with fair yield expectations there have here only poor ones; stocking rates about 10% less

UM 5 = Livestock-Sorghum Zone UM 5 = Livestock-Sorghum Zone vs/s + vs with a very short to short and a very short cropping season Fair yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. end of March: V. e. mat. sorghum like IS 8595, v. e. mat. barley KLJKHUSODFHV HPDWIR[WDLODQGSURVRPLOOHW ORZHUSODFHV GZDUIVXQÀRZHUrai (oilseed Brassica juncea) 2nd rainy season, start norm. b. of Nov.: V. e. mat. foxtail millet (lower places), v. e. mat. barley (higher places)

165 18 KIAMBU & THIKA

Poor yield potential 1st rainy season: V. e. mat. maize; v. e. mat. beans Pasture and forage 1.5 – 3 ha/LU on short grass savanna with red oats grass (Themeda triandra) predominant. Much higher capacities with saltbush (Atriplex nummularia), Mesquite or Algarrobo (Prosopis MXOLÀRUDRUFKLOHQVLV *DRWUHH $FDFLDDOELGD IRUEURZVLQJDQGSRGV2SXQWLDYDUZLWKRXW prickles (also vegetable and fruit) and others (see Table X)

LM = LOWER MIDLAND ZONES LM 4 = Marginal Cotton Zone LM 4 = Marginal Cotton Zone s/vs + with two short to very short cropping seasons s/vs Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. end of March: V. e. mat. maize like Dryland comp. (on contour ridges), e. mat. sorghum like Serena, v. e. mat. like IS 8595, ratoon of e. mat. sorghum, e. mat. bulrush millet (awned var. preferred), e. mat. foxtail or proso millet (70 - 80%); e. mat. VXQÀRZHUYHPDWEHDQV a HPDWFRZSHDVEODFNDQGJUHHQJUDPVFKLFNSHDV ODWH planted on heavy black soils); v. e. mat. pumpkins 2nd rainy season, start norm. end of Oct.: The same and e. mat. sorghum like 2 KX 17 for ratoon (2nd to 1st rainy seasons) Whole year, best pl. time end of Oct.: Sisal, buffalo gourds (on sandy soils)12), Marama beans12), Vigna12), perennial castor like C-15

166 KIAMBU & THIKA 19

Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: E. mat. maize like Katumani comp. B (on contour ridges), e. mat. beans, e. mat. soya beans, dolichos beans, e. mat. bambarra ground nuts (light soils); sweet potatoes; e. PDWVXQÀRZHURQLRQVWRPDWRHV 2nd rainy season: The same and cotton bimodal var. (Oct. – Aug., on good soils, otherwise poor), late mat. pigeon peas (Oct.- Sep.) Whole year: Macadamia nuts, cassava Pasture and forage 1.5 – 3.5 ha/LU on mixed medium grass savanna with red oats grass (Themeda triandra) predominant; if degraded and for higher stocking rates reseeding with Maasai love grass (Eragrostis superba), buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris), Makueni guinea plus planting saltbushes (Atriplex nummularia), horse tamarind (Leucaena tricandria) and Mesquite 3URVRSLVMXOLÀRUD as palatable shrubs; add. forage: vines of fast growing legumes like moth beans, pods of Gao trees (applering acacias, Ac. albida), silage of green fodder sorghum

LM 5 = Livestock- Millet Zone LM 5 = Livestock- Millet Zone vs/s + with two very short to short cropping seasons vs/s Very small, potential see Machakos District

1) Spraying against fungus diseases important, esp. in the 1st rainy season. In UH microclimatic risk of frosts 2) Sometimes (esp. in 1st rainy season) rotting because of too wet conditions, lower places better 3) Wheat or maize depending on farm scale and topography. Here maize more advisable 4) On medium soils; on heavy soils there is a long to medium and a medium to short cropping season. Given potential refers t to predominant heavy red loams 5) 2QPHGLXPVRLOVRQKHDY\VRLOV¿UVWFURSSLQJVHDVRQKDVDPHGLXPOHQJWKVHFRQGDVKRUWWRPHGLXP3RWHQWLDOUHIHUVWR predominant heavy red loams 6) Although Katumani has climatically a good potential, it may be on deep soils more advisable to plant med. mat. maize because of its higher productivity 7) Better in valleys 8) 2QPHGLXPVRLOVRQKHDY\VRLOV¿UVWFURSSLQJVHDVRQKDVDPHGLXPOHQJWKVHFRQGDVKRUWRQH3RWHQWLDOUHIHUVWR predominant heavy red loams 9) 2QPHGLXPVRLOVRQKHDY\VRLOV¿UVWVHDVRQKDVDPVVHFRQGVHDVRQDVKRUWOHQJWK3RWHQWLDOUHIHUVWRKHDY\VRLOVLQ valleys (if not water-logged); there are shallow soils on ridges which have only grazing potential 10) Sisal recommended for large scale plantations only 11)2QKHDY\VRLOV¿UVWVHDVRQKDVRQHGHFDGHPRUHOHQJWK3RWHQWLDOUHIHUVWRKHDY\VRLOVLQYDOOH\VDQGRQSODLQV7KHUHDUH strips of shallow soils and waterlogged places which have only grazing potential (if not ameliorated) 12) Still experimental, such crops are written in italics.

167 20 KIAMBU & THIKA

168 KIAMBU & THIKA 21

SOIL DISTRIBUTION, FERTILITY AND MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OF KIAMBU AND THIKA DISTRICTS

The Nyandarua Range inﬂuences the physiography of the Greater Kiambu district. The central landscape is dominated by undulating to rolling topography as well as high elevations (volcanic foothill ridges). The soils of this area (units RB2 and RB3) are moderately to highly fertile. On the mountains, soils developed on olivine basalts and ashes of major older volcanoes are found. They may be shallow or leached and very acidic (ph 3.5 – 4.5). Soils of the hills are generally variably fertile and can only be found in the western part of the district. Fertile upland soils occur in the western part, others of moderate to low fertility in the very eastern part of Kiambu district. East of Ruiru, the plateaus have soils of variable fertility. On the lower topographical sites, soils, which have developed on alluvium, are found. They are moderately to highly fertile. Dominant soil types in the districts of Kiambu and Thika are humic Andosols and Nitosols; which were developed from pyroclastic rocks during the Tertiary period.

LEGEND TO THE SOIL MAP OF KIAMBU AND THIKA DISTRICTS

([SODQDWLRQRIWKH¿UVWFKDUDFWHU SK\VLRJUDSK\

M Mountains and Major Scarps H Hills and Minor Scarps L Plateaus and High-Level Structural Plains Ls Step-Faulted Floor of the Rift Valley R Volcanic Footridges U Uplands, Upper, Middle and Lower Levels Pd Dissected Erosional Plains Pv Volcanic Plains A Flood plains B Bottomlands V Minor Valleys

2 Explanation of second character (lithology)

A Alluvial Sediments from Various Sources B Basic and Ultra-Basic Igneous Rocks (basalts, nepheline phonolites; older basic tuffs included) P Pyroclastic Rocks U Undifferentiated Basement System Rocks (predominantly Gneisses) V Undifferentiated or Various Igneous Rocks

3 Soil descriptions

MB1 Well drained, very shallow to moderately deep, dark reddish brown, friable and slightly smeary, gravely clay; in places with humic topsoil, deep and/or rocky: ando-eutric CAMBISOLS, with ando-haplic PHAEOZEMS, predominantly lithic phases, and with LITHOSOLS, and Rock Outcrops

MU2 Well drained, very shallow to shallow, brown to reddish brown, stony and rocky, gravely to very gravely sandy loam to sandy clay loam: LITHOSOLS and dystric REGOSOLS, rocky and stony phases.

MV1 Imperfectly drained, shallow to moderately deep, greyish brown, friable loam to clay loam, with an acid humic to peaty topsoil; in places very shallow or rocky: dystric HISTOSOLS, predominantly lithic phase; with LITHOSOLS and Rock Outcrops

MV2 Well drained, shallow to moderately deep, dark reddish brown, friable, stony clay loam, with an acid humic top soil; in places very shallow and rocky: humic CAMBISOLS, stony and partly lithic phase; with LITHOSOLS and Rock Outcrops

169 22 KIAMBU & THIKA

HGC Complex of: Somewhat excessively drained, shallow, stony and rocky soils of varying colour, consistency and texture: dystric REGOSOLS and RANKERS, with ferralic and humic CAMBISOLS, lithic, rocky and stony phases, LITHOSOLS and Rock Outcrops

RB1 Well drained, deep to extremely deep, dark reddish brown to dark brown, friable and slightly smeary clay, with an acid humic topsoil; in places shallow and rocky: ando-humic NITISOLS and humic ANDOSOLS, partly lithic phases; with Rock Outcrops

RB2 Well drained, extremely deep, dusky red to dark reddish brown, very friable clay, with an acid humic topsoil: humic NITISOLS

FB1 Well drained, deep to very deep, dark reddish brown, friable clay, with humic topsoil; in places shallow to moderately deep and rocky: chromo-luvic PHAEOZEMS, partly lithic and rocky phase, with mollic NITISOLS

FG1 Well drained, shallow to moderately deep, dark yellowish brown to reddish brown, friable, stony, sandy clay loam to gravely sandy clay; in places with an acid humic topsoil or very shallow and rocky: ferralic, dystric and humic CAMBISOLS and orthic ACRISOLS, stony and partly lithic and rocky phases; with LITHOSOLS and Rock Outcrops

FUC Complex of: Well drained, deep, dark reddish brown to dark yellowish brown soils of varying consistency and texture; in places moderately deep, gravely and/or stony: orthic FERRALSOLS, orthic ACRISOLS and ferralic ARENOSOLS partly stony phases

UhB1 Well drained, very deep to extremely deep, dark red to dark reddish brown, friable clay, with a humic topsoil: mollic NITISOLS

UhN1 Well drained, very deep, reddish brown, friable, gravely sandy clay to clay, with an acidic humic topsoil humic ACRISOLS, with humic CAMBISOLS

UmG2 Well drained, deep, dark yellowish brown to dark brown, friable sandy clay loam to sandy clay; in places gravely in the deeper subsoil: ferralo-orthic ACRISOLS

UmG3 Well drained, deep to very deep, red to dark brown, friable sandy clay to clay: ferralo-orthic/chromic ACRISOLS

UmG6 Well drained, shallow to moderately deep, dark yellowish brown, friable sandy clay: orthic ACRISOLS

UIG3 Well drained, shallow to moderately deep, dark yellowish brown to strong brown, friable sandy clay; over petroplinthite; in places very shallow, stony or rocky: orthic and ferralo-orthic ACRISOLS, petroferric and partly stony phase, with LITHOSOLS and Rock Outcrops

UIG4 Well drained, deep,strong brown to yellowish brown, friable sandy clay loam to sandy clay; in places shallow to moderately deep over petroplinthite: orthic FERRALSOLS, partly petroferric phase

UIGA1 Association of: Well drained, deep to very deep, dark yellowish brown, friable clay loam to clay; in places with an acidic humic topsoil; in places stony; on straight side slopes 50%): orthic ACRISOLS, with humic ACRISOLS, partly stony phases and: well drained, shallow to moderately deep, dark yellowish brown to brown, friable sandy clay loam; RYHUSHWURSOLQWKLWHLQSODFHVH[FHVVLYHO\GUDLQHGDQGVDQG\RQLQWHUÀXYHVFRQYH[VORSHVDQGQHDU fringes to bottomlands (50%): (ferralo-)orthic ACRISOLS, petroferric phase, with ferralic ARENOSOLS

170 KIAMBU & THIKA 23

UIN1 Well drained, deep to very deep, dark red to dark reddish brown, very friable sandy clay loam to clay; in places moderately deep over petroplinthite: rhodic and orthic FERRALSOLS, partly petroferric phase

UIN3 Well drained, deep to very deep, dark red to dark reddish brown, very friable sandy clay loam to clay: rhodic FERRALSOLS

UIRA Association of: Well drained, deep, strong brown to yellowish red and dark red, friable sandy clay loam to sandy clay; LQSODFHVVKDOORZWRPRGHUDWHO\GHHSRYHUSHWURSOLQWKLWHRQLQWHUÀXYHV orthic FERRALSOLS with rhodic FERRALSOLS, partly petroferric phases and: well drained, moderately deep to deep, dark yellowish brown to brown, friable sandy clay loam to clay, with an acid humic topsoil; in places shallow; on steeper valley sides (30%): humic CAMBISOLS; partly lithic phase

UIX1 Well drained, deep to very deep, dark red strong brown, friable clay; in many places shallow or moderately shallow or moderately deep petroplinthite: orthic to rhodic FERRALSOLS, partly petroferric phase

UIX2 Well drained, shallow to moderately deep, dark reddish brown to strong brown, friable clay; over petroplinthite; in places deep: orthic FERRALSOLS, petroferric phase

$$ :HOOWRPRGHUDWHO\ZHOOGUDLQHGGHHSGDUNJUH\LVKEURZQWR\HOORZLVKEURZQIULDEOHVWUDWL¿HGVDQG\ FOD\ORDPWRFOD\LQSODFHVPRWWOHG¿UPFOD\LQSODFHVVOLJKWO\VDOLQHRUVRGLFRQULYHUOHYHHV eutric FLUVISOLS, with vertic FLUVISOLS and vertic and eutric GLEYSOLS, partly saline-sodic phases

BXC1 Complex of: LPSHUIHFWO\WRSRRUO\GUDLQHGGHHSWRGHHSYHU\GDUNJUH\WREURZQPRWWOHG¿UPWRYHU\¿UPVDQG\ clay to cracking clay, in many places abruptly underlying a topsoil of friable sandy loam; in places saline and sodic: dystric PLANOSOLS, dystric and vertic GLEYSOLS and pellic VERTISOLS; partly saline-sodic phases

BXC2 Complex of: ,PSHUIHFWO\WRSRRUO\GUDLQHGGHHSWRGHHSYHU\GDUNJUH\WRGDUNJUH\LVKEURZQPRWWOHG¿UPFOD\ LQPDQ\SODFHVDEUXSWO\XQGHUO\LQJDWRSVRLORIIULDEOHWR¿UPVDQG\ORDPWRVDQG\FOD\ORDPLQPDQ\ places peaty or with an acid humic or histic topsoil: dystric and humic GLEYSOLS, dystric PLANOSOLS and dystric HISTOSOLS

XC Complex of: Well drained, shallow to deep soils of varying colour, consistency and texture (on valley sides): CAMBISOLS, ACRISOLS and FERRALSOLS, partly lithic phases, with Rock Outcrops and: LPSHUIHFWO\WRSRRUO\GUDLQHGGHHSPRWWOHGVRLOVZLWKSUHGRPLQDQWO\JUH\LVKFRORXUV¿UPFRQVLVWHQF\ DQG¿QHWH[WXUHV LQYDOOH\ERWWRPV GLEYSOLS, with VERTISOLS and HISTOSOLS

171 24 KIAMBU & THIKA

3.3.2 POPULATION AND LAND

KIAMBU DISTRICT

According to the Housing and Population Census (1999), Kiambu district is the most densely populated in Central Province. The total population stood at 744,010 people with a density of 562 persons/km2, compared to 280 persons/km2 in 1979. However, it occupied 1323.9 km2 in 1999 as compared to 2448 km2 in 1979. With seven administrative divisions namely: Kiambaa, Githunguri, Limuru, Ndeiya, Municipality, Lari and Kikuyu, Kiambu district portrays a more urbanite population than any other district of Kenya. This could be attributed to its proximity to Nairobi, the capital city of Kenya.

The population growth rate is quite high. For example, between 1979 and 1999, it grew by 8.4 %. The distribution of population by Division, Location and Sub-location is shown in Table 5, while the composition of households is depicted in Table 6. Agricultural land available per person and household per division is shown in Table 7. Overall, the acreage of agricultural land available to the household and per person has declined since 1979 from 1.13 ha and 0.23 ha, respectively to the current 0.75 ha and 0.19 ha, respectively. This decline has serious negative implications for agricultural productivity in the district.

TABLE 5: POPULATION IN KIAMBU DISTRICT PER DIVISION, LOCATION AND SUB-LOCATION (Source: Census 1999)

DIVISION/LOCATION/ Male Female Total Households Area in km2 Density SUB-LOCATION KIAMBAA 94,630 93,425 188,055 50,965 190.5 987 NDUMBERI 8,807 9,174 17,981 4,626 8.1 2,220 Ndumberi 5,766 6,028 11,794 2,893 4.9 2,407 Karunga 3,041 3,146 6,187 1,733 3.2 1,933 RUAKA 6,858 6,673 13,531 3,785 7.5 1,804 Ndenderu 3,673 3,683 7,356 2,001 3.3 2,229 Ruaka 3,185 2,990 6,175 1,784 4.2 1,470 KIAMBAA S/AREA 8,375 7,791 16,166 4,957 34.2 473 Kiamumbi 1,931 1,662 3,593 1,024 10.9 330 Township 2,671 2,827 5,498 1,651 2.3 2,390 Thindigwa 3,773 3,302 7,075 2,282 21 337 TING‘ANG‘A 6,178 6,420 12,598 2,893 9.1 1,384 Kagongo 2,643 2,783 5,426 1,177 4.4 1,233 Ting’ang’a 3,535 3,637 7,172 1,716 4.7 1,526 KIAMBAA 19,563 19,985 39,548 10,235 20.2 1,958 Njoro 1,503 1,415 2,918 701 3 973 Kiambaa 3,814 4,059 7,873 1,900 4.2 1,875 Muchatha 4,728 4,874 9,602 2,556 3.2 3,001 Njiku 4,575 4,694 9,269 2,403 5.9 1,571 Karuri 4,943 4,943 9,886 2,675 3.9 2,535 RIABAI 8,981 9,593 18,574 5,059 8.4 2,211 Kihingo 4,092 4,152 8,244 2,289 5.1 1,616 Riabai 4,889 5,441 10,330 2,770 3.3 3,130 KAMITI 3,571 3,038 6,609 2,137 39.6 167 Anmer 1,453 1,228 2,681 849 16.8 160 Kamiti 2,116 1,810 3,926 1,288 22.8 172 WAGUTHU 9,459 9,375 18,834 4,602 13.3 1,416

172 KIAMBU & THIKA 25

TABLE 5: Continued

DIVISION/LOCATION/ Male Female Total Households Area in km2 Density SUB-LOCATION Gathanga 3,592 3,451 7,043 1,692 5.6 1,258 Kanunga 2,970 2,854 5,824 1,354 5.2 1,120 Ndegu 2,897 3,070 5,967 1,556 2.5 2,387 KIHARA 16,605 15,759 32,364 9,124 13.1 2,471 Karura 1,836 1,882 3,718 863 2.7 1,377 Mahindi 1,468 1,502 2,970 713 2.6 1,142 Kihara 5,148 5,387 10,535 2,886 2.8 3,763 Gachie 6,639 5,430 12,069 3,979 2.6 4,642 Wangunyu 1,514 1,558 3,072 683 2.4 1,280 CIANDA 6,233 5,617 11,850 3,547 37 320 Cianda 2,189 1,738 3,927 1,308 21 187 Kawaida 4,044 3,879 7,923 2,239 16 495 GITHUNGURI 66,775 69,779 136,554 32,237 175.2 779 GITHUNGURI 15,283 15,895 31,178 7,360 36.7 850 Githunguri 6,863 7,052 13,915 3,578 14.9 934 Kanjai 3,569 3,757 7,326 1,581 9.1 805 Kiairia 4,851 5,086 9,937 2,201 12.7 782 IKINU 10,533 11,070 21,603 5,050 22.2 973 Ikinu 2,654 2,792 5,446 1,271 5.2 1,047 Riuki 2,995 3,162 6,157 1,466 6.9 892 Ngemwa 1,789 1,873 3,662 855 4.6 796 Kiaibabu 3,095 3,243 6,338 1,458 5.5 1,152 GITHIGA 13,252 14,006 27,258 6,432 41.2 662 Matuguta 1,320 1,371 2,691 616 5.5 489 Gathangari 2,825 3,108 5,933 1,451 12.8 464 Gitiha 2,707 2,852 5,559 1,310 9.3 598 Githiga 6,400 6,675 13,075 3,055 13.6 961 KOMOTHAI 17,234 18,095 35,329 8,298 50.1 705 Gathugu 3,622 3,841 7,463 1,645 13.7 545 Thuita 1,147 1,262 2,409 565 2.6 927 Mbari yaigi 1,954 2,039 3,993 968 7.5 532 Kibichoi 4,182 4,345 8,527 2,013 8.6 992 Kiratina 4,410 4,707 9,117 2,200 11.6 786 Kiambururu 1,919 1,901 3,820 907 6.1 626 NGEWA 10,473 10,713 21,186 5,097 25 847 Giathieko 2,129 2,220 4,349 994 5.3 821 Kimathi 3,578 3,577 7,155 1,749 10.2 701 Nyaga 4,766 4,916 9,682 2,354 9.5 1,019 LIMURU 56,651 56,927 113,578 30,146 280.7 405 LIMURU 18,582 18,520 37,102 9,492 40 928 Limuru Town 1,587 1,573 3,160 1,097 0.6 5,267 Kamirithu 8,071 7,977 16,048 4,012 17.1 938 Bibirioni 8,924 8,970 17,894 4,383 22.3 802 RIRONI 3,733 3,839 7,572 7,572 182.9 4 Rironi 2,313 2,480 4,793 1,225 3.8 1,261

173 26 KIAMBU & THIKA

TABLE 5: Continued

DIVISION/LOCATION/ Male Female Total Households Area in km2 Density SUB-LOCATION Gatimu 1,420 1,359 2,779 604 3.7 751 NGECHA 5,325 5,535 10,860 2,626 10.5 1,034 Ngecha 4,046 4,125 8,171 1,956 8.7 939 Kabuku 1,279 1,410 2,689 670 1.8 1,494 TIGONI 5,442 4,765 10,207 3,484 40.2 254 Ithanji 3,692 3,403 7,095 2,292 19.1 371 Red Hill 1,750 1,362 3,112 1,192 21.1 147 NDEIYA 11,174 12,534 23,708 5,374 125.2 189 Ndiuni 1,134 1,230 2,364 504 10.6 223 Nderu 3,602 4,206 7,808 1,759 39.4 198 Thigio 4,693 5,228 9,921 2,321 53 187 Tiekunu 1,745 1,870 3,615 790 22.2 163 KARAMBAINI 12,395 11,734 24,129 7,341 57.3 421 Mabrouke 5,820 5,440 11,260 3,396 15.9 708 Karambaini 3,235 3,161 6,396 2,059 22.9 279 Kiawaroga 3,340 3,133 6,473 1,886 18.5 350 LARI 54,628 56,674 111,302 25,438 441.1 252 LARI 4,157 4,152 8,309 2,037 42.6 195 Githirioni 1,568 1,603 3,171 726 22.6 140 Lari Scheme 2,589 2,549 5,138 1,311 20 257 KIJABE 8,964 9,550 18,514 4,495 27.1 683 Magina 2,443 2,679 5,122 1,292 3.4 1,506 Mbau-ini 1,242 1,296 2,538 517 6.1 416 Bathi 3,072 3,193 6,265 1,540 6.2 1,010 Kijabe 2,207 2,382 4,589 1,146 11.4 403 GATAMAIYU 6,220 6,592 12,812 2,994 25.4 504 Kagwe 3,529 3,791 7,320 1,826 15.1 485 Kamuchege 2,691 2,801 5,492 1,168 10.3 533 NYANDUMA 6,912 7,188 14,100 3,145 34.8 405 Nyanduma 3,913 4,163 8,076 1,719 18.8 430 Gachoire 2,999 3,025 6,024 1,426 16 377 GITITHIA 3,569 3,752 7,321 1,616 16 458 Gitithia 2,339 2,459 4,798 1,016 13.4 358 Nyambari 1,230 1,293 2,523 600 2.6 970 KIRENGA 7,844 8,017 15,861 3,530 72.9 218 Escarpment 1,650 1,757 3,407 752 16.1 212 Gituamba 1,226 1,008 2,234 468 3.4 657 Kirenga 1,900 1,994 3,894 946 4.8 811 Kambaa 3,068 3,258 6,326 1,364 48.6 130 Kamburu 6,020 6,296 12,316 2,855 31.5 391 Matimbei 1,248 1,361 2,609 617 7.7 339 Kamburu 2,451 2,635 5,086 1,143 9.9 514 Kagaa 2,321 2,300 4,621 1,095 13.9 332 KINALE 5,769 5,804 11,573 2,411 116.8 99 Kinale 2,614 2,731 5,345 1,088 20.2 265

174 KIAMBU & THIKA 27

TABLE 5: Continued

DIVISION/LOCATION/ Male Female Total Households Area in km2 Density SUB-LOCATION Mukeu 3,155 3,073 6,228 1,323 96.6 64 KAMAE 5,173 5,323 10,496 2,355 74 142 Kamae 3,127 3,103 6,230 1,437 56.8 110 Kamukombi-ini 2,046 2,220 4,266 918 17.2 248 KIKUYU 96,417 98,104 194,521 50,920 236.4 823 MUGUGA 16,265 16,835 33,100 8,434 23.6 1,403 Kahuho 3,176 3,266 6,442 1,441 5.7 1,130 Muguga 4,729 4,918 9,647 2,364 6.2 1,556 Gitaru 4,696 4,903 9,599 2,771 5.3 1,811 Kanyariri 3,664 3,748 7,412 1,858 6.4 1,158 KIKUYU 16,933 16,704 33,637 8,530 52.9 636 Kikuyu Township 5,328 5,076 10,404 2,893 14.9 698 Kari 1,376 1,460 2,836 648 13.9 204 Kerwa 6,290 6,511 12,801 2,750 17.7 723 Sigona 3,939 3,657 7,596 2,239 6.4 1,187 KINOO 22,482 22,607 45,089 12,550 25.6 1,761 Kinoo 7,120 7,330 14,450 4,035 8.4 1,720 Uthiru 7,615 7,624 15,239 4,353 3.4 4,482 Thogoto 5,780 5,835 11,615 3,121 3.8 3,057 Gitiba 1,967 1,818 3,785 1,041 10 379 KARAI 13,358 14,528 27,886 6,934 99.4 281 Gikambura 5,659 5,970 11,629 2,958 11.4 1,020 Lusingetti 2,744 3,034 5,778 1,442 11.3 511 RENGUTI 2,254 2,557 4,811 1,151 10.1 476 Karai 697 727 1,424 337 5.3 269 Nachu 2,004 2,240 4,244 1,046 61.3 69 KABETE 15,410 15,408 30,818 8,467 16.3 1,891 Lower Kabete 5,601 5,981 11,582 3,076 4.8 2,413 Kibichiku 5,773 5,323 11,096 3,320 5.6 1,981 Ruku 2,688 2,784 5,472 1,415 3 1,824 Chura 1,348 1,320 2,668 656 2.9 920 NYATHUNA 11,969 12,022 23,991 6,005 18.6 1,290 Gathiga 2,887 2,877 5,764 1,420 3.1 1,859 Karura 2,098 2,178 4,276 1,062 4.8 891 Kirangari 4,081 4,055 8,136 2,102 5.3 1,535 Nyathuna 2,903 2,912 5,815 1,421 5.4 1,077

175 28 KIAMBU & THIKA

TABLE 6: COMPOSITION OF HOUSEHOLDS IN KIAMBU DISTRICT PER DIVISION, LOCATION AND SUB-LOCATION (Source: Census 1999)

Composition of Family DIVISION/LOCATION/ Total Number of Persons per SUB-LOCATION Households 15 years and Under Household above 15 years KIAMBAA 50,965 2.3 1.4 3.7 NDUMBERI 4,626 2.4 1.5 3.9 Ndumberi 2,893 2.5 1.5 4.1 Karunga 1,733 2.2 1.3 3.6 RUAKA 3,785 2.2 1.3 3.6 Ndenderu 2,001 2.3 1.4 3.7 RUAKA 1,784 2.2 1.3 3.5 KIAMBAA S/AREA 4,957 2.0 1.2 3.3 Kiamumbi 1,024 2.2 1.3 3.5 Township 1,651 2.1 1.3 3.3 Thindigwa 2,282 1.9 1.2 3.1 TING‘ANG‘A 2,893 2.7 1.6 4.4 Kagongo 1,177 2.9 1.7 4.6 Ting’ang’a 1,716 2.6 1.6 4.2 KIAMBAA 10,235 2.4 1.5 3.9 Njoro 701 2.6 1.6 4.2 Kiambaa 1,900 2.6 1.6 4.1 Muchatha 2,556 2.3 1.4 3.8 Njiku 2,403 2.4 1.5 3.9 Karuri 2,675 2.3 1.4 3.7 RIABAI 5,059 2.3 1.4 3.7 Kihingo 2,289 2.2 1.4 3.6 Riabai 2,770 2.3 1.4 3.7 KAMITI 2,137 1.9 1.2 3.1 Anmer 849 2.0 1.2 3.2 Kamiti 1,288 1.9 1.1 3.0 WAGUTHU 4,602 2.5 1.5 4.1 Gathanga 1,692 2.6 1.6 4.2 Kanunga 1,354 2.7 1.6 4.3 Ndegu 1,556 2.4 1.4 3.8 KIHARA 9,124 2.2 1.3 3.5 Karura 863 2.7 1.6 4.3 Mahindi 713 2.6 1.6 4.2 Kihara 2,886 2.3 1.4 3.7 Gachie 3,979 1.9 1.1 3.0 Wangunyu 683 2.8 1.7 4.5 CIANDA 3,547 2.1 1.3 3.3 Cianda 1,308 1.9 1.1 3.0 Kawaida 2,239 2.2 1.3 3.5 GITHUNGURI 32,237 2.6 1.6 4.2 GITHUNGURI 7,360 2.6 1.6 4.2

176 KIAMBU & THIKA 29

TABLE 6: Continued

Composition of Family DIVISION/LOCATION/ Total Number of Persons per SUB-LOCATION Households 15 years and Under Household above 15 years Githunguri 3,578 2.4 1.5 3.9 Kanjai 1,581 2.9 1.7 4.6 Kiairia 2,201 2.8 1.7 4.5 IKINU 5,050 2.7 1.6 4.3 Ikinu 1,271 2.7 1.6 4.3 Riuki 1,466 2.6 1.6 4.2 Ngemwa 855 2.7 1.6 4.3 Kiaibabu 1,458 2.7 1.6 4.3 GITHIGA 6,432 2.6 1.6 4.2 Matuguta 616 2.7 1.6 4.4 Gathangari 1,451 2.5 1.5 4.1 Gitiha 1,310 2.6 1.6 4.2 Githiga 3,055 2.7 1.6 4.3 KOMOTHAI 8,298 2.7 1.6 4.3 Gathugu 1,645 2.8 1.7 4.5 Thuita 565 2.7 1.6 4.3 Mbari ya igi 968 2.6 1.6 4.1 Kibichoi 2,013 2.6 1.6 4.2 Kiratina 2,200 2.6 1.6 4.1 Kiambururu 907 2.6 1.6 4.2 NGEWA 5,097 2.6 1.6 4.2 Giathieko 994 2.7 1.7 4.4 Kimathi 1,749 2.5 1.5 4.1 Nyaga 2,354 2.6 1.6 4.1 LIMURU 30,146 2.3 1.4 3.8 Limuru 9,492 2.4 1.5 3.9 Limuru Town 1,097 1.8 1.1 2.9 Kamirithu 4,012 2.5 1.5 4.0 Bibirioni 4,383 2.5 1.5 4.1 RIRONI 7,572 0.6 0.4 1.0 Rironi 1,225 2.4 1.5 3.9 Gatimu 604 2.9 1.7 4.6 NGECHA 2,626 2.6 1.6 4.1 Ngecha 1,956 2.6 1.6 4.2 Kabuku 670 2.5 1.5 4.0 TIGONI 3,484 1.8 1.1 2.9 Ithanji 2,292 1.9 1.2 3.1 Red Hill 1,192 1.6 1.0 2.6 NDEIYA 5,374 2.7 1.7 4.4 Ndiuni 504 2.9 1.8 4.7 Nderu 1,759 2.8 1.7 4.4 Thigio 2,321 2.7 1.6 4.3

177 30 KIAMBU & THIKA

TABLE 6: Continued

Composition of Family DIVISION/LOCATION/ Total Number of Persons per SUB-LOCATION Households 15 years and Under Household above 15 years Tiekunu 790 2.8 1.7 4.6 KARAMBAINI 7,341 2.0 1.2 3.3 Mabrouke 3,396 2.1 1.3 3.3 Karambaini 2,059 1.9 1.2 3.1 Kiawaroga 1,886 2.1 1.3 3.4 LARI 25,438 2.7 1.7 4.4 LARI 2,037 2.5 1.5 4.1 Githirioni 726 2.7 1.6 4.4 Lari Scheme 1,311 2.4 1.5 3.9 KIJABE 4,495 2.6 1.6 4.1 Magina 1,292 2.5 1.5 4.0 Mbau-ini 517 3.1 1.9 4.9 Bathi 1,540 2.5 1.5 4.1 Kijabe 1,146 2.5 1.5 4.0 GATAMAIYU 2,994 2.7 1.6 4.3 Kagwe 1,826 2.5 1.5 4.0 Kamuchege 1,168 2.9 1.8 4.7 NYANDUMA 3,145 2.8 1.7 4.5 Nyanduma 1,719 2.9 1.8 4.7 Gachoire 1,426 2.6 1.6 4.2 GITITHIA 1,616 2.8 1.7 4.5 Gitithia 1,016 2.9 1.8 4.7 Nyambari 600 2.6 1.6 4.2 KIRENGA 3,530 2.8 1.7 4.5 Escarpment 752 2.8 1.7 4.5 Gituamba 468 3.0 1.8 4.8 Kirenga 946 2.6 1.6 4.1 Kambaa 1,364 2.9 1.7 4.6 KAMBURU 2,855 2.7 1.6 4.3 Matimbei 617 2.6 1.6 4.2 Kamburu 1,143 2.8 1.7 4.4 Kagaa 1,095 2.6 1.6 4.2 KINALE 2,411 3.0 1.8 4.8 Kinale 1,088 3.1 1.9 4.9 Mukeu 1,323 2.9 1.8 4.7 KAMAE 2,355 2.8 1.7 4.5 Kamae 1,437 2.7 1.6 4.3 Kamukombi-ini 918 2.9 1.8 4.6 KIKUYU 50,920 2.4 1.4 3.8 MUGUGA 8,434 2.4 1.5 3.9 Kahuho 1,441 2.8 1.7 4.5 Muguga 2,364 2.5 1.5 4.1

178 KIAMBU & THIKA 31

TABLE 6: Continued

Composition of Family DIVISION/LOCATION/ Total Number of Persons per SUB-LOCATION Households 15 years and Under Household above 15 years Gitaru 2,771 2.2 1.3 3.5 Kanyariri 1,858 2.5 1.5 4.0 KIKUYU 8,530 2.5 1.5 3.9 Kikuyu Township 2,893 2.2 1.4 3.6 Kari 648 2.7 1.7 4.4 Kerwa 2,750 2.9 1.8 4.7 Sigona 2,239 2.1 1.3 3.4 KINOO 12,550 2.2 1.4 3.6 Kinoo 4,035 2.2 1.4 3.6 Uthiru 4,353 2.2 1.3 3.5 Thogoto 3,121 2.3 1.4 3.7 Gitiba 1,041 2.3 1.4 3.6 KARAI 6,934 2.5 1.5 4.0 Gikambura 2,958 2.4 1.5 3.9 Lusingetti 1,442 2.5 1.5 4.0 RENGUTI 1,151 2.6 1.6 4.2 Karai 337 2.6 1.6 4.2 Nachu 1,046 2.5 1.5 4.1 KABETE 8,467 2.3 1.4 3.6 Lower Kabete 3,076 2.3 1.4 3.8 Kibichiku 3,320 2.1 1.3 3.3 Ruku 1,415 2.4 1.5 3.9 Chura 656 2.5 1.5 4.1 NYATHUNA 6,005 2.5 1.5 4.0 Gathiga 1,420 2.5 1.5 4.1 Karura 1,062 2.5 1.5 4.0 Kirangari 2,102 2.4 1.5 3.9 Nyathuna 1,421 2.5 1.5 4.1

179

32 KIAMBU & THIKA Person

in ha Household land per

Agricultural 0.94 0.2 0.52 0.12 0.37 0.10

UM 6 UM

UM 5 UM UM 3 UM

4.7 17.6 20.9 43.6 34.9 0.6 0.46 0.12 UM 2 UM 2.4 112.9 72.4

(Source: Calculated from DAOs Reports) UM 1 UM 8.0 87.3 13.1

LH 5 LH LH 4 LH

in ’00 ha = km LH 3 LH

Area in Agro-Ecological Zones AEZ Zones Agro-Ecological in Area LH 2 LH

33.6 99.6 8.7 18.7 16.2 36.5 15.2 31.7 LH 1 LH

6.4 65.4

UH 2 UH

UH 1 UH Agricultural land Agricultural

99.4 2 Others 12 142.8

land in ’00 ha = km Forests - 39 186.9 - 51 175.3 5.8 - 41 155.5 10.6 20.0 54.1 68.4 13 35 233.7 160 40 217..2 21.4 42.9 85.7 31.1 31.1 5.0 2.16 0.49 Non-Agricultural AGRICULTURAL LAND AREA AVAILABLE IN KIAMBU DISTRICT PER AEZ AND HOUSEHOLD AEZ PER IN KIAMBU DISTRICT AVAILABLE AREA LAND AGRICULTURAL Kikuyu Division Kiambaa Division Githunguri Lari Division Limuru Division Division without township TOTAL AREATOTAL 173 218 1089 37.8 62.9 211.6 149.3 167.2 23.9 50.4 13.0 202.6 133.8 52.5 21.9 0.75 0.19 Municipality Ndeiya Division TABLE 7: TABLE

180 KIAMBU & THIKA 33

THIKA DISTRICT

In the last Population and Housing Census (1999), Thika district had 645,713 residents occupying an area of 1960.2 km2, with a population density of 329 persons/km2. Thika district is administratively divided into six divisions namely: Gatanga, Gatundu, Kamwangi, Ruiru, Kakuzi and Thika Municipality. The population distribution in the Divisions, Locations and Sub-locations is shown in Table 8, while Table 9 depicts the composition of households. Most of the land in the district is agriculturally viable and productive.

TABLE 8: POPULATION IN THIKA DISTRICT PER DIVISION, LOCATION AND SUB -LOCATION (Source: Census 1999)

DIVISION/LOCATION Area in SUB-LOCATION Male Female Total Households km2 Density GATANGA 50,109 52,939 103,048 23,227 251.1 410 GATANGA 14,876 15,724 30,600 6,846 38 805 Ithangarari 1,865 2,016 3,881 838 4.4 882 Kigio 3,574 3,840 7,414 1,649 8.5 872 Kirwara/Chomo 5,152 5,199 10,351 2,255 16.3 635 Mugumoini 4,285 4,669 8,954 2,104 8.8 1,018 KARIARA 8,511 8,766 17,277 4,014 116.6 148 Gatura 2,770 2,954 5,724 1,338 11.6 493 Kiarutara 3,154 3,375 6,529 1,414 16.2 403 Kimakia 123 69 192 89 71.7 3 Mbugiti 2,464 2,368 4,832 1,173 17.1 283 KIGORO 9,293 9,572 18,865 4,523 45.6 414 Gitiri 1,662 1,800 3,462 747 7.1 488 Kigoro 2,955 2,989 5,944 1,437 13.5 440 Ndakaini 2,602 2,572 5,174 1,400 18.4 281 Ndunyu Chege 2,074 2,211 4,285 939 6.6 649 KIHUMBUINI 17,429 18,877 36,306 7,844 50.9 713 Gituamba/Kiunyu 4,189 4,524 8,713 1,952 9.4 927 Kihumbuini 2,120 2,282 4,402 1,015 6 734 Kiriani 3,810 4,322 8,132 1,632 14.4 565 Mukarara 2,175 2,331 4,506 945 6.3 715 Mukurwe/Thuita 5,135 5,418 10,553 2,300 14.8 713 GATUNDU 54,277 59,422 113,699 25,947 192.1 592 KIAMWANGI 10,615 11,728 22,343 5,289 27.8 804 Gathage 2,527 2,801 5,328 1,322 6.7 795 Kiamwangi 2,866 3,074 5,940 1,423 7.8 762 Nembu 5,222 5,853 11,075 2,544 13.3 833 KIGANJO 12,908 14,042 26,950 5,956 56.6 476 Gachika 1,886 1,970 3,856 867 10 386 Gatitu 1,262 1,383 2,645 563 5.6 472 Kiamuoria 2,618 2,751 5,369 1,115 8.7 617 Kiganjo 3,513 3,971 7,484 1,694 13.8 542 Mundoro 2,044 2,193 4,237 976 9.9 428 Ndundu 1,585 1,774 3,359 741 816 391 NDARUGO 9,688 10,692 20,380 4,322 49.6 411

181 34 KIAMBU & THIKA

TABLE 8: Continued

DIVISION/LOCATION Area in Density SUB-LOCATION Male Female Total Households km2 Gacharage 769 846 1,615 326 4.8 336 Gitwe 2,020 2,313 4,333 863 8.2 528 Karatu 1,119 1,244 2,363 566 7 338 Karinga 2,457 2,641 5,098 1,091 9.1 560 Kirangi 1,551 1,720 3,271 733 10.7 306 Munyuini 1,772 1,928 3,700 743 9.8 378 NGENDA 21,066 22,960 44,026 10,380 58.1 758 Githunguchu 3,524 3,900 7,424 1,703 7.3 1,017 Handege 1,603 1,679 3,282 739 5.9 556 Ituru 2,198 2,276 4,474 982 6.9 648 Kahuguini 2,972 3,249 6,221 1,400 8.7 715 Kiminyu 3,925 4,329 8,254 1,973 10.7 771 Kirangari 1,938 2,366 4,304 1,328 2.7 1,594 Ritho 2,649 2,752 5,401 1,198 8.8 614 Wamwangi 2,257 2,409 4,666 1,057 7.1 657 KAKUZI 36,321 35,301 71,622 18,741 481.2 149 ITHANGA 8,807 9,410 18,217 3,890 71.5 255 Kaguku 4,144 4,289 8,433 1,732 29.9 282 Giathanini 1,516 1,690 3,206 725 15.3 210 Ngelelya 3,147 3,431 6,578 1,433 26.3 250 KAKUZI 13,088 12,951 26,039 6,012 204.9 127 Gituamba 4,627 4,610 9,237 1,971 57.3 161 Kinyangi 2,825 2,604 5,429 1,443 71.2 76 Kirimiri 5,636 5,737 11,373 25,373 76.4 149 MITUMBIRI 9,877 9,100 18,977 5,440 143.2 133 Nanga 2,646 2,534 5,180 1,552 35.7 145 Thuthua 3,501 2,706 6,207 2,081 54.3 114 Wemba 3,730 3,860 7,590 1,807 53.2 143 SAMURU 4,549 3,840 8,389 3,399 61.6 136 Gathambara 3,405 2,866 6,271 2,614 36.6 171 Mwitingiri 1,144 974 2,118 785 25 85 KAMWANGI 47,941 51,519 99,460 22,607 289 344 CHANIA 13,079 14,153 27,232 6,258 36.8 740 Kairi 1,618 1,648 3,266 753 4.6 710 Kiamwangi 3,129 3,271 6,400 1,485 8.5 753 Makwa 2,001 2,250 4,251 929 5.5 773 Muirigo 1,470 1,693 3,163 732 3.3 958 Ngorongo 2,544 2,820 5,364 1,280 9.3 577 Nguna 2,317 2,471 4,788 1,079 5.6 855 GITHOBOKONI 12,082 12,793 24,875 5,633 178.4 139 Gachege 1,360 1,470 2,830 570 6.9 410 Gakoe 2,891 3,058 5,949 1,312 14 425 Gatei 2,560 2,806 5,366 1,171 9.2 583

182 KIAMBU & THIKA 35

TABLE 8: Continued

DIVISION/LOCATION Area in Density SUB-LOCATION Male Female Total Households km2 Gathaite 1,842 2,034 3,876 794 9.6 404 Kamunyaka 893 937 1,830 393 5.7 321 Kieni 1,310 1,152 2,462 825 125.9 20 Njahi 1,226 1,336 2,562 548 7.1 361 GITUAMBA 9,070 9,449 18,519 4,209 42.8 433 Gituamba 1,932 2,092 4,024 966 8.2 491 Kanyoni 2,230 2,196 4,426 975 9.2 481 Kiriko 2,040 2,289 4,329 891 8.8 492 Mataara 2,868 2,872 5,740 1,377 16.6 346 MANG‘U 13,710 15,124 28,834 6,507 31 930 Gatukuyu 3,050 3,270 6,320 1,472 4.5 1,404 Karuri 2,961 3,326 6,287 1,422 6.6 953 Mang‘u 2,933 3,235 6,168 1,397 6.4 964 Miteero 1,392 1,655 3,047 665 3.8 802 Mukurwe 1,573 1,723 3,296 728 4.8 687 Nyamangara 1,801 1,915 3,716 823 4.9 758 MUNICIPALITY 56,236 50,938 107,174 34,353 220.2 487 GATUANYAGA 9,145 8,797 17,942 5,083 126.7 142 Gatuanyaga 3,183 3,064 6,247 1,642 49.6 126 Munyu 2,517 2,693 5,210 1,221 32.9 158 Ngoliba 3,445 3,040 6,485 2,220 44.2 147 THIKA MUNICIPALITY 47,091 42,141 89,232 29,270 93.5 954 Biashara 5,537 5,309 10,846 3,161 3.2 3,389 Karimeni 2,096 2,482 4,578 1,265 28.1 163 Komu 30,274 25,871 56,145 19,209 29.1 1,929 Majengo 9,184 8,479 17,663 5,635 33.1 534 RUIRU 78,595 72,115 150,710 46,694 526.6 286 JUJA 21,613 19,523 4,1136 12,420 235.8 174 Kalimoni 9,234 8,529 1,7763 5,231 150.8 118 Kiaora 9,962 9,155 1,9117 5,779 46.1 415 Komo 2,417 1,839 4256 1,410 38.9 109 RUIRU 56,982 52,592 10,9574 34,274 290.8 377 Kiuu 2,8502 27,887 5,6389 16,780 149 378 Mugutha 6,868 6,330 1,3198 3,656 66.4 199 Ruiru 20,138 17,246 3,7384 12,861 50.2 745 Theta 1,474 1,129 2,603 977 25.2 103

183 36 KIAMBU & THIKA

TABLE 9: COMPOSITION OF HOUSEHOLDS IN THIKA DISTRICT PER DIVISION, LOCATION AND SUB-LOCATION (Source: Census 1999)

Composition of Family DIVISION/LOCATION Number of SUB-LOCATION Households 15 years and Persons per above Under 15 years Household GATANGA 23,227 2.7 1.7 4.4 GATANGA 6,846 2.7 1.7 4.5 Ithangarari 838 2.8 1.8 4.6 Kigio 1,649 2.8 1.7 4.5 Kirwara/Chomo 2,255 2.8 1.8 4.6 Mugumoini 2,104 2.6 1.7 4.3 KARIARA 4,014 2.6 1.7 4.3 Gatura 1,338 2.6 1.7 4.3 Kiarutara 1,414 2.8 1.8 4.6 Kimakia 89 1.3 0.8 2.2 Mbugiti 1,173 2.5 1.6 4.1 KIGORO 4,523 2.6 1.6 4.2 Gitiri 747 2.8 1.8 4.6 Kigoro 1,437 2.5 1.6 4.1 Ndakaini 1,400 2.3 1.4 3.7 Ndunyu Chege 939 2.8 1.8 4.6 KIHUMBUINI 7,844 2.8 1.8 4.6 Gituamba/Kiunyu 1,952 2.7 1.7 4.5 Kihumbuini 1,015 2.7 1.7 4.3 Kiriaini 1,632 3.1 1.9 5.0 Mukarara 945 2.9 1.8 4.8 Mukurwe/Thuita 2,300 2.8 1.8 4.6 GATUNDU 25,947 2.7 1.7 4.4 KIAMWANGI 5,289 2.6 1.6 4.2 Gathage 1,322 2.5 1.6 4.0 Kiamwangi 1,423 2.6 1.6 4.2 Nembu 2,544 2.7 1.7 4.4 KIGANJO 5,956 2.8 1.8 4.5 Gachika 867 2.7 1.7 4.4 Gatitu 563 2.9 1.8 4.7 Kiamuoria 1,115 2.9 1.9 4.8 Kiganjo 1,694 2.7 1.7 4.4 Mundoro 976 2.7 1.7 4.3 NDARAGU 4,322 2.9 1.8 4.7 Gacharage 326 3.0 1.9 5.0 Gitwe 863 3.1 1.9 5.0 Karatu 566 2.6 1.6 4.2 Karinga 1,091 2.9 1.8 4.7 Kirangi 733 2.7 1.7 4.5 Munyuini 743 3.0 1.9 5.0 NGENDA 10,380 2.6 1.6 4.2

184 KIAMBU & THIKA 37

TABLE 9: Continued

Composition of Family DIVISION/LOCATION Number of SUB-LOCATION Households 15 years and Persons per above Under 15 years Household Githunguchu 1,703 2.7 1.7 4.4 Handege 739 2.7 1.7 4.4 Ituru 982 2.8 1.8 4.6 Kahuguini 1,400 2.7 1.7 4.4 Kiminyu 1,973 2.6 1.6 4.2 Kirangari 1,328 2.0 1.3 3.2 Ritho 1,198 2.8 1.7 4.5 Wamwangi 1057 2.7 1.7 4.4 KAKUZI 18,741 2.3 1.5 3.8 ITHANGA 3,890 2.9 1.8 4.7 Kaguku 1,732 3.0 1.9 4.9 Giathanini 725 2.7 1.7 4.4 Ngelelya 1,433 2.8 1.8 4.6 KAKUZI 6,012 2.7 1.7 4.3 Gituamba 1,971 2.9 1.8 4.7 Kinyangi 1,443 2.3 1.5 3.8 Kirimiri 25,373 0.3 0.2 0.4 MITUMBIRI 5,440 2.1 1.4 3.5 Nanga 1,552 2.0 1.3 3.3 Thuthua 2,081 1.8 1.2 3.0 Wemba 1,807 2.6 1.6 4.2 SAMURU 3,399 1.5 1.0 2.5 Gathambara 2,614 1.5 0.9 2.4 Mwitingiri 785 1.7 1.0 2.7 KAMWANGI 22,607 2.7 1.7 4.4 CHANIA 6,258 2.7 1.7 4.4 Kairi 753 2.7 1.7 4.3 Kiamwangi 1,485 2.6 1.7 4.3 Makwa 929 2.8 1.8 4.6 Muirigo 732 2.6 1.7 4.3 Ngorongo 1,280 2.6 1.6 4.2 Nguna 1,079 2.7 1.7 4.4 GITHOBOKONI 5,633 2.7 1.7 4.4 Gachege 570 3.0 1.9 5.0 Gakoe 1,312 2.8 1.8 4.5 Gatei 1,171 2.8 1.8 4.6 Gathaite 794 3.0 1.9 4.9 Kamunyaka 393 2.9 1.8 4.7 Kieni 825 1.8 1.2 3.0 Njahi 548 2.9 1.8 4.7 GITUAMBA 4,209 2.7 1.7 4.4 Gituamba 966 2.6 1.6 4.2

185 38 KIAMBU & THIKA

TABLE 9: Continued

Composition of Family DIVISION/LOCATION Number of SUB-LOCATION Households 15 years and Persons per above Under 15 years Household Kanyoni 975 2.8 1.8 4.5 Kiriko 891 3.0 1.9 4.9 Mataara 1,377 2.6 1.6 4.2 MANG‘U 6,507 2.7 1.7 4.4 Gatukuyu 1,472 2.6 1.7 4.3 Karuri 1,422 2.7 1.7 4.4 Mang‘u 1,397 2.7 1.7 4.4 Miteero 665 2.8 1.8 4.6 Mukurwe 728 2.8 1.8 4.5 Nyamangara 823 2.8 1.8 4.5 MUNICIPALITY 34,353 1.9 1.2 3.1 GATUANYAGA 5,083 2.2 1.4 3.5 Gatuanyaga 1,642 2.3 1.5 3.8 Munyu 1,221 2.6 1.7 4.3 Ngoliba 2,220 1.8 1.1 2.9 THIKA MUNICIPALITY 29,270 1.9 1.2 3.0 Biashara 3,161 2.1 1.3 3.4 Karimeni 1,265 2.2 1.4 3.6 Komu 19,209 1.8 1.1 2.9 Majengo 5,635 1.9 1.2 3.1 RUIRU 46,694 2.0 1.3 3.2 JUJA 12,420 2.0 1.3 3.3 Kalimoni 5,231 2.1 1.3 3.4 Kiaora 5,779 2.0 1.3 3.3 Komo 1,410 1.8 1.2 3.0 RUIRU 34,274 2.0 1.2 3.2 Kiuu 16,780 2.1 1.3 3.4 Mugutha 3,656 2.2 1.4 3.6 Ruiru 12,861 1.8 1.1 2.9 Theta 977 1.6 1.0 2.7

186

KIAMBU & THIKA 39 Person

per

in ha Household

0.91 0.21 0.62 0.14 0.61 0.19

Agricultural land LM 4 LM

0.9 0.43 0.14 66.0 2.27 0.59 UM 5-6 UM

(Source: Calculated from DAOs Reports)

UM 5 UM UM4

62.8 128.5 8.5 UM 3-4 UM 2

AEZ UM 3 UM

in ’00 ha = km Area in Agro-Ecological Zones Agro-Ecological in Area 2 UM

1.3 14.4 3.9 97.6 29.9 4.0 79.6 74.0 202.4 14.3 71.4

UM1

LH 1 LH

UH 1 UH Agricultural land Agricultural 240.0 9.6205.0 20.5 109.0 36.5 84.5 83.2 37.7 58.2 1.7 4.1 1.03 0.23 160.0 1.3 61.4 30.0 65.4 1.9 285.5 148.0 426.0 1464.5 31.4 254.9 104.2 226.4 173.1 77.9 362.8 158.4 8.5 66.9 5.87 0.23 AGRICULTURAL LAND AREA AVAILABLE IN THIKA DISTRICT PER AEZ AND HOUSEHOLD AEZ PER DISTRICT THIKA IN AVAILABLE AREA LAND AGRICULTURAL Gatanga Division Kamwangi (Gatundu N.) Gatundu South Division Ruiru Division Municipality Divisions without township Kakuzi Division AREA TOTAL TOTAL AREA TABLE 10: TABLE

187 40 KIAMBU & THIKA

3.3.3 AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS: Development and Trends of Major Cash Crops

KIAMBU

The combination of good soils, suitable climate, well developed infrastructure and proximity to the country‘s main market, Nairobi, makes Kiambu the most economic farming region in the country. Approximately over 14,700 hectares of coffee are cultivated by smallholder farmers and yields more than 1,200 kg/ha per annum, with a downward trend since 1995/96 due to less inputs because off the low coffee prices. Tea is grown on 3,500 ha and yields at least 9,000 kg of green leaves per ha per annum. Pyrethrum is also cultivated in small units. About 200 ha are grown with pyrethrum yielding an average of 890 kg/ha per annum of dried flowers. There are no significant trends at present.

TABLE 11: KIAMBU DISTRICT, COFFEE AREA, PRODUCTION AND YIELD TRENDS (Source: Ministry of Agriculture, DAOs Annual Reports and CBS)

Area Production Yields Year (ha) (tons) (kg/ha) 1980/81 10,996 6,744 613 1981/82 10,996 5,480 498 1982/83 11,573 5,180 448 1983/84 11,661 11,651 999 1984/85 13,057 5,772 442 1985/86 13,087 5,600 428 1986/87 13,051 7,187 551 1987/88 23,632 33,492 1,417 1988/89 36,942 33,492 907 1989/90 36,956 22,765 616 1990/91 36,956 18,167 492 1991/92 28,475 14,592 512 1992/93 24,500 13,971 570 1993/94 16,474 2,010 122 1994/95 15,265 18,118 1,187 1995/96 11,392 19,955 1,752 1996/97 12,870 18,460 1,434 1997/98 10,598 17,422 1,644 1998/99 11,200 17,702 1,581 1999/00 12,960 16,760 1,293 2000/01 13,280 17,400 1,310 2001/02 14,710 17,380 1,182 2002/03 14,700 18,030 1,227

188 KIAMBU & THIKA 41

TABLE 12: KIAMBU DISTRICT, TEA AREA, PRODUCTION AND YIELD TRENDS (Source: Ministry of Agriculture, DAOs Reports and CBS)

Year Area (ha) Production (tons) Yields (kg/ha) 1980/81 4,944 16,410 3,319 1981/82 4,995 20,245 4,053 1982/83 4,995 17,615 3,527 1983/84 5,185 28,863 5,567 1984/85 5,267 27,377 5,198 1985/86 5,340 28,440 5,326 1986/87 5,410 32,860 6,074 1987/88 5,425 36,263 6,684 1988/89 5,275 42,729 8,100 1989/90 5,690 46,477 8,168 1990/91 6,043 48,591 8,041 1991/92 6,148 50,370 8,193 1992/93 6,256 51,800 8,280 1993/94 6,378 40,062 6,281 1994/95 6,868 60,790 8,851 1995/96 6,863 50,401 7,344 1996/97 5,780 47,278 8,180 1997/98 3,195 34,688 10,857 1998/99 3,195 27,425 8,584 1999/00 3,195 26,743 8,370 2000/01 3,190 25,800 8,088 2001/02 3,280 26,770 8,162 2002/03 3,450 31,640 9,171 2003/04 3,859 29,759 7,711 2004/05 3,859 29,864 7,739

TABLE 13: KIAMBU DISTRICT, PYRETHRUM AREA, PRODUCTION AND YIELD TRENDS (Source: Ministry of Agriculture, DAOs Reports and CBS)

Area Production Yields Year (ha) (metric tons of dried (kg/ha) ÀRZHUV) 1980/81 1,560 643 412 1981/82 1,560 546 350 1982/83 1,235 432 350 1983/84 433 195 450 1984/85 354 98 277 1985/86 179 107 598 1986/87 228 180 789 1987/88 303 260 858 1988/89 319 211 661 1989/90 580 174 300 1990/91 365 146 400 1991/92 340 280 824 1992/93 300 300 1,000

189 42 KIAMBU & THIKA

TABLE 13: Continued

Area Production Year (metric tons of dried Yields (ha) (kg/ha) ÀRZHUV) 1993/94 200 90 450 1994/95 147 123 837 1995/96 120 158 1,317 1996/97 110 98 891 1997/98 30 27 900 1998/99 70 129 1,843 1999/00 239 318.3 1,332 2000/01 170 147 865 2001/02 245 208 849 2002/03 202 180 891

THIKA

Thika district has potentially arable land equivalent to 146,450 ha. Curved off from the Greater Kiambu district and portraying a well developed infrastructure as well as vibrant markets; the main cash crops are tea and coffee. Coffee is cultivated on 10,548 ha, as at 2004, yielding 230 kg/ha per year only because it is neglected due to the low coffee prices. On the other hand, tea is grown on smallholders of roughly 7,334 ha producing of 9,018 kg/ha of green leaves per annum.

TABLE 14: THIKA DISTRICT, COFFEE AREA, PRODUCTION AND YIELD TRENDS (Source: Ministry of Agriculture, DAOs Reports and CBS)

Area Production Yields Year (ha) (tons) (kg/ha) 1993/94 5,900 6,544 1,109 1994/95 5,910 6,553 1,109 1995/96 9,570 16,117 1,684 1996/97 12,079 15,650 1,296 1997/98 12,079 5,706 472 1998/99 12,079 2,100 174 1999/00 11,056 2,620 237 2000/01 11,000 2,600 236 2001/02 11,004 2,596 236 2002/03 11,119 2,562 230 2003/04 10,548 6,553 621 2004/05 10,548 10,813 1,025

190 KIAMBU & THIKA 43

TABLE 15: THIKA DISTRICT, TEA AREA, PRODUCTION AND YIELD TRENDS (Source: Ministry of Agriculture, DAOs Reports and CBS)

Area Production Yields Year (ha) (tons) kg/ha) 1993/94 5,512 49,057 8,900 1994/95 6,500 50,967 7,841 1995/96 7,051 70,012 9,929 1996/97 5,786 50,367 8,705 1997/98 6,540 62,541 9,563 1998/99 7,051 8,156 1,157 1999/00 7,000 80,557 11,508 2000/01 6,950 64,437 9,272 2001/02 6,900 75,090 10,883 2002/03 6,800 58,999 8,676 2003/04 7,334 72,595 9,898 2004/05 7,334 66,143 9,018

191 44 KIAMBU & THIKA

DISTRIBUTION OF FARMING ACTIVITIES DURING THE YEAR PER WEEKS AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

192 KIAMBU & THIKA 45

193 46 KIAMBU & THIKA

194 KIAMBU & THIKA 47

195 48 KIAMBU & THIKA

196 KIAMBU & THIKA 49

197 50 KIAMBU & THIKA

198 KIAMBU & THIKA 51

199 52 KIAMBU & THIKA

200 KIAMBU & THIKA 53

201 54 KIAMBU & THIKA

3.3.4 FARM SURVEY

The Farm Survey was carried out in seven main agroecological zones and the respective dominant subzones in Kiambu and Thika districts as shown in Table 17. The sample farm sizes were: 1.1 & 1.53 ha resp.LH ( 1), 1.66 (LH 3), 1.37 ha (UM 1), 0.67 &, 1.05 ha resp. (UM 2) and 2.22 ha (LM 4) (Table 18). Compared to the Farm Survey of 1978, there is evidence of a tremendous decrease in farm sizes over the years. For example, during the 1978 farm survey, farm holding sizes in agroecological zones LH 1 (-UM 1), UM 1 (1-) 2 and UM 4-5, averaged 2.9 ha, 2.6 ha and 3.2 ha, respectively. Compared to the 2004 farm survey, there is evidence that these farm sizes have decreased tremendously. This decrease has serious implications for food production and hence food security in these districts. On average, roughly one-third of the land is used for annual crops, one-third planted with perennials, and one-third used for grazing and forage production (Table 18). The arable land is cropped intensively, i.e. over ﬁve crops per year. There are however excep- tions, for example, Ngoliba in Thika District, where we have 30 crop combinations grown during the ﬁrst rains, 25 in the second rains and 11 permanent crops (Table 19g). The stocking rate, with over 6 TLU/ha, is extremely high, but it should be noted that zero grazing and purchasing of animal feed is very common in these districts. Over 80 % of all cattle kept by farmers are dairy stock.

The use of farm inputs is widespread, indicating that farmers are well informed on crop husbandry and that its use is economical. Maize and beans still remain the most important and dominant annual crops in all the surveyed seven agroecological zones (Table 19). The yields of the basic food crop maize have improved by extensive use of fertilisers and manures. This clearly demonstrates that the returns from fertilizer and manure applications to maintain soil fertility increases food output per unit area. But in the most favourable zone UM 2 on the well drained extremely deep ando-humic Nitosols signs of exhaustion are alarming (Table 20b).

The farmers in Kiambu and Thika districts enjoy a greater comparative advantage over most other farming regions of Kenya because of their close proximity to Nairobi, the capital city of Kenya. As shown above, it is important to arrest the soil fertility decline by use of fertilizers, organic manure and compost, with very encouraging returns. Intensive mixed farming, practicing zero grazing and expanding horticultural area will continue to generate good income for the farmers in these two districts in future. As the farming enterprises become more complex, there will be need for more specialized extension advice, particularly in horticulture and plant protection.

TABLE 17: FARM SURVEY SITES IN KIAMBU AND THIKA DISTRICTS

Agro-Ecological Unit District No. in Farm Survey Sites Kenya AEZone Subzone Soil Unit 116 LH 2-3 m/s + (s) RB 2 Kikuyu Division, Kikuyu Location, to s/m + (s/vs) Kikuyu Sub-location 117 LH 1 f l i m RB 2 Githunguri Division, Githiga KIAMBU (- UM 2)1) (to m + s/m) Location, Githiga Sub-location Municipality Division, Ndumberi 118 UM 2 m + s/m RB 3 Location 119 LH 1 p or l/vl^m RB 1 Gatundu Division, Ndarugu Location, Karatu Sub-location 120 UM 1 f l i m RB 1 Gatundu Division, Ndarugu Location, Karinga Sub-location THIKA 121 UM 2 m /l i m/s RB 2 Gatundu Division, Ritho/Ng’enda Location, Ritho Sub-location 122 UM-LM 4 s/vs + s/vs UU 1 Thika Municipality, Gatuanyaga Location, Ngoliba Sub-location

1) UM 1 and 2 are bordered only by this sub-location, therefore the brackets.

202 KIAMBU & THIKA 55

203 56 KIAMBU & THIKA

TABLE 18a: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ LH 2 - 3 OF KIAMBU DISTRICT

Subzone: m/s + (s) to s/m + (s/vs), Soil unit: RB 2 Survey Area 116 (Kikuyu) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Number of Range Land Family Casual Permanent children ha Dairy Zebu Sheep & Donkey Poultry Adults Labourers Labourers under 14 Goats (Exotic) years Avg.0 1.66 3.47 0.47 3.23 0.3 10 1.6 1.13 0.2 0.5 Avg.1 1.66 3.71 1.56 5.71 1 300 1.6 1.89 1 1.88 Up. Qu. 2.49 6 1 5 1 0 2 2 0 1 Lo. Qu. 0.8 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

Land Use Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Permanent pasture & Fodder Crops Fallow Other Use Range ha ha ha ha ha Avg.0 0.73 0.06 0.33 - 0.54 Avg.1 0.73 0.10 0.37 - 0.60 Up. Qu. 1 0.1 0.4 - 0.99 Lo. Qu. 0.3 0 0.09 - 0.41

Farming Intensity Stocking Rate Cropping Farm Land Permanent pasture & Fodder Crops Improved Range Diversity TLU/ha TLU/ha Cattle % Crops/year of total Sheep & Sheep & Dairy Zebu Goats Dairy Zebu Goats Avg.0 5.6 2.4 0.3 0.4 11.4 1.4 1.9 84.4 Avg.1 5.6 2.5 1.0 0.7 11.0 4.2 3.1 90.4 Up. Qu. 7 3.9 0.5 0.5 16.5 2.5 2.5 100 Lo. Qu. 4 1.9 0 0 11.7 0 0 75 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied

Fertilizer applied as pure nutrient Plant protection Improved kg/ha Manure seeds used applied Insecticide Fungicide Range % of area NPO K O t/ha 2 5 2 kg/ha kg/ha AC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC Avg.0 29.1 1.7 - 2.7 - - - 0.8 - 0.01 0.05 0 0 Avg.1 39.7 2.5 - 3.9 - - - 3.5 - 0.13 1.0 0 0 Up. Qu. 48.3 0.9 9.4 2.0 - - - 0.1 0.6 0000 Lo. Qu. 0 0-0---0-0-00

204 KIAMBU & THIKA 57

TABLE 18b: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ LH 1 ( - UM 2) OF KIAMBU DISTRICT

6XE]RQHÀLP WRPPV Soil unit: RB 2 Survey Area 117 (Githiga) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Number of Range Land Family Casual Permanent Sheep B/ children under ha Dairy Zebu Donkey Poultry Rabbits Adults Labourers Labourers & Goats hives 14 years Avg.0 1.1 3.23 0 1.33 0.13 2.57 0.07 0.17 3.4 1.1 0.37 1.93 Avg.1 1.1 3.23 4.44 1.33 8.56 2 5 3.4 2.36 2.2 3.05 Up. Qu. 1.45 4.25 0 2.25 0 5.25 0 0 5 2 0 3 Lo. Qu. 0.28 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0

Land Use

Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Permanent pasture & Other Range Fodder Crops Fallow Forage ha ha ha ha Use ha ha Avg.0 0.29 0.49 0.17 - 0.08 0.07 Avg.1 0.29 0.51 0.32 - 0.32 0.14 Up. Qu. 0.4 0.61 0.14 0.19 0.01 0.10 Lo. Qu. 0.1 0.01 0 0.17 0 0

Farming Intensity Stocking Rate

Cropping Farm Land Permanent pasture & Fodder Improved Range Diversity TLU/ha Crops Cattle % of Crops/year TLU/ha total Sheep & Sheep & Dairy Zebu Goats Dairy Zebu Goats Avg.0 7.4 3.5 0 0.3 20.6 0 1.5 86.7 Avg.1 7.4 4.1 0 0.9 12.7 0 2.7 100 Up. Qu. 10 3.2 0 0.3 33.4 0 3.2 100 Lo. Qu. 4.5 4.0 0 0 - - - 100 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied

Fertilizer applied as pure nutrient Plant protection Improved kg/ha Manure seeds used applied Insecticide Fungicide Range % of area NPO K O t/ha 2 5 2 kg/ha kg/ha AC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC Avg.0 27.0 13.4 9.5 22.7 16.1 10.7 7.6 2.2 1.5 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 Avg.1 50.5 22.1 13.5 28.9 17.6 33.2 20.2 6.0 3.7 1.8 1.1 1.2 0.7 Up. Qu. 45.6 5.3 3.5 7.3 4.8 1.8 1.2 0.8 0.5 0000 Lo. Qu. 0 000000000000

205 58 KIAMBU & THIKA

TABLE 18c: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ UM 2 OF KIAMBU DISTRICT

Subzone: m + s/m, Soil unit: RB 3 Survey Area 118 (Ndumberi) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Number of Range Land Family Casual Permanent Sheep & Poultry Poultry children under ha Dairy Zebu Pigs Adults Labourers Labourers Goats (Local) (Broilers) 14 years Avg.0 0.67 3.71 0 1.42 3.03 2.94 5.48 2.35 1.26 0.10 0.87 Avg.1 0.67 4.42 - 4.4 5.53 18.2 170 2.35 2.44 1.5 2.25 Up. Qu. 0.96 4 0 2 4 0 0 3 2 0 2 Lo. Qu. 0.25 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0

Land Use Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Permanent pasture & Fodder Crops Fallow Forage Other Use Range ha ha ha ha ha ha Avg.0 0.16 0.32 0.09 - 0.03 0.07 Avg.1 0.16 0.34 0.23 - 0.10 0.12 Up. Qu. 0.2 0.4 0.12 0.1 0.04 0.1 Lo. Qu. 0.08 0.03 0 0.04 0 0.1

Farming Intensity Stocking Rate

Cropping Farm Land Permanent pasture & Improved Range Diversity TLU/ha Fodder Crops Cattle % Crops/year TLU/ha of total Sheep & Sheep & Dairy Zebu Goats Dairy Zebu Goats Avg.0 4 6.6 0 0.46 46.0 0 3.2 83.9 Avg.1 4 7.9 0 1.42 21.2 0 3.8 100 Up. Qu. 5 4.6 0 0.42 36.7 0 3.3 100 Lo. Qu. 3 4.4 0 0 - - - 100 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied

Fertilizer applied as pure nutrient Plant protection Improved kg/ha Manure seeds used applied Insecticide Fungicide Range % of area NPO K O t/ha 2 5 2 kg/ha kg/ha AC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC Avg.0 57.7 7.5 3.7 10.0 5.0 0.7 0.3 - - 0 0 0.3 0.2 Avg.1 68.8 7.5 3.8 9.7 5.0 19.4 10.0 - 18.5 0 0 2.9 1.5 Up. Qu. 81.3 9 5 10 5 0 0 - 17.5 0 0 0 0 Lo. Qu. 40.7 1.5 3.7 3.5 - 0 0 - - 0 0 0 0

206 KIAMBU & THIKA 59

TABLE 18d: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ LH 1 OF THIKA DISTRICT

Subzone: p or l/vl^m, Soil unit: RB 1 Survey Area 119 (Karatu) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Number of Range Land Family Casual Permanent children Sheep & Poultry Poultry ha Dairy Zebu Rabbits Adults Labourers Labourers under Goats (Exotic (Local) 14 years Avg.0 1.53 2.1 0 2.3 3.33 2.9 0.03 3.57 1.63 0.03 1.33 Avg.1 1.53 2.63 3.29 100 6.21 1 3.57 2.23 1 2.86 Up. Qu. 2.15 3 0 3.25 0 4 0 5 3 0 3 Lo. Qu. 0.46 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0

Land Use Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Permanent pasture & Fodder Crops Fallow Forage Other Use Range ha ha ha ha ha ha Avg.0 0.30 0.89 0.21 - 0.01 0.12 Avg.1 0.30 0.89 0.22 - 0.15 0.21 Up. Qu. 0.41 1.11 0.3 0.24 0 0.09 Lo. Qu. 0.14 0.20 0.09 0.03 0 0

Farming Intensity Stocking Rate

Cropping Farm Land Permanent pasture & Improved Range Diversity TLU/ha Fodder Crops Cattle % Crops/year TLU/ha of total Sheep & Sheep & Dairy Zebu Goats Dairy Zebu Goats Avg.0 7.03 1.52 0 0.30 11.16 0 2.22 80 Avg.1 7.03 1.90 0 0.43 13.02 0 2.96 100 Up. Qu. 8 1.53 0 0.30 11.0 0 2.17 100 Lo. Qu. 6 2.39 0 0 - 0 0 100 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied

Fertilizer applied as pure nutrient Plant protection Improved kg/ha Manure seeds used applied Insecticide Fungicide Range % of area NPO K O t/ha 2 5 2 kg/ha kg/ha AC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC Avg.0 32.2 4.2 1.4 27.3 9.1 - 19.8 18.0 6.0 0 0 1.7 0.6 Avg.1 37.2 41.5 13.8 30.3 10.1 - 33.0 20.0 6.6 0 0 8.4 2.8 Up. Qu. 43.7 0 0 27.9 10.4 - 24.2 17.0 6.3 0000 Lo. Qu. 19.1 0 0 14.6 - - 0 14.4 10.2 0000

207 60 KIAMBU & THIKA

TABLE 18e: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ UM 1 OF THIKA DISTRICT

6XE]RQHÀLP6RLO unit: RB 1 Survey Area 120 (Karinga) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Range Land Family Casual Number of ha Sheep & Adults Labourers children under Dairy Zebu Goats Poultry 14 years Avg.0 1.37 2.3 0 1.4 2.8 3.9 1.83 1.47 Avg.1 1.37 3 - 2.63 8.4 3.9 2.5 2.75 Up. Qu. 1.86 4 0 2 5 7 2.25 2 Lo. Qu. 0.77 0.75 0 0 0 2 0 0

Land Use Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Permanent pasture & Fodder Crops Fallow Other Use Range ha ha ha ha ha Avg.0 0.32 0.80 0.18 0.01 0.06 Avg.1 0.32 0.80 0.19 - 0.19 Up. Qu. 0.44 0.96 0.26 0.03 0.17 Lo. Qu. 0.2 0.34 0.13 0 0.1

Farming Intensity Stocking Rate

Cropping Farm Land Permanent pasture & Improved Range Diversity LU/ha Fodder Crops Cattle Crops/year TLU/ha % of total Sheep & Sheep & Dairy Zebu Goats Dairy Zebu Goats Avg.0 7.5 1.84 0 0.20 13.92 0 1.54 76.7 Avg.1 7.5 2.41 0 0.38 16.95 0 2.70 100 Up. Qu. 9 2.37 0 0.22 17.25 0 1.57 100 Lo. Qu. 6 1.06 0 0 8.25 0 0 75 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied

Fertilizer applied as pure nutrient Plant protection Improved kg/ha Manure seeds used applied Insecticide Fungicide Range % of area NPO K O t/ha 2 5 2 kg/ha kg/ha AC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC Avg.0 37.6 10.0 4.1 52.9 21.4 11.0 4.5 16.2 6.6 0.01 0.00 7.1 2.9 Avg.1 43.4 25.1 10.2 56.7 22.9 66.2 26.8 17.3 7.0 0.31 0.12 42.5 17.2 Up. Qu. 53.8 13.7 6.3 52.3 23.9 0 0 16.0 7.3 0 0 0 0 Lo. Qu. 10.3 0 0 27.3 16.1 0 0 10.0 5.9 0 0 0 0

208 KIAMBU & THIKA 61

TABLE 18f: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ UM 2 OF THIKA DISTRICT

Subzone: m/l i m/s, Soil unit: RB 2 Survey Area 121 (Ritho) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Number of Range Land Sheep Family Casual Permanent children Poultry Poultry ha Dairy Zebu & Rabbits Adults Labourers Labourers under (Exotic) (Local) Goats 14 years Avg.0 1.05 2.47 0 1.4 30.7 7 0.23 2.97 1.53 0.1 1.77 Avg.1 1.05 2.64 - 3.82 460 15 7 2.97 2.3 1.5 2.65 Up. Qu. 1.30 3 0 3 0 10 0 3.25 2 0 3 Lo. Qu. 0.6 1.75 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0

Land Use Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Permanent pasture & Fodder Crops Fallow Other Use Range ha ha ha ha ha Avg.0 0.34 0.51 0.16 - 0.04 Avg.1 0.34 0.51 0.16 - 0.13 Up. Qu. 0.43 0.61 0.2 - 0.06 Lo. Qu. 0.15 0.20 0.2 - 0.05

Farming Intensity Stocking Rate

Cropping Farm Land Permanent pasture & Improved Range Diversity TLU/ha Fodder Crops Cattle Crops/year TLU/ha % of total Sheep & Sheep & Dairy Zebu Goats Dairy Zebu Goats Avg.0 7.3 2.6 0 0.3 17.5 0 1.8 93.3 Avg.1 7.3 2.8 0 0.7 18.7 0 4.9 100 Up. Qu. 8 2.75 0 0.5 16.5 0 3 100 Lo. Qu. 6 3.2 0 0 - 0 0 100 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied

Fertilizer applied as pure nutrient Plant protection Improved kg/ha Manure seeds used applied Insecticide Fungicide Range % of area NPO K O t/ha 2 5 2 kg/ha kg/ha AC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC Avg.0 41.7 6.2 4.2 42.9 29.0 11.7 7.9 13.5 9.1 0.4 0.3 6.2 4.2 Avg.1 50.1 19.9 13.9 47.9 33.5 24.3 17.0 13.5 9.5 5.7 4.0 12.9 9.0 Up. Qu. 63.3 4.7 3.3 54.1 38.0 10.3 7.2 14.1 9.9 0 0 1.2 0.9 Lo. Qu. 9.7 0 0 15.3 11.5 0 0 - - 0000

209 62 KIAMBU & THIKA

TABLE 18g: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ UM - LM 4 OF THIKA DISTRICT

Subzone: s/vs + s/vs, Soil unit: UU1 Survey Area 122 (Ngoliba) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Number of Range Land Sheep Family Casual Permanent children Poultry Poultry Rab- B/ ha Dairy Zebu & Pigs Donkeys Adults Labourers Labourers under (Local) (exotic) bits hives Goats 14 years Avg.0 2.22 0.5 4.0 8 12.5 106.7 2.2 0.03 0.5 0.13 2.9 3.0 0.5 1.0 Avg.1 2.22 7 7.6 11.4 17 106.7 33 1 4.7 4 2.9 4.2 1.8 2.4 Up. Qu. 2 0 6.3 10.5 10 0 0 0 0 0 4 4 1 2 Lo. Qu. 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0

Land Use

Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Permanent pasture & Fodder Crops Fallow Forage Other Range ha ha ha ha ha Use ha Avg.0 0.78 0.08 0.14 - 0.09 1.13 Avg.1 0.78 0.09 0.81 - 0.26 1.54 Up. Qu. 1.15 0.1 0 0.34 0.11 0.30 Lo. Qu. 0.34 0.01 0 0.05 0 0

Farming Intensity Stocking Rate

Cropping Farm Land Permanent pasture & Improved Range Diversity TLU/ha Fodder Crops Cattle Crops/year TLU/ha % of total Sheep & Sheep & Dairy Zebu Goats Dairy Zebu Goats Avg.0 10 0.2 1.8 0.7 3.8 29.8 11.8 4.4 Avg.1 10 3.5 3.4 1.0 9.5 9.3 2.8 66.7 Up. Qu. 12 0 3.1 1.1 - - - 0 Lo. Qu. 8000- - -0 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied

Fertilizer applied as pure nutrient Plant protection Improved kg/ha Manure seeds used applied Insecticide Fungicide Range % of area NPO K O t/ha 2 5 2 kg/ha kg/ha AC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC Avg.0 35.0 10.4 - 44.6 - - - 12.9 - 0.1 0.8 0.9 - Avg.1 58.4 31.1 - - - - - 16.1 - 1.3 - 3.5 - Up. Qu. 51.0 10.0 - 43.4 - - - 9.5 - 0 0 0.1 1.3 Lo. Qu. 0 0 - 0 - - - 0.4 - 0 0 0 0

210 KIAMBU & THIKA 63

TABLE 19a: CROPPING PATTERN IN AEZ LH 2 - 3 OF KIAMBU DISTRICT

Subzone: m/s + (s) to s/m + (s/vs), Soil unit: RB 2 Survey Area 116 (Kikuyu)

First Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.01 0.12 0 0 0.35 1.70 Cabbages 0.01 0.18 0 0 0.35 1.70 Irish potatoes 0.10 0.12 0.2 0.05 2.95 14.29 Kales 0.02 0.09 0.03 0 0.73 3.54 Maize 0.13 0.63 0 0 3.8 18.41 Maize & Beans 0.40 0.45 0.53 0.2 12.06 58.43 Spinach 0.01 0.06 0 0 0.25 1.21 Vegetables 0.01 0.08 0 0 0.15 0.73 Total Sample Area 0.69 20.64 100

Second Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crop 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.02 0.15 0 0 0.45 2.38 Cabbages 0.01 0.18 0 0 0.35 1.85 Irish potatoes 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.05 2.75 14.52 Kales 0.02 0.08 0.03 0 0.63 3.33 Maize 0.05 0.7 0 0 1.4 7.39 Maize & Beans 0.43 0.46 0.6 0.2 12.96 68.43 Spinach 0.01 0.06 0 0 0.25 1.32 Vegetables 0.01 0.08 0 0 0.15 0.79 Total Sample Area 0.64 18.94 100

Perennial Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Avocado 0.01 0.2 0 0 0.2 10.64 Bananas 0.05 0.10 0.1 0 1.53 81.38 Fruit trees 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 5.32 Oranges 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 2.66 Total Sample Area 0.06 1.88 100

NOTES: Avg.0 = average of all sample farms Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these

211 64 KIAMBU & THIKA

TABLE 19b: CROPPING PATTERN IN AEZ LH 1 ( - UM 2) OF KIAMBU DISTRICT

6XE]RQHÀLP WRPVP , Soil unit: RB 2 Survey Area 117 (Githiga)

First Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile Total Sample Area of 30 Farms ha ha ha ha ha % Arabicum 0.03 0.13 0 0 0.75 8.37 Arrow roots 0.01 0.07 0 0 0.2 2.23 Beans 0.02 0.10 0.01 0 0.73 8.15 Courgette 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.1 1.12 Cabbages 0.02 0.18 0 0 0.55 6.14 Carrots 0.01 0.07 0 0 0.2 2.23 Coriander (Dhania) 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 1.12 Irish potatoes 0.04 0.08 0.06 0 1.19 13.28 Kales 0.02 0.06 0.05 0 0.68 7.59 Kales & Cabbages 0.00 0.04 0 0 0.04 0.45 Kales & Spinach 0.01 0.07 0 0 0.29 3.24 Kales, Cabbages & horticultural crops 0.01 0.08 0 0 0.25 2.79 Maize 0.05 0.15 0.06 0 1.45 16.18 Maize & Beans 0.04 0.10 0.05 0 1.08 12.05 Onions 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.56 Ornis 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.56 Spinach 0.02 0.2 0 0 0.6 6.70 Sweet potatoes 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.56 Tomatoes 0.02 0.08 0.03 0 0.55 6.14 Vegetables 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.56 Total Sample Area 0.3 8.96 100

212 KIAMBU & THIKA 65

TABLE 19b Contin.: CROPPING PATTERN IN AEZ LH 1 (- UM 2) OF KIAMBU DISTRICT

6XE]RQHÀLP WRPVP 6RLOXQLWRB 2 Survey Area 117 (Githiga)

Second Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Arabicum 0.02 0.14 0 0 0.7 8.58 Arrow roots 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.2 2.45 Beans 0.02 0.11 0 0 0.63 7.72 Courgette 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.61 Cabbages 0.02 0.25 0 0 0.5 6.13 Carrots 0.01 0.13 0 0 0.25 3.06 Coriander (Dhania) 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 1.23 Irish potatoes 0.04 0.08 0.06 0 1.14 13.97 Kales 0.02 0.06 0.05 0 0.53 6.50 Kales & Cabbages 0.00 0.04 0 0 0.04 0.49 Kales & Spinach 0.01 0.07 0 0 0.29 3.55 Kales, Cabbages & horticultural crops 0.01 0.08 0 0 0.25 3.06 Maize 0.05 0.15 0.06 0 1.45 17.77 Maize & Beans 0.04 0.11 0.05 0 1.28 15.69 Spinach 0.01 0.05 0 0 0.1 1.23 Sweet potatoes 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.61 Tomatoes 0.02 0.08 0.01 0 0.55 6.74 Vegetables 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.61 Total Sample Area 0.27 8.16 100

Perennial Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Avocado 0.01 0.11 0 0 0.22 1.50 Bananas 0.06 0.09 0.06 0 1.75 11.90 Tea 0.29 0.61 0.4 0 8.57 58.30 Apples 0.00 0.01 0 0 0.01 0.07 Wattle/Blue gum trees 0.13 1.27 0 0 4.15 28.23 Total Sample Area 0.49 14.7 100

NOTES: Avg.0 = average of all sample farms Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these

213 66 KIAMBU & THIKA

TABLE 19c: CROPPING PATTERN IN AEZ UM 2 OF KIAMBU DISTRICT

Subzone: m + (s/m), Soil unit: RB 3 Survey Area 118 (Ndumberi)

First Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Arrow roots 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 2.08 Beans 0.01 0.16 0 0 0.16 3.33 Irish potatoes 0.01 0.04 0.01 0 0.35 7.28 Kales 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 1.04 Maize 0.00 0.04 0 0 0.04 0.83 Maize & Beans 0.09 0.12 0.14 0 2.75 57.17 Maize & Irish potatoes 0.01 0.04 0 0 0.04 0.83 Maize, Beans & Irish potatoes 0.04 0.30 0 0 1.20 24.95 Sweet potatoes 0.00 0.04 0 0 0.04 0.83 Tomatoes 0.00 0.08 0 0 0.08 1.66 Total Sample Area 0.16 4.81 100

Second Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Arrow roots 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 2.06 Beans 0.00 0.04 0 0 0.04 0.82 Irish potatoes 0.02 0.06 0.04 0 0.5 10.31 Maize 0.00 0.04 0 0 0.04 0.82 Maize & Beans 0.09 0.12 0.14 0 2.69 55.46 Maize & Irish potatoes 0.01 0.08 0 0 0.16 3.30 Maize, Beans & Irish potatoes 0.04 0.30 0 0 1.20 24.74 Sweet potatoes 0.00 0.04 0 0 0.04 0.82 Tomatoes 0.00 0.08 0 0 0.08 1.65 Total Sample Area 0.16 4.85 100

Perennial Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Bananas 0.08 0.11 0.08 0 2.45 25.26 Coffee 0.17 0.31 0.24 0 5.35 55.15 Woodlot 0.07 0.95 0 0 1.9 19.59 Total Sample Area 0.32 9.7 100

NOTES: Avg.0 = average of all sample farms Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these

214 KIAMBU & THIKA 67

TABLE 19d: CROPPING PATTERN IN AEZ LH 1 OF THIKA DISTRICT

Subzone: p or l/vl^m, Soil unit: RB 1 Survey Area 119 (Karatu)

First Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Arrow roots 0.01 0.05 0.30 3.48 Beans 0.00 0.04 0 0 0.08 0.93 Horticulture 0.01 0.16 0 0 0.32 3.72 Irish potatoes 0.05 0.07 0.1 0 1.57 18.23 Maize 0.03 0.14 0.01 0 0.98 11.38 Maize & Beans 0.16 0.23 0.2 0 4.87 56.56 Sweet potatoes 0.01 0.04 0.03 0 0.34 3.95 Vegetables 0.01 0.08 0 0 0.15 1.74 Total Sample Area 0.28 8.61 100

Second Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Arrow roots 0.01 0.05 0 0 0.20 2.44 Beans 0.00 0.04 0 0 0.08 0.97 Horticulture 0.01 0.16 0 0 0.32 3.90 Irish potatoes 0.06 0.09 0.1 0.03 2.07 25.21 Maize 0.02 0.14 0 0 0.68 8.28 Maize & Beans 0.15 0.21 0.2 0 4.37 53.23 Sweet potatoes 0.01 0.04 0.03 0 0.34 4.14 Vegetables 0.01 0.08 0 0 0.15 1.83 Total Sample Area 0.27 8.21 100

Perennial Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Avocado 0.08 0.19 0.1 0 2.29 8.85 Bananas 0.10 0.15 0.08 0 2.86 11.05 Coffee 0.13 0.31 0.2 0 3.99 15.41 Macadamia 0.01 0.10 0 0 0.21 0.81 Pineapples 0.04 0.33 0 0 1.3 5.02 Tea 0.51 0.61 0.8 0.15 15.24 58.86 Total Sample Area 0.87 25.89 100

NOTES: Avg.0 = average of all sample farms Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these

215 68 KIAMBU & THIKA

TABLE 19e: CROPPING PATTERN IN AEZ UM 1 OF THIKA DISTRICT

6XE]RQHÀLP6RLOXQLWRB 1 Survey Area 120 (Karinga)

First Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Arrow roots 0.01 0.07 0 0 0.41 4.23 Beans 0.02 0.11 0 0 0.68 7.01 Chewing cane 0.00 0.01 0 0 0.03 0.31 Irish potatoes 0.05 0.06 0.05 0 1.15 11.85 Kales 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.1 1.03 Maize 0.07 0.25 0.12 0 1.96 20.20 Maize & Beans 0.17 0.23 0.23 0.03 5.2 53.59 Capsicum (Pepper) 0.00 0.04 0 0 0.04 0.41 Sweet potatoes 0.00 0.03 0 0 0.13 1.34 Yams 0.0001 0.0002 0 0 0.003 0.03 Total Sample Area 0.32 9.703 100

Second Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Arrow roots 0.01 0.07 0 0 0.41 4.41 Beans 0.02 0.11 0 0 0.68 7.31 Chewing cane 0.00 0.01 0 0 0.03 0.32 Irish potatoes 0.04 0.06 0.04 0 0.95 10.21 Kales 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.1 1.08 Maize 0.07 0.25 0.12 0 1.96 21.07 Maize & Beans 0.17 0.22 0.2 0.03 5 53.76 Capsicum (Pepper) 0.00 0.04 0 0 0.04 0.43 Sweet potatoes 0.00 0.03 0 0 0.13 1.40 Yams 0.00002 0.0005 0 0 0.001 0.01 Total Sample Area 0.31 9.301 100

216 KIAMBU & THIKA 69

TABLE 19e Contin.: CROPPING PATTERN IN AEZ UM 1 OF THIKA DISTRICT

6XE]RQHÀLP6RLOXQLWRB 1 Survey Area 120 (Karinga)

Perennial Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Avocado 0.03 0.09 0.07 0 1.02 4.22 Bananas 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.02 2.44 10.09 Coffee 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.2 18.68 77.22 Macadamia 0.00 0.04 0 0 0.07 0.29 Mangoes 0.00 0.06 0 0 0.06 0.25 Passion fruits 0.00 0.01 0 0 0.01 0.04 Pineapples 0.01 0.07 0 0 0.26 1.07 Tea 0.01 0.3 0 0 0.3 1.24 Woodlots (Wattle) 0.05 0.45 0 0 1.35 5.58 Total Sample Area 0.8 24.19 100

NOTES: Avg.0 = average of all sample farms Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these

217 70 KIAMBU & THIKA

TABLE 19f: CROPPING PATTERN IN AEZ UM 2 OF THIKA DISTRICT

Subzone: m/l i m/s, Soil unit: UIRA Survey Area 121 (Ritho)

First Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Arrow roots 0.02 0.10 0.01 0 0.71 6.92 Beans 0.02 0.10 0.01 0 0.73 7.12 Cabbages 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.97 Capsicum 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.49 Irish potatoes 0.09 0.09 0.1 0.05 2.32 22.61 Maize 0.05 0.19 0.06 0 1.55 15.11 Maize & Beans 0.14 0.19 0.2 0 4.27 41.62 Sweet potatoes 0.02 0.08 0 0 0.48 4.68 Tomatoes 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.49 Total Sample Area 0.34 10.26 100

Second Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Arrow roots 0.02 0.08 0 0 0.51 5.15 Beans 0.03 0.11 0.01 0 0.75 7.57 Cabbages 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 1.01 Irish potatoes 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.05 2.42 24.42 Maize 0.05 0.21 0.01 0 1.45 14.63 Maize & Beans 0.14 0.19 0.2 0 4.2 42.38 Sweet potatoes 0.01 0.09 0 0 0.43 4.34 Tomatoes 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.50 Total Sample Area 0.33 9.91 100

Perennial Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Avocado 0.01 0.05 0 0 0.16 1.05 Bananas 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.03 2.44 15.94 Coffee 0.39 0.42 0.5 0.15 11.83 77.27 Macadamia 0.01 0.16 0 0 0.16 1.05 Passion Fruits 0.02 0.21 0 0 0.62 4.05 Wattle trees 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.65 Total Sample Area 0.51 15.31 100

NOTES: Avg.0 = average of all sample farms Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these

218 KIAMBU & THIKA 71

TABLE 19g: CROPPING PATTERN IN AEZ UM - LM 4 OF THIKA DISTRICT

Subzone: s/vs + s/vs, Soil unit: UU 1 Survey Area 122 (Ngoliba)

First Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Asian Vegetables 0.00 0.01 0 0 0.01 0.04 Beans 0.03 0.4 0 0 0.8 3.47 Brinjals 0.00 0.01 0 0 0.01 0.04 Buret 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.43 Cabbages 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.43 Capsicum (Pepper) 0.01 0.07 0 0 0.21 0.91 Courgette 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.22 Cassava 0.01 0.05 0 0 0.18 0.78 Cow peas 0.02 0.05 0.01 0 0.48 2.08 French beans 0.03 0.15 0 0 0.91 3.95 Green peas 0.01 0.10 0 0 0.20 0.87 Irish potatoes 0.01 0.03 0.00 0 0.19 0.82 Kales 0.02 0.09 0.00 0 0.72 3.12 Maize 0.04 0.6 0 0 1.2 5.21 Maize & Beans 0.48 0.48 0.76 0.23 14.52 62.99 Maize & Cow peas 0.01 0.04 0 0 0.22 0.95 Maize & Irish potatoes 0.00 0.01 0 0 0.02 0.09 Maize & Pigeon peas 0.00 0.03 0 0 0.06 0.26 Maize & Pumpkins 0.01 0.06 0 0 0.28 1.21 Maize & Sweet potatoes 0.00 0.01 0 0 0.04 0.17 Njahi 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.43 Onions 0.00 0.01 0 0 0.01 0.04 Capsicum (Pepper) 0.01 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.87 Pigeon peas 0.02 0.06 0.01 0 0.57 2.47 Pumpkins 0.02 0.10 0 0.52 2.26 Sorghum 0.00 0.03 0 0 0.03 0.13 Sweet potatoes 0.01 0.05 0 0 0.21 0.91 Tobacco 0.01 0.4 0 0 0.4 1.74 Tomatoes 0.02 0.09 0.00 0.71 3.08 Yams 0.00 0.00 0 0 0.003 0.01 Total Sample Area 0.77 23.05 100

219 72 KIAMBU & THIKA

TABLE 19g Contin.: CROPPING PATTERN IN AEZ UM - LM 4 OF THIKA DISTRICT

Subzone: s/vs + s/vs, Soil unit: UU 1 Survey Area 122 (Ngoliba)

Second Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.01 0.4 0 0 0.4 1.92 Buret 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.48 Cabbages 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.48 Capsicum 0.00 0.06 0 0 0.11 0.53 Cassava 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.10 0.48 Cow peas 0.02 0.06 0.00 0 0.47 2.25 Green peas 0.00 0.00 0 0 0.003 0.01 Irish potatoes 0.01 0.03 0 0 0.18 0.86 Kales 0.02 0.09 0.00 0 0.62 2.97 Maize 0.03 0.4 0 0 0.8 3.84 Maize & Beans 0.48 0.48 0.76 0.23 14.55 69.80 Maize & Cow peas 0.01 0.04 0 0 0.22 1.06 Maize & Irish potatoes 0.00 0.01 0 0 0.02 0.10 Maize & Pigeon peas 0.00 0.03 0 0 0.06 0.29 Maize & Pumpkins 0.01 0.06 0 0 0.22 1.06 Maize & Sorghum 0.00 0.08 0 0 0.08 0.38 Maize & Sweet potatoes 0.00 0.03 0 0 0.12 0.58 Onions 0.00 0.01 0 0 0.01 0.05 Capsicum (Pepper) 0.01 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.96 Pigeon peas 0.03 0.11 0.00 0 0.74 3.55 Pumpkins 0.02 0.13 0 0 0.5 2.40 Sorghum 0.00 0.03 0 0 0.03 0.14 Sweet potatoes 0.01 0.07 0 0 0.20 0.96 Tomatoes 0.03 0.13 0.00 0 1.01 4.85 Yams 0.00 0.00 0 0 0.003 0.01 Total Sample Area 0.69 20.85 100

NOTES: Avg.0 = average of all sample farms Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these

220 KIAMBU & THIKA 73

TABLE 19g Contin.: CROPPING PATTERN IN AEZ UM - LM 4 OF THIKA DISTRICT

Subzone: s/vs + s/vs, Soil unit: UU 1 Survey Area 122 (Ngoliba)

Perennial Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Avocado 0.00 0.01 0 0 0.04 1.58 Bananas 0.04 0.05 0.04 0 1.18 46.62 Citrus 0.00 0.004 0 0 0.008 0.32 Karella 0.01 0.2 0 0 0.2 7.90 Lemons 0.00 0.002 0 0 0.003 0.12 Mangoes 0.01 0.03 0.01 0 0.46 18.17 Oranges 0.00 0.01 0.00 0 0.10 3.95 Passion fruits 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 3.95 Paw paws 0.00 0.004 0.001 0 0.04 1.58 Tindori 0.01 0.2 0 0 0.2 7.90 Warori 0.01 0.2 0 0 0.2 7.90 Total Sample Area 0.08 2.5 100

NOTES: Avg.0 = average of all sample farms Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these

221 74 KIAMBU & THIKA

3.3.5 INTRODUCTION TO THE ACTUAL LAND USE SYSTEMS AND POTENTIAL INTENSIFICATION BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT

More detailed information can be found together with calculations of proﬁtability in the Farm Manage- ment Guidelines of each district and in the KARI Fertiliser Use Manual (Muriuki and Qureshi, 2001). An additional importance reference material is “Small Holder Farming Handbook for Self Employment. First published in 1997 by Information Research and Communication Centre (IRACC) & Marketing Support Services Ltd, Nairobi.” The main Agroecological Zones in which farm surveys were conducted are: LH 1, LH 2, LH 3, UM 1, UM 2 and LM 4.

KIAMBU DISTRICT

Subzone LH 1, f l i m of the Tea – Dairy Zone

This is the Tea – Dairy Zonewith a fully long cropping season, intermediate rains and a medium one as ana- lyzed in Githiga sub-location of Githunguri division, Kiambu district. The lengths of the growing period for the long and medium cropping season exceeded in 6 out of 10 years are 210 or more and 130 – 140 days, respectively. Average annual rainfall is between 1300 - 1500 mm. The 66 % reliability of rainfall during the ﬁrst rainy season (March – May) and the second rainy season (October – December) is between 700 - 850 mm and 250 - 470 mm, respectively. The dominant soils are well drained, extremely deep, dark reddish brown to dark brown humic Nitosols.

The current actual land use activities in this Subzone involve mainly the growing of tea, food crops, vegetables and fruits. The most important food crops are maize and beans as well as irish potatoes. The important vegetables grown are kales, cabbages and spinach (Table 19b). Tea is the dominant cash corp. The important fruits in order of importance are bananas, avocados and apples. Most of the fruits are transported and sold in Nairobi city.

Pure and improved crosses of dairy cattle, mainly put under zero grazing, dominate livestock keeping enterprises. Some farmers do keep crossed bulls for serving their cows. Majority of farmers in this zone apply organic manure to their food crops, particularly maize. This could explain the improvement in the yield of maize since the survey of 1978. The maize varieties recommended for this Subzone are: the Kenya Hybrids and other emerging suitable varieties. The soil and water conservation measures that were observed in this Subzone included: Fanya juu terraces (fortiﬁed with Napier grass, agroforestry trees planted within farms, especially Calliandra calothyrsus, (a multipurpose tree that provides fodder, improves soil fertility and protects soil against erosion), cut-oﬀ drains and grass strips.

222 KIAMBU & THIKA 75

TABLE 20a: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN AGRO-ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) OF ZONE /+ÀLPRB 2 Survey Area 117 (Githiga) AEZ: LH 1 TEA – DAIRY ZONE Subzone: flim (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season: 210 or more; 2nd rainy season: 130 - 140) Crop, Yields3) and Inputs Unit with predom. Soil RB 2 = ando-humic NITOSOL Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season 2nd rainy season: 250 – 470 mm in 700 – 850 mm at least 10 out 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level Maize local I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) pure stand Yields3) kg/ha ------Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Hybrid maize Yields3) kg/ha - 4382 5220 6000 - 4050 4500 5000 Fertilizer: N kg/ha 34 35 35

P2O5 kg/ha * 9 8 9 K2O kg/ha - - - Manure t/ha * 5.3 6 8,3

Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha ------Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Hybrid maize intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha

223 76 KIAMBU & THIKA

Subzone UM 2, m + s/m of the Upper Midland Coﬀee Zone

This is theMain Coffee Zone with a medium cropping season and a short to medium one as typified by Ndum- beri sub-location in Municipality division, Kiambu district. The 60 % reliability of the length of cereal and legume growing period during the 1st and 2nd rainy seasons is 135 – 155 and 105 – 115 days, respectively. The average annual rainfall is between 1000 - 1300 mm. The 66 % reliability of rainfall during the first rainy season (March – May) and the second rainy season (October – February) is between 480 - 680 mm and 250 - 380 mm, respectively. The dominant soils are well drained, extremely deep, dark reddish brown to dark brown humic Nitosols.

The average household farm size in this Subzone is 0,67 ha (Table 18c), compared to 2.6 ha in 1978. Dur- ing the Farm Survey conducted in February 2004, it was observed that the current actual land use activities in this Subzone are increasingly turning from the growing of traditional food crops to vegetables and fruits. The most important cash crops at the moment in order of importance include: coffee, bananas and Irish potatoes. It was observed that the still existing coffee trees had been pruned back to allow for the growing of legume crops. This attests to the fact that farmers attach less value to coffee as previously when it used to fetch good cash income for the household. (Table 19c). The vegetables are consumed at the household level and any excess is sold in local neighbouring markets. Irish potatoes are very important in this Subzone both as a food and cash crop.The main food crops comprise maize and beans, which are normally intercropped. During the first rainy season, medium maturing maize hybrids like H 512, 614 D, 625, 626 and other emerging suitable varieties are planted while the second rains planting material comprises Katumani Comp. B. and Embu composite (EMCO). The yields are low despite fertilizer use due to continuous cultivation, resulting into a decline in soil fertility.

Pure and improved crosses of dairy cattle, mainly put under zero grazing, dominate livestock keeping enterprises. Farmers are increasingly rearing dairy goats for milk production. The keeping of exotic chicken is an important livestock enterprise in this Subzone, mainly for eggs and meat, which are sold in the ready market available in the capital city of Nairobi. Other livestock ventures that farmers practise include rabbit and bee keeping. The soil and water conservation measures put in place in this Subzone include: fanya juu terraces (fortiﬁed with Napier grass), a few cut-oﬀ drains and agroforestry trees planted within farms, especially Cal- liandra calothyrsus, (a multipurpose tree that provides fodder for livestock, improves soil fertility and protects soil against erosion), drains and grass strips.

224 KIAMBU & THIKA 77

TABLE 20b: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN AGRO-ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) OF ZONE UM 2, m + s/m. RB 2 Survey Area 118 (Ndumberi) AEZ: UM 2 COFFEE ZONE Subzone:m+s/m (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season: 135 - 155; 2nd rainy season: 105 - 115) Crop, Yields3) and Inputs Unit with predom. Soil: RB 2 = humic NITOSOLS Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season 2nd rainy season: 250 – 380 mm in 480 – 680 mm at least 10 out 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level Maize local 4) 5) 6) 4) 5) 6) pure stand I=low II=med. III=high AEU Pot. I=low II=med. III=high AEU Pot. Yields3) kg/ha ------Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Hybrid maize pure stand Yields3) kg/ha --- -- Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha ------Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha

Hybrid maize intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha - - 1334 4500 - - 1200 3500 Fertilizer: N kg/ha 12.9 10.9

P2O5 kg/ha 14.3 10.3 K2O kg/ha - - Manure t/ha - -

225 78 KIAMBU & THIKA

Subzone LH 3 s/m + (s/vs) of the Lower Highland Wheat/ (Maize) – Barley Zone

This is the Wheat (Maize) - Barley Zone with a short to medium and a (weak) short to very short cropping season occurring in Kikuyu sub. location of Kikuyu division, Kiambu district. The 60 % reliability of the lengths of cereal and legume growing period during the 1st and 2nd rainy seasons are 105 – 115, 65 - 70 days, respectively. The average annual rainfall is between 800 - 1000 mm. The 66 % reliability of rainfall during the ﬁrst rainy season (March – May) and the second rainy season (October – February) is between 280 - 360 mm and 180 - 220 mm, respectively. The dominant soils are well drained, extremely deep eutric Nitosols with nito-chromic Cambisols and chromic Acrisols and Luvisols..

The average household farm size in this Subzone is 1.66 ha (Table 18a). This high acreage ﬁgure could be attributed to the fact that the sample was a mixture of farmers with larger farms and those within the “5- acre” settlement scheme. The most important cash crops at the moment in order of importance include are bananas, avocados and other fruits. None of the farmers mentioned growing wheat or barley. The absence of these two crops in this Subzone has to do with the minimum acreage required to grow them. The category of vegetables according to the farmers ranking include: kales, cabbages, spinach and tomatoes. These vegetables are consumed at the household level and any excess is sold in local neighbouring markets and Nairobi city. The most important fruits are bananas, which are transported and sold in Nairobi city. The main food crops comprise maize and beans, which are normally intercropped, irish potatoes and arrow roots. During the ﬁrst rains, hybrid maize varieties from 512, 614D, 625, 626 and other emerging varieties recommended for planting, while during the second rains planting material should comprise the early maturing Katumani Comp. B., DLC 1(in lower places) and Embu composite (EMCO in higher places with longer growing period).

Pure and improved crosses of dairy cattle, mainly put under zero grazing, dominate livestock keeping enterprises. The keeping of local chicken and broilers is increasingly becoming an important livestock enterprise in this Subzone. Few farmers in this zone apply enough fertilisers and manure to their food crops, particularly maize. This explains the low maize yields reported by the farmers (Table 20c). There is need for farmers to apply more manure on their farms to replenish the depleted nutrients.

226 KIAMBU & THIKA 79

TABLE 20c: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN AGRO-ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) OF ZONE LH 2 - 3, m/s + (s) to s/m + (s/vs), RB 3 Survey Area 116 (Kikuyu) AEZ: LH 3 WHEAT/ (MAIZE) - BARLEY ZONE Subzone: s/m + (vs/s) (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season: 105 - 115; 2nd rainy season: 65 - 70) Crop, Yields3) and Inputs Unit with predom. Soil: RB 3 = eutric NITOSOLS; with nito-chromic CAMBISOLS and chromic ACRISOLS and LUVISOLS, partly lithic, pisoferric or petroferric phase Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season 2nd rainy season: 150 – 180 mm in 280 – 360 mm at least 10 out 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level Maize local I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) pure stand Yields3) kg/ha ------Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Hybrid maize pure stand Yields3) kg/ha ------Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha ------Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Hybrid maize intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha 2221 2308 2350 3500 1398 1493 1636 2300 Fertilizer: N kg/ha 0 1.8 3.1 0 1.6 2.9

P2O5 kg/ha 0 3.7 4.8 0 3.3 4.5 K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha 0 0.1 -1.5 0 0.1 1.4

227 80 KIAMBU & THIKA

THIKA DISTRICT

Subzone LH 1, p or l/v l^m of the Lower Highland Tea - Dairy Zone

This is the Tea – Dairy Zone with permanent cropping possibilities, divided into a long to very long cropping season followed by a medium one as in Karatu sub-location of Gatundu division, Thika district. The lengths of the growing period for the long and medium cropping season exceeded in 6 out of 10 years are 210 or more and 135 – 145 days, respectively. Average annual rainfall is between 1500 - 2000 mm. The 66 % reliability of rainfall during the ﬁrst rainy season (March – May) and the second rainy season (October – December) is between 850 - 1100 mm and 470 - 600 mm, respectively. The dominant soils have developed on Tertiary basic igneous rocks. The soils are well drained, extremely deep, dark reddish brown to dark brown ando- humic Nitisols; with humic Andosols.

The average household land size in this Subzone is 1.53 ha (Table 18d). The current actual land use activities in this Subzone involve the growing of cash crops, vegetables, fruits and food crops. The most important cash crops at the moment in order of importance include: tea, coﬀee, avocados, pineapples and macadamia nuts. The important fruits in order of importance are bananas, pineapples, and avocadoes. Irish potatoes are an important food and cash crop. The main food crops comprise maize, beans, arrow roots and sweet potatoes (Table 19d).

Pure and improved crosses of dairy cattle, mainly put under zero grazing, dominate livestock keeping enterprises, i.e. over 80 %. Some farmers do keep crossed bulls for serving their cows. Keeping of local and exotic chicken is also an important livestock enterprise in this Subzone. Majority of farmers in this zone apply inorganic fertilizers to their cash crops, especially on tea. For other crops, especially maize, farmers do apply farm yard and compost manure.

228 KIAMBU & THIKA 81

TABLE 20d: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) OF ZONE LH 1, p or l/vl^m. RB 1 Survey Area 119 (Karatu) AEZ: LH 1 TEA - DAIRY ZONE Subzone: p or l/vl^m (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season: 210 or more; Crop, Yields3) and 2nd rainy season: 130 - 140) Inputs Unit with predom. Soil: RB 1 = ando-humic NITOSOLS; with humic ANDOSOLS Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season 2nd rainy season: 470 – 600 mm in 850 – 1100 mm at least 10 out 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level Maize local pure 4) 5) 6) 4) 5) 6) stand I=low II=med. III=high AEU Pot. I=low II=med. III=high AEU Pot. 3) Yields kg/ha ------Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Hybrid maize pure stand Yields3) kg/ha ------Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha

Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha ------Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha

Maize Var.H613/14 a.o. intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha - 1718 1848 4000 - 1481 1848 3500 Fertilizer: N kg/ha - - 7.6 - - 8.4 P O kg/ha - 49.6 57.5 - 55.3 57.5 2 5 ------K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha - - 5.0 - - 5.0

229 82 KIAMBU & THIKA

However, the yield of maize remains low either because they apply inadequate dosage or majority simply do not apply fertiliser or manure (Table 20). Farmers need to understand that without investing in soil in terms of fertiliser and manure application, crop yields will continue dwindling in this Subzone, hence threatening the food security situation.

Subzone UM 1, f l i m of the Upper Midland Coﬀee - Tea Zone

This is theCoffee – Tea Zone with a fully long cropping season, intermediate rains, and a medium one as typified by Karinga sub-location of Thika district. The lengths of the growing period for the long and medium cropping season exceeded in 6 out of 10 years are 180 or more and 130 – 140 days, respectively. Average annual rainfall is between 1300 - 1600 mm. The 66 % reliability of rainfall during the first rainy season (March – May) and the second rainy season (October – December) is between 700 - 850 mm and 400 - 480 mm, respectively. The dominant soils are ando-humic Nitisols with humic Andosols.

The average household farm size in this Subzone is 1.37 ha. The current annual staple food crops grown in order of importance are: maize, beans, arrow roots, sweet potatoes and yams. The kales are important vegetables for both household consumption and cash income earner. The fruits grown include: bananas, avocado, pineapples, mangoes and passion fruits. The non-fruit permanent crops grown in order of importance include: coffee, woodlot products and macadamia, (Table 19e). Macadamia is a crop that is steadily increasing in importance in this Subzone and farmers reported better returns from it. Over 80 per cent of the cattle kept by farmers are of improved type and mostly under zero grazing. There is evidence that farmers do apply inputs, particularly on crops in this Subzone (Table 18e). Farmers need to be encouraged to double their efforts in restoring soil fertility so as to reap maximum returns from agriculture. The maize yields reported by farmers (Table 20e) are below the agroecological potential of this Subzone. One would expect at least over 5000 kg/ha maize yields in this Subzone during the first rains season.

230 KIAMBU & THIKA 83

TABLE 20e: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) OF ZONE 80ÀLPRB 1 Survey Area 120 (Karinga) AEZ: UM 1 COFFEE - TEA ZONE Sub-zone: flim (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season: 180 or more; Crop, Yields3) and 2nd rainy season: 130 - 140) Inputs Unit with predom. Soil: RB 1 = ando-humic NITOSOLS; with humic ANDOSOLS Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season: 2nd rainy season: 400 – 520 mm in 700 – 900 mm at least 10 out 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level Maize local pure I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) stand Yields3) kg/ha - Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize Var.H613/14 a.o. Yields3) kg/ha - * 3913 6000 - * 2348 5000 Fertilizer: N kg/ha - 49.9 52.5 - 49.9 52.5

P2O5 kg/ha ------K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha ------

Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha ------Fertilizer: N kg/ha ------

P2O5 kg/ha ------K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha ------

Maize Var.H613/14 a.o. intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha - * 2090 4500 - * 1398 3500 Fertilizer: N kg/ha 0 18.8 26.8 0 19.6 30.2 P O kg/ha - 9.1 10.2 - - - 2 5 ------K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha - 30.3 31.3 - 31.5 35.3

231 84 KIAMBU & THIKA

Subzone UM 2, m/l i m/s of the Upper Midland Main Coﬀee Zone

This is the Main Coﬀee Zone with a medium to long cropping season, intermediate rains, and a medium to short one as found in Ritho sub-location, Gatundu division of Thika district. The 60 % reliability of the length of cereal and legume growing period during the 1st and 2nd rainy seasons is > 160 and 115 – 135 days, respectively. The average annual rainfall is between 1100 - 1400 mm. The 66 % reliability of rainfall during the ﬁrst rainy season (March – May) and the second rainy season (October – February) is between 520 - 700 mm and 300 - 400 mm, respectively. The dominant soils are well drained extremely deep, dark reddish brown to dark brown humic Nitosols.

The current household farm size is 1.05 ha. The food crops grown in order of importance are: maize, beans, irish potatoes, arrow roots and sweet potatoes. The vegetables grown are cabbages, tomatoes and capsicum. The permanent cash crops are coﬀee, bananas, passion fruits, avocado, macadamia and wattle trees (sold for posts). Macadamia, a recently introduced crop that is gaining prominence in this Subzone because of good market prices and hence stable cash returns. The passion fruits too have good market prices because of the increased demand. Farmers need to invest more in repleshing the fertility of their soils if the sustainability of food production is to be guaranteed. The low maize yields reported in Table 20f, for example, are a reﬂection of inadequate soil nutrients. Over 90 % of the livestock is of improved quality (mainly dairy) under zero grazing. One would expect farmers to apply a lot of the manure coming from their zero grazing sheds on their farms to improve productivity.

232 KIAMBU & THIKA 85

TABLE 20f: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) OF ZONE UM 2, m/l i m/s, RB 2 Survey Area 121 (Ritho) AEZ: UM 2 MAIN COFFEE ZONE Subzone: m/l i m/s (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season: 160 or more; Crop, Yields3) and 2nd rainy season: 115 - 135) Inputs Unit with predom. Soil: RB 2 = humic NITOSOLS Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season 2nd rainy season: 250 – 380 mm in 480 – 680 mm at least 10 out 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level Maize local pure I=low II=med.4) III= high5) AEU Pot.6) I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) stand Yields3) kg/ha - Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize Var.HB513 or Pioneer Yields3) kg/ha ------Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha ------Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha

Maize Var.H513 intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha - - 2445 4500 - - 2302 3500 Fertilizer: N kg/ha - - 10.1 - - 10.1

P2O5 kg/ha ------K2O kg/ha - - 21.9 - - 21.9 Manure t/ha - - 30.0 - - 30.0

233 86 KIAMBU & THIKA

Subzone LM 4, s/vs + s/vs of the Lower Midland Marginal Cotton Zone

This is the Marginal Cotton Zone with two short to very short cropping seasons as exempliﬁed in Ngoliba sub- location, Thika municipality of Thika district. The 60 % reliability of the length of cereal and legume growing period during the 1st and 2nd rainy seasons are both 75 – 85 days. The average annual rainfall is between 800 - 900 mm. The 66 % reliability of rainfall during the ﬁrst rainy season (March – May) and the second rainy season (October – February) is between 250 - 320 mm and 200 - 250 mm, respectively. The dominant soils are well drained rhodic and orthic Ferralsols.

This is the most diverse Subzone among those surveyed in both Kiambu and Thika districts in terms of the existing cropping enterprises. The average household farm size is 2.22 ha (Table 18g). This farm size is large compared to that found in other Subzones surveyed in both Kiambu and Thika districts. From the list of crops grown in this Subzone (Table 19g), it can be seen that over thirty crops are grown here. Farmers appear to have specialized in the growing of high value horticultural crops that bring in more cash income. Among the horticultural crops grown include: French beans and Asian vegetables (brinjals, buret, capsicum, courgettes, hot pepper). Maize is still the most important staple food crops with very interesting intercrops being practised. For example, maize is intercropped with beans, pigeon peas, irish potatoes, pumpkins, sweet potatoes and cowpeas). The reported yields of maize are far below optimum (Table 20). Given that farmers are growing a large number of crops on their farms, the likelihood of soil nutrient mining by these crops is very real. The soils are exploited all year round without adequate replenishment of the nutrients by using both inorganic and organic fertilizers. Eﬀorts to increase food production will be hampered in future if farmers fail to seriously address the issue of investing in integrated soil fertility management technologies.

The vegetables grown in this Subzone for both home consumption and cash income include: tomatoes, cabbages, kales and onions. Food crop cultivated by the farmers are: beans, dolichos lab lab (Njahi), pigeon peas, pumpkins, cowpeas, yams, sweet potatoes, cassava and sorghum. The permanent cash crops grown include: bananas, mangoes, karella tindori, warori, oranges, passion, paw paws, avocado, citrus and lemons. Tobacco too is one of the cash crops grown in this Subzone. The livestock composition is dominated by poultry, which includes both local and exotic. More exotic chicken are kept for their meat and eggs, which ﬁnd a ready market in the nearby Thika town and in Nairobi city.

234 KIAMBU & THIKA 87

TABLE 20g: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) OF ZONE LM 4, s/vs + s/vs, UU 1 Survey Area 122 (Ngoliba) AEZ: LM 4: MARGINAL COTTON ZONE Subzone: s/vs + s/vs (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season: 75 – 85, 2nd rainy season: 75 - 85) 3) Crop, Yields Unit with predom. Soil: UU 1 = rhodic and orthic FERRALSOLS; with ferralo -chromic/ and Inputs orthic/ferric ACRISOLS Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season 2nd rainy season: 250 – 300 mm in 320 – 400 mm at least 10 out 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level Maize local pure I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) stand Yields3) Kg/ha - Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Improved maize Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha ------Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha

Maize Var.H513/ PIONEER intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha 1140 - 1821 4000 873 - 1569 3000 Fertilizer: N kg/ha 0 - 16.7 0 - 16.7

P2O5 kg/ha 0 - 15.2 0- - 15.2 K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha 0.5 - 14.5 0.5 - 14.5

235 88 KIAMBU & THIKA

236 KIAMBU & THIKA 89

3.3.6 FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPORTANT AGRO-ECOLOGICAL UNITS

The Fertiliser Use Recommendation Project of the GTZ (1986 - 92) had one trial site in the former Ki- ambu district, on Nitisols at Githunguri in UM 1-2 but another at the neighbouring National Agricultural Research Laboratories in UM 2 on less acid Nitisols. For the other zones, subzones and units Muriuki and Qureshi showed which results from other districts could be representative (see map of Fertiliser Recom- mendations and Farm Survey Areas) and made curves for fertiliser response1.

Recommended rates of an AEU increase into a wetter subzone and decrease towards the drier one if the soil unit extends there (see dark and light grey shades in the small maps). We have tended to lower the rates due to the low ﬁnancial basis of the smallholder farmers. The optimum can be calculated from the curve formulas in Muriuki & Qureshi Fertiliser Use Manual, KARI, Nairobi 2001. In the long run the sustainability amount must be given to maintain the nutrient content. Some quantities for it can be seen at the end of this chapter and in the chapter 3.1 General Remarks.

Higher recommendations are given in the Smallholder Farming Handbook of the IRACC and MSS, Nai- robi 1997, but the economical investment and risk is too high for the local farmers here. A rural small credit system for the inputs could help a great deal. Where scientific sources for quantifying the rates are lacking, some conclusions can be drawn from the difference of inputs and yields between the low and high production levels of the Small Farm Survey 2004. An empty column “Other Nutrients Recommended” does not mean that there is nothing to be applied but it is because of lack of trial data. Plant physical signs of nutrient deficiencies and methods of alleviating it can be seen in Muriuki, A.W. and Qureshi, J.N. (2001), Table 1&2, p.22-23.

Finally it must be mentioned again that fertilising alone will increase the yields only in the short term. The micronutrients not included in the fertiliser become exhausted in due course. Manuring almost up to the full return of the extracted nutrients is a must in order to have a stable agrobiological system with continuous production2.

On the other hand even macronutrients like potassium (K) which is assumed to be enough in the soil, must be given in the long run because 1 t of maize needs 23 kg K, 1 t of sorghum even 45 kg, 1 t of groundnuts 50 kg. Cassava is less demanding, only 7 kg K per t, but needs additionally 2 kg of cobalt (Co) and 1 kg of magnesium (Mg) 3.

237 90 KIAMBU & THIKA

238 KIAMBU & THIKA 91

TABLE 21a: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT LH1 p or l/vl^m, RB1 of the TEA and DAIRY ZONE Av. Yield Av. Yield Av. Exp. Yield Increase if 5 t/ha Crop varieties and + Response- Recommended Increase if Other Nutrients Fertiliser Rates this Rate is Manure are Recommended Season curve kg/ha Applied 1) Applied kg/ha kg/ha kg/ha First Rainy Season Hybrid maize 1500 + none – – ca. 500 Lime (ph ~ 4.5) Hybr. maize & beans 680 + 12.3 N 50 N 615 maize * Some rock Second Rainy S. Hybrid maize 2300 + none – – ca. 700 Lime (ph ~ 4.5) Some rock Hybr. maize & beans 1230 + none – – * phosphate Both seasons Potatoes 4860 + 7.5 NP 50 N + 20 P 7500 ca. 1500 Lime Cabbages 4600 + 500 P 30 P 15000 ca. 5000 Lime 2t o Perennial crops

2) 300 N + 70 P + Tea 50 K 5000 Copper, Zinc Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 124; conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004

1) Double rates will bring almost double increase if climate is suitable and there are no pests and diseases. 2) See also recommendations of local Tea Authority and of IRACC: Smallholder Farming Handbook for Self Employment, Nairobi 1997, p. 174, for rates in 1st, 2nd, and 3rd year after planting; * No data available.

239 92 KIAMBU & THIKA

TABLE 21b: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT /+ÀLP, RB2 of the TEA and DAIRY ZONE Av. Yield Av. Yield Av. Exp. Yield Recommended Increase if Increase if 5 t/ha Crop varieties and + Response- Fertiliser Rates this Rate is Manure are Other Nutrients Season curve 3) Recommended kg/ha kg/ha Applied Applied kg/ha kg/ha First Rainy Season Hybrid maize 11301) + 14.2 P 75 P 1065 420 Lime Hybr. maize & beans 11901)+ 12.3 P 75 P 920 maize ? Lime Second Rainy S. Hybrid maize 14751) + 12.3 P 75 P 1815 ? Lime Hybr. maize & beans 11801) + 15.4 P 75 P 1815 maize ? Both seasons 3870 + Cabbages 60 P 13560 ca. 7500 Lime 352 P - 2.1 P2- 7470 + Potatoes 57.7 N - 0.8 N2 25 N + 75 P 5200 ? Lime + 58 P Perennial crops

Tea 2) 300 N + 70 P + 50 K ca. 5000

Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 124; IRACC: Smallholder Farming Handbook for Self Employment, Nairobi 1997, p. 174; conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004; KARI and GTZ: Fertil. Use Recomm. of the FURP Project, Vol. 4 Kiambu District, Nairobi ca. 1995 1) Poor experimental yields due to wrong varieties. Farmers report a threefold yield. 2) See also recommendations of local Tea Authority and of IRACC: Smallholder Farming Handbook for Self Employment, Nairobi 1997, p. 174, for rates in 1st, 2nd, and 3rd year after planting. 3)$SSO\WRJHWKHUZLWK3IRUPD[LPXPEHQH¿W

240 KIAMBU & THIKA 93

TABLE 21c: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT 80ÀLP, RB2 of the TEA-COFFEE ZONE

Av. Exp. Yield Av. Yield Av. Yield Crop varieties and + Response- Recommended Increase if Increase if 5 t/ha Other Nutrients Fertiliser Rates this Rate is Manure are Season curve 1) Recommended kg/ha kg/ha Applied Applied kg/ha kg/ha First Rainy Season 3200 + 20 N + Hybrid maize 13.5 P 75 N + 50 P 2150 ca. 500 Some lime Hybr. maize & beans 3550 + 0.3 NP 50 N + 50 P 730 maize * Second Rainy S. 3120 + 11.3 P + Hybrid maize 0.2 NP 50 N + 60 P 1165 * 2450 + 6.2 N + Hybr. maize & beans 17.6 P 25 N + 50 P 1030 maize * Both seasons 4000 + Cabbages 60 P 13560 ca. 7500 352 P - 2.1 P2 Perennial crops

Tea 2) 300 N + 70 P + 50 K ca. 5000 * Coffee 150 N + 100 P ca. 1000 *

Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 124; IRACC: Smallholder Farming Handbook for Self Employment, Nairobi 1997, p. 147 & 174; conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004

1)$SSO\$SSO\WRJHWKHUZLWK3IRUPD[LPXPEHQH¿W WRJHWKHU ZLWK 3 IRU PD[LPXP EHQH¿W 2) See also recommendations of local Tea Authority and of IRACC: Smallholder Farming Handbook for Self Employment, Nairobi 1997, p. 174, for rates in 1st,2nd, and 3rd year after planting; * No data available.

TABLE 21d: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT UM2 m + s/m, RB2 of the MAIN COFFEE ZONE Av. Yield Av. Yield Av. Exp. Yield Increase if 5 t/ha Crop varieties and + Response- Recommended Increase if Other Nutrients Fertiliser Rates this Rate is Manure are Recommended Season curve kg/ha Applied 1) Applied kg/ha kg/ha kg/ha First Rainy Season 3175 + 19.9 N Hybrid maize + 13.5 P 75 N + 50 P 2150 ca. 450 Some lime Hybr. maize & beans 3545 + 0.29 NP 50 N + 50 P 725 maize * Second Rainy S. 3100 + 11.3 P + Hybrid maize 0.19 NP 50 N + 50 P 1040 * 2450 + 6.2 N + Hybr. maize & beans 17.6 P 25 N + 50 P 1030 maize * Perennial crops Coffee 150 N + 100 P ca. 1000 * Napier grass 9470 + 0.56 NP not econ. 2) *

Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 124; IRACC: Smallholder Farming Handbook for Self Employment, Nairobi 1997, p. 147; conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004

1)$SSO\$SSO\WRJHWKHUZLWK3IRUPD[LPXPEHQH¿W WRJHWKHU ZLWK 3 IRU PD[LPXP EHQH¿W 2) Better to use manure; * No data available

241 94 KIAMBU & THIKA

TABLE 21e: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT UM2 m/l i m/s, RB2 3) of the MAIN COFFEE ZONE Av. Yield Av. Exp. Yield Av. Yield Recommended Increase if Increase if 5 t/ha Crop varieties and + Response- Manure are Other Nutrients Season curve Fertiliser Rates this Rate is Recommended kg/ha Applied 1) Applied kg/ha kg/ha kg/ha First Rainy Season Hybrid maize 1130 + 14.2 P 50 P 2) 710 ca. 500 2) Hybr. maize & beans 1190 + 12.3 P 50 P 2) 615 maize * Second Rainy S. Hybrid maize 1470 + 0.15 NP 50 N + 50 P 2) 375 ca. 400 2) Hybr. maize & beans 1180 + 15.4 P 50 P 2) 770 maize * Both seasons 390 + Cabbages 50 P 12350 ca. 7500 2) 352 P - 2.1 P2 7470 + Potatoes 57.7 N - 0.8 N2 50 N + 50 P 3785 * + 58 P Perennial crops Coffee 150 N + 100 P ca. 1000 * Napier grass 9570 + 0.56 NP not economical *

Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 124; IRACC: Smallholder Farming Handbook for Self Employment, Nairobi 1997, p. 147; conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004

1) Double rates will bring almost double increase if climate is suitable and there are no pests and diseases. 2)$SSO\SKRVSKDWHDQGRUJDQLFPDQXUHWRJHWKHUIRUPD[LPXPEHQH¿W 3) A poorer local soil quality in the macro-unit RB 2. Places with higher initial yields may tend to Table 21d which is derived from Nat. Agr. Res. Lab., which have all conditions optimized.; * No data available

242 KIAMBU & THIKA 95

TABLE 21f: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT UM3 m/s + s, RB3 of the MARG. COFFEE ZONE

Av. Exp. Yield Av. Yield Av. Yield Crop varieties and + Response- Recommended Increase if Increase if 5 t/ha Fertiliser Rates this Rate is Manure are Other Nutrients Season curve Recommended kg/ha kg/ha Applied Applied kg/ha kg/ha First Rainy Season 970 + 170, together Hybrid maize 34.2 N - 0.27 N2 75 N + 25 P 1230 with 50 N & 50 P Lime + 7.4 P 1250 Hybr. maize & beans 1014 + 0.25 NP not economical *

Second Rainy S. 960 + 9 N KCB maize + 0.2 NP 25 N 225 * KCB maize & beans 852 + 0.24 NP not economical *

Perennial crops * Coffee 130 N + 80 P ca. 750 *

Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 126; IRACC: Smallholder Farming Handbook for Self Employment, Nairobi 1997, p. 147; conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004; * No data available

TABLE 21g: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT LH3 s/m + (s/vs) & s/m + (vs/s), RB3 of the WHEAT/MAIZE-BARLEY ZONE Av. Yield Av. Yield Av. Exp. Yield Increase if 5 t/ha Crop varieties and + Response- Recommended Increase if Other Nutrients Fertiliser Rates this Rate is Manure are Recommended Season curve kg/ha Applied Applied kg/ha kg/ha kg/ha First Rainy Season 970 + Hybrid maize 34 N - 0.27 N2+ 75 N + 25 P 1220 ca. 200 * 7.4 P Hybr. maize & beans 1000 + 0.25 NP not economical * Second Rainy S. 950 + 9 N + KCB maize in (s/vs) 0.2 NP 25 N 225 KCB maize & beans 850 + 0.24 NP not economical *

Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 126; conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004 * No data available

243 96 KIAMBU & THIKA

244 KIAMBU & THIKA 97

TABLE 21h: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNITS UM4 s/m + s, s + s & s + s/vs, LBC and LB1 of the SUNFLOWER-MAIZE ZONE Av. Yield Av. Yield Av. Exp. Yield Recommended Increase if Increase if 5 t/ha Crop varieties and + Response- Fertiliser Rates this Rate is Manure are Other Nutrients Season curve kg/ha Applied Applied Recommended kg/ha kg/ha kg/ha First Rainy Season

KCB maize 965 + 0.3 NP not economical ca. 200 * 420 + 6.6 P + KCB maize & cowp. 0.1 NP not economical 1455 + 8.2 P + Sorghum 0.4 NP 25 N + 25 P 455 ca. 250 * Second Rainy S.

KCB maize 950 + 0.3 NP not economical ca. 200

KCB maize & beans *

Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 132; conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004 * No data available

245 246 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 1

3.4 MURANG’A AND MARAGUA DISTRICTS GROUP

TABLE OF CONTENTS District Page

3.4.1 Natural Potential 3 Introduction 3 Annual Rainfall Map 4 Table 1: Annual Rainfall 5 Table 2: Temperature 6 Table 3: Potential Evapotranspiration 6 Seasonal Rainfall Maps 7 Table 4: Climate in the Agro-Ecological Zones and Subzones 9 Agro-Ecological Zones Map 10 Agro-Ecological Zones and Subzones (=Legend to the AEZ Map), with Land Use Potentials and Water Availability & Requirement Diagrams 11 Soil Map 18 Soil Distribution, Fertility and Major Characteristics with Legend to the Soil Map 19

3.4.2 Population and Land 21

Murang’a District Table 5: Population in Murang’a District 21 Table 6: Composition of Households in Murang’a District 23 Table 7: Available Land Area in Murang’a District per AEZ and Household 26 Maragua District Table 8 Population in Maragua District 27 Table 9: Composition of Households in Maragua District 29 Table 10: Available Land Area in Maragua District per AEZ and Household 32

3.4.3 Agricultural Statistics 33 Development and Trends of Major Cash Crops in Murang’a District 33 Table 11: Coﬀee 33 Table 12: Tea 34 Table 13: Pyrethrum 35 Development and Trends of Major Cash Crops in Maragua District 36 Table 14: Coﬀee 36 Table 15: Tea 36 Distribution of Farming Activities During the Year 37 Tables 16 a-o: Farming Activities in the Agro-Ecological Zones 37

247 2 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

3.4.4 Farm Survey 45 Table 17: Farm Survey Sites Representative of the Dominating Agro-Ecological Subzones and Units 45 Farm Survey Areas and Fertiliser Recommendations Map 47 Tables 18 a-i: Assets, Land Use, Farming Intensity and Inputs 48 Tables 19 a-i: Cropping Pattern 57

3.4.5 Introduction to the Actual Land Use Systems and to the Potential Intensiﬁcation by Better Farm Management in Dominating Agro-Ecological Subzones 68

Tables 20 a-i: Increase of Yields by Better Farm Management 69-86 Maragua District LH1 p or l/vl^m of the Tea and Dairy Zone 68 UM2 m/l i m/s of the Main Coffee Zone 71 UM3 m/s + s of the Marginal Coffee Zone 74 UM4 s/m + s of the Sunflower-Maize Zone 76 LM4 s + s/vs of the Marginal Cotton Zone 78 Murang’a District UH1 p or l/vl^m of the Sheep and Dairy Zone 80 UM1 p or l/vl^m of the Tea and Coffee Zone 82 UM2 m/l i m/s of the Main Coffee Zone 84 LM3 s + s of the Cotton Zone 85

3.4.6 Fertiliser and Manure Recommendations for Important Agro-Ecological Units 87 Map of Important Agro-Ecological Units 88 Tables 21 a-f: Fertiliser and Manure Recommendations: 89-95

LH1 p or l/vl^m, MV2 and RB1 of the Tea and Dairy Zone 89 UM1 p or fl^m & flim,RB2 of the Tea and Coffee Zone 90 UM2 m/l i m/s, RB2 of the Main Coffee Zone 90 UM3 m/s + s, RB3 of the Marginal Coffee Zone 92 UM4 s/m + s, RB3 of the Sunflower-Maize Zone 92 LM3 s + s, LB2 of the Cotton Zone 94

248 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 3

3.4.1 NATURAL POTENTIAL

INTRODUCTION

Murang‘a and Maragua districts, on the eastern slopes of the Aberdare Range, show an upward increase in rainfall and in the length of the agro-humid period which is characteristic of increasing altitudes, due to the eﬀect of the south-eastern trade winds. The annual average rainfall reaches a maximum of 2 700 mm at 2 500 m. From this altitude up to the forest line and down to about 2 200 m, it is so wet, cold and steep that the area is not recommended for agriculture (UH 0). A strip of UH 1 extends further down to the 150 C isotherme, (here due to heavy cloud cover exceptionally low at about 2 050 m) and generally known as the Sheep and Dairy Zone, though in view of the population pressure, vegetable cultivation would be more appropriate.

The next zones are found in descending order on the eastern slopes of the Aberdare Range: theTea-Dairy Zone LH 1, the Coffee-Tea Zone UM 1, the Main Coffee Zone UM 2, the Marginal Coffee Zone UM 3, and the Sunflower-Maize Zone UM 4 which is partly a sisal zone due to large estates. A stripe of UM 3-4 occurs towards the east near Makuyu, although on less suitable soils which are very marginal for coffee. Additional irrigation is essential here.

Down on the plains where cotton production is feasible - the upper limit is already about 1 300 m due to reduced insolation because of extended cloudiness - the climate is so dry (annual average 800-900 mm) that the good Cotton Zone LM 3 is little more than a transitional strip to the Marginal Cotton Zone LM 4.

249 4 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

250 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 5

TABLE 1: RAINFALL FIGURES FROM SELECTED TYPICAL STATIONS HAVING AT LEAST 15 YEARS Agro Ecol. Annual Monthly rainfall in mm No. and Kind of Name of Station Zone & rainfall altitude records JFMAMJJASOND Subzone mm 9036052 Githumu LH 1 Average 1802 55 66 137 408 307 81 56 54 63 184 258 133 2100 m Sec. School p or l/vl^m 66% rel. 1 1370 49 9 80 112 220 25 23 6 4 15 240 75 9036104 Murang‘a UM 1 Av. 1707 48 47 126 418 318 65 50 56 48 172 255 104 1760 m Muriranja´s Hosp.Hosp. SRUÀAP 66%2 1588 22 12 65 248 240 44 33 40 34 88 180 63 9036106 Murang’a LH 1 Av. 2123 70 53 131 470 392 99 81 86 76 262 268 135 2051 m Kanyenyaini p or l/vl^m 66%2 1910 45 37 104 305 355 79 60 65 53 190 200 89 9036212 Murang’a LH 1 Av. 2215 82 71 153 476 393 116 77 76 82 243 280 166 2130 m Exp. Farm p or l/vl^m 66%3 9036248 Njiris LH 1 Av. 2206 73 85 171 469 377 87 64 65 61 250 341 163 2130 m High School p or l/vl^m 66%3 9036291 Kiriaini UM 1 Av. 1600 45 44 104 351 332 78 68 54 62 215 163 84 1905 m Chief´s Camp ÀLP 66%3 9036293 Kihoya LH 1 Av. 2015 74 68 131 477 372 100 83 75 71 212 223 129 1962 m Chief´s Camp p or l/vl^m 66%3 9036302 Githiga W. LH 1 Av. 1806 56 51 142 422 347 67 59 45 47 186 300 84 1980 m Macharia Farm p or l/vl^m 66%3 9036314 North LH 1 Av. 2339 87 91 184 420 444 170 149 136 105 190 253 110 1978 m Mathioya Camp p or l/vl^m 66%3 9036315 Tuso LH 1 Av. 2300 88 80 180 454 426 113 73 79 77 263 304 163 2100 m Camp p or l/vl^m 66%3 9037001 Makuyu UM 4 Av. 959 38 36 110 241 130 21 12 11 15 80 185 80 1535 m Sisal Limited s/m + s 66%2 850168772007886624515342 9037005 Thika, UM 2-3 Av. 1052 37 48 115 257 151 34 20 20 26 87 171 86 1520 m Githumbwini Est. m + s/m 66%1 960 13 14 60 218 108 17 9 13 8 50 125 51 9037007 Murang’a UM 3 Av. 1198 34 41 107 316 202 43 21 23 26 125 188 72 1275 m 'LVWULFW2I¿FH m/s + s 66%2 1050 10 9 55 283 144 20 12 13 12 70 145 33 9037018 Punda Milia UM 3-4 Av. 1028 34 44 104 276 150 22 9 12 10 80 198 89 1430 m Coop Society Ltd. m/s + s 66%2 9003016502159083326514045 9037028 Mwitumberia UM 3-4 Av. 1038 41 38 114 263 127 19 7 9 12 93 214 101 1490 m Estate m/s + s 66%2 865138682208573345017240 9037037 Murang’a, Tana LM 4 Av. 890 32 32 87 207 148 21 8 14 13 89 175 64 1060 m River Power Stn. s/vs + vs/s 66%2 7601710621809082434515536 9037042 Kahuhia Girls UM 1 Av. 1546 42 46 115 397 287 54 47 45 39 163 237 74 1630 m Sec. School ÀLP 66%1 1490 20 35 50 285 205 50 40 15 30 89 205 32 9037063 Murang’a Mugoiri UM 2-(1) Av. 1539 38 42 122 393 267 49 36 44 37 181 242 88 1520 m Girls School m/l i m/s 66%3 9037109 Murang’a UM 3 Av. 1280 39 46 98 342 219 35 24 23 23 147 214 70 1310 m Water Supply m/s + s 66%3 9037143 Makuyu UM 4 Av. 979 29 41 110 265 124 26 10 7 11 107 200 49 1360 m 'LVWULFW2I¿FH s/m + s 66%3 9037192 Ithanga UM 3-LM 4 Av. 1009 34 41 141 290 80 23 2 3 13 88 215 79 1262 m Chief´s Centre m/s + s 66%3 9037204 Kahuro District UM 1 Av. 1639 33 33 139 384 324 63 43 22 52 231 219 96 1512 m 2I¿FHUV2I¿FH ÀLP 66%3

251 6 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

TABLE 2: TEMPERATURE DATA

Temperature in°C No. and Name of AEZ1 Kind of Belt altitude Station records J F M A M J J A S O N D Yr. limits

Mean max. 20,3 21,0 20,5 19,2 17,9 16,5 14,9 15,1 17,7 18,7 18,2 19,3 18,3 3000 m Kimakia UH 9036233 Mean temp. 13,4 14,1 14,4 14,2 13,3 11,9 11,0 10,9 12,1 13,3 13,3 13,2 12,9 Forest Station 2439 m UH 0 2240 m (Thika D.) Mean min. 6,4 7,1 8,2 9,2 8,7 7,3 7,0 6,7 6,4 7,9 8,3 7,0 7,5 Abs. min. 0,0 0,5 0,3 4,0 3,5 1,4 0,1 0,2 0,3 1,5 1,6 0,3 1,1 LH

Mean max. 29.8 31.8 30.8 28.9 28.0 27.3 26.5 26.6 29.4 30.4 28.5 28.5 28.9 1290 m 9037037 Tana Power Mean temp. 21.9 23.5 24.0 23.4 22.4 21.7 20.7 20.9 22.6 23.9 22.8 23.1 22.4 LM LM 4 1060 m Station Mean min. 13.9 15.6 17.1 17.8 16.8 15.6 14.8 15.1 15.7 17.4 17.1 15.6 16.0 850 m Abs. min. 5.6 10.6 12.2 10.0 8.3 9.2 8.2 6.7 8.6 9.4 9.2 7.5 5.6 IL

1 AEZ = Agro-ecological zone

TABLE 3: AVERAGE POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION Average Potential Evapotranspiration PET in mm Av. Rainfall Type1) No. and Name of Station altitude AEZ Year % J F M A M J J A S O N D Year in mm of PET

9037096 Sagana Fish Cul- UM- 148 147 160 131 126 105 100 111 100 149 127 137 1539 1180 77% 1312 m ture Farm (Kir. D.) LM 3

252 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 7

253 8 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

254 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 9

TABLE 4: CLIMATE IN THE AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

LH 1 Tea-Dairy p or l/vl^m 1730-2130 18.0-15.0 1700-2400 850-1300 480-680 210 or more 140-155 350-365 Zone

UM 1 p or l/vl^m 1700-1900 800-1100 500-580 210 or more 140-155 350-365 Coffee-Tea 1670-1800 18.8-18.0 Zone ÀLP 1500-1700 700-900 400-520 180 or more 130-140 310-340

UM 2 m/l i m/s 1300-1620 550-820 320-480 160 or more 110-130 270-300 Main Coffee 1500-1670 19.7-18.8 Zone m + s/m 1180-1400 450-650 280-400 130-160 105-115 –

UM 3 m/s+s 900-1350 350-650 230-380 110-130 90-100 – Marginal 1340-1500 20.7-19.7 Coffee Zone s/m + s/m 900-950 350-410 260-310 105-115 100-110 –

UM 4 s/m+s 900-1100 320-450 230-300 100-110 90-100 – 6XQÀRZHU s+s 1340-1520 20.7-19.5 850-950 280-380 220-280 90-105 90-100 – Maize Zone s + s/vs 800-850 200-280 200-230 85-100 75-85 – LM 3 s/m+s Very small, see Kirinyaga District 1160-1340 21.7-20.8 Cotton Zone s+s 980-1100 390-490 270-320 85-105 85-100 – LM 4 s + s/vs 900-1000 350-450 250-280 85-100 75-85 – Marginal 1060-1160 22.3-21.7 Cotton Zone s/vs + vs/s 890-950 320-400 230-250 75-85 65-75 –

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256 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 11

AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES AND SUBZONES

TA = TROPICAL-ALPINE ZONES

TA I II = Tropical-Alpine Moor- and Heathlands Here National Park Limited grazing potential UH = UPPER HIGHLAND ZONES UH 0 = Forest Zone UH 1 = Sheep and Dairy Zone UH 1 = Sheep and Dairy Zone or Vegetable Zone p or l/vl^m with permanent cropping possibilities, dividable in a long to very long cropping season followed by a medium one Upper places very steep and too important as a catchment area, therefore Forest Reserve on National Park. Small strip of outside lower places cleared, there: Good yield potential (av. 60-80 % of the optimum) 1st rainy season, start norm. mid March: Oats (April- Sep.); horse beans, peas, tarwi, potatoes1) (m. S. – m. Jan.); late mat. rapeseed; kales, cabbage, carrots, kohlrabi, celery, radish, endive, rampion, leek 2nd rainy season, start norm. mid Oct.: Oats (Oct.-Feb.); peas, potatoes1); med. mat. rapeseed, vegetables as in 1st rainy season Fair yield potential (av. 40-60% of the optimum) 1st rainy season: Very late mat. maize (lower places), late mat. triticale 2nd rainy season: Med. mat. triticale Whole year: Pyrethrum, pears, plums

Pasture and forage About 0.5 ha/LU on secondary pasture of Kikuyu grass; very suitable for grade dairy cows; Kenya white clover and other forage (see Table X) to improve stocking rate LH = LOWER HIGHLAND ZONES LH 1 = Tea - Dairy Zone LH 1 = Tea – Dairy Zone p or l/vl^m with permanent cropping possibilities dividable in a long to very long cropping season followed by a medium one Very good yield potential (av. over 80% of the optimum) 1st rain season, norm. mid March: Peas, cabbages, lettuce 2nd rainy season, start norm. b. of Oct.: Peas Good yield potential 1st rainy (to 2nd) season: Potatoes (e. of Feb. - July), Late mat. maize H612-14, 625 (~60%, best pl. time June- Dec/Jan.), Lima beans, carrots, leeks, kales, endive, spinach 2nd rainy season: Potatoes (m. Sep.- m. Jan.); cabbages, carrots, kales, lettuce, spinach Whole year, best pl. time mid March: Tea (high quality), loquats, passion fruits (lower places) Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: M. mat. maize, m. mat. beans2) (two times, 2nd time in Gathano rains July – Oct.)6) 2nd rainy season: Late mat. maize like HB 624 (best pl. time June - Dec./Jan.), m. mat. beans, leek Whole year: Pyrethrum (too wet), plums, pears Pasture and forage Around 0.4 ha/LU on secondary pasture of Kikuyu grass, very suitable for grade dairy cows; Kenya white clover for higher productivity a. o. (see Table X)

257 12 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

UM = UPPER MIDLAND ZONES UM 1 = Coffee-Tea Zone

UM 1 = Coffee-Tea Zone SRUÀAP with permanent cropping possibilities, dividable in fully long cropping season followed by a medium one 6PDOOSRWHQWLDODOPRVWDV80ÀLPRQKHDY\VRLOVEXWWDURJRRGDQGIRUEHDQVVRPHWLPHV too wet. Stocking rate around 0.5 ha/LU UM 1 = Coffee-Tea Zone ÀLP with a fully long cropping season, intermediate rains, and a medium one3) Very good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. mid March: Lima beans; cabbages, kales 2nd rainy season, start norm. mid Oct. M. mat. beans (Aug.- Dec./Jan.) Whole year, best pl. time mid March: Passion fruits, black wattle Good yield potential 1st rainy season: Late mat. maize (to 2ndUDLQ\VHDVRQ ¿QJHUPLOOHW4); potatoes1), late mat. VXQÀRZHUOLNH.HQ\D:KLWHRQLRQV 2ndUDLQ\VHDVRQ6ZHHWSRWDWRHVPPDWVXQÀRZHUOLNH+\EULG6$FDEEDJHV $XJ Dec.), kales, onions, tomatoes6) Whole year: Tea, Arabica coffee, bananas, mountain paw paws, yams, loquats, avocados, arrowroots6) Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: Cold tolerant sorghum, m. mat. foxtail millet (July –Oct., seeds Meru District);, potatoes, sweet potatoes, beans; tomatoes6) 2nd rainy season: M. mat . maize (Sep.- Jan.), late mat. maize (July- Jan.), cold tol. sorghum $XJ±)HE ¿QJHUPLOOHWSRWDWRHV $XJ'HF Whole year: Citrus, taro6) , pineapples (lower places) Pasture and forage 0.5-0.6 ha/LU on secondary pasture of Kikuyu grass; down to about 0.15 ha/LU feeding Napier grass, banana stems and leaves, sweet potato vines, maize stalks a.o. (see Table X). Zero grazing recommended because land is so scarce

UM 2 = Main Coffee Zone UM 2 = Main Coffee Zone m/l i m/s with a medium to long cropping season, intermediate rains and a medium to short one5) Very good yield potential 1stUDLQ\VHDVRQVWDUWQRUPPLG0DUFK0PDWVXQÀRZHUOLNH+6$ 2nd rainy season, start norm. mid Oct.: M. mat. beans like Cuarentino (Sep./Oct. – Jan./Feb.) Whole year, best pl. time mid March: Arabica coffee, loquats, mountain paw paws Good yield potential 1st rainy season: M. mat. maize of H5..series or EMCO 92 SR, ratoon sorghum (lower pl.); m. mat. beans, potatoes1), sweet potatoes; cabbages, kales, tomatoes6), onions, French beans 2nd rainy season: E. mat. maize like Katumani comp. B, e. mat. foxtail millet, e. mat. sorghum OLNH.;VZHHWSRWDWRHV $XJ6HS-DQ HPDWVXQÀRZHUOLNH+6 P kales, cabbages, onions, tomatoes6), French beanss Whole year: Bananas, citrus, avocados, Macadamia nuts, mangoes, passion fruits, pineapples, taro in valleys, arrowroots6) Fair yield potential 2ndUDLQ\VHDVRQ0PDWPDL]H $XJ6HS-DQ)HE ¿QJHUPLOOHWHPDWSRWDWRHV Whole year: Cassava (lower places <1500m), sugar cane (lower and wet places), tea fair to marginal

258 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 13

Pasture and forage 0.6-0.8 ha/LU on secondary pasture of star grass (Cynodon dactylon) but land too valuable for grazing; down to less than 0.2 /LU feeding Napier or Bana grass, banana leaves, glycine a.o. forage (see Table X) UM 2 = Main Coffee Zone m + s/m with a medium cropping season and a short to medium one Potential almost the same as UM 2 m/l i m/s less about 10% of perennial or late maturing crops and of stocking rates because of more intensive drought; all vegetables better in valleys, coffee yields good UM 3 = Marginal Coffee Zone UM 3 = Marginal Coffee Zone m/s + s with a medium to short and a short cropping season7) (see Diagram Murang’a)

Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. mid to end of March: E. mat. maize like Katumani comp. B (lower places), m. mat. maize (higher places), ratoon of e. mat. sorghum; e. mat. beans, French EHDQVPPDWVXQÀRZHUOLNH+RQLRQVFDEEDJHV 2nd rainy season, start norm. mid Oct.: E. mat. foxtail millet; e. mat. sorghum like KARI 0WDPDHPDWVXQÀRZHUOLNH+6 Whole year: Pineapples (best pl. time end of March), Macadamia nuts, perennial castor

259 14 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

Fair yield potential 1stUDLQ\VHDVRQ0PDWPDL]H ORZHUSO PPDW¿QJHUPLOOHWPPDWEHDQV)UHQFKEHDQV potatoes, sweet potatoes; kales, tomatoes6) 2nd rainy season: Katumani maize; e. mat. beans; e. mat cabbages6), kales6), tomatoes6) :KROH \HDU $UDELFD FRIIHH ORZHU SODFHV SRRU DGGLWLRQDO LUULJDWLRQ SUR¿WDEOH EDQDQDV (lower places marginal)6), citrus, paw paws, cassava (<1500m), pigeon peas (lower pl.), mangoes Pasture and forage 0.7-1.1 ha/LU on secondary high grass savanna with zebra grass (Hyparrhenia rufa) predominant; down to less than 0.25 /LU feeding Napier or Bana grass, glycine, maize stalks, sweet potato vines and other forage (see Table X) UM 3 = Marginal Coffee Zone s/m+s/m with two short to medium cropping seasons Very small and transitional to UM 4, potential see Machakos District

UM 4 = Sunflower- Maize Zone or Upper Sisal Zone8) UM 4 = 6XQÀRZHU0DL]H=RQH s/m + s with a short to medium and a short cropping season9) (see Diagram Makuyu Sisal Est.)

260 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 15

Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. mid to end of March: E. mat. maize like Katumani comp. B, e. mat. sorghum like 2 KX 17; ratoon of e. mat. sorghumHPDWEHDQVPPDWVXQÀRZHU like H 8998 2ndUDLQ\VHDVRQVWDUWQRUPPLGRI2FW(PDWVRUJKXPOLNH6HUHQDHPDWVXQÀRZHU Whole year, best pl. time end of Oct.: Sisal, avocados Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: Finger millet; dolichos beans; potatoes (higher places), sweet potatoes; Virginia tobacco; tomatoes6), onions, cabbages6), pumpkins 2nd rainy season: E. mat. maize like Katumani comp. B, e. mat. sorghum like 2 KX 17; e. mat. beans like mwezi moja (50 - 60%); potatoes, sweet potatoes, pumpkins Whole year: Cassava (<1500m), castor, pineapples10), bananas, mangoes Pasture and forage 0.8 – 1.2 ha/LU on high grass savanna with zebra grass (Hyparrhenia rufa) predominant; down to about 0.25 ha/LU feeding Bana grass, siratro (Macroptilium atropurpureum), horse tamarind (Leucaena), maize stalks and silage (of green maize or green fodder sorghum)

UM 4 = 6XQÀRZHU0DL]H=RQH s + s with two short cropping seasons9) Crop potential almost the same as UM 4 s/m + s less about 10% yield expectations, but med. mat. maize not recommended except on very suitable soils. Stocking rates 0.9 – 1.3 ha/LU UM 4 = 6XQÀRZHU0DL]H=RQH s+s/vs with two short to very short cropping seasons Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. m./e. of March: E. mat. maize like Katumani comp. B, e. mat. sorghum like Serena (60 – 70%); e. mat. beans, e .mat. cowpeas like Kunde 1, e. mat. VXQÀRZHUOLNH+6 2nd rainy season, start norm. end of Oct.: V. e. mat. sorghum like IS 8595, e. mat. foxtail and proso millet (lower pl.) Whole year: Sisal Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: Dolichos beans, e .mat. beans; sweet potatoes; Virginia tobacco with seedbed irrigation; tomatoes, onions, e. mat. cabbages 2ndUDLQ\VHDVRQ9HPDWPDL]HOLNH'U\ODQGFRPSYHPDWEHDQVHPDWVXQÀRZHUOLNH 252 Whole year: Cassava, pineapples10), castor Pasture and forage 1 –1.5 ha/LU on medium to high grass savanna; down to less than 0.3 ha/LU feeding Bana grass, siratro, horse tamarind saltbush (Atriplex nummularia) and other forage (see Table X)

LM = LOWER MIDLAND ZONES LM 3 = Cotton Zone LM 3 = Cotton Zone s/m + s with a short to medium and a short cropping season Very small, potential see Kirinyaga District LM 3 = Cotton Zone s + s with two short cropping seasons11) Very good yield potential 2nd rainy season, start norm. mid Oct.: E. mat. proso millet like Serere I

261 16 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. end of March: E. mat. maize like Katumani comp. B, ratoon of e. mat. sorghum, e. mat. bulrush millet (awned var. recommended), e. mat. foxtail millet a HPDWEHDQVFRZSHDVFKLFNSHDVRQKEODFNVRLOVJUHHQJUDPVHPDWVXQÀRZHU like HS 345 2nd rainy season: E. mat. sorghum like 2 KX 17, e. mat. bulrush millet; green grams, cowpeas, pigeon peas (Oct. – Sep.); cotton bimodal var. on good, well drained heavy soils (b. of Oct.- $XJa HPDWVXQÀRZHU Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: M.mat. maize, dolichos beans (50 – 60%), groundnuts in light solis, e. mat. soya beans; sweet potatoes; Virginia tobacco; tomatoes, onions, capsicum 2nd rainy season: E. mat. maize like Katumani comp. B; dolichos beans, e. mat. beans, groundnuts; cotton bimodal var. on med. soils: Virginia tobacco (better with seedbed irrigation) Whole year: Cassava, pineapples, mangoes, Macadamia nuts, paw paws, passion fruits Poor yield potential 2nd rainy season: E. mat. sweet potatoes Whole year: Citrus Pasture and forage 0.8- 1.5 ha/LU on high grass savanna with Zebra grass (Hyparrhenia rufa) predominant; down to less than 0.25 ha/LU feeding Bana grass a.o. forage (see Table X)

LM 4 = Marginal Cotton Zone LM 4 = Marginal Cotton zone s + s/vs with a short and a short to very short cropping season Small, potential almost the same as LM 3 s + s but cotton marginal (except on very suitable soils) and stocking rates a little bit lower LM 4 = Marginal Cotton Zone s/vs + s/vs with two short to very short cropping seasons Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. end of March: V. e. mat. maize like Dryland comp. (on contour ridges), ratoon of e. mat. sorghum, e. mat. bulrush millet (awned var. recommended), e. mat. foxtail or proso millet; v. e. mat. beans like Katheka, v. e. mat. cowpeas like Katuli, black and green grams, chick peas (late planted on heavy black soils); v. e. mat. dwarf VXQÀRZHUrai (oilseed); v. e. mat. pumpkins 2nd rainy season, start norm. end of Oct.: The same but planting sorghum (for ratoon in the next rainy season) Whole year, best pl. time end of Oct.: Sisal, buffalo gourds (on sandy soils) and Marama beans (both still experimental), Vigna, perennial castor like C-15 Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: E. mat. maize like Katumani comp. B (on contour ridges); e. mat. beans, e. mat. soya beans, dolichos beans, e. mat. bambarra nuts (light soils); sweet potatoes; e. mat. VXQÀRZHUOLNH,VVDQNDRQLRQVWRPDWRHV 2nd rainy season: The same and cotton bimodal var. (Oct. – Aug., on good soils, otherwise poor); late. mat. pigeon peas (Oct.- Sep.) Whole year: Macadamia nuts, cassava Pasture and forage 1.5 – 3.0 ha/LU on mixed medium grass savanna with Makueni guinea (Panicum maximum) and red oats grass (Themeda triandra) predominant; if degraded reseeding with Maasai love grass (Eragrostis superba), buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris) and Makueni guinea, and planting saltbushes (Atriplex nummularia), horse tamarinds (Leucaena) and Mesquite (Prosopis MXOLÀRUD DVSDODWDEOHVKUXEVDQGDSSOHULQJDFDFLDV *DRWUHH$FDOELGD IRUSRGVDQGOHDYHV add. forage: Silage of green fodder sorghum, vines of moth beans, and other fodder crops (see Table X) LM 4 = Marginal Cotton Zone s/vs + with a short to very short and a very short to short cropping season vs/s Very small, potential see Kirinyaga District

262 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 17

End Notes 1) Spraying against fungus diseases important 2) In the 1st rainy season, sometimes rotting occur because of too wet conditions 3) On medium soils; on heavy soils permanent cropping possibilities. Given potentials refers to predominantly heavy red loams 4) Protection against fungus diseases important 5) On medium soils; on heavy soils there is a long to medium and a medium to short cropping season. Potential refers to predominantly heavy red loams 6) Better in valleys 7)2QPHGLXPVRLOVRQKHDY\VRLOV¿UVWFURSSLQJVHDVRQVDPHGLXPOHQJWKVHFRQGDVKRUWWRPHGLXP3RWHQWLDO refers to predominant heavy red loams 8) Sisal recommended for large-scale plantations only 9) On medium soils; on heavy soils, vegetation (growing) periods last about a month more in the 1st rainy season, one decade in the 2nd rainy season. Potentials refer to predominantly heavy clays except on slopes. There, full potential could be reached by contour ridging (matuta system) 10) Good or very good with additional irrigation 11)2QPHGLXPVRLOVRQKHDY\VRLOV¿UVWFURSSLQJVHDVRQVDVKRUWWRPHGLXPOHQJWK*LYHQSRWHQWLDOVUHIHUWR predominantly heavy soils

263 18 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

264 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 19

SOIL DISTRIBUTION, FERTILITY AND MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS

Extending between 36030’ E and 370 30’ E as well as 00 30’S and 10S the Greater Murang’a district straddles the Equator. Its physiography is profoundly inﬂuenced by the volcanic Aberdare Ranges in the western part of the district. Rocks of the Basement System occur in the east resulting to a prominently hilly rolling topography in the central part of the district. Moreover, it is dissected by several permanent streams, which in turn form the complex Tana-Athi drainage system. Some of the major Tana–Athi river tributaries found in Maragua district include Mathioya and Maragua.

At the highest elevation soils with varying fertility occur (Unit 5 M). At lower altitudes humic moderate to highly fertile soils units occur especially on volcanic hills (Unit 77R).

In the eastern and southern parts of Maragua district poor infertile soils are prevalent. These are mainly non- volcanic [resultant of ancient rock parent material] susceptible to landslides and erosion.

LEGEND TO THE SOIL MAP OF MURANG’A AND MARAGUA DISTRICTS

([SODQDWLRQRIWKH¿UVWFKDUDFWHU SK\VLRJUDSK\

M Mountains and Major Scarps H Hills and Minor Scarps L Plateaus and High-Level Structural Plains R Volcanic Footridges F Footslopes U Uplands, Upper, Middle and Lower Levels A Floodplains

2 Explanation of second character (lithology)

A Alluvial Sediments from Various Sources B Basic and Ultra-Basic Igneous Rocks (basalts, nepheline phonolites; older basic tuffs included) U Undifferentiated Basement System Rocks (predominantly gneisses) V Undifferentiated or Various Igneous Rocks

3 Soil descriptions

MV1 Imperfectly drained, shallow to moderately deep, dark greyish brown, very friable, acid humic to peaty, loam to clay loam, with rock outcrops and ice in the highest parts: Dystric HISTOSOLS, lithic phase, with LITHOSOLS and Rock Outcrops

HU1 Somewhat excessively drained, moderately deep, red, very friable, sandy clay loam to sand clay; in places rocky: Ferralic CAMBISOLS; with rhodic or orthic FERRALSOLS and Rock Outcrops

HUC Complex of: Excessively drained to well drained, shallow, dark red to brown, friable, sandy clay loam clay; in many places rocky, bouldery and stony in places with an acid humic topsoil: Dystric REGOSOLS, lithic phase; with LITHOSOLS, humic CAMBISOLS, lithic phase and Rock Outcrops

265 20 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

LB1 Well drained, very deep, dark red, very friable clay: Nito-rhodic FERRALSOLS

LB2 Well drained, very deep, dark reddish brown to dark brown, friable to ﬁrm, clay; in places with a humic topsoil: Verto-eutric NITISOLS; with mollic NITISOLS

LB8 Imperfectly drained, very deep, dark grey to black, ﬁrm to very ﬁrm, bouldery and stony cracking clay; in places with a calcareous, slightly saline deeper subsoil: Pellic VERTISOLS, stony phase and partly saline phase

LBC Complex of: moderately well drained, shallow, yellowish red to dark yellowish brown, gravelly clay over petroplinthite or rock (50-70%): IRONSTONE SOILS; with LITHOSOLS and: poorly drained, deep to very deep, dark brown to very dark brown, mottled, firm to very firm, cracking clay; in places moderately deep to very deep over petroplinthite: Undifferentiated VERTISOLS and vertic GLEYSOLS

RB1 Well drained, extremely deep, dark reddish brown to dark brown, friable and slightly smeary clay, with an acid humic topsoil: Ando-humic NITISOLS; with humic ANDOSOLS

RB2 Well drained, extremely deep, dusky red to dark reddish brown, friable clay, with an acid humic topsoil: Humic NITISOLS

RB3 Well drained, extremely deep, dusky red to dark reddish brown, friable clay; with inclusions of well drained, moderately deep, dark red to dark reddish brown, friable clay over rock, pisoferric or petroferric material: Eutric NITISOLS; with nito-chromic CAMBISOLS and chromic ACRISOLS and LUVISOLS, partly lithic, pisoferric or petroferric phase

FUC Complex of: somewhat excessively drained to well drained, deep to very deep, dark red to dark yellowish brown soils of varying consistence and texture; in places gravelly: Ferralic ARENOSOLS; with ferralo-chromic/orthic LUVISOLS and ACRISOLS

UU1 Well drained, moderately deep to deep, dark red to yellowish red, friable, sandy clay loam to clay: Rhodic and orthic FERRALSOS; with ferralo-chromic/orthic/ferric ACRISOLS

AA1 Well drained to imperfectly drained, very deep, brown to dark brown, friable, micaceous, slightly calcareous, sandy loam to clay loam; in places with a saline-sodic deeper subsoil: Eutric FLUVISOLS

266 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 21

3.4.2 POPULATION AND LAND

MURANG’A DISTRICT

Based on the 1999 Population and Household Census Murang’a district had a total population of 348,304. Covering an area of 930 km2 in 1999, its population density stood 375 persons/km2 representing an increase of 43.7% compared to 261 persons/km2 in 1979. With four administrative divisions namely Kiharu, Kahuro, Kangema and Mathioya portraying high densities (Table 5), it is the third most densely populated district [only surpassed by Kiambu and Maragua respectively] in Central Province. The number of persons per household stood at 4.10 in 1999 compared to 5.02 in 1979. Spatial household composition and distribution besides density are shown in Tables 5 and 6.

Excluding the Aberdare Forest, predominant agro-ecological zones include Tea- Dairy (LH 1 = 27.2%), Tea- Coﬀee (UM 1 = 34.7%), Main Coﬀee (UM 2 = 35.8%) as depicted in Table 7. Farming of both cash and food crops is the main economic livelihood.

TABLE 5: POPULATION IN MURANG’A DISTRICTS PER DIVISION, LOCATION AND SUB-LOCATION (Source: Census 1999)

DIVISION / LOCATION / Area in SUB-LOCATION Male Female Total Households km2 Density KIHARU 40,889 43,979 84,868 21,664 239.6 354 GATURI 15,881 17,666 33,547 7,945 104.2 322 Gathukiini 3,849 4,565 8,414 2,097 14.1 597 Gakuyu 3,068 3,462 6,530 1,600 18.1 361 Geitwa/Mugeka 2,688 2,915 5,603 1,348 13.3 421 Nyakiihai 2,846 3,041 5,887 1,253 24.7 238 Kimathi 3,430 3,683 7,113 1,647 34 209 GIKINDU 6,562 6,896 13,458 3,106 81.1 166 Mirira 2,378 2,595 4,973 1,149 32.5 153 Kambirwa 2,773 2,821 5,594 1,294 18.6 301 Githuri 1,411 1,480 2,891 663 30 96 MBIRI 8,261 8,567 16,828 3,859 34.1 493 Maragi 1,747 1,678 3,425 853 4.7 729 Gikandu 2,209 2,169 4,378 979 9.9 442 Muchungucha 4,305 4,720 9,025 2,027 19.5 463 TOWNSHIP 10,185 10,850 21,035 6,754 20.2 1,041 Karuri 2,294 2,630 4,924 1,758 4.3 1,145 Mukuyu 4,930 5,239 10,169 3,385 8 1,271 Njoguini 2,961 2,981 5,942 1,611 7.9 752 KAHURO 43,543 48,561 92,104 22,120 167.9 549 WEITHAGA 7,639 8,574 16,213 3,917 24.6 659 Wanjengi 3,343 3,820 7,163 1,693 9.7 738 Kahuti 2,355 2,604 4,959 1,227 8 620 Wangu 1,941 2,150 4,091 997 6.9 593 KAHUHIA 6,931 7,584 14,515 3,444 27.7 524 Kirogo 2,695 3,047 5,742 1,433 8.7 660 Mukangu 1,632 1,638 3,270 717 8.2 399 Gatheru 2,604 2,899 5,503 1,294 10.8 510

267 22 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

TABLE 5: Contiued

DIVISION / LOCATION / Area in Density SUB-LOCATION Male Female Total Households km2 MUGOIRI 14,647 16,423 31,070 7,673 56.3 552 Kahuro 3,794 4,260 8,054 2,053 12.1 666 Gatundu 2,444 2,798 5,242 1,240 10 524 Kiria 4,338 4,638 8,976 2,243 17.8 504 Mirichu 4,071 4,727 8,798 2,137 16.4 536 MURARANDIA 14,326 15,980 30,306 7,086 59.3 511 Theri 2,582 2,925 5,507 1,310 7.9 697 Gathaithi 3,137 3,472 6,609 1,536 18.2 363 Gatuya 3,143 3,467 6,610 1,559 9.8 674 Kaganda 2,642 3,060 5,702 1,305 9.8 582 Murarandia 2,822 3,056 5,878 1,376 13.6 432 KANGEMA 28,434 32,748 61,182 14,806 127.7 479 KANYENYAINI 7,679 8,581 16,260 3,844 29.4 553 Kibutha 1,153 1,304 2,457 557 4.4 558 Githiga 2,348 2,553 4,901 1,175 7.3 671 Gitugu 1,753 1,961 3,714 876 5.9 629 Kanyenyaini 2,425 2,763 5,188 1,236 11.8 440 KIRURI 4,365 4,721 9,086 2,075 37.9 240 Ichichi 1,689 1,848 3,537 769 15.8 224 Karurumo 769 773 1,542 353 6.7 230 Tuthu 730 781 1,511 345 6.5 232 Kiruri 1,177 1,319 2,496 608 8.9 280 IYEGO 7,940 9,655 17,595 4,271 35.5 496 Gikui 2,578 3,078 5,656 1,316 9.1 622 Nyakahura 1,903 2,267 4,170 994 9.9 421 Githunguri 1,437 1,794 3,231 823 6.4 505 Gacharaigu 2,022 2,516 4,538 1,138 10.1 449 MUGURU 8,450 9,791 18,241 4,616 24.9 733 Kanorero 1,536 1,878 3,414 818 4.9 697 Kiairathe 1,579 1,931 3,510 873 5.3 662 Gakira 3,000 3,303 6,303 1,712 8.2 769 Watu 2,335 2,679 5,014 1,213 6.5 771 MATHIOYA 51,798 58,341 110,139 26,304 220.8 499 GITUGI 11,955 13,729 25,684 6,181 49 524 Gitugi 2,426 2,873 5,299 1,322 10.7 495 Mihuti 1,206 1,294 2,500 579 4.3 581 Ngutu 2,677 2,984 5,661 1,350 8.7 651 Runyeki 1,622 1,979 3,601 892 12.4 290 Chui 1,393 1,567 2,960 700 4.1 722 Kambara 1,046 1,167 2,213 538 4.1 540 Karung’e 1,585 1,865 3,450 800 4.7 734 KIRU 12,183 13,733 25,916 6,311 45.4 571 Kairo 1,689 1,696 3,385 764 8.6 394

268 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 23

TABLE 5: Contiued

DIVISION / LOCATION / Area in Density SUB-LOCATION Male Female Total Households km2 Kiambuthia 2,649 2,954 5,603 1,275 11 509 Kora 1,967 2,253 4,220 1,020 5.7 740 Kagumoini 1,871 2,189 4,060 961 7 580 Kanjama 2,610 2,981 5,591 1,263 8.3 674 Kiriaini 1,397 1,660 3,057 1,028 4.8 637 KAMACHARIA 10,414 11,650 22,064 5,530 36.5 604 Thuita 2,464 2,717 5,181 1,193 7.7 673 Kairi 2,098 2,313 4,411 1,082 7.4 596 Kamacharia 2,612 2,973 5,585 1,444 9.6 582 Kamune 3,240 3,647 6,887 1,811 11.8 584 RWATHIA 8,633 9,667 18,300 4,141 45 407 Rwathia 2,501 2,909 5,410 1,239 8.4 644 Wanjerere 1,712 1,861 3,573 787 15.1 237 Kiawambogo 2,105 2,358 4,463 984 12.2 366 Kihoya 2,315 2,539 4,854 1,131 9.3 522 NJUMBI 8,613 9,562 18,175 4,141 44.9 405 Gatunguru 1,798 2,026 3,824 891 6.1 627 Gacharageini 2,414 2,486 4,900 1,070 16.8 292 Njumbi 3,217 3,848 7,065 1,689 11.9 594 Kiamuturi 1,184 1,202 2,386 491 10.1 236 ABERDARE FOREST 6 5 11 6 174 0 Aberdare Forest 6 5 11 6 174 0

TABLE 6: COMPOSITION OF HOUSEHOLDS IN MURANG’A DISTRICT PER DIVISION, LOCATION AND SUB-LOCATION (Source: Census 1999)

Composition of family DIVISION / LOCATION / Number of Persons per SUB-LOCATION Households 15 years and Household above Under 15 years KIHARU 21,664 2.3 1.6 3.9 GATURI 7,945 2.5 1.8 4.2 Gathukiini 2,097 2.3 1.7 4.0 Gakuyu 1,600 2.4 1.7 4.1 Geitwa/Mugeka 1,348 2.4 1.7 4.2 Nyakii 1,253 2.7 1.9 4.7 Kimathi 1,647 2.5 1.8 4.3 GIKINDU 3,106 2.5 1.8 4.3 Mirira 1,149 2.5 1.8 4.3 Kambirwa 1,294 2.5 1.8 4.3 Githuri 663 2.6 1.8 4.4 MBIRI 3,859 2.6 1.8 4.4 Maragi 853 2.3 1.7 4.0 Gikandu 979 2.6 1.9 4.5

269 24 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

TABLE 6: Contiued

Composition of family DIVISION / LOCATION / Number of Persons per SUB-LOCATION Households 15 years and Household above Under 15 years Muchungucha 2,027 2.6 1.8 4.5 TOWNSHIP 6,754 1.8 1.3 3.1 Karuri 1,758 1.6 1.2 2.8 Mukuyu 3,385 1.8 1.2 3.0 Njoguini 1,611 2.2 1.5 3.7 KAHURO 22,120 2.4 1.7 4.2 WEITHAGA 3,917 2.4 1.7 4.1 Wanjengi 1,693 2.5 1.8 4.2 Kahuti 1,227 2.4 1.7 4.0 Wangu 997 2.4 1.7 4.1 KAHUHIA 3,444 2.5 1.7 4.2 Kirogo 1,433 2.3 1.7 4.0 Mukangu 717 2.7 1.9 4.6 Gatheru 1,294 2.5 1.8 4.3 MUGOIRI 7,673 2.4 1.7 4.0 Kahuro 2,053 2.3 1.6 3.9 Gatundu 1,240 2.5 1.8 4.2 Kiria 2,243 2.3 1.7 4.0 Mirichu 2,137 2.4 1.7 4.1 MURARANDIA 7,086 2.5 1.8 4.3 Theri 1,310 2.5 1.7 4.2 Gatithi 1,536 2.5 1.8 4.3 Gatuya 1,559 2.5 1.8 4.2 Kaganda 1,305 2.6 1.8 4.4 Murarandia 1,376 2.5 1.8 4.3 KANGEMA 14,806 2.4 1.7 4.1 KANYENYAINI 3,844 2.5 1.8 4.2 Kibut 557 2.6 1.8 4.4 Githiga 1,175 2.4 1.7 4.2 Gitugu 876 2.5 1.8 4.2 Kanyenyaini 1,236 2.5 1.7 4.2 KIRURI 2,075 2.6 1.8 4.4 Ichichi 769 2.7 1.9 4.6 Karurumo 353 2.6 1.8 4.4 Tuthu 345 2.6 1.8 4.4 Kiruri 608 2.4 1.7 4.1 IYEGO 4,271 2.4 1.7 4.1 Gikui 1,316 2.5 1.8 4.3 Nyakahura 994 2.5 1.7 4.2 Githunguri 823 2.3 1.6 3.9 Gacharaigu 1,138 2.3 1.7 4.0 MUGURU 4,616 2.3 1.6 4.0

270 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 25

TABLE 6: Contiued

Composition of family DIVISION / LOCATION / Number of Persons per SUB-LOCATION Households 15 years and Household above Under 15 years Kanorero 818 2.4 1.7 4.2 Kiairathe 873 2.4 1.7 4.0 Gakira 1,712 2.2 1.5 3.7 Watu 1,213 2.4 1.7 4.1 MATHIOYA 26,304 2.5 1.7 4.2 GITUGI 6,181 2.4 1.7 4.2 Gitugi 1,322 2.3 1.7 4.0 Mihuti 579 2.5 1.8 4.3 Ngutu 1,350 2.5 1.7 4.2 Runyeki 892 2.4 1.7 4.0 Chui 700 2.5 1.8 4.2 Kambara 538 2.4 1.7 4.1 Karung’e 800 2.5 1.8 4.3 KIRU 6,311 2.4 1.7 4.1 Kairo 764 2.6 1.8 4.4 Kiambuthia 1,275 2.6 1.8 4.4 Kora 1,020 2.4 1.7 4.1 Kagumoini 961 2.5 1.8 4.2 Kanjama 1,263 2.6 1.8 4.4 Kiriani 1,028 1.7 1.2 3.0 KAMACHARIA 5,530 2.3 1.7 4.0 Thuita 1,193 2.5 1.8 4.3 Kairi 1,082 2.4 1.7 4.1 Kamacharia 1,444 2.3 1.6 3.9 Kamune 1,811 2.2 1.6 3.8 RWATHIA 4,141 2.6 1.8 4.4 Rwathia 1,239 2.6 1.8 4.4 Wanjerere 787 2.7 1.9 4.5 Kiawambogo 984 2.7 1.9 4.5 Kihoya 1,131 2.5 1.8 4.3 NJUMBI 4,141 2.6 1.8 4.4 Gatunguru 891 2.5 1.8 4.3 Gacharageini 1,070 2.7 1.9 4.6 Njumbi 1,689 2.4 1.7 4.2 Kiamuturi 491 2.8 2.0 4.9 ABERDARE FOREST 6 1.1 0.8 1.8 ABERDARE FOREST 6 1.1 0.8 1.8

271

26 MURANG´A & MARAGUA Person

in ha Household 0.84 0.20 0.86 0.21 0.76 0.18 Agricultural land per Census 1999 Census ------AEZ 2 Area in Agro-Ecological Zones Agro-Ecological in Area in ’00 ha = km

UH 1 LH 1 UM 1 UM 2 UM 3 UM 4 LM 3 LM 4 Agricultural land Agricultural ------

230.0 9.2 97.6 87.2 36.0 130.0 2.3 54.2 50.3 23.2 167.9 - 19.2 80.1 68.6 239.6 - - - 97.3 62.3 10.0 40.0 30.0 1.11 0.28 Forests 174.0 AGRICULTURAL LAND AREA AVAILABLE IN MURANG’A DISTRICT PER AEZ AND HOUSEHOLD AEZ PER DISTRICT IN MURANG’A AVAILABLE AREA LAND AGRICULTURAL DIVISIONS without township Mathioya Kangema Kahuro TOTAL AREATOTAL 174.0 767.5 11.5 171.0 217.6 225.1 62.3 10.0 40.0 30.0 0.89 0.22 Kiharu Forest Aberdare TABLE 7: TABLE

272 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 27

MARAGUA DISTRICT

This is the second most densely populated district in Central Province with 447 persons/km2. Occupying an area of 1065 km2 with a total of 387,969 people (Population & Household Census, 1999), Maragua is the smallest district in the province. The number of persons per household stood is 4.3.

Maragua consist of four administrative divisions including Kigumo, Kandara, Maragua and Makuyu whose household composition and spatial distribution as well density are shown in Tables 8 and 9. Like Murang’a, its economic viability is dependant on agriculture and the main agro-ecological zones are Tea – Dairy Zone (LH 1 = 33.7%), Tea- Coﬀee Zone (UM 1= 38.8%) and Main Coﬀee Zone (27.5%), Table 10.

TABLE 8: POPULATION IN MARAGUA DISTRICT PER DIVISION, LOCATION AND SUB-LOCATION (Source: Census 1999)

DIVISION / LOCATION / 2 Density SUB-LOCATION Male Female Total Households Area in km KIGUMO 38,092 40,586 78,678 18,462 436 353 KINYONA 9,501 9,872 19,373 4,361 113 171 Kinyona 2,934 2,999 5,933 1,406 21 283 Kamukabi 3,712 3,919 7,631 1,665 15 509 Gacharage 2,855 2,954 5,809 1,300 25 232 Gatare Forest - - - 52 - KANGARI 12,759 12,954 25,713 6,198 64 402 Makomboki 3,447 3,477 6,924 1,644 24 289 Kangari 5,249 5,031 10,280 2,473 23 447 Mariira 4,063 4,446 8,509 2,081 17 501 KIGUMO 15,832 17,760 33,592 7,903 46 730 Githima 5,439 6,144 11,583 2,649 15 772 Gachcho 3,999 4,503 8,502 1,963 13 654 Iriguini 1,890 2,067 3,957 1,034 6 660 Kirere 3,460 3,863 7,323 1,712 9 814 Marumi 1044 1183 2227 545 3 742 KANDARA 75,566 81,888 157,454 36,006 234 664 RUCHU 18,076 19,208 37,284 8,344 70 533 Gacharage 4,956 5,067 10,023 2,194 17 590 Mungaria 4,061 4,527 8,588 1,849 13 661 Githumu 4,191 4,260 8,451 1,909 20 423 Gituru 1,543 1,637 3,180 737 9 353 Kariua 3,325 3,717 7,042 1,635 11 640 ITHIRU 13,596 15,264 28,860 6,493 37 780 Kaguthi 3,215 3,629 6,844 1,467 9 760 Githuya 935 991 1,926 440 3 642 Kiiri 2,948 3,299 6,247 1,567 7 892 Gakui/Karimamwaro 4,017 4,547 8,564 1,903 13 659 Gakarara 2,481 2,798 5,279 1,116 5 1056 KAGUNDUINI 13,317 14,215 27,532 6,704 39 706 Githunguri 1,991 2,054 4,045 918 7 578 Kabati 3,688 3,943 7,631 2,066 9 848

273 28 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

TABLE 8: Contiued

DIVISION / LOCATION / 2 Density SUB-LOCATION Male Female Total Households Area in km Kagunduini 2,390 2,597 4,987 1,176 6 831 Kariti 2,962 3,270 6,232 1,442 10 623 GAICNJIRU 10,511 11,989 22,500 5,336 36 625 Maria-ini 1,784 2,053 3,837 899 8 480 Kagumoini 2,468 2,913 5,381 1262 10 538 Gaichanjiru 2,063 2,097 4,160 956 5 832 Ngurwe-ini 2,636 3,126 5,762 1,393 8 720 Kagira 1,560 1,800 3,360 826 5 672 MURUKA 20,066 21,212 41,278 9129 55 751 Naaro 3,777 3,899 7,676 1,702 10 768 MURUKA 7,702 8,233 15,935 3,461 21 759 Gatitu/Nguthiru 4,515 4,708 9,223 2,069 14 659 Ngararia 4,072 4,372 8,444 1,897 10 844 MARAGUA 44,966 48,598 93,564 22,329 200 456 NGINDA 11,361 12,139 23,500 5,766 43 547 Gathera 3,875 4,294 8,169 1,942 13 628 Kaharo 2,452 2,717 5,169 1,288 9 574 Mbugua 1,782 1,904 3,686 845 8 461 Gakoigo 3,252 3,224 6,476 1,691 13 498 ICHAGAKI 10,621 11,170 21,791 5,551 59 369 Samar 1,355 871 2,226 625 28 80 Kianjiruini 4,211 4,719 8,930 2,503 13 687 Ichagaki 2,948 3,199 6,147 1,378 11 559 Gikomora 2,107 2,381 4,488 1,045 7 641 MUTHITHI 10,975 11,711 22,686 5,027 37 613 Gikarango 3,093 3,159 6,252 1,355 12 521 Kagurumo 2,280 2,457 4,737 1,008 10 474 Munguini 1,649 1,794 3,443 773 4 861 Kiahiti 1,409 1,502 2,911 639 4 728 Muthithi 2,544 2,799 5,343 1,252 7 763 KAHUMBU 9,325 10,757 20,082 4,677 33 609 Kandani 2,671 2,859 5,530 1,143 12 461 Gakuyu 2,114 2,506 4,620 1,132 6 770 Mugumoini 1,183 1,402 2,585 596 4 646 Kahariro 1,285 1,580 2,865 704 5 573 Githembe 2,072 2,410 4,482 1,102 6 747 MARAGUA RIDGE 2,684 2,821 5,505 1,308 33 167 Maragua Ridge 1,430 1,510 2,940 698 23 128 Kamuiru 1,254 1,311 2,565 610 10 257 MAKUYU 28,504 29,769 58,273 13,947 195 287 KAMAHUHA 10,820 11,658 22,478 5,441 48 468 Sabasaba 4,498 4,802 9,300 2,322 14 664 Iganjo 2,175 2,323 4,498 1,069 16 281

274 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 29

TABLE 8: Contiued

DIVISION / LOCATION / 2 Density SUB-LOCATION Male Female Total Households Area in km Kamahuha 2,014 2,167 4,181 1,025 9 465 Kaharati 2,133 2,366 4,499 1,025 9 500 KAMBITI 6,491 6,609 13,100 2,988 45 291 Maranjau 823 656 1,479 381 7 211 Kariaini 1,478 1,537 3,015 663 11 274 Kambiti 2,096 2,205 4,301 983 17 253 Mihang’o 2,094 2,211 4,305 961 10 431 MAKUYU 11,193 11,502 22,695 5,518 110 206 Gathungururu 2,597 2,559 5,156 1,299 48 107 Gakungu 3,109 3,395 6,504 1,459 24 271 Makuyu 2,727 2,870 5,597 1,465 14 400 Kimorori 2,760 2,678 5,438 1,265 24 227

TABLE 9: COMPOSITION OF HOUSEHOLDS IN MARAGUA DISTRICT PER DIVISION, LOCATION AND SUB-LOCATION (Source: Census 1999)

Composition of Family DIVISION/LOCATION/ Number of Persons per SUB-LOCATION Households 15 years and Household above Under 15 years KIGUMO 18,462 2.4 1.8 4.3 KINYONA 4,361 2.5 1.9 4.4 Kinyona 1,406 2.4 1.8 4.2 Kamukabi 1,665 2.6 2.0 4.6 Gacharage 1,300 2.5 1.9 4.5 Gatare Forest ---- KANGARI 6,198 2.4 1.8 4.1 Makomboki 1,644 2.4 1.8 4.2 Kangari 2,473 2.4 1.8 4.2 Mariira 2,081 2.3 1.8 4.1 KIGUMO 7,903 2.4 1.8 4.3 Githima 2,649 2.5 1.9 4.4 Gachocho 1,963 2.5 1.9 4.3 Iriguini 1,034 2.2 1.6 3.8 Kirere 1,712 2.4 1.8 4.3 Marumi 545 2.3 1.8 4.1 KANDARA 36,006 2.5 1.9 4.4 RUCHU 8,344 2.5 1.9 4.5 Gacharage 2,194 2.6 2.0 4.6 Mungaria 1,849 2.6 2.0 4.6 Githumu 1,909 2.5 1.9 4.4 Gituru 737 2.5 1.9 4.3 Kariua 1,635 2.5 1.9 4.3 ITHIRU 6,493 2.5 1.9 4.4

275 30 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

TABLE 9: Contiued

Composition of Family DIVISION/LOCATION/ Number of Persons per SUB-LOCATION Households 15 years and Household above Under 15 years Kaguthi 1,467 2.7 2.0 4.7 Githuya 440 2.5 1.9 4.4 Kiiri 1,567 2.3 1.7 4.0 Gakui/Karimwaro 1,903 2.6 1.9 4.5 Gakarara 1,116 2.7 2.0 4.7 KAGUNDUINI 6,704 2.3 1.8 4.1 Githunguri 918 2.5 1.9 4.4 Kabati 2,066 2.1 1.6 3.7 Kagunduini 1,176 2.4 1.8 4.2 Kariti 1,442 2.5 1.9 4.3 GAICHANJIRU 5,336 2.4 1.8 4.2 Maria-ini 899 2.4 1.8 4.3 Kagumoini 1,262 2.4 1.8 4.3 Gaichanjiru 956 2.5 1.9 4.4 Ngurwe-ini 1,393 2.4 1.8 4.1 Kagira 826 2.3 1.7 4.1 MURUKA 9,129 2.6 1.9 4.5 Naaro 1,702 2.6 1.9 4.5 Muruka 3,461 2.6 2.0 4.6 Gatitu/Nguthiru 2,069 2.5 1.9 4.5 Ngararia 1,897 2.5 1.9 4.5 MARAGUA 22,329 2.4 1.8 4.2 NGINDA 5,766 2.3 1.8 4.1 Gathera 1,942 2.4 1.8 4.2 Kaharo 1,288 2.3 1.7 4.0 Mbugua 845 2.5 1.9 4.4 Gakoigo 1,691 2.2 1.6 3.8 ICHAGAKI 5,551 2.2 1.7 3.9 Samar 625 2.0 1.5 3.6 Kianjiruini 2,503 2.0 1.5 3.6 Ichagaki 1,378 2.5 1.9 4.5 Gikomora 1,045 2.4 1.8 4.3 MUTHITHI 5,027 2.6 1.9 4.5 Gikarango 1,355 2.6 2.0 4.6 Kagurumo 1,008 2.7 2.0 4.7 Munguini 773 2.5 1.9 4.5 Kiahiti 639 2.6 2.0 4.6 Muthithi 1,252 2.4 1.8 4.3 KAHUMBU 4,677 2.4 1.8 4.3 Kandani 1,143 2.8 2.1 4.8 Gakuyu 1,132 2.3 1.8 4.1 Mugumoini 596 2.5 1.9 4.3

276 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 31

TABLE 9: Contiued

Composition of Family DIVISION/LOCATION/ Number of Persons per SUB-LOCATION Households 15 years and Household above Under 15 years Kahariro 704 2.3 1.7 4.1 Githembe 1,102 2.3 1.7 4.1 MARAGUA RIDGE 1,308 2.4 1.8 4.2 Maragua Ridge 698 2.4 1.8 4.2 Kamuiru 610 2.4 1.8 4.2 MAKUYU 13,947 2.4 1.8 4.2 KAMAHUHA 5,441 2.4 1.8 4.1 Sabasaba 2,322 2.3 1.7 4.0 Iganjo 1,069 2.4 1.8 4.2 Kamahu 1025 2.3 1.8 4.1 Kaharati 1025 2.5 1.9 4.4 KAMBITI 2988 2.5 1.9 4.4 Maranjau 381 2.2 1.7 3.9 Kariaini 663 2.6 2.0 4.5 Kambiti 983 2.5 1.9 4.4 Mihang’o 961 2.6 1.9 4.5 MAKUYU 5,518 2.3 1.8 4.1 Gathungururu 1,299 2.3 1.7 4.0 Gakungu 1,459 2.5 1.9 4.5 Makuyu 1,465 2.2 1.6 3.8 Kimorori 1,265 2.5 1.8 4.3

277

32 MURANG´A & MARAGUA Person in ha

land per Household Agricultural 1.01 0.24 0.65 0.15 Census 1999 Census ---- 36.0 68.5 10.0 13.6 0.98 0.23 ----- AEZ 2 Area in Agro-Ecological Zones Agro-Ecological in Area in ’00 ha = km ----8.2

UH 1 LH 1 UM 1 UM 2 UM 3 UM 3-4 UM 4 LM 3 LM 4 Agricultural land Agricultural

193.0 - 38.0 45.4 96.0 56.2 150.0145.0 - - - 41.1 80.3 37.5 15.0 22.5 6.4 0.90 0.21 Forests 226.0 164.0 12.7 127.3 45.7 17.0 AGRICULTURAL LAND AREA AVAILABLE IN MARAGUA DISTRICT PER AEZ AND HOUSEHOLD AEZ PER DISTRICT IN MARAGUA AVAILABLE AREA LAND AGRICULTURAL DIVISIONS without township Kigumo Kandara Maragua Makuyu TOTAL AREATOTAL 226.0 652.0 12.7 165.3 91.1 154.1.0 144.7 73.5 83.2 32.5 20.0 0.83 0.20 TABLE 10: TABLE

278 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 33

3.4.3 AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS: Development and Trends of Major Cash Crops

MURANG’A

Although Murang’a is smaller in size compared to Nyeri and Nyandarua, it produces most commodities. Agriculturally potential land is 76,750 ha. Coﬀee is cultivated on 14,700 ha. Yields are down to 310 kg/ha per annum because it is neglected due to low coﬀee prices. Tea grows on 10,000 ha, yielding at least 9,000 kg/ha per annum of green leaves. Pyrethrum is grown in small quantities but increasing since 1995.

TABLE 11: MURANG’A DISTRICT COFFEE AREA, PRODUCTION AND YIELD TRENDS (Source: Ministry od Agriculture, DAOs Reports and CBS) Year Area ha Production tons Yields kg/ha 1980/81 12,615 11,408 904 1981/82 12,500 11,190 895 1982/83 12,563 11,254 896 1983/84 12,638 19,150 1,515 1984/85 12,924 13,262 1,026 1985/86 12,989 12,270 945 1986/87 15,497 19,518 1,259 1987/88 15,497 19,446 1,255 1988/89 19,669 18,610 946 1989/90 20,078 18,669 930 1990/91 20,523 12,813 624 1991/92 20,428 9,361 458 1992/93 19,073 6,815 357 1993/94 13,722 4,050 295 1994/95 15,571 7,369 473 1995/96 15,667 8,295 529 1996/97 5,986 1,998 334 1997/98 6,124 2,073 339 1998/99 6,125 2,060 336 1999/00 14,769 4,550 308 2000/01 13,297 4,997 376 2001/02 13,507 4,735 351 2002/03 14,675 4,556 310

279 34 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

TABLE 12: MURANG’A DISTRICT TEA AREA, PRODUCTION AND YIELD TRENDS (Source: Ministry of Agriculture, DAOs Reports and CBS)

Year Area ha Production tons Yields kg/ha 1980/81 8,842 26,116 2,954 1981/82 9,047 21,015 2,323 1982/83 9,080 40,850 4,499 1983/84 8,992 43,703 4,860 1984/85 9,095 63,866 7,022 1985/86 9,526 65,062 6,830 1986/87 9,495 63,763 6,715 1987/88 9,783 79,209 8,097 1988/89 9,285 87,319 9,404 1989/90 10,076 94,748 9,403 1990/91 10,281 89,124 8,669 1991/92 10,273 75,869 7,385 1992/93 10,237 82,501 8,059 1993/94 10,237 10,865 1,061 1994/95 10,237 10,956 1,070 1995/96 10,237 11,732 1,146 1996/97 10,237 11,000 1,075 1997/98 10,200 89,200 8,745 1998/99 10,210 90,013 8,816 1999/00 10,101 93,653 9,272 2000/01 9,998 88,462 8,848 2001/02 10,000 90,675 9,068 2002/03 10,101 94,941 9,399

280 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 35

TABLE 13: MURANG’A DISTRICT PYRETHRUM AREA, PRODUCTION AND YIELD TRENDS (Source: Ministry od Agriculture, DAOs Reports and CBS)

Year Area Production tons Yields ha LQPHWULFWRQVRIGULHGÀRZHUV) kg/ha 1980/81 6.5 1.64 252 1981/82 16 0.63 103 1982/83 11 0.57 149 1983/84 9 0.5 182 1984/85 9 0.5 182 1985/86 9 0.566 182 1986/87 9 0.45 182 1987/88 5 0.27 328 1988/89 4.3 0.23 381 1989/90 2 0.11 820 1990/91 2.5 0.13 656 1991/92 1 0.05 1,640 1992/93 1.5 0.08 1,093 1993/94 1.75 0.09 937 1994/95 1 0.05 1,640 1995/96 1.1 0.06 1,491 1996/97 2 0.11 820 1997/98 2.5 0.13 656 1998/99 2.75 0.15 596 1999/00 3.5 0.19 469 2000/01 4 0.2 410 2001/02 5.1 0.28 322 2002/03 4 0.2 410

281 36 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

MARAGUA

Created off from Murang’a district, Maragua’s agriculturally viable land of about 68,800 ha. With two main cash crops coffee and tea, grown on 6,500 ha and 4,000 ha respectively; the economic livelihoods are similar to Murang’a. Annual tea and coffee yields are higher than in the neighbouring districts. Tea yields 11,000 kg/ha of green leaves while coffee yields 2,800 kg/ha per annum.

TABLE 14: MARAGUA DISTRICT COFFEE AREA, PRODUCTION AND YIELD TRENDS (Source: Ministry od Agriculture, DAOs Reports and CBS)

Year Area Production Yields (Created 1997) ha tons kg/ha 1996/97 6,500 10,011 1,540 1997/98 6,500 10,163 1,564 1998/99 6,500 13,000 2,000 1999/00 6,900 21,100 3,058 2000/01 6,480 20,066 3,097 2001/02 6,480 20,066 3,097 2002/03 6,500 18,576 2,858 2003/04 7,829 10,291 1,314 2004/05 7,829 9,644 1,232

TABLE 15: MARAGUA DISTRICT TEA AREA, PRODUCTION AND GREEN LEAF YIELD TRENDS (Source: Ministry od Agriculture, DAOs Reports and CBS)

Year Area ha Production tons Yields kg/ha 1996/97 3,750 36,901 9,840 1997/98 3,846 38,288 9,955 1998/99 3,846 33,283 8,654 1999/00 4,014 44,616 11,115 2000/01 4,050 45,011 11,114 2001/02 4,000 44,002 11,001 2002/03 4,398 43,415 9,872 2003/04 4,644 53,791 11,583 2004/05 4,705 45,418 9,653

282 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 37

DISTRIBUTIONOF FARMING ACTIVITIES DURING THE YEAR PER WEEK AND AGRO-ECOLOGI- CAL ZONES

283 38 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

284 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 39

285 40 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

286 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 41

287 42 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

288 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 43

289 44 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

290 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 45

3.4.4 FARM SURVEY IN MURANG’A AND MARAGUA DISTRICTS

The 2004 Farm Survey (FS) in Murang’a and Maragua districts covered eight major agro–ecological zones and nine Subzones (Table 17). Compared to the previous survey (1978), the 2004 FS was agro–ecologically detailed and more explicit. Accordingly, in Murang’a district the mean household farm sizes, in ha, in 1978 were as follows: LH 1 (- UM 1): 3.1, UM 1 – 2: 1.6 and LM 3 – 4 (+ UM 4): 3.0. Capturing just a few mean household farm sizes, in ha, in selected AEZs of the 2004 FS in Maragua district namely: UH 1: 1.14, UM 2: 0.77, UM 3: 1.33, UM 4: 0.74 and LM 4: 2.02. Similarly, in Murang’a district mean household farm sizes, in ha, in selected AEZs of the 2004 FS were as follows UH 1: 2.04, UM 1: 0.68, UM 2: 0.88 and LM 3: 1.50. It is imperatively clear from these two FS that over the last two decades mean household land resources have shrunk substantially by more than a half in Murang’a and Maragua districts. It is interesting to note, however, that these are the most productive agro-ecological zones in Central Kenya, and the country at large. Apart from supporting a large population, they also sustain huge urban populations in Nairobi, Mombasa and other major urban centres in Kenya through the supply of farm produce. Moreover, these AEZs for a long time have been the base of coﬀee and tea production [both for domestic and foreign markets] in Kenya. Therefore, with increasing household family sizes coupled with declining soil fertility trends, the future of foreign earnings for these commodities is bleak. The country’s food self–suﬃciency policies are equally at stake. These can easily complicate the domestic food supply and/or demand systems, thus leading to food crises with serious implications for the government.

TABLE 17: FARM SURVEY SITES IN MURANG’A AND MARAGUA DISTRICTS

Agro-Ecological Unit District No. in Farm Survey Sites Kenya AEZone Subzone Soil Unit Kigumo Division, Kinyona Location, 123 LH 1 p or l/vl^m MV 2 Kinyona sub-location Kigumo Division, Kigumo Location, 124 UM 2 m/ l i m/s RB 2 Kirere sub-location

MARAGUA Maragua Division, Kahumbu Kahumbu 125 UM 3 m/s + s RB 3 Location,Kandani sub-location Makuyu Division, Makuyu Location, 126 UM 4 s/m + s RB 3 Makuyu sub-location Makuyu Division, Kambiti Location, 127 LM 4 s + s/vs UU 1 Kambiti sub-location Kangema Division, Kiruri Location, 128 UH-LH 1 p or l/vl^ m MV 2 Karurumo sub-location Kangema Division, Muguru Location 129 UM 1 p or f l^ m RB 2 Gakira sub-location MURANG’A Kiharu Division, Gaturi Location 130 UM 2 m/l i m/s RB 2 Gathuki’ini sub-location Kiharu Division, Gikindu Location 131 LM 3 s + s LB 2 Kambirwa sub-location

Only the AEZs UM 1 and UM 2 will be discussed brieﬂy in both districts as details are found in Subzone discussions. For simplicity and comparison only livestock, farm & family sizes and use of certiﬁed seeds at planting will be discussed. In the AEZ UM 2, mean household farm sizes in (ha) were almost similar, i. e. 0.88 and 0.77 in Murang’a and Maragua, respectively. Compared to the 1978 FS, these farm sizes have almost been halved (see above). Livestock keeping is an important practice especially dairy for milk production. A higher mean of 2.3 dairy cows/farmer was reported in Maragua compared to Murang’a with 1.7 cows/farmer. Keeping improved animals was also reported in Maragua (ca. mean: 0.03 cows/farmer), while no farmer reported having local zebu breeds. In Maragua district, both local and exotic poultry are kept. The mean numbers of local and exotic birds in Maragua were 66.5 and 5.1, respectively (Table 18). In Murang’a,

291 46 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

only local breed of poultry birds were reported with a mean of 10 (Table 18). In both districts, large household families exist comprising of adults, casual & permanent labourers and children under < 14 years. At the household level, particularly for this AEZ UM 2, Maragua has more adults per farm (mean: 4.0) than Murang’a (mean: 2.6) and similarly for dependants under < 14 years that is 1.7 and 1.1 children/farmer, respectively. Engagement of casual and permanent labourers is more pronounced in Murang’a than Maragua having means of 4.3 and 2.6 casuals/farmer and 0.3 and 0.1 permanent/farmer, respectively. In addition, use of certiﬁed seeds at planting is higher in Maragua than Murang’a each with means: 76 % and 55 %, respectively. The trend remains the same even for low input farmers: ~ 50 % and 37 % in Maragua and Murang’a, respectively (Tables 18b & 18i). More discussion will be found in the respective Subzones.

In AEZ UH 1, the mean household farm size is 2.04 ha in Murang’a and almost half in Maragua approximately 1.1 ha. No local zebu breeds were reported in both districts. Dairy farming is practiced in this AEZ UH 1, though it is slightly more pronounced in Murang’a with 2.8 cows/farmer as compared to Maragua with 2.5 cows/farmer. Similarly for sheep and goats, Murang’a has a mean of 4.1 compared to Maragua having a mean of 2.2. Both exotic and local poultry keeping was reported in Murang’a with means of 0.83 and 2.1 birds/farmer, respectively. Only local poultry breeds were reported in Maragua with a mean of 1 hen/farmer. The average number of adults per family is comparable in both districts, but slightly higher in Maragua with 2.5 adults/farm than in Murang’a having 2.1 adults/farm. In both districts, engagement of casual and permanent labourers is common with farmers deploying more casuals in Murang’a with a mean of 1.4 casuals/farmer than in Maragua having a mean of 0.2 casuals/farmer. The trend reverses with permanent workers, i.e. higher in Maragua with a mean of 0.63 permanent workers/farmer than in Murang’a having a mean of 0.23 permanent workers/farmer. Regarding use of improved seeds at planting in both districts, evidence suggests that this important agronomic practice is poorly undertaken and often ignored. The average use of certified seeds was about 0.7 % in UH-LH 1 of Murang’a with even Level III (high input) farmers reporting almost nil. In Maragua, the mean use of better seeds at planting was equally very low in the Tea-Dairy Zone because maize is neglected there: only 20 % even for high input farmers (Table 18a). In the Main Coffee Zone it is high (average 76%) because of the low income from coffee the farmers must make the best of their basic food crop. More discussion will be found in respective Subzones.

292 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 47

293 48 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

TABLE 18a: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ LH 1 OF MARAGUA DISTRICT Subzone: p or l/v l^ m, Soil unit: MV2 Survey area 123 (Kinyona) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Range Land Family Casual Permanent Number of ha Sheep & Adults Labourers Labourers children Dairy Zebu Goats Poultry < 14 years Avg.0 1.15 2.47 0 2.17 0.87 2.53 0.2 0.63 0.3 Avg.1 1.15 2.64 - 3.82 5.2 2.53 1.2 1.58 3 Up. Qu. 1.52 3 0 4 0 3 0 1 0 Lo. Qu. 0.6 1 0 0 0 1.75 0 0 0

Land Use Permanent pasture & Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Fallow Other Use Range ha ha Fodder Crops ha ha ha Avg.0 0.24 0.48 0.23 0.01 0.18 Avg.1 0.24 0.48 0.25 - 0.18 Up. Qu. 0.4 0.6 0.31 - 0.21 Lo. Qu. 0.11 0.23 0.10 - 0.16

Farming Diversity & Stocking Intensity Stocking Rate

Cropping Farm Land Permanent pasture & Improved Range Diversity TLU/ha Fodder Crops Cattle Crops/year TLU/ha % of total Sheep & Sheep & Dairy Zebu Goats Dairy Zebu Goats Avg.0 4.4 2.4 0 0.4 11.6 0 1.9 93.3 Avg.1 4.4 2.6 0 0.7 11.6 0 3.0 100 Up. Qu. 6 2.3 0 0.6 10.8 0 2.6 100 Lo. Qu. 2.8 1.8 0 0 11.6 0 0 100 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied Fertilizer applied as pure nutrient Improved kg/ha Manure Plant protection seeds used applied Insecticide Fungicide Range % of area NPO K O t/ha 2 5 2 kg/ha kg/ha AC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC Avg.0 18.8 14.1 7.1 27.6 13.9 - 67.4 17.1 8.6 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 Avg.1 51.2 38.4 19.3 30.7 15.4 - 67.4 18.3 9.2 4.1 2.1 0.7 0.4 Up. Qu. 20.5 18.0 12.0 28.8 19.2 - 70.3 16.0 10.7 0000 Lo. Qu. 0 0 0 20.5 9.8 ----0000

294 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 49

TABLE 18b: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ UM 2 OF MARAGUA DISTRICT Subzone: m/l i m/s, Soil unit: RB 2 Survey area 124 (Kirere) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Range Land Family Casual Permanent Number of ha Sheep & Poultry Poultry Adults Labourers Labourers children Dairy Cross Zebu Goats (Exotic) (Local) < 14 years Avg.0 0.77 2.32 0.03 0 1.13 66.52 5.06 4.03 2.61 0.06 1.65 Avg.1 0.77 2.57 1 2.5 515.5 14.27 4.03 3.24 1 2.43 Up. Qu. 0.84 3 0 0 2 0 10 5 3 0 3 Lo. Qu. 0.4 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0

Land Use Permanent pasture & Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Fallow Forage Other Use Range ha ha Fodder Crops ha ha ha ha Avg.0 0.29 0.29 0.07 - 0.02 0.11 Avg.1 0.29 0.29 0.17 - 0.09 0.21 Up. Qu. 0.3 0.34 0.08 0.03 0 0.09 Lo. Qu. 0.2 0.15 0 0.05 0 0

Farming Diversity & Stocking Intensity Stocking Rate

Cropping Farm Land Permanent pasture & Improved Range Diversity TLU/ha Fodder Crops Cattle Crops/year TLU/ha % of total Sheep & Sheep & Dairy Cross Zebu Goats Dairy Cross Zebu Goats Avg.0 5.6 3.4 0.05 0 0.3 35.7 0.5 0 3.15 88.2 Avg.1 5.6 3.8 1.4 0 0.7 16.6 6.2 0 2.93 97.7 Up. Qu. 7 3.9 0 0 0.5 41.3 0 0 5 100 Lo. Qu. 4 2.8 0 0 0 - - - - 100 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied Fertilizer applied as pure nutrient Improved kg/ha Manure Plant protection seeds used applied Insecticide Fungicide Range % of area NPO K O t/ha 2 5 2 kg/ha kg/ha AC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC Avg.0 76.0 49.4 47.5 44.1 42.4 2.0 1.9 20.8 20.0 0.09 0.09 0.5 0.5 Avg.1 81.3 49.4 47.5 45.6 43.8 31.1 29.9 22.2 21.4 2.9 2.8 1.2 1.2 Up. Qu. 95.2 66.7 58.1 66.7 58.1 0 0 23.3 20.3 0 0 0.3 0.3 Lo. Qu. 47.6 40 26 - - 0 0 - - 0 0 0 0

295 50 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

TABLE 18c: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ UM 3 OF MARAGUA DISTRICT Subzone: m/s + s, Soil unit: RB 3 Survey area 125 (Kandani) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Range Land Family Casual Number of ha Sheep & Adults Labourers children under Dairy Zebu Goats Poultry Pigs 14 years Avg.0 1.33 1.48 0.41 3.14 4.17 1.45 2.93 2.55 0.90 Avg.1 1.33 2.05 2 3.96 7.56 10.5 2.93 3.08 2.36 Up. Qu. 1.77 2 0 6 6 0 4 3.5 2 Lo. Qu. 0.6 0 0 1 0 0 2 1.5 0

Land Use Permanent pasture & Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Fallow Other Use Range ha ha Fodder Crops ha ha ha Avg.0 0.68 0.29 0.27 - 0.09 Avg.1 0.68 0.30 0.32 - 0.14 Up. Qu. 0.87 0.47 0.2 0.11 0.12 Lo. Qu. 0.31 0.05 0.07 0.07 0.1

Farming Diversity & Stocking Intensity Stocking Rate

Cropping Farm Land Permanent pasture & Improved Range Diversity TLU/ha Fodder Crops Cattle Crops/year TLU/ha % of total Sheep & Sheep & Dairy Zebu Goats Dairy Zebu Goats Avg.0 6.4 1.23 0.3 0.5 6.1 1.5 2.3 69.0 Avg.1 6.4 1.70 1.5 0.6 6.9 6.2 2.4 95.2 Up. Qu. 7.5 1.24 0 0.7 11.0 0 6.0 100 Lo. Qu. 4.5 0 0 0.3 0 0 - 0 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied

Fertilizer applied as pure nutrient Plant protection Improved kg/ha Manure seeds used applied Insecticide Fungicide Range % of area NPO K O t/ha 2 5 2 kg/ha kg/ha AC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC Avg.0 19.0 21.8 52.1 24.7 59.1 - - 5.8 13.8 0.7 1.6 0.8 1.8 Avg.1 27.5 27.5 63.5 27.6 63.6 - - 7.0 16.1 2.4 5.6 2.5 5.7 Up. Qu. 30.3 26.4 48.4 26.4 48.4 - - 4.6 8.4 0.4 0.7 0.2 0.4 Lo. Qu. 0 9.3 - 22.3 - - - 1.2 7.4 0 0 0 0

296 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 51

TABLE 18d: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ UM 4 OF MARAGUA DISTRICT Subzone: s/m +s, Soil unit: RB 3 Survey area 126 (Makuyu) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Range Land Family Casual Permanent Number of ha Sheep & Poultry Adults Labourers Labourers children Dairy Zebu Goats (Local) Pigs Rabbits < 14 years Avg.0 0.74 0.67 1.8 2.83 6.13 0.53 0.4 3.2 1.77 0.03 1.17 Avg.1 0.74 2.5 3.18 3.54 9.68 4 6 3.2 3.31 1 1.94 Up. Qu. 0.92 1 2.25 5 10.5 0 0 4 3 0 2 Lo. Qu. 0.4 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0

Land Use Permanent pasture & Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Fallow Forage Other Use Range ha ha Fodder Crops ha ha ha ha Avg.0 0.53 0.14 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.02 Avg.1 0.53 0.16 0.12 - 0.08 0.06 Up. Qu. 0.7 0.17 0 - 0 0.05 Lo. Qu. 0.34 0.04 0 - 0 0.02

Farming Diversity & Stocking Intensity Stocking Rate

Cropping Farm Land Permanent pasture & Forage Improved Range Diversity TLU/ha Fodder Crops TLU/ha Cattle Crops/year TLU/ha % of total Sheep & Sheep & Dairy Zebu Sheep & Dairy Zebu Goats Dairy Zebu Goats Goats Avg.0 5.6 1.0 2.4 0.8 31.4 77.1 24.3 88 216 68 19.6 Avg.1 5.6 3.7 4.3 1.0 23.6 27.2 6.1 33 38.1 8.5 73.3 Up. Qu. 7 1.2 2.5 1.1 ------23.3 Lo. Qu. 4 0 0 0.5 ------0 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied

Fertilizer applied as pure nutrient Plant protection Improved kg/ha Manure seeds used applied Insecticide Fungicide Range % of area NPO K O t/ha 2 5 2 kg/ha kg/ha AC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC Avg.0 18.2 5.9 22.8 16.1 62.2 - - 7.3 - 0.1 0.4 0.6 2.1 Avg.1 34.2 19.7 65.8 23.0 76.9 - - 7.8 - 0.8 2.5 1.7 5.5 Up. Qu. 24.3 6.6 26.9 16.4 67.3 - - 7.5 - 0 0 0.6 2.3 Lo. Qu. 0 0000- -3.0-0000

297 52 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

TABLE 18e: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ LM 4 OF MARAGUA DISTRICT Subzone: s + s/vs, Soil unit: UU 1 Survey area 127 (Kambiti) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Range Land Family Casual Permanent Number of ha Sheep & Adults Labourers Labourers children Dairy Zebu Goats Poultry Donkeys Rabbits Pigs < 14 years Avg.0 2.02 0.27 1.53 3.8 9.37 0.1 1.13 0.2 2.33 1.17 0.03 1.4 Avg.1 2.02 2.67 3.54 4.38 12.77 1 8.5 3 2.33 2.92 1 2.1 Up. Qu. 1.63 0 3 5.25 11.25 0 0 0 3 2 0 2 Lo. Qu. 0.79 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

Land Use Permanent pasture & Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Fallow Other Use Range ha ha Fodder Crops ha ha ha Avg.0 0.56 0.43 0.17 - 0.86 Avg.1 0.56 0.50 0.32 - 4.29 Up. Qu. 0.7 0.65 0.2 0.08 0 Lo. Qu. 0.39 0.14 0.2 0.06 0

Farming Diversity & Stocking Intensity Stocking Rate

Cropping Farm Land Permanent pasture & Improved Range Diversity TLU/ha Fodder Crops Cattle Crops/year TLU/ha % of total Sheep & Sheep & Dairy Zebu Goats Dairy Zebu Goats Avg.0 4.8 0.2 0.8 0.38 1.7 9.1 4.5 8.3 Avg.1 4.8 1.5 1.8 0.43 9.3 11.2 2.8 83.3 Up. Qu. 5.25 0 1.9 0.7 0 15 5.3 0 Lo. Qu. 3 0 0 0.3 - - - 0 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied Fertilizer applied as pure nutrient Improved kg/ha Manure Plant protection seeds used applied Insecticide Fungicide Range % of area NPO K O t/ha 2 5 2 kg/ha kg/ha AC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC Avg.0 5.9 9.3 12.3 13.0 17.0 - - 3.9 5.1 0.7 0.9 0.2 0.3 Avg.1 35.3 23.8 29.0 22.7 27.6 - - 4.0 4.9 2.7 3.2 3.3 4.0 Up. Qu. 0 16.4 17.8 17.3 18.7 - - 3.6 3.9 0.04 0.04 0 0 Lo. Qu. 0 0000- -0.41.30000

298 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 53

TABLE 18f: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ UH-LH 1 OF MURANG’A DISTRICT Subzone: p or l/v l^m, Soil unit: MV 2 Survey area 128 (Karurumo) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Range Land Family Casual Permanent Number of ha Sheep & Poultry Poultry Adults Labourers Labourers children Dairy Zebu Goats (Exotic) (Local) < 14 years Avg.0 2.04 2.8 0 4.07 0.83 2.07 2.1 1.43 0.23 1.3 Avg.1 2.04 2.90 4.69 12.5 12.4 2.1 2.26 1 3 Up. Qu. 2.45 4 0 6.25 0 0 2 2.25 0.25 3 Lo. Qu. 1.08 2 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 0

Land Use Permanent pasture & Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Fallow Other Use Range ha ha Fodder Crops ha ha ha Avg.0 0.33 0.76 0.68 - 0.27 Avg.1 0.33 0.76 0.68 0.28 Up. Qu. 0.43 1 0.8 0.02 0.2 Lo. Qu. 0.14 0.39 0.47 - 0.08

Farming Diversity & Stocking Intensity Stocking Rate

Cropping Farm Land Permanent pasture & Improved Range Diversity TLU/ha Fodder Crops Cattle Crops/year TLU/ha % of total Sheep & Sheep & Dairy Zebu Goats Dairy Zebu Goats Avg.0 3.9 1.51 0 0.40 4.6 0 1.2 96.7 Avg.1 3.9 1.57 0 0.46 4.7 0 1.4 100 Up. Qu. 5 1.80 0 0.51 5.5 0 1.6 100 Lo. Qu. 3 - 0 0.37 - 0 2 100 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied Fertilizer applied as pure nutrient Improved kg/ha Manure Plant protection seeds used applied Insecticide Fungicide Range % of area NPO K O t/ha 2 5 2 kg/ha kg/ha AC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC Avg.0 0.7 33.8 14.5 19.3 8.3 - 28.0 - 5.1 0 0 0.4 0.2 Avg.1 20.2 33.8 15.0 23.4 10.4 - 28.0 - 5.7 0 0 0.6 0.3 Up. Qu. 0 26.7 11.5 26.7 11.5 - 23.1 - 5.4 0 0 0.5 0.2 Lo. Qu. 0 - - 7.7 2.7 - - - 3.6 0 0 0 0

299 54 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

TABLE 18g: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ UM 1 OF MURANG’A DISTRICT Subzone: p or f l^m, Soil unit: RB 2 Survey area 129 (Gakira) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Range Land Family Casual Number of ha Sheep & Adults Labourers children Dairy Zebu Goats Poultry Rabbits < 14 years Avg.0 0.68 2.13 0 1.13 1.23 0.2 1.97 1.5 0.8 Avg.1 0.68 2.13 2.83 3.7 6 1.97 1.55 1.5 Up. Qu. 0.75 2 0 2 2 0 2 2 1.25 Lo. Qu. 0.27 1 0 0 0 0 2 1 0

Land Use Permanent pasture & Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Fallow Other Use Range ha ha Fodder Crops ha ha ha Avg.0 0.18 0.26 0.16 - 0.08 Avg.1 0.18 0.26 0.16 - 0.12 Up. Qu. 0.20 0.29 0.17 - 0.09 Lo. Qu. 0.08 0.11 0.06 - 0.02

Farming Diversity & Stocking Intensity Stocking Rate

Cropping Farm Land Permanent pasture & Improved Range Diversity TLU/ha Fodder Crops Cattle Crops/year TLU/ha % of total Sheep & Sheep & Dairy Zebu Goats Dairy Zebu Goats Avg.0 9.5 3.5 0 0.3 14.9 0 2.1 100 Avg.1 9.5 3.5 0 0.8 14.9 0 5.3 100 Up. Qu. 10 3.0 0 0.5 12.9 0 3.2 100 Lo. Qu. 8.8 - 0 0 - 0 0 100 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied Fertilizer applied as pure nutrient Improved kg/ha Manure Plant protection seeds used applied Insecticide Fungicide Range % of area NPO K O t/ha 2 5 2 kg/ha kg/ha AC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC Avg.0 47.6 24.3 16.1 25.1 16.7 4.8 3.2 32.5 21.6 0.2 0.1 0.9 0.6 Avg.1 67.9 29.1 19.4 28.9 19.3 - 19.3 32.5 21.6 0.6 0.4 1.08 0.72 Up. Qu. 73.2 28.9 20.0 17.3 12.0 0 0 36.4 25.2 0.2 0.1 1.01 0.69 Lo. Qu. 0 ----00--000.60.4

300 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 55

TABLE 18h: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ UM 2 OF MURANG’A DISTRICT Subzone: m l i m/s, Soil unit: RB 2 Survey area 130 (Gathuki’ini) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Range Land Family Casual Permanent Number of ha Sheep & Adults Labourers Labourers children Dairy Zebu Goats Poultry < 14 years Avg.0 0.88 1.67 0 1.83 10 2.37 4.27 0.27 1.13 Avg.1 0.88 2 - 3.06 10 2.37 5.82 1.33 1.89 Up. Qu. 1.47 2 0 3.25 11.25 3 3 0 2 Lo. Qu. 0.38 1 0 0 5 2 0 0 0

Land Use Permanent pasture & Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Fallow Other Use Range ha ha Fodder Crops ha ha ha Avg.0 0.31 0.34 0.14 - 0.09 Avg.1 0.31 0.34 0.15 - 0.09 Up. Qu. 0.42 0.6 0.23 0.12 0.1 Lo. Qu. 0.1 0.1 0.05 0.09 0.04

Farming Diversity & Stocking Intensity Stocking Rate

Cropping Farm Land Permanent pasture & Improved Range Diversity TLU/ha Fodder Crops Cattle Crops/year TLU/ha % of total Sheep & Sheep & Dairy Zebu Goats Dairy Zebu Goats Avg.0 5.83 2.1 0 0.42 13.0 0 2.6 83.3 Avg.1 5.83 2.5 0 0.70 14.5 0 4.0 100 Up. Qu. 7 1.5 0 0.44 9.8 0 2.9 100 Lo. Qu. 4 -00-00100 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied Fertilizer applied as pure nutrient Improved kg/ha Manure Plant protection seeds used applied Insecticide Fungicide Range % of area NPO K O t/ha 2 5 2 kg/ha kg/ha AC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC Avg.0 55.1 53.7 50.3 55.6 52.1 - 12.9 17.1 16.0 0.2 0.2 1.3 1.2 Avg.1 61.2 55.6 52.1 57.5 53.9 - - 19.0 17.8 6.4 6.0 1.8 1.6 Up. Qu. 84.8 54.8 38.3 54.8 38.3 - 0 19.0 13.3 0 0 1.0 0.7 Lo. Qu. 37.1 -----0--0000

301 56 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

TABLE 18i: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ LM 3 OF MURANG’A DISTRICT Subzone: s + s, Soil unit: LB 2 Survey Area 131 (Kambirwa) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Range Land Family Casual Permanent Number of Sheep & Poultry Poultry B/ children ha Dairy Zebu Rabbits Adults Labourers Labourers Goats (Local) (exotic) hives < 14 years Avg.0 1.50 2.03 0.33 3.3 5.9 13.33 0.07 0.03 1.63 2.8 0.4 0.97 Avg.1 1.50 3.05 5 3.81 7.38 200 2 1 1.63 3.23 1.33 2.07 Up. Qu. 2.04 4 0 4 8.5 0 0 0 2 4.25 1 2 Lo. Qu. 0.6 0 0 1 2.75 0 0 0 1 1 0 0

Land Use

Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Permanent pasture & Other Use Range ha ha Fodder Crops Fallow ha ha ha Avg.0 0.76 0.19 0.37 - 0.18 Avg.1 0.76 0.26 0.58 - 0.18 Up. Qu. 1.05 0.25 0.54 - 0.2 Lo. Qu. 0.4 0 0.1 - 0.1

Farming Diversity & Stocking Intensity Stocking Rate

Cropping Farm Land Permanent pasture & Improved Range Diversity TLU/ha Fodder Crops Cattle Crops/year TLU/ha % of total Sheep & Sheep & Dairy Zebu Goats Dairy Zebu Goats Avg.0 4.8 1.5 0.2 0.44 6.1 0.9 1.8 66.7 Avg.1 4.8 2.24 3.3 0.51 5.8 8.7 1.3 100 Up. Qu. 6 2.2 0 0.40 8.2 0 1.5 100 Lo. Qu. 2.8 0 0 0.33 - - - 0 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied Fertilizer applied as pure nutrient Improved kg/ha Manure Plant protection seeds used applied Insecticide Fungicide Range % of area NPO K O t/ha 2 5 2 kg/ha kg/ha AC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC Avg.0 52.2 9.6 - 12.4 - - - 15.4 - 0.1 0.4 0.6 2.4 Avg.1 68.0 20.6 - 20.7 - - - 16.5 - 2.6 - 0.7 1.9 Up. Qu. 72.1 8.8 - 13.1 - - - 15.0 - 0 0 0.4 1.6 Lo. Qu. 13.1 0 - 0 - - - 2.2 - 0 - - -

302 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 57

TABLE 19a: CROPPING PATTERNS IN AEZ LH 1 OF MARAGUA DISTRICT Subzone: p or l/vl^ m +s, Soil unit: MV 2 Survey area 123 (Kinyona)

First Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Cabbages 0.01 0.04 0.00 0 0.35 19.77 Irish potatoes 0.03 0.07 0.08 0 0.98 55.37 Maize 0.00 0.02 0 0 0.02 1.13 Maize & beans 0.01 0.08 0 0 0.42 23.73 Total Sample Area 0.05 1.77 100

Second Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Cabbages 0.01 0.04 0.01 0 0.41 5.62 Cabbages & kales 0.00 0.02 0 0 0.02 0.27 Irish potatoes 0.01 0.05 0 0 0.32 4.39 Maize 0.06 0.18 0.1 0 1.82 24.97 Maize & beans 0.16 0.24 0.31 0 4.58 62.83 Maize & Irish potatoes 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 1.37 Sweet potatoes 0.00 0.04 0 0 0.04 0.55 Total Sample Area 0.24 7.29 100

Perennial Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Avocado 0.01 0.05 0 0 0.29 2.00 Bananas 0.01 0.06 0 0 0.24 1.66 Oranges 0.00 0.01 0 0 0.01 0.07 Passion fruits 0.00 0.01 0 0 0.02 0.14 Pears 0.00 0.01 0.00 0 0.08 0.55 Plums 0.00 0.01 0.00 0 0.07 0.48 Tea 0.46 0.46 0.6 0.22 13.77 95.10 Total Sample Area 0.48 14.48 100

NOTES: Avg.0 = average of all sample farms Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these

303 58 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

TABLE 19b: CROPPING PATTERNS IN AEZ UM 2 OF MARAGUA DISTRICT Subzone: m/l i m/s, Soil unit: RB 2 Survey area 124 (Kirere)

First Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.01 0.09 0 0 0.36 4.35 Cabbages 0.01 0.3 0 0 0.3 3.62 Cucumber 0.00 0.04 0 0 0.04 0.48 French beans 0.01 0.19 0 0 0.38 4.59 Kales 0.01 0.04 0 0 0.14 1.69 Maize 0.19 0.22 0.2 0.04 5.76 69.56 Maize & beans 0.04 0.24 0 0 1.2 14.49 Tomatoes 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 1.21 Yams 0.00 0.001 0 0 0.001 0.01 Total Sample Area 0.27 8.28 100

Second Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crop Average 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.01 0.09 0 0 0.36 4.24 Cabbages 0.01 0.3 0 0 0.3 3.54 Cucumber 0.00 0.04 0 0 0.04 0.47 French beans 0.02 0.19 0 0 0.38 4.48 Kales 0.01 0.04 0 0 0.14 1.65 Maize 0.19 0.23 0.2 0.04 5.96 70.27 Maize & beans 0.04 0.24 0 0 1.2 14.15 Tomatoes 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 1.18 Yams 0.00 0.001 0 0 0.001 0.01 Total Sample Area 0.28 8.48 100

Perennial Crops Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Avocado 0.02 0.06 0.03 0 0.73 8.30 Bananas 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.03 2.14 24.35 Coffee 0.16 0.17 0.2 0.07 4.77 54.27 Macadamia 0.01 0.05 0 0 0.3 3.41 Mangoes 0.00 0.02 0 0 0.02 0.23 Passion fruits 0.03 0.21 0 0 0.83 9.44 Total Sample Area 0.29 8.79 100

NOTES: Avg.0 = average of all sample farms Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these

304 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 59

TABLE 19c: CROPPING PATTERNS IN AEZ UM 3 OF MARAGUA DISTRICT Subzone: m/s + s, Soil unit: RB 3 Survey area 125 (Kandani) First Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 29 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.1 0.26 0.2 0 2.9 14.80 French beans 0.01 0.2 0 0 0.4 2.04 Irish potatoes 0.02 0.07 0.02 0 0.52 2.65 Kales 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.51 Maize 0.24 0.58 0.4 0 6.95 35.46 Maize & beans 0.24 0.41 0.4 0 6.9 35.20 Pigeon peas 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.26 Soya beans 0.00 0.04 0 0 0.04 0.20 6XQÀRZHU 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.26 Sweet potatoes 0.03 0.16 0 0 0.94 4.80 Tomatoes 0.03 0.19 0 0 0.75 3.83 Total Sample Area 0.67 19.6 100

Second Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 29 Farms Crop 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.1 0.26 0.2 0 2.9 15.18 French beans 0.01 0.2 0 0 0.2 1.05 Irish potatoes 0.02 0.06 0.03 0 0.57 2.98 Kales 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.52 Maize 0.24 0.63 0.4 0 6.9 36.13 Maize & beans 0.23 0.37 0.4 0 6.7 35.08 Soya beans 0.00 0.04 0 0 0.04 0.21 Sweet potatoes 0.03 0.16 0 0 0.94 4.92 Tomatoes 0.03 0.19 0 0 0.75 3.93 Total Sample Area 0.66 19.1 100

Perennial Crops Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 29 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Avocado 0.02 0.04 0.01 0 0.44 5.64 Bananas 0.11 0.14 0.2 0.01 3.29 42.18 Coffee 0.08 0.25 0.08 0 2.33 29.87 Macadamia 0.00 0.14 0 0 0.14 1.79 Mangoes 0.06 0.10 0.06 0 1.60 20.51 Total Sample Area 0.27 7.8 100

NOTES: Avg.0 = average of all sample farms; Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these

305 60 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

TABLE 19d: CROPPING PATTERNS IN AEZ UM 4 OF MARAGUA DISTRICT Subzone: s/m + s, Soil unit: RB 3 Survey area 126 (Makuyu)

First Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Green peas 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.31 Irish potatoes 0.03 0.06 0.05 0 0.9 5.60 Maize 0.05 0.35 0 0 1.4 8.71 Maize & beans 0.45 0.46 0.6 0.3 13.47 83.82 Pumpkins 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.31 Sweet potatoes 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.62 Tomatoes & kales 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.62 Total Sample Area 0.53 16.07 100

Second Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crop 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Green peas 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.32 Irish potatoes 0.03 0.06 0.05 0 0.9 5.67 Maize 0.05 0.35 0 0 1.4 8.82 Maize & beans 0.44 0.46 0.6 0.3 13.27 83.62 Pumpkins 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.32 Sweet potatoes 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.63 Tomatoes & kales 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.63 Total Sample Area 0.52 15.87 100

Perennial Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Avocado 0.02 0.04 0.04 0 0.56 13.49 Bananas 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.02 1.57 37.83 Coffee 0.02 0.11 0 0 0.55 13.25 Mangoes 0.05 0.08 0.07 0 1.45 34.94 Paw paws 0.00 0.01 0 0 0.02 0.48 Total Sample Area 0.14 4.15 100

NOTES: Avg.0 = average of all sample farms Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these

306 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 61

TABLE 19e: CROPPING PATTERNS IN AEZ LM 4 OF MARAGUA DISTRICT Subzone: s + s/vs, Soil unit: UU 1 Survey area 127 (Kambiti) First Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.02 0.25 0 0 0.5 2.96 Cassava 0.00 0.02 0 0 0.02 0.12 Cow peas 0.01 0.05 0 0 0.21 1.24 Coriander (Dhania) 0.00 0.02 0 0 0.02 0.12 Ground nuts 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.59 Hot pepper 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.30 Maize 0.14 0.36 0.32 0 4.28 25.37 Maize & beans 0.38 0.42 0.6 0.19 11.42 67.69 Maize & cow peas 0.01 0.2 0 0 0.2 1.19 Pumpkins 0.00 0.01 0 0 0.01 0.06 Tindori 0.00 0.03 0 0 0.03 0.18 Tomatoes 0.00 0.03 0 0 0.03 0.18 Total Sample Area 0.56 16.87 100 Second Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crop 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.02 0.25 0 0 0.5 3.02 Cassava 0.00 0.02 0 0 0.02 0.12 Cow peas 0.01 0.05 0 0 0.21 1.27 Coriander (Dhania) 0.00 0.02 0 0 0.02 0.12 Kales, pumpkins & chilies 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.30 Maize 0.13 0.34 0.23 0 4.02 24.32 Maize & beans 0.38 0.42 0.6 0.19 11.42 69.09 Maize & cow peas 0.01 0.2 0 0 0.2 1.21 Pigeon peas 0.00 0.04 0 0 0.04 0.24 Tindori 0.00 0.03 0 0 0.03 0.18 Tomatoes 0.00 0.02 0 0 0.02 0.12 Total Sample Area 0.55 16.53 100

Perennial Crops Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Bananas 0.0002 0.005 0 0 0.005 0.04 Citrus 0.00 0.02 0 0 0.07 0.54 Mangoes 0.37 0.46 0.58 0.09 10.98 85.08 Paw paws 0.06 0.17 0.01 0 1.85 14.34 Total Sample Area 0.43 12.91 100

307 62 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

TABLE 19f: CROPPING PATTERNS IN AEZ UH-LH 1 OF MURANG’A DISTRICT Subzone: p or l/vl^m, Soil unit: MV 2 Survey area 128 (Karurumo)

First Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crop 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Kales 0.003 0.08 0 0 0.08 100 Total Sample Area 0.003 0.08 100

Second Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.00 0.04 0 0 0.12 1.23 Cabbages 0.02 0.07 0.04 0 0.67 6.86 Carrots 0.00 0.01 0 0 0.02 0.20 Garden peas 0.00 0.04 0 0 0.04 0.41 Irish potatoes 0.01 0.04 0.01 0 0.28 2.87 Kales 0.00 0.03 0 0 0.06 0.61 Maize 0.01 0.15 0 0 0.3 3.07 Maize & beans 0.06 0.35 0 0 1.76 18.01 Maize & garden peas 0.01 0.22 0 0 0.44 4.50 Maize & Irish potatoes 0.07 0.26 0.06 0 2.08 21.29 Maize, beans & Irish potatoes 0.08 0.28 0.1 0 2.5 25.59 Maize, garden peas & I/potatoes 0.03 0.4 0 0 0.8 8.19 Maize, sweet & Irish potatoes 0.02 0.5 0 0 0.5 5.12 Vegetables 0.01 0.1 0 0 0.2 2.05 Total Sample Area 0.32 9.77 100

Perennial Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Avocado 0.002 0.04 0 0 0.07 0.30 Pears 0.07 0.27 0.04 2.16 9.40 Tea 0.64 0.64 0.83 0.39 19.3 84.02 Woodlots 0.05 0.36 0 0 1.44 6.27 Yellow passions 0.0001 0.002 0 0 0.002 0.01 Total Sample Area 0.76 22.97 100

NOTES: Avg.0 = average of all sample farms Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these

308 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 63

TABLE 19g: CROPPING PATTERNS IN AEZ UM 1 OF MURANG’A DISTRICT Subzone: p or f l ^m, Soil unit: RB 2 Survey area 129 (Gakira)

First Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Arrow roots 0.00 0.03 0 0 0.11 2.18 Beans 0.02 0.05 0.02 0 0.55 10.89 Cabbages (Brassicas) 0.01 0.02 0.02 0 0.36 7.13 Courgettes 0.00 0.00 0 0 0.01 0.20 Cut Flowers 0.00 0.02 0 0 0.04 0.79 Irish potatoes 0.01 0.02 0.02 0 0.41 8.12 Kales 0.00 0.00 0 0 0.01 0.20 Maize 0.01 0.04 0.00 0 0.25 4.95 Maize & Beans 0.10 0.10 0.12 0.04 3.04 60.20 Spices (pepper & dhania) 0.00 0.01 0 0 0.02 0.40 Sweet potatoes 0.01 0.05 0 0 0.19 3.76 Tomatoes 0.00 0.03 0 0 0.06 1.19 Total Sample Area 0.16 5.05 100

Second Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Arrow roots 0.00 0.00 0 0 0.004 0.09 Beans 0.02 0.04 0.02 0 0.57 13.00 Cabbages (Brassicas) 0.01 0.02 0.01 0 0.26 5.93 Courgettes 0.00 0.01 0 0 0.01 0.23 &XWÀRZHUV 0.00 0.02 0 0 0.04 0.91 Irish potatoes 0.01 0.02 0.02 0 0.29 6.61 Kales 0.00 0.00 0 0 0.01 0.23 Maize 0.01 0.05 0 0 0.19 4.33 Maize & beans 0.09 0.09 0.12 0.04 2.77 63.18 Hot pepper 0.00 0.01 0 0 0.02 0.46 Sweet potatoes 0.01 0.06 0 0 0.18 4.11 Tomatoes 0.00 0.02 0 0 0.04 0.91 Total Sample Area 0.15 4.38 100

309 64 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

TABLE 19g Contin.: CROPPING PATTERNS IN AEZ UM 1 OF MURANG’A DISTRICT Subzone: p or f l ^m, Soil unit: RB 2 Survey area 129 (Gakira)

Perennial Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Avocadoes 0.02 0.02 0.02 0 0.51 6.42 Bananas 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.01 1.31 16.49 Coffee 0.18 0.18 0.24 0.08 5.43 68.35 Loquats 0.00 0.00 0 0 0.004 0.05 Mangoes 0.01 0.02 0.01 0 0.29 3.65 Tea 0.00 0.08 0 0 0.08 1.01 Woodlots 0.01 0.32 0 0 0.32 4.03 Total Sample Area 0.26 7.94 100

NOTES: Avg.0 = average of all sample farms Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these

310 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 65

TABLE 19h: CROPPING PATTERNS IN AEZ UM 2 OF MURANG’A DISTRICT Subzone: m/l i m/s, Soil unit: RB 2 Survey area 130 (Gathuki’ini)

First Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Arrow roots 0.01 0.1 0 0 0.1 1.06 Beans 0.01 0.13 0 0 0.4 4.25 Cassava 0.01 0.06 0 0 0.13 1.38 Chewing cane 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.11 1.17 Irish potatoes 0.01 0.08 0 0 0.25 2.66 Maize 0.10 0.17 0.13 0 3.08 32.73 Maize & beans 0.17 0.19 0.2 0.05 5.21 55.37 Sweet potatoes 0.00 0.04 0 0 0.13 1.38 Total Sample Area 0.31 9.41 100

Second Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Arrow roots 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 1.68 Beans 0.01 0.11 0 0 0.32 5.37 Cassava 0.01 0.06 0 0 0.13 2.18 Chewing cane 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.11 1.85 Irish potatoes 0.01 0.1 0 0 0.1 1.68 Maize 0.06 0.14 0.1 0 1.8 30.20 Maize & beans 0.11 0.13 0.11 0.04 3.37 56.54 Sweet potatoes 0.00 0.02 0 0 0.03 0.50 Total Sample Area 0.2 5.96 100

Perennial Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Bananas 0.08 0.08 0.1 0.04 2.44 24.23 Coffee 0.22 0.24 0.39 0.06 6.5 64.55 Macadamia nut 0.04 0.11 0.03 0 1.13 11.22 Total Sample Area 0.34 10.07 100

NOTES: Avg.0 = average of all sample farms Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these

311 66 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

TABLE 19i: CROPPING PATTERNS IN AEZ LM 3 OF MURANG’A DISTRICT Subzone: s + s, Soil unit: LB 2 Survey area 131 (Kambirwa)

First Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.02 0.28 0 0 0.56 2.43 %HDQV VXQÀRZHU 0.03 0.8 0 0 0.8 3.47 Butter nuts 0.01 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.87 Capsicum 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.43 Cassava 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.43 Cow peas 0.01 0.15 0 0 0.44 1.91 Dolichos lab lab 0.01 0.4 0 0 0.4 1.73 Irish potatoes 0.01 0.04 0 0 0.24 1.04 Maize 0.09 0.34 0.12 0 2.74 11.87 Maize & beans 0.55 0.59 0.8 0.2 16.64 72.10 Pigeon peas 0.02 0.14 0 0 0.56 2.43 Pumpkins 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.43 Water melons 0.01 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.87 Total Sample Area 0.76 23.08 100

Second Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.02 0.28 0 0 0.56 2.41 %HDQV VXQÀRZHU 0.03 0.8 0 0 0.8 3.45 Butter nuts 0.01 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.86 Capsicum 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.43 Cassava 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.43 Cow peas 0.01 0.15 0 0 0.44 1.90 Dolichos beans 0.01 0.4 0 0 0.4 1.72 Irish potatoes 0.01 0.04 0 0 0.24 1.03 Maize 0.09 0.35 0.13 0 2.78 11.98 Maize & beans 0.55 0.59 0.8 0.2 16.56 71.38 Pigeon peas 0.02 0.14 0 0 0.68 2.93 Pumpkins 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.43 Terere 0.00 0.04 0 0 0.04 0.17 Water melons 0.01 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.86 Total Sample Area 0.76 23.2 100

312 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 67

TABLE 19i Cont.: CROPPING PATTERNS IN AEZ LM 3 OF MURANG’A DISTRICT Subzone: s + s, Soil unit: LB 2 Survey area 131 (Kambirwa)

Perennial Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Avocadoes 0.003 0.1 0 0 0.1 1.75 Bananas 0.003 0.05 0 0 0.09 1.58 Citrus 0.003 0.1 0 0 0.1 1.75 Mangoes 0.139 0.25 0.23 0 4.17 73.03 Oranges 0.007 0.1 0 0 0.2 3.50 Passion fruits 0.033 1 0 0 1 17.51 Paw paws 0.002 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.88 Total Sample Area 0.19 5.71 100

NOTES: Avg.0 = average of all sample farms Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these

313 68 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

3.4.5 INTRODUCTION TO THE ACTUAL LAND USE SYSTEMS AND POTENTIAL INTENSIFICATION BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT

A more detailed description can be found together with calculations of proﬁtability in the Farm Manage- ment Guidelines of each district and in the KARI Fertilizer Use Manual (Muriuki and Qureshi, 2001). An additional important reference material is “Small Holder Farming Handbook for Self Employment.

MARAGUA DISTRICT

The main Agro-ecological Zones in which farm surveys were conducted are: LH 1, UM 2, UM 3, UM 4, LM 4

Subzone LH 1, p or l/v l^m of the Lower Highland Tea – Dairy Zone

This is a Tea – Dairy Zone, with permanent cropping possibilities, dividable in a long to very long cropping season followed by a medium one as represented by Kinyona sub-location and Kinyona location in Kigumo division of Maragua district. The 60 % reliability of the length of cereal and legume growing period during the 1st and 2nd rainy seasons is more than 210 days and 140 – 155 days, respectively. The mean annual rainfall is between 1700 – 2400 mm. The 66 % probability of rainfall during the st1 (March – May) and the 2nd (Oc- tober – February) rains seasons is between 850 – 1300 mm and 480 – 680 mm, respectively. A combination of dominating eutric Nitosols with nito-chromic Cambisols, chromic Acrisols and Luvisols are the soil types of this Subzone.

In this Subzone, the mean farm household size is 1.14 ha with moderate applications of fertilizers particularly nitrogen and phosphates. The average applications rates for N and P fertilizers both in annual and cash crops was reported: 14.1 kg/ha and 7.1 kg/ha and 27.6 kg/ha and 13.9 kg/ha, respectively. The mean application of organic farm manure in both annual and permanent crops was reported as 17.1 t/ha and 9 t/ha, respectively (Table 18a). During the 1st planting season Irish potatoes dominate the annual crops, followed by cabbages, maize & beans. In the 2nd season, in order of importance other crops grown include: intercrop of maize & beans, Irish potatoes and sweet potatoes. Tea is the most dominant cash crop grown. Other permanent crops grown in order of importance include: avocados, bananas, pears, plums, passion fruits and oranges (Table 19a). The low yields of maize & beans per household (Table 20a) can easily be attributed to the greater attention and resources allocated to tea. The fact that planting tea requires more inputs (labour, fertilizers) farmers in this Subzone seem less interested in growing maize and beans, thus leading to sub–optimal yields shown in Table 20a. With more land use intensiﬁcation and diversiﬁcation coupled with sound land use management practices higher maize & beans yields per capita can be achieved in this Subzone.

314 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 69

TABLE 20a: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN MAIN AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) OF ZONE LH 1, p or l/v l^ m +s, RB 3 Survey area 123 (Kinyona) AEZ: LH 1 TEA - DAIRY ZONE Subzone: p or l/v l^m (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season: 210 or >, 2nd rainy season: 140 - 155) Crop, Yields3) and Inputs Unit with predom. Soil: RB 3 = eutric NITOSOLS; with nito-chromic CAMBISOLS and chromic ACRISOLS and LUVISOLS, partly lithic, pisoferric or petroferric phase Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season 2nd rainy season: 480 – 680 mm in 850 – 1300 mm at least 10 out of 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level Maize local pure I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) stand Yields3) kg/ha - Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize Var. HB511 / Pioneer Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha ------Fertilizer: N kg/ha ------

P2O5 kg/ha ------K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha ------Maize Var. HB 624 intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha - 1094 - 3300 - - 1260 3500 Fertilizer: N kg/ha - - - - 22 23

P2O5 kg/ha ------K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha - - - - - 21

315 70 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

316 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 71

Subzone UM 2 m/l i m/s of the Main Coffee Zone of Maragua and Murang’a Districts

This is the Main Coﬀee Zone with a medium to long cropping season, intermediate rains, and a medium to short one as represented by Kirere sub–location in Kigumo location of Kigumo division in Maragua district and Gathuki’ini sub–location of Gaturi location in Kiharu division of Murang’a district. The 60 % reliability of the length of cereal and legume growing period in Kirere sub–location in Maragua during the 1st and 2nd rainy season is more than 160 days and 110 – 130 days, respectively. The mean annual rainfall is between 1300 – 1620 mm. The 66 % probability of rainfall during the 1st (March – May) and the 2nd (October – February) rainy seasons is between 550 – 820 mm and 320 – 480 mm, respectively. The dominant soil types are the humic Nitosols in Maragua and in Murang’a.

In this Subzone, mean household farm size is about 0.8 ha only. In spite of the land shortage, livestock husbandry practice is common, with mixed dairy farming dominant. The numbers of dairy cows per farm was reported: 2.3 cows, cross breeds are almost out now: 0.03 cows and 1.1 sheep & goats. No local zebu breeds were reported. Many exotic and still a few local poultry birds are kept with means of 66.5 birds and 5.1 birds, respectively. Large families with depandants are common, the mean number of adults, casuals, permanent workers and children < 14 years per farmer is 4.0, 2.6, 0.1 and 1.7, respectively (Table 18b). In addition, use of improved seeds at planting is moderately high with a mean of 76 %. About 50 % of Level I (no inputs) farmers plant improved seeds. Application of agro–chemicals is equally high with mean rates of 50 kg/ha of N and 44 kg/ha of P applied in annual crops. Similar mean rates are applied to permanent crops: 50 kg/ha of N and 42 kg/ha of P. The K fertilizers are also applied with mean similar rates of 2 kg/ha to both annual and permanent crops. Evidence suggests that farmers apply insecticides and fungicides, too. The mean application rates are similar for all crops for these agro – pesticides: 0.1 kg/ha and 0.5 kg/ha for insecticides and pesticides, respectively (Table 18b).

The seasonal cropping patterns of this subzone in Maragua district are shown in Table 19b. During the st1 planting season maize dominates the annual crops, followed closely by maize & beans intercrop. Other annual crops grown in the order of importance are: French beans, beans, cabbages, tomatoes, cucumber and yams. The trend remains almost the same during the 2nd planting season. Coﬀee is the most dominant permanent cash crop. In the order of importance other permanent crops grown in this Subzone are: bananas, passion fruits, avocados, macadamia nuts and mangoes. The maize varieties grown here are of the HB513/614 series. Despite the widespread use of N and P fertilizers coupled with use of improved seeds at planting, average maize yields are very low, not enough for the households (Table 20b). The soil physical properties have deteriorated due to continuous cropping throughout the year, hence soils can no longer respond to additional fertilizers. To restore this anomaly, farmers should be encouraged to adopt minimum tillage farming methods and intensify application of compost and other organic material.

On the other hand, in Gathukeini sub–location of Murang’a district the 60 % reliability of the length of cereal and legume growing period during the 1st and 2nd rainy season is between 160 - 170 days and 115 – 130 days, respectively. The average annual rainfall is between 1180 – 1400 mm. The 66 % probability of rainfall during the 1st (March – May) and the 2nd (October – February) rainy season is between 450 – 650 mm and 300 – 400 mm, respectively. Humic Nitosols dominate this Subzone.

In this Subzone, the average farm size is 0.88 ha (Table 18h). The average numbers of dairy animal, sheep & goats is about 2, respectively. No local zebu breeds were reported. The mean local poultry is 10 birds. The mean numbers of the farmer’s family comprising of adults, casual and permanent workers and children under < 14 years are: 2.4, 4.3. 0.3 and 1.1, respectively (Table18h). The mean use of improved seeds at planting is ~ 55 % with Level I farmers reporting ~ 40%. Use of N and P fertilizers is a well-established agronomic practice. The mean application rates in annual as well as permanent crops for N fertilizers is 54 kg/ha and 50 kg/ha, respectively. Moreover, mean application rates in annual as well as permanent crops for P fertilizers is 56 kg/ha and 52 kg/ha, respectively. K fertilizers are only applied to permanent crops particularly coﬀee at the mean rate of 12.9 kg/ha (Table 18h). The mean application rates for farm manures in annual and permanent crop is similar 17.1 t/ha and 16.0 t/ha, respectively. In terms of crops and seasonality, the trend is same throughout the year. Maize & beans intercrop dominate annual crops grown. In the order importance

317 72 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

other the annual crops grown in the 1st planting season are: maize, beans. Irish potatoes, cassava & sweet potatoes, chewing cane and arrow - roots. During the 2nd planting season the annual crops grown are: maize, beans, cassava, Irish potatoes, arrow– roots and sweet potatoes. The perennial crops grown in this Subzone, in order of importance are coﬀee, bananas and macadamia (Table 19h).

The average maize & beans yields in this subzone are very low in Maragua district and relatively low in Murang’a district despite the use of N and P fertilizer as well as the use of improved seeds at planting (Table 20b & h). This is an interesting result that calls for more research to determine the inhibiting factor(s) that explain the lack of yield response to high inputs and climatic conditions. May be this could be attributed to the exhaustion of soil micronutrients. Perhaps it is time that farmers in this Subzone were exposed to technologies that combine optimal quantities of inorganic, organic, manure and green biomass from mucuna, crotolaria, tithonia, calliandra and leucaena. Such technologies have resulted in impressive maize yields in Central Highlands of Kenya1). By restoring soil physical properties through no–tillage farming methods, farmers are capable of achieving greater maize & beans yields.

Notes 1) Mucheru, M., Mugendi, D., Kangai, R., Kungu. J., Mugwe, J. and Micheni, A. (2004): Organic resources for soil fertility management in Eastern Kenya. In: Savala, C. E. N., Omare, M.N., and Woomer, P. L. (Eds.), Organic Resources Management in Kenya: Perspectives & Guidelines, pp.26 - 33.

318 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 73

TABLE 20b: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN MAIN AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) OF ZONE UM 2, m/l i m/s, RB 2 Survey area 124 (Kirere) AEZ: UM 2 MAIN COFFEE ZONE Subzone: m/l i m/s (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season: 160 or >; 2nd rainy season: 110 - 130) Crop, Yields3) and Inputs Unit with predom. Soil: RB 2 = humic NITISOLS Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season 2nd rainy season: 320 – 480 mm in 550 – 820 mm at least 10 out of 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level Maize local I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) mono-cropped Yields3) kg/ha - Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize Var. HB513/614, Pioneer Yields3) kg/ha - 1547 1575 5000 - 1503 1575 5000 Fertilizer: N kg/ha - 72.7 100 - 70.3 100

P2O5 kg/ha - 64.9 100 - 62.8 100 K2O kg/ha 0 3.0 0 0 2.9 0 Manure t/ha - 30.6 35 - 29.6 35 Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha ------Fertilizer: N kg/ha ------

P2O5 kg/ha ------K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha ------Maize Var. H614 intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha ------Fertilizer: N kg/ha ------

P2O5 kg/ha ------K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha ------

319 74 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

Subzone UM 3, m/s + s of the Upper Midland Marginal Coffee Zone

This is the Marginal Coﬀee Zone, with a medium to short and a short cropping season as represented by Kan- dani sub-location of Kahumbu location in Maragua division of Maragua district. The 60 % reliability of the length of cereal and legume growing period in Kandani sub–location during the 1st and 2nd rains season is between 110 – 130 days and 90–100 days, respectively. The mean annual rainfall is between 900 – 1350 mm. The 66 % probability of rainfall during the st1 (March – May) and the 2nd (October – February) rains seasons is between 350 – 650 mm and 230 – 380 mm, respectively. An association of eutric Nitosols with nito-chromic Cambisols and chromic Acrisols and Luvisols soil types dominate this Subzone.

In Kandani Sub-location, the mean farm household size is 1.33 ha. Livestock keeping is a common practice with mean numbers for dairy, zebu, sheep & goats, poultry and pigs: 1.33, 1.48, 0.41, 4.14, 4.17 and 1.45, respectively (Table 18c). The farmer’s comprises of adults, casuals and dependants i.e. children < 14 years, each having a mean of 2.93, 2.55 and 0.90, respectively. Fallow land use was reported with Level III farmer having 0.11 ha and Level I ~ 0.1 ha. The use of certiﬁed seeds at planting is very low with a mean of 19 %. Only 30.3 % of Level III farmers use improved seeds at planting, while Level I hardly purchase improved seeds. It seems that the use of unsuitable low yielding local seeds are used at planting. However, the application of manures and fertilizers is encouraging. Level I farmers apply at least 1.2 t/ha of farm manures while Level III farmers apply 4.6 t/ha. In this Subzone, the mean application rate is 5.8 t/ha. Furthermore, the application of N and P fertilizers especially in annual crops is moderate with mean rates of 21.8 kg/ha and 24.7 kg/ha, respectively (Table 18c).

Table 19c shows the symmetric cropping land use patterns and seasonality in this Subzone. An equal and a similar number of annual crops are grown throughout the year. Maize & beans are the dominant and most important annual crops. The other annual crops grown here, reported in order of importance are: sweet potatoes, tomatoes, Irish potatoes, French beans, kales and soya beans. Sunﬂower is only grown during the 1st rains season. Bananas, coﬀee and mangoes in that order dominate the permanent crops with avocados and macadamia ranked 4th and 5th, respectively.

The maize yields of 3713 kg/ha and 1913 kg/ha per annum during 1st and 2nd rainy seasons respectively, as reported by Level III farmers are moderately optimal (Table 20c). The medium zone varieties seem to be suitable for this Subzone. In addition, the maize & beans intercrop yield of 3893 kg maize per ha during 1st rainy season is encouraging, especially if farmers intensify the use of improved seeds at planting. This fair yield return articulates the importance of combining inorganic and organic manures in crop husbandry practices.

320 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 75

TABLE 20c: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN MAIN AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) OF ZONE UM 3, m/s + s, RB 3 Survey area 125 (Kandani) AEZ: UM 3 MARGINAL COFFEE ZONE Subzone: m/s + s (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season: 110 - 130, 2nd rainy season: 90 - 100) 3) Crop Yields Unit with predom. Soil: RB 3 = eutric NITISOLS; with nito-chromic CAMBISOLS and and Inputs chromic ACRISOLS and LUVISOLS, partly lithic, pisoferric or petroferric phase Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season 2nd rainy season: 230 – 380 mm in 350 – 650 mm at least 10 out 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level Maize local pure I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) stand Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize Var. HB511/Pioneer Yields3) kg/ha - - 3713 5500 - - 1913 3500 Fertilizer: N kg/ha - - 57.5 - - 57.5

P2O5 Kg/ha - - 57.5 - - 57.5 K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha - - 10.0 - - 10.0 Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize Var. HB511 / Pioneer intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha - - 3893 5000 - - 2093 3000 Fertilizer: N kg/ha - - 57.5 - - 57.5

P2O5 kg/ha - - 57.5 - - 57.5 K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha - - 10.0 - - 10.0

321 76 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

Subzone UM 4, s/m + sRIWKH8SSHU0LGODQG6XQÀRZHU0DL]H=RQH This is the Sunﬂower - Maize Zone, with a short to medium and a short cropping season as represented by Makuyu sub-location in Makuyu location of Makuyu division in Maragua district. The 60 % reliability of the length of cereal and legume growing period in Makuyu sub–location during the 1st and 2nd rains season is between 100 – 110 days and 90–100 days, respectively. The mean annual rainfall is between 900 – 1100 mm. The 66 % probability of rainfall during the st1 (March – May) and the 2nd (October – February) rains seasons is between 320 – 450 mm and 230 – 300 mm, respectively. The dominant soil associations are eutric Nitosols with nito-chromic Cambisols and chromic Acrisols and Luvisols.

In this Subzone, land use is intensive as shown by a low mean farm household size of: 0.74 ha (Table 18d). Animal husbandry practices are also intensive and diverse. The mean numbers of dairy, zebu, sheep & goats, poultry, pigs and rabbits are: 0.67, 1.8, 2.83, 6.13,0.53 and 0.4, respectively. Large families exist here, too. The average farmer’s family size comprises of 3.2 adults, 1.77 casuals, 0.03 permanent workers and 1.17 children. On average, every farmer has 0.01 ha for forage. The use of inputs is very low, with a mean use of better planting seeds: 18.2 %. Only 24.3% of Level III farmers use improved seeds at planting. Equally, the mean application rates for N and P fertilizers are very low: 5.9 kg/ha and 16.1 kg/ha, respectively (Table 18d). Nevertheless, the use of farm yard manure is good with a mean of 7.3 t/ha. Level I farmers apply ~ 3 t/ha while Level III farmers fertilize their farms with ~ 7.5 t/ha.

A similar growing and cropping pattern prevails throughout the year (Table 19d). Maize & beans intercrop dominate annual crops in both seasons. In order of importance, the other annual crops grown are: Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes, tomatoes & kales and green peas. Bananas, mangoes are the most important permanent crops followed by avocados, coﬀee and paw paws in that order. It is necessary for farmers to be encouraged to use certiﬁed seeds (Table 20d).

322 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 77

TABLE 20d: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN MAIN AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) OF ZONE UM 4, s/m + s, RB 3 Survey area 126 (Makuyu) AEZ: UM 4 SUNFLOWER – MAIZE ZONE Subzone: s/m + s (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season: 100 – 110, 2nd rainy season: 90 – 100) 3) Crop, Yields and Unit with predom. Soil: RB 3 = eutric NITISOLS; with nito-chromic CAMBISOLS and Inputs chromic ACRISOLS and LUVISOLS, partly lithic, pisoferric or petroferric phase Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season 2nd rainy season: 230 – 300 mm in 320 – 450 mm at least 10 out of 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level Maize local pure I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) stand Yields3) kg/ha - Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize Var. HB511/Pioneer Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha ------Fertilizer: N kg/ha ------

P2O5 kg/ha ------K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha ------Maize Var.H511/Cargil intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha 1215 1591 1770 3500 1290 1669 1770 3000 Fertilizer: N kg/ha 0 6.8 7.7 0 6.9 7.7

P2O5 kg/ha 0 18.6 19.2 0 18.9 19.2 K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha 3.3 8.4 8.8 3.3 8.5 8.8

323 78 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

Subzone LM 4, s + s/vs of the Lower Midland Marginal Cotton Zone

This is the Marginal Cotton Zone, with a short and a short to very short cropping season as represented by Kambiti sub-location of Kambiti location in Makuyu division in Maragua district. The 60 % reliability of the length of cereal and legume growing period during the 1st and 2nd rains season is between 85 – 100 days and 75 – 85 days, respectively. The mean annual rainfall is between 800 – 850 mm. The 66 % probability of rainfall during the 1st (March – May) and the 2nd (October – February) rains seasons is between 200 – 280 mm and 200 – 230 mm, respectively. The dominant soil types are: rhodic/orthic Ferralsols and Luvisols.

In the Kambiti Subzone, the mean household farm size is 2.02 ha. Diverse livestock and crop husbandry practices prevail. Level III farmers have ~ 0.08 ha of fallow land compared to 0.06 ha for Level I. The average number of dairy, zebu, sheep & goats, poultry, donkey, rabbits and pigs per farm are: 0.27, 1.53, 3.8, 9.37, 0.1, 1.13 and 0.2, respectively (Table 18e). Each comprises of 2.33 adults, 1.17 casuals, 0.03 permanent workers 1.4 children < 14 years. The use of certiﬁed seeds at planting is absolutely low: ~ 6 % as well as mean application rates of N and P fertilizers: 9.3 kg/ha and 13.0 kg/ha, respectively. Farmers rely heavily on farm manures: Level I apply ~ 0.4 t/ha and Level III ca. 3.6 t/ha.

The diversity of crops and land use patterns is shown in Table 19e. Maize & beans intercrop dominate annual crops in both seasons, although farmers are using uncertiﬁed seeds at planting. The other early maturing annual crops grown in the order of importance include: cowpeas, intercrops of maize & cowpeas, kales, pumpkins & chilies, ground nuts, tindori, tomatoes and pumpkins. The dominant permanent crops, in the order of importance, grown here are: mangoes, paw paws, citrus and bananas. (Table 20e). A shift from traditional agronomic animal and crop husbandry practices to modern mixed farming methodologies (taking into account the persistent drought regime) should be emphasized across this Subzone if farmers are to realize better farm returns.

324 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 79

TABLE 20e: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN MAIN AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) OF ZONE LM 4, s + s/vs, UU 1 Survey area 127 (Kambiti) AEZ: LM 4 MARGINAL COTTON ZONE Subzone: s + s/vs (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season: 85 - 100 or >, 2nd rainy season: 75 - 85) Crop, Yields3) and Inputs Unit with predom. Soil: UU 1 = rhodic and orthic FERRALSOLS; with ferralo-chromic/ orthic/ferric LUVISOLS Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season 2nd rainy season: 230 – 280 mm in 350 – 450 mm at least 10 out of 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level Maize local pure I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) I=low II=med. 4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) stand Yields3) kg/ha - - 1714 3000 - - 1600 2500 Fertilizer: N kg/ha - - 36.5 - - 51.1 P2O5 kg/ha - - 38.3 - - 53.7 K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha - - 7.9 - - 11.1 Maize Var.HB511 /Pioneer Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha - 1170 1342 2200 - 746 834 ca. 1700 Fertilizer: N kg/ha 0 13.9 19.2 0 13.9 19.2

P2O5 kg/ha 0 19.2 20.1 0 19.2 20.1 K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha 0.9 4.2 5.7 0.9 4.2 5.7 Maize Var. HB 624 intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha ------Fertilizer: N kg/ha ------

P2O5 kg/ha ------K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha ------

325 80 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

MURANG’A DISTRICT

The main Agro-ecological Zones in which farm surveys were conducted are UH-LH 1, UM 1, UM 2, LM 3.

Subzone UH 1, p or l/v l^m of the Upper Highland Sheep - Dairy Zone

This is the Sheep – Dairy Zone, with permanent cropping possibilities, divided into a long to very long cropping season followed by a medium one as typiﬁed by Karurumo sub-location of Kiruri location in Kangema division of Murang’a district. The 60 % reliability of the length of cereal and legume growing period during the 1st and 2nd rains season is more than 210 days and between 140 – 155 days, respectively. The average annual rainfall is between 2200 – 2500 mm. The 66 % probability of rainfall during the 1st (March – May) and the 2nd (October – February) rains seasons is between 1100 – 1400 mm and 650 – 700 mm, respectively. The dominant soil types are the fertile humic Andosols.

From Table 18f, the average household land size is 2.04 ha/farmer in this Subzone. Dairy farming is the dominant livestock practice having a mean of 2.8 cows. No local zebu breeds, though on average a farmer keeps 4.07 sheep and/or goats. Both exotic and local poultry are kept each a mean of 0.83 birds/farmer and 2.07 birds, respectively. Each farm, on average, has at least 2.1 adults with 1.3 children < 14 years. Farmers here engages more casuals than permanent workers, i e. ca.1.43 casuals and 0.23 permanent worker, respectively. The higher mean for casual workers is mainly used in picking tea. Use of improved planting seeds absolutely very low: < 1% (Table 18f). Application of N fertilizers is 33.8 kg/ha and 14.5 kg/ha in annual and permanent crops, respectively. Similarly, the mean application rate for P fertilizers is 19.3 kg/ha and 8.3kg/ha in annual and permanent crops, respectively. No farm manures are applied to annual crops. How- ever, the mean application rate in permanent crops is 5.1 t/ha. It should be emphasized that these ﬁgures are based on assumptions of mutual exclusivity of events and randomness.

This Subzone portrays an interesting contrast in cropping patterns and seasonality especially for annual crops. Almost no crop is grown during the 1st rains season except, and on very minimal acreage: < 0.1 ha, kales (Table 19f). In addition, a diversity of intercropping more than two crops is common. In order of importance, the following intercrops were reported: maize, beans & Irish potatoes, maize & Irish potatoes, maize & beans, maize, garden peas & Irish potatoes and maize, sweet potatoes & Irish potatoes. On the other hand, in order of importance, the following mono crops were reported: cabbages, maize, Irish potatoes, vegetables, beans, garden peas and carrots. Because this subzone is transitional to LH 1 (and it tends more to this Tea-Dairy Zone with the global upwarming), tea is the most important and dominant cash crop grown here. Other permanent crops grown, in order of importance are: peas, woodlots, avocados and yellow passion fruits (Table 19f). Given the intensity and diversity of land use patterns, it was not possible to determine the exact annual maize & beans yields per household (Table 20f).

326 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 81

TABLE 20f: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN MAIN AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) OF ZONE UH(-LH)1, p or l/v l^m, MV 2 Survey area 128 (Karurumo) AEZ: UH 1: SHEEP – DAIRY ZONE, transitional to LH 1 Subzone: p or l/vl^m (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season: 210 or >; 2nd rainy season: 140 - Crop, Yields3) 155) and Inputs Unit with predom. Soil: MV 2 = humic ANDOSOLS, partly lithic phase Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season 2nd rainy season: 320 – 480 mm in 1100 – 1400 mm at least 10 out of 15 years Maize local pure Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level stand I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: - N kg/ha P O kg/ha 2 5 1R¿JXUHVZHUHUHSRUWHGEHFDXVHLQWHUHVW K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha is now in tea growing which has become possible at this Maize altitude of 2300 m due to global warming Var. HB 513 Pioneer Yields3) kg/ha ------Fertilizer: N kg/ha ------

P2O5 kg/ha ------K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha ------Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha ------Fertilizer: N kg/ha ------

P2O5 kg/ha ------K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha ------Maize Var. H513 intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha ------Fertilizer: N kg/ha ------

P2O5 kg/ha ------K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha ------

327 82 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

Subzone UM 1, SRUÀAP of the Upper Midland Coffee -Tea Zone This is the Coﬀee - Tea Zone, with permanent cropping possibilities, dividable in a fully long cropping season followed by a medium one as typiﬁed by Gakira sub-location of Muguru location in Kangema division of Murang’a district. The 60 % reliability of the length of cereal and legume growing period during the 1st and 2nd rains season is more than 210 days and between 140 – 155 days, respectively. The average annual rainfall is between 1700 – 1900 mm. The 66 % probability of rainfall during the 1st (March – May) and the 2nd (October – February) rains seasons is between 800 – 1100 mm and 500 – 580 mm, respectively. The dominant soil types are the fertile humic Nitosols

In this Subzone of Gakira sub-location, the mean farm size is 0.68 ha. The average numbers of dairy animals kept per farmer is 2.13. Local zebu breeds have reduced in numbers. Sheep and goats are kept with a mean of 1.13 per farmer. The average number of local poultry birds per farmer is very low: 1.23. Rearing of rabbits, so as to supplement domestic animal protein and cash income, is new enterprise having a mean of 0.2 rabbits/farmer. An average farm family comprises of 1.97 adults, 1.5 casuals and 0.8 children < 14 years (Table 18g). Use of certiﬁed planting seeds is moderate with a mean of ~ 50%. However, this is skewed to the right with 73.2 % of Level III farmers reporting use of improved seeds against nil for Level I. Generally, Level III farmers were too few to come across during the ﬁeld survey. Equally, application of N and P fertilizers shows a similar trend with mean rates of 24.3 kg/ha N and 16.1 kg/ha N and 25.1 kg/ha P and 21.6 kg/ha P in annual and perennial crops, respectively.

The numbers of crops grown in the two seasons remained the same (Table 19g). Maize & beans intercrop dominate the annual crops. Mono crops grown in order of importance: beans, Irish potatoes, cabbages, maize, arrowroots, tomatoes, spices and courgettes. Coﬀee is the most dominant perennial crop. In order of importance, bananas, avocados, woodlots, mangoes, tea and loquats are other important permanent crops grown. Maize & beans yields are sub-optimal (Table 20g).

328 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 83

TABLE 20g: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN MAIN AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) OF ZONE 80SRUÀAPRB 2 Survey area 129 (Gakira) AEZ: UM 1 COFFEE - TEA ZONE Subzone: SRUÀAP (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season: 210 or >; 2nd rainy season: 140 - 155) Crop, Yields3) and Inputs Unit with predom. Soil: RB 2 = humic NITOSOLS Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season 2nd rainy season: 500 – 580 mm in 800 – 1100 mm at least 10 out of 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level Maize local pure I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) stand Yields3) kg/ha - Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize Var. EMCO 92 SR Yields3) kg/ha ------Fertilizer: N kg/ha ------

P2O5 kg/ha ------K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha ------

Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha ------Fertilizer: N kg/ha ------

P2O5 kg/ha ------K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha ------Maize Var. EMCO 92 SR intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha - - 2314 4000 - - 1648 3000 Fertilizer: N kg/ha - - 47.9 - - 47.9

P2O5 kg/ha - - 28.8 - - 28.8 K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha ------

329 84 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

Subzone UM 2, m/l i m/s of the Main Coffee Zone

For description see that of a similar subzone in Maragua district.

TABLE 20h: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN MAIN AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) OF ZONE UM 2, m/l i m/s, RB 2 Survey area 130 (Gathuki’ini) AEZ: UM 2 MAIN COFFEE ZONE Subzone: m/l i m/s (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season: 160 - 170; 2nd rainy season: 115 - Crop, Yields3) 130) and Inputs Unit with predom. Soil: RB 2 = humic NITISOLS Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season 2nd rainy season: 270 – 350 mm in 350 – 550 mm at least 10 out of 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level Maize local pure I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) stand Yields3) kg/ha - Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize Var. HB513 / Pioneer Yields3) kg/ha ------Fertilizer: N kg/ha ------

P2O5 kg/ha ------K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha ------Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha ------Fertilizer: N kg/ha ------

P2O5 kg/ha ------K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha ------Maize Var. H513 intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha - 2339 2636 3800 - 1637 1974 3000 Fertilizer: N kg/ha - 53.7 54.8 - 53.7 54.8

P2O5 kg/ha - 55.6 54.8 - 55.6 54.8 K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha - 17.1 19.0 - 17.1 19.0

330 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 85

Subzone LM 3, s + s of the Lower Midland Cotton Zone

This is the Cotton Zone with two short cropping seasons as typiﬁed by Kambirwa sub-location of Gikindu location in Kiharu division of Murang’a district. The 60 % reliability of the length of cereal and legume growing period during the 1st and 2nd rainy season is between 85 - 105 days and 85 – 100 days, respectively. The average annual rainfall is between 980 – 1100 mm. The 66 % probability of rainfall during the st1 (March – May) and the 2nd (October – February) rainy seasons is between 390 – 490 mm and 270 – 320 mm, respectively. The dominant soil types are the verto - eutric Nitosols.

The average household farm size is 1.50 ha (Table 18i). Livestock consists mainly of dairy cows with a mean of 2.03 per farm; zebu, sheep & goats, and rabbits are less important with each having a mean of 0.33, 3.3 and 0.03, respectively. More than twice as much exotic than local poultry breeds are kept with means of 13.33 and 5.9 birds, respectively. Bee-keeping with a mean of 0.07 bee-hives is an emerging new livestock enterprise. The farm family labour and hired labour force comprises of 1.63 adults, 2.8 casuals, 0.4 permanent workers and 0.97 children < 14 years. The mean use of certiﬁed seeds at planting is 52.2 % with Level I farmers reporting: 13.1 % and Level III: 72.1 %. N and P fertilizers are only applied to annual crops at mean rates of 9.6 kg/ha and 12.4 kg/ha, respectively. Application of farm manure is well established with Level I farmers using 2.2 t/ha and Level III: 15.0 t/ha.

The same crops are grown during the 1st and 2nd rains seasons (Table 19i). The crops grown in order of importance, other than annual crops are: maize, beans & sunﬂower intercrop, beans, pigeon peas, cowpeas, dolichos beans, Irish potatoes, butter nuts, water melons, capsicum, cassava, and pumpkins. Amaranth (Ter- ere) is only grown during the 2nd rains season. Among the permanent crops grown, in order of importance, are: mangoes, passion fruits, oranges, citrus, avocados and paw paws. The yields from EMCO 92 SR maize variety cannot be improved in this Subzone because it needs 120 days here, i.e. 10 or 15 more than the 60% reliability (Table 20i). An early maturing variety (see Table IX) would give better yields under the climatic and edaphic conditions of this Subzon.

At the time of the Farm Survey 2004 there was no cotton reported because low prices for it had lowered the interest in it, and the new cotton program had not yet really started.

331 86 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

TABLE 20i: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN MAIN AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) OF ZONE LM 3, s + s, LB 2 Survey area 131 (Kambirwa) AEZ: LM 3 COTTON ZONE Subzone: s+ s (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season: 85 - 105; 2nd rainy season: 85 - 100) Crop Yields3) and Inputs Unit with predom. Soil: LB 2 = verto - eutric NITISOLS; with mollic NITISOLS Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season 2nd rainy season: 270 – 320 mm in 390 – 490 mm at least 10 out of 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level Maize local pure I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot6) I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot6) stand Yields3) kg/ha - Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize Var. EMCO 92 SR Yields3) kg/ha ------Fertilizer: N kg/ha ------

P2O5 kg/ha ------K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha ------Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha ------Fertilizer: N kg/ha ------

P2O5 kg/ha ------K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha ------

Maize Var. EMCO 92 SR intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha 990 1260 1265 ca. 3000 1328 1360 1429 ca. 3000 Fertilizer: N kg/ha 0 11.5 13.2 0 11.5 13.3

P2O5 kg/ha 0 17.1 17.3 0 17.2 17.3 K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha 4.4 19.7 21.1 4.4 19.7 21.2

Notes 1) Source: Farm Survey (2004) 2) Figures of these cereals growing periods should be reached or surpassed in 6 out of 10 years; growing periods may be considered longer due to immediately following second rainy season by middle rains. Then the second JURZLQJSHULRGLVVKRUWHUWKDQWKHJLYHQ¿JXUHV 3) Achieved average yields with average rainfall 4) Farmers with medium inputs 5) Farmers with high inputs of fertilizer, insecticides, soil and water conservation 6) Potential yield according to crop list and local climate of this Agro-Ecological Unit if soils are optimally fertilized, plus optimal crop management

332 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 87

3.4.6 FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPORTANT AGRO-ECOLOGICAL UNITS

The Fertiliser Use Recommendation Project of the GTZ (1986 - 92) had two trial sites in the former Murang’a district, one on Nitisols at Kandara-Kareti in UM 2, the other near Makuyu in UM 3-4 on less acid Nitisols. For the other zones, subzones and units Muriuki and Qureshi showed which results from other districts could be representative (see map of Fertiliser Recommendations and Farm Survey Areas) and constructed curves for fertiliser response1.

Recommended rates of an AEU increase into a wetter subzone and decrease into a drier one if the soil unit extends there (see dark and light grey shades in the small maps). We have tend to lower the rates due to the low ﬁnancial basis of the smallholder farmers. The optimum can be calculated from the curve formulas in Muriuki & Qureshi Fertiliser Use Manual, KARI, Nairobi 2001. In the long term, the sustainable amount must be applied to balance the nutrient content. Some recommended quantities for this can be found at the end of this chapter and in the chapter 3.1 General Remarks.

Higher recommendations are given in the Smallholder Farming Handbook of the IRACC and MSS, Nai- robi 1997, but the economic investment and risk is too high for the local farmers here. A rural small credit system for the inputs could help a lot. Where scientific sources for quantifying the rates are lacking, some conclusions could be taken from the difference of inputs and yields between the low and high production levels of the Farm Survey 2004/05. An empty column “Other Nutrients Recommended” does not mean that there is nothing to be applied but rather it is because of lack of trials data. For the physical symptoms of nutrient deficiencies and methods of alleviating them, see Muriuki, A.W. and Qureshi, J.N. (2001), Table 1&2, p.22-23.

Finally it must be mentioned again that fertilising alone will increase the yields only in the short term. The micronutrients not included in the fertiliser become exhausted much faster. Manuring almost up to the full return of the extracted nutrients is a must in order to have a stable agrobiological system with continuous production2.

On the other hand even macronutrients like potassium (K) which is usually wrongly assumed to be in abun- dance, must be applied in the long run because 1 t of maize needs 23 kg K, 1 t of sorghum even 45 kg, 1 t of groundnuts 50 kg. Cassava is less demanding, only 7 kg K per t, but needs additionally 2 kg of cobalt (Co) and 1 kg of magnesium (Mg) 3.

333 88 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

334 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 89

TABLE 21a: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNITS LH1 p or l/vl^m, MV2 and RB1 of the TEA and DAIRY ZONE Av. Yield Av. Yield Av. Exp. Yield Increase if 5 t/ha Crop varieties and + Response- Recommended Increase if Other Nutrients Fertiliser Rates this Rate is Manure are Recommended Season curve kg/ha Applied 1) Applied kg/ha kg/ha kg/ha First Rainy Season Hybrid maize 1500 + none – – ca. 500 Lime Hybr. maize & beans 680 + 12.3 N (50 N) not econ. 3) Some rock 615 maize * phosphate Second Rainy S. Hybrid maize 2300 + none – – ca. 700 Lime Some rock Hybr. maize & beans 1230 + none – – * phosphate Both seasons Potatoes 4860 + 7.5 NP 50 N + 20 P 7500 ca. 1500 Lime Cabbages 4600 + 500 P 30 P 15000 ca. 5000 Lime 2t o Perennial crops

Tea 2) 300 N + 70 P + 50 K 5000 * Copper, Zinc

Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 128; conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004

1) Double rates will bring almost double increase if climate is suitable and there are no pests and diseases. 2) See also recommendations of local Tea Authoritie and of IRACC: Smallholder Farming Handbook for Self Employment, Nairobi 1997, p. 174, for rates in 1st, 2nd, and 3rd year after planting. 3) Economical rate is considered about 20 kg more maize for 1 kg nutrient content.; * No data available

335 90 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

336 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 91

TABLE 21b: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNITS 80SRUÀAP&ÀLP, RB2 of the TEA and COFFEE ZONE

Av. Exp. Yield Av. Yield Av. Yield Crop varieties and + Response- Recommended Increase if Increase if 5 t/ha Other Nutrients Fertiliser Rates this Rate is Manure are Season curve 1) Recommended kg/ha kg/ha Applied Applied kg/ha kg/ha First Rainy Season Hybrid maize 2000 + 13 N (50 N) not econ.2) 650 ca. 500 Potassium every Hybr. maize & beans 2500 + 9 N not economical * few years (50 kg) Second Rainy S. 1500 + 24 N + Hybrid maize 0.28 P 75 N 1800 ca. 700 Potassium every few years (50 kg) Hybr. maize & beans 2300 + 22 N 50 N 1100 maize * Both seasons Potatoes 8920 + 29 N 50 N 1450 ca. 1500 Potassium Perennial crops 300 N+ 70 P + 50 Tea K 3) 5000 * Coffee 150 N + 100 P ca. 1000 *

Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 126; IRACC: Smallholder Farming Handbook for Self Employment, Nairobi 1997, p. 147 & 174; conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004

1)$SSO\$SSO\WRJHWKHUZLWKPLQHUDOIHUWLOLVHUVIRUEHWWHUHIIHFWDQGPD[LPXPEHQH¿W WRJHWKHU ZLWK PLQHUDO IHUWLOLVHUV IRU EHWWHU HIIHFW DQG PD[LPXP EHQH¿W 2) Economical rate is considered about 20 kg more maize for 1 kg nutrient content. 3)'LIIHUHQWUDWHVLQ¿UVWWKUHH\HDUVVHH7DEOHDDQG,5$&&S 1RGDWDDYDLODEOH

TABLE 21c: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT UM2 m/l i m/s, RB2 of the MAIN COFFEE ZONE Av. Yield Av. Yield Av. Exp. Yield Increase if 5 t/ha Crop varieties and + Response- Recommended Increase if Other Nutrients Fertiliser Rates this Rate is Manure are Recommended Season curve kg/ha Applied) Applied 1) kg/ha kg/ha kg/ha First Rainy Season Hybrid maize 1870 + 13 N (50 N) not econ.2) 650 ca. 500 Potassium every Hybr. maize & beans 2700 + 8.9 N not economical * few years Second Rainy S. 1350 + 24.4 N Hybrid maize + 0.28 P 75 N 1800 ca. 600 Hybr. maize & beans 2600 + 22 N 50 N 1100 maize * Both seasons Potatoes 8900 + 29 N 25 N 3) 725 Potassium Perennial crops Coffee 150 N + 100 P ca. 1000 *

Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 126; IRACC: Smallholder Farming Handbook for Self Employment, Nairobi 1997, p. 147; conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004

1)$SSO\$SSO\WRJHWKHUZLWKPLQHUDOIHUWLOLVHUVIRUEHWWHUHIIHFWDQGPD[LPXPEHQH¿W WRJHWKHU ZLWK PLQHUDO IHUWLOLVHUV IRU EHWWHU HIIHFW DQG PD[LPXP EHQH¿W 2) Economical rate is considered about 20 kg more maize for 1 kg nutrient content. 3) Low input due to higher risk of drought or disease. * No data available

337 92 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

338 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 93

TABLE 21d: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT UM3 m/s + s, RB3 of the MARG. COFFEE ZONE

Av. Exp. Yield Av. Yield Av. Yield Crop varieties and + Response- Recommended Increase if Increase if 5 t/ha Fertiliser Rates this Rate is Manure are Other Nutrients Season curve Recommended kg/ha kg/ha Applied Applied kg/ha kg/ha First Rainy Season 970 + 170, together Hybrid maize 34.2 N - 0.27 N2 75 N + 25 P 1230 with 50 N & 50 P Lime + 7.4 P 1250 Hybr. maize & beans 1014 + 0.25 NP not economical *

Second Rainy S. 960 + 9 N KCB maize + 0.2 NP 25 N 225 * KCB maize & beans 852 + 0.24 NP not economical *

Perennial crops * Coffee 130 N + 80 P ca. 750 *

TABLE 21e: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT UM4 s/m + s, RB3 of the SUNFLOWER- MAIZE ZONE Av. Yield Av. Yield Av. Exp. Yield Recommended Increase if Increase if 5 t/ha Crop varieties and + Response- Fertiliser Rates this Rate is Manure are Other Nutrients Season curve kg/ha Applied Applied Recommended kg/ha kg/ha kg/ha First Rainy Season 970 + Hybrid maize 34.2 N - 0.27 N2 75 N + 25 P 1230 170 1) Lime + 7.4 P Hybr. maize & beans 1010 + 0.25 NP not economical * 170 SSP at planting, 2) 6XQÀRZHU * 100 C.A.N. * top dress Second Rainy S.

960 + 9 N 2) KCB maize + 0.2 NP 25 N 223 * KCB maize & beans 850 + 0.24 NP not economical *

Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 126; IRACC: Smallholder Farming Handbook for Self Employment, Nairobi 1997, p. 111; conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004

1) Together with 5500N&50P N & 50 P 1250 kg more yield 2) Recommended for soil improvement and better water storage capacity in any case; * No data available

339 94 MURANG´A & MARAGUA

340 MURANG´A & MARAGUA 95

TABLE 21f: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT LM3 s + s, LB2 of the COTTON ZONE

Av. Exp. Yield Av. Yield Av. Yield Crop varieties and + Response- Recommended Increase if Increase if 5 t/ha Fertiliser Rates this Rate is Manure are Other Nutrients Season curve Recommended kg/ha kg/ha Applied Applied kg/ha kg/ha First Rainy Season KCB maize 965 + 0.3 NP not economical ca. 200 * 420 + 6.6 P + KCB maize & cowp. 0.1 NP not economical * 1460 + 8.2 P + Sorghum 0.4 NP 25 N + 25 P 455 ca. 250 * Second Rainy S. KCB maize 950 + 0.3 NP not economical ca. 200 KCB maize & beans Both Seasons (2. to 1.) Cotton 100 C.A.N. 1)

Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 132; IRACC: Smallholder Farming Handbook for Self Employment, Nairobi 1997, p. 155; conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004

1) Transferred recommendation from Eastern Province. None is given for Central Province in the cited sources. Ask for local experience. * No data available

341 342 NYERI 1

3.2 NYERI DISTRICT

TABLE OF CONTENTS District Page

3.5.1 Natural Potential 3 Introduction 3 Annual Rainfall Map 4 Table 1: Annual Rainfall 5 Table 2: Temperature 6 Table 3: Potential Evapotranspiration 6 Seasonal Rainfall Maps 7 Table 4: Climate in the Agro-Ecological Zonesand Subzones 9 Agro-Ecological Zones Map 10 Agro-Ecological Zones and Subzones (=Legend to the AEZ Map), with Land Use Potentials and Water Availability &Requirement Diagrams 11 Table 5: Climatic Yield Potentials in Marginal and Semi-arid Zones 22 Soil Map 25 Soil Distribution, Fertility and Major Characteristics with Legend to the Soil Map 26

3.5.2 Population and Land 29

Table 6: Population in Nyeri District 29 Table 7: Composition of Households in Nyeri District 35 Table 8: Available Land Area in Nyeri District per AEZ and Household 41

3.5.3 Agricultural Statistics 42 Development and Trends of Major Cash Crops in Nyeri District 42 Table 9: Tea 42 Table 10: Coﬀee 43 Table 11: Pyrethrum 43 Distribution of Farming Activities During the Year 44 Tables 12 a-p: Farming Activities in the Agro-Ecological Zones 44

3.5.4 Farm Survey 52 Table 13: Farm Survey Sites Representative of the Dominating Agro-Ecological Subzones and Units 52 Farm Survey Areas and Fertiliser Recommendations Map 53 Tables 14 a-e: Assets, Land Use, Farming Intensity and Inputs 54 Tables 15 a-e: Cropping Pattern 59

343 2 NYERI

3.5.5 Introduction to the Actual Land Use Systems and to the Potential Intensiﬁcation by Better Farm Management in Dominating Agro-Ecological Subzones 64

Tables 16 a-e: Increase of Yields by Better Farm Management 65-73 LH1 fl i m of the Tea and Dairy Zone 64 UH3 f (l) i s/vs of the Wheat-Barley Zone 66 UM2 m/l i m/s of the Main Coffee Zone 68 UM4 s/m + s/vs of the Sunflower-Maize Zone 70 UM3 m/s + s of the Marginal Coffee Zone 72

3.5.6 Fertiliser and Manure Recommendations for Important Agro-Ecological Units 74 Map of Important Agro-Ecological Units 75 Tables 17 a-g: Fertiliser and Manure Recommendations: 77-81 UH2 l or l/m i m/s, RB2 of the Pyrethrum-Wheat Zone 76 UH-LH 3 (l/m) i + f(s) & f(m) i f(s), RB2 of the transit. Wheat/Maize-Barley Zones 76 LH1 fl i m, RB1 of the Tea and Dairy Zone 78 UM1 fl i m, RB1 of the Tea and Coffee Zone 79 UM2 m/l i m/s, RB2 of the Main Coffee Zone 79 UM3 m/s + s, RB2 of the Marginal Coffee Zone 79 UM4 s/m + s, RB2 of the Sunflower-Maize Zone 79

344 NYERI 3

3.5.1 NATURAL POTENTIAL

INTRODUCTION

Nyeri District comprises the most western part of the moist windward side of Mt. Kenya, the drier western leeward side of this extinct volcano, the borders of the semi-arid Laikipia Plateau (in the rain shadow area), and the moist windward eastern slope of the Arberdare Range. Therefore the contrasts in the natural potential are tremendous. The average annual rainfall ranges from 2 200 mm on the most easterly exposed edge of the Aberdare Range to 700 mm on the Laikipia Plateau.

The contrasts in the reliability of the rains are even higher, from 160 to 2000 mm in the ﬁrst rainy season and 150 to 600 mm in the second rainy season The reason is not only the rain shadow but also a lesser concentration of the convectional rains.

In the wet areas, the south-easterly trade winds are forced up by the mountains, causing frequent mists and sometimes drizzle above 1500 m a.s.l. during the months June-September which are the so-called long dry season at lower altitudes. In the second dry season, January-February, the dry NE Trades blow over the region from the Somalian deserts. Nevertheless, in the higher areas there is still enough moisture in the soil to enable permanent cropping possibile in the zones UH 1 and LH 1.

Towards the Laikipia Plateau, the Lower Highland Zones become drier and LH 2, 3, and 4 are relatively small strips. The rainfall pattern becomes trimodal here, with middle rains in July-August intruding from the west. This is good for ranching in zone LH 5 but the rains are normally not heavy enough and are too short for cultivation. With dry farming techniques like those used in the western United States, it may be possible to preserve the moisture from the ﬁrst rainy season so that it can combine with the middle rains to get an early maturing crop.

On the windward sides, the middle rains disappear and the typical rainfall pattern of eastern Kenya, i.e. two distinctive rainy seasons, dominate. These seasons become shorter downhill from the Tea-Coﬀee Zone UM 1 with a long and a medium growing period, to the Sunﬂower-Maize Zone UM 4 with a short to medium growing period (lst rainy season) and a short to very short one( 2nd rainy season).

345 4 NYERI

346 NYERI 5

TABLE 1: RAINFALL FIGURES FROM SELECTED TYPICAL STATIONS HAVING AT LEAST 15 YEARS RECORDS

Agro Ecol. Annual Monthly rainfall in mm No. and Kind of Name of Station Zone & rainfall altitude records J FMAMJ J ASOND Subzone mm 9036017 Nyeri Ministry UM 3-2 Average 931 47 47 71 176 166 32 38 36 32 95 114 77 1829 m of Works m/s + s 66% rel.1 805 30 29 48 140 125 21 27 26 15 66 95 60 9036043 Kagumo UM 2-3 Av. 933 46 52 65 217 175 33 27 27 23 93 111 64 1818 m College (Nyeri) m + s/m 66%3 9036072 Mweiga LH 4-3 Av. 867 57 50 73 145 118 30 37 41 26 84 113 92 1890 m Estate s + s 66%2 770 42 34 38 130 85 25 27 28 14 65 100 75 9036128 Nyeri Othaya UM-LH 4-3 Av. 1382 41 43 74 302 290 58 54 55 50 173 168 74 1828 m $JU2I¿FH ÀLP 66%2 1220 26 23 55 250 200 45 33 40 26 135 137 45 9036144 Mweiga Monte LH 4 Av. 821 58 51 62 137 100 23 29 32 27 75 125 103 1820 m Carlo Ranch s/vs + s/vs 66%2 660 42 47 43 120 85 11 15 16 12 55 110 65 9036157 Kiandongoro Hydro- UH 0-1 Av. 1670 77 72 106 319 316 86 80 85 66 167 173 123 2373 m met. Site, Nyeri l/vl^m 66%2 1610 55 52 72 260 290 78 64 66 52 120 133 98 9036247 Kabage Forest UH 1 Av. 1424 72 88 109 227 245 72 64 71 54 141 180 101 2286 m Station l/vl^m 66%3 9036251 Muringato UM 3-4 Av. 822 46 44 68 145 138 29 29 28 24 94 108 69 1767 m Forest Reserve m/s + s 66%3 9036268 Aboni LH 2 Av. 1148 65 79 89 139 132 262 42 37 33 76 111 83 2010 m Agric. Camp m/l + m/s 66%3 9036269 Gataragwa UH 2 Av. 962 58 63 106 158 71 45 69 59 54 72 118 89 2560 m Chief´s Camp l or l/m i m/s 66%3 9036270 Ewaso Nyiro LH 3 Av. 843 64 108 93 114 109 38 35 31 28 57 93 73 2043 m Settlement Scheme f(m) i (s/m) 66%3 9036270 Kiandongoro Gate UH 0 - Av. 2230 90 97 22 355 328 93 101 130 113 302 294 125 3076 m (Aberd. N. Park) TA I 66%3 9036273 Rohuruini Gate UH 1 Av. 1397 68 81 124 234 213 67 60 75 53 135 166 121 2500 m (Aberd. N. Park) l/vl^m 66%3 9036282 Nyeri Hill LH 2 Av. 1018 58 61 73 160 182 44 64 50 35 71 141 79 2217 m l/m i m 66%3 9036288 Wambugu F.T.C. UM 2-3 Av. 928 46 42 78 148 175 41 38 28 37 112 106 77 1815 m (Nyeri Met. Stn.) m + s/m 66%3 9036298 Wandare Gate UH 1 Av. 1250 70 83 117 202 147 63 53 66 87 110 147 105 2440 m Aberdare N. Park p or l/vl^m 66%3 9037002 Karatina, Tumu UM 2 Av. 1152 31 22 74 275 251 37 29 35 38 138 154 68 1814 m Tumu (closed) m/s + m 66%2 1030 15 12 37 187 202 25 22 23 18 80 115 49 9037015 Ragati Forest LH 1 Av. 1377 63 70 45 251 291 17 41 50 40 147 223 139 2012 m Station ÀLP 66%3 9037064 Naro Moru LH 3 Av. 855 53 45 75 155 75 25 37 33 38 102 137 80 2134 m Forest Guard Post f(m) i f(s) 66%3 9037075 Karatina Chehe LH 1 Av. 1720 62 50 99 326 391 82 73 67 69 173 202 126 2100 m Forest Station l/vl^m 66%2 1455 38 25 60 280 295 53 58 45 40 102 140 90 9037099 Karatina LH 1 Av. 1193 16 53 90 225 235 36 32 32 36 154 182 102 1980 m Kagochi ÀLP 66%3 9037100 Karatina Kaiyaba UM 2 Av. 1184 45 41 70 244 263 35 34 44 37 142 138 91 1798 m Chief´s Camp m/s + m 66%3 9037120 Kabaru LH 2 Av. 1004 64 64 111 186 112 23 24 18 27 109 164 102 2271 m Forest Station m/l + m/s 66%3

347 6 NYERI

TABLE 1: Continued Agro Ecol. Annual Monthly rainfall in mm No. and Kind of Name of Station Zone & rainfall altitude records JFMAMJJASOND Subzone mm 9037125 Burguret LH 4 Av. 790 45 54 79 134 74 33 21 36 30 94 117 73 1951 m Forest Guard Post (s/m) + (vs/s) 66%3 9037131 Karatina UM 2 Average 1450 47 37 88 331 391 47 45 55 41 169 122 77 1763 m $JULF2I¿FH m/l i m/s 66%3 9037149 Naro Moru LH 3 - UH 2 Av. 1069 56 57 87 189 116 42 47 46 64 124 163 78 2195 m Gate vl i 66%3 9037151 Gumba Chief´s UM 2 Av. 1367 25 35 87 315 263 62 58 51 49 179 182 61 1670 m Camp m + s/m 66%3 9037157 Mukurwe-ini UM 2 Av. 1408 28 35 55 327 301 57 45 51 50 177 212 70 1800 m $JULF2I¿FH m/l i m/s 66%3 9037158 Sagana UM 3-4 Av. 800 42 51 71 137 133 18 16 12 20 71 140 88 1828 m State Lodge m/s + s 66%3 9037203 Ngorano Chief´s UM 3-4 Av. 851 29 29 59 188 180 23 17 17 12 114 134 49 1815 m Camp Karatina m/s + s 66%3

3 Not calculated because not enough years available to GTZ.

TABLE 2: TEMPERATURE DATA

Temperature in°C No. and Name of AEZ1 Kind of Belt altitude Station records J FMAMJ J ASONDYr.limits

Mean max. 24,7 25,7 25,8 24,0 22,6 21,2 20,0 20,6 23,3 24,5 23,0 23,5 23,2 2300 m Nyeri Met. LH 2 9036288 Station Mean temp. 17,5 18,4 18,8 19,0 18,4 16,9 16,0 16,2 17,9 18,8 17,7 17,5 17,7 LH - 1815 m = Wambugu Mean min. 10,3 11,0 11,8 14,0 14,1 12,5 11,9 11,8 12,4 13,1 12,4 11,4 12,2 1765 m F.T.C. UM 2-3 Abs. min. 5,7 4,7 5,5 11,5 9,5 8,7 8,3 6,3 7,3 8,0 6,7 4,1 7,2 UM

1 AEZ = Agro-ecological zone

TABLE 3: AVERAGE POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

Average Potential Evapotranspiration PET in mm Av. Rainfall Type1) No. and Name of Station altitude AEZ Year % J F M A M J J A S O N D Year in mm of PET

9036288 Nyeri Met. Stn. UM 2 133 134 149 118 113 97 90 97 89 140 110 116 1385 928 67% 1815 m Wambugu F.T.C.

9037135 Kiambere UM 2- 167 166 180 149 134 120 118 130 100 162 143 151 1720 818 48% 1279 m Market LM 3

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349 8 NYERI

350 NYERI 9

TABLE 4: CLIMATE IN THE AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

66% reliability 60% reliability of cereal and Agro- Ann. mean Ann. av. Altitude of rainfall 1) legumes growing period Ecological Subzone rainfall in m temperature Zone in°C in mm 1st rainy s. 2nd rainy s. 1st rainy s.2) 2nd rainy s. Total 3) in mm in mm in days in days in days TA 0 Rocks and National Park Glaciers TA I + II Trop. Alpine National Park Moor and Heathlands UH 0 Forest Reserve Forest Zone UH 1 p or l/vl^m 1080-2000 450-1000 330-690 220 or more 130-140 350-360 Sheep and 2070-2400 15.0-12.8 Dairy Zone l/vl^m Steep and important as a catcjment area UH 2 vl i or two 1100-1200 450-500 270-300 210 or more 110-130 320-350 Pyrethrum- 2130-2380 14.7-13.2 Wheat Zone l or l/m i m/s 950-1200 480-680 280-400 200 or more 110-130 310-330 UH 3 Upper Wheat- (l/m) i f (s) 2130-2200 14.7-14.3 900-1050 320-480 230-330 180 or more 75-115 255-295 Barley Zone l/vl^m 1400-1800 600-1000 480-550 220 or more 120-140 330-360 LH 1 1950-2070 15.8-15.1 1600-2000 750-1000 480-650 220 or more 130-140 340-360 Tea-Dairy Zone p or l/vl^m ÀLP 1200-1700 450-900 400-540 200 or more 130-140 330-340 LH 2 l/mim 950-1050 350-450 320-350 180 or more 120-140 310-330 Wheat/Maize- 1830-2100 16.6-14.5 Pyrethrum Zone m/l +m/s 900-1000 350-450 330-430 160 or more 115-130 – LH 3 f (m) i (s/m) 850-1000 300-450 250-400 150 or more 75-115 225-265 Wheat (Maize)- 1980-2130 15.6-14.5 Barley Zone f (m) i f (s/vs) 850-950 320-450 200-280 150 or more 70-80 220-230 s + s 830-930 310-400 290-330 90-115 90-120 - LH 3-4 Transitional (m/s) i (vs/s) 1900-2100 16.1-14.7 800-900 250-360 200-230 130 or more 65-70 195-200 strip (m/s) i (s/vs) 800-950 270-380 180-250 130 or more 75-80 205-210 (m/s) i (s/m) 770-820 220-400 250-280 130 or more 105-110 235-240 s i (s) 800-880 200-250 250-280 100 or more 105-110 205-210 LH 4 Cattle-Sheep (s/m) i (vs/s) 1800-1980 16.9-15.6 770-900 250-330 180-260 110 or more 65-70 175-180 Barley Zone s/vs + s/vs 800-900 280-340 250-270 75-85 75-80 – (vs)^(s)+(vs) 900-980 330-400 220-280 80 or more 55-65 – LH 5 Lower High- 1890-1950 16.2-15.8 650-850 4) 4) ––– land Ranching b r i 160-280 150-260 Zone UM 1 Coffee-Tea ÀLP 1710-1780 17.8-17.5 1100-1600 400-800 340-450 180 or more 120-140 200-220 Zone UM 2 m/l i m/s 950-1500 400-700 280-430 160 or more 115-130 175-190 Main Coffee 1460-1710 19.3-17.8 Zone m + s/m 950-1400 350-550 270-350 150 or more 105-110 – UM 3 Marginal m/s+s 1220-1780 20.8-17.5 870-1000 250-450 250-320 120-135 85-100 – Coffee Zone UM 4 s/m+s 850-900 250-350 250-300 105-115 85-100 – 6XQÀRZHU 1580-1780 18.6-17.5 Maize Zone s/m + s/vs 800-870 250-300 230-270 105-110 75-80 –

351 10 NYERI

352 NYERI 11

AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES AND SUBZONES

TA = TROPICAL-ALPINE ZONES

TA 0 = Rocks and Glaciers TA I+II = Tropical-Alpine Moor- and Heathlands Here National Park Limited grazing potential

UH = UPPER HIGHLAND ZONES UH 0 = Forest Zone UH 1 = Sheep and Dairy Zone UH 1 = Sheep and Dairy Zone p or with permanent cropping possibilities, dividable in a long to very long cropping l/vl^m season followed by a medium one Upper places very steep and too important as a catchment area, therefore Forest Reserve or National Park. Small strip of outside lower places cleared, there: Good yield potential (av. 60-80 % of the optimum) 1st rainy season, start norm. mid March: Oats (April- Sep.); peas, horse beans, tarwi, potatoes1), late mat. rapeseed; kales, cabbage, carrots, kohlrabi, celery, radish, endive, rampion, leek 2nd rainy season, start norm. b./mid Oct.: Oats (Oct.-F.); peas, potatoes1); med. mat. rapeseed, YHJHWDEOHVDVLQ¿UVWUDLQ\VHDVRQ

Fair yield potential (av. 40-60% of the optimum) 1st to 2nd rainy seasons: Late mat. maize of H6...series a.o. (see Table IX, frost-free lower slopes), late mat. triticale 2nd rainy season: Med. mat. triticale Whole year: Pyrethrum, pears, plums Pasture and forage About 0.5 ha/LU on secondary pasture of Kikuyu grass; very suitable for grade cows; rye grass (Lolium perenne), Kenya white clover and other forage (see Table X) to improve stocking rate UH 1 = Sheep and Dairy Zone l/vl^m with a long to very long cropping season, followed by a medium one Too steep and too important as a catchment area, therefore not cleared (Forest Reserve and National Park) UH 2 = Pyrethrum - Wheat Zone UH 2 = Pyrethrum - Wheat Zone vl i with a very long cropping season and intermediate rains, dividable in two variable or two cropping seasons and i.r. Very small, potential see Nyandarua District UH 2 = Pyrethrum- Wheat Zone l or l/m with a long or long to medium cropping season, intermediate rains, and a medium to i m/s short one Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. mid March: M. med. wheat (see Table IX), late mat. wheat like Kenya Bongo, m. mat. barley; peas, horse beans; potatoes1); rapeseed; cabbages, kales, carrots, kohlrabi, celery, endive, rampion, leek, radish; grain amaranth 2nd rainy season, start norm. b./mid Oct.: E. mat. barley; potatoes (Aug./Sep. – Jan./Feb.); peas, cabbages, kales, carrots, celery, endive, rampion, radish Whole year: Pyrethrum

353 12 NYERI

Fair yield potential 1st to 2nd rainy seasons: Late mat. maize like H611 - 618 (frost-free lower places), peas 2nd to 1st rainy seasons: Maize as above (lower places, Nov.-Aug.); kohlrabi, peas; grain amaranth Whole year: Pears, plums, apples (below 2600m) Pasture and forage About 0.7 ha/LU on secondary pasture of Kikuyu grass with not too much tufted grass2), improvable with rye grass (Lolium perenne) outside wheat areas; for Merino sheep and dairy cows very well suited; oats and Kenya white clover for forage

UH 3 = Upper Wheat-Barley Zone UH 3 = Upper Wheat-Barley Zone (l/m) i f(s) with a (weak) long to medium cropping season, intermediate rains, and a (weak) fully short one No reliable good yield potential Fair yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. mid March: Late mat. wheat like Kenya Bongo, m. mat. barley like Kenya Research; potatoes; grain amaranth, cabbages, carrots, peas, m. mat. beans like Cuarentino (lower places), onions, garlic 2nd rainy season, start norm. Oct.: E. mat. wheat, other crops similar to 1st rainy season Whole year: Pyrethrum (on deep soils) Poor yield potential Maize in both seasons Pasture and forage Around 1 ha/LU on secondary pasture; Kenya white clover and barley Amani for additional forage; well suitable for Merino sheep and grade beef cattle UH 3 = Upper Wheat - Barley Zone f(l) i (s/vs) with a fully (weak) long cropping season, intermediate rains, and a (weak) short to very short one LH = LOWER HIGHLAND ZONES LH 1 = Tea - Dairy Zone LH 1 = Tea – Dairy Zone l/vl^m with a long to very long cropping season followed by a medium one3) (See Diagram Kar. Chehe) Very good yield potential (av. over 80% of the optimum) 1st rain season, norm. mid March: Peas, cabbages, lettuce 2nd rainy season, start norm. mid Oct.: Peas Good yield potential 1st rainy season: Potatoes (e. of Feb.- July)1), Lima beans, carrots, leeks, spinach, endive, kales Middle rainy season (Gathano rains, July –Aug.): Potatoes (July- Oct.) 2nd rainy season: Potatoes (m. Sep.- m. Jan.); cabbages, carrots, spinach, kales, lettuce Whole year, best pl. time mid March: Tea (high quality), loquats Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: Late mat. maize of H6...series (danger of soil erosion); m. mat. beans (lower places, 2nd time end of July – b. of Nov. ~ 40%) 2nd rainy season: Late mat. maize (lower places, end of July- Jan.); peas, m. mat. beans, leek Whole year: Pyrethrum (too wet), plums, pears, passion fruits (lower places) Pasture and forage Around 0.4 ha/LU on secondary pasture of Kikuyu grass, well suited for grade dairy cows; clover and other forage (see Table X) for higher productivity

354 NYERI 13

LH 1 = Tea- Dairy Zone p or with permanent cropping possibilities, dividable in a long to very long cropping l/vl^m season followed by a medium one (See Diagram Kanyenyeni) Small, potential see Murang’a District

LH 1 = Tea- Dairy Zone ÀLP with a fully long cropping season, intermediate rains, and a medium one Small, potential almost as LH 1 l/vl^m; 2nd maize planting end of June (harvest Jan. – March), m. mat. beans good yields if planted Sep./Oct.- Jan., tea in northern lower places only fair

LH 2 = Wheat/Maize-Pyrethrum Zone LH 2 = Wheat/Maize- Pyrethrum Zone l/m i m with a long to medium cropping season, intermediate rains, and a medium one Small, potential almost as LH 2 m/l + m/s but wheat due to dissected topography and relatively high humidity not advisable; late mat. maize March- Oct., end of July- Jan., Oct. – July (lower places good), fair to poor yields for tea. Stocking rates up to 20% higher LH 2 = Wheat/Maize- Pyrethrum zone m/l+m/s with a medium to long and a medium to short cropping season Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. mid March: M. mat. wheat like Kenya Leopard and other varieties of this group, m. mat. maize like Muguguga I, m. mat. barley like K. Research; late mat. VXQÀRZHUOLNH.HQ\D:KLWHUDSHVHHGSRWDWRHVSHDVDOPRVWDOOYHJHWDEOHV Whole year: Pyrethrum (60-70%), black wattle

355 14 NYERI

Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: Late mat. maize of H6...series;m. mat. beans (lower places); rapeseed (higher places) 2nd rainy season: Late mat. maize of H6...series (Oct.- July); e. mat. beans, peas; potatoes Whole year: Apples, pears and plums in higher places, peaches in lower ones; strawberries Pasture and forage 0.6-1.2 ha/LU on secondary pasture of Kikuyu grass; down to less than 0.3 ha/LU with Napier grass up to 2000 m, Nandi Setaria above that, and green maize, maize stalks, fodder beets, Louisiana white clover and other forage (see Table X)

LH 3 = Wheat/Maize-Barley Zone LH 3 = Wheat/Maize-Barley Zone f(m) i f(s) with a (weak) fully medium to cropping season, intermediate rains, and a (weak) fully short one Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. mid/end of March: M. mat. wheat like Kenya Kongoni a.o. and m. mat. varieties, late mat. wheat like Kenya Bongo (end of Feb./b. of March, ~ 60%), m. mat. EDUOH\OLNH.5HVHDUFKPPDW¿QJHUPLOOHWOLNH(NDODNDOD XSWRP Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: Late mat. maize of H6...series (~ 40%, near valleys), m. mat. maize like 0XJXJD, KLOO\SODFHV EHDQVLQORZHUSODFHVSHDVOLQVHHGPPDWVXQÀRZHUOLNH.HQ\D White; m .mat. potatoes like Kenya Akiba; shallots 2nd rainy season, start norm. Oct.: M. mat. maize like Muguga I (end of Nov. – May/June), e. mat. barley; e. mat. beans (~40%); onions Whole year: Avocados in lower places, kales

356 NYERI 15

Pasture and forage KD/8RQQDWXUDOJUDVVODQGKD/8RQDUWL¿FDOSDVWXUHRI5KRGHVJUDVVLQKLJKHU places Nandi Setaria; barley Amani or B 106 in the 1st rainy season for stock feed, other forage seeTable X

LH 3 = Wheat/(Maize)-Barley Zone f(m) i with a (weak) fully medium cropping season, intermediate rains, and a (weak) short (s/vs) to very short one Potential in 1st rainy season almost the same as above, in 2nd rainy season e. mat. barley less than 40%, v.e. mat. beans and onions poor; stocking rates about 10% lower LH 3-4 = Wheat/(Maize) - Barley Zone to Cattle - Sheep - Barley Zone s +s with two short cropping seasons 6HH'LDJUDP0ZHLJD(VWDWHFXUYHRIWHDIRUFRPSDULVRQRQO\WRHVWLPDWHWKHZDWHUGH¿FLW Good yield potential (see Table 5a) 1stUDLQ\VHDVRQ0PDWPDL]HOLNH0XJXJD,PPDWEDUOH\OLNH.DUQHPPDW¿QJHUPLOOHW like Ekalakala (up to 2100m); e. mat. cowpeas like Kunde I (upt to 2000m), e. mat. dolichos beans Kat/DL-1 (up to 2000m) 2nd rainy season: Finger millet Ekalakala; cowpeas Kunde I (<2000m), dolichos beans Kat/DL- 1 (<2000m) Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: M. mat. wheat like Kenya Kongoni, m. mat. triticale like T 74; e. mat. beans OLNH5RVHFRFRPPDWVXQÀRZHUOLNH+HPDWSRWDWRHVOLNH5RVOLQ7DQD 2nd rainy season: M. mat. wheat like Kenya Kongoni, m. mat. barley like Karne, m. mat. triticale like T 65; m. mat. maize (Muguga I: MU 99301); e. mat. beans like Rosecoco; m. mat. VXQÀRZHUOLNH+HPDWSRWDWRHV Pasture and forage KD/8RQQDWXUDOJUDVVODQGKD/8RQDUWL¿FLDOSDVWXUHEDUOH\%DVIRUDJH others see Table X

357 16 NYERI

LH 4 = Cattle-Sheep-Barley Zone LH 4 = Cattle-Sheep-Barley Zone (m/s) i with a (weak) medium to short cropping season, intermediate rains,and a (weak) very (vs/s) short to short one Fair yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. end of March: E. or m. mat. barley, e. or m. mat. wheat; shallots (green onions) Poor yield potential 1st rainy season: Late mat. maize like H6...series, m. mat. H5...series (30- 40%)4) 2nd rainy season, start norm. end of Oct.: M. mat. maize H5...series (e. of Nov. – June), v.e. mat. barley Pasture and forage 2-4 ha/LU on natural grassland, up to 2000 m improvable with Rhodes grass; fodder barley B 106 (1st rainy season) LH 4 = Cattle-Sheep-Barley Zone (m/s) i with a (weak) medium to short cropping season, intermediate rains, (s/vs) and a (weak) short to very short one Fair yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. end of March: E. or m. mat. barley, e. or m. mat. wheat; shallots 2nd rainy season, start norm. end of Oct.: V. e. mat. barley Poor yield potential In both rainy seasons almost as LH 4 (m/s) i (vs/s) Pasture and forage 2-4 ha/LU on natural or secondary grassland; e. mat. fodder barley like Amani (1st rainy season) and other forage (Table X) LH 4 = Cattle-Sheep-Barley Zone (m/s) i with a (weak) medium to short cropping season, intermediate rains, and a (weak) short (s/m) to medium one Transitional strip, potential in the 1st rainy season as LH 4 (m/s)i(s/vs) less 10%, in 2nd rainy season e. mat. barley like Tumaini fair, e. mat. wheat poor LH 4 = Cattle-Sheep-Barley Zone s/vs + s/vs with two short to very short cropping season Yield potentials see Table 5b. Pasture and forage similar as in the three subzones above. LH 4 = Cattle-Sheep-Barley Zone (s/m) i with a (weak) short to medium cropping season, intermediate rains, a (weak) very (vs/s) short one (see Table 5c) Fair yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. b. of April: E. mat. barley like Tumaini, e. mat. wheat, m. mat. maize like Muguga I, e. mat. beans like Rosecoco (< 2000 m) 2ndUDLQ\VHDVRQVWDUWQRUPHQGRI2FW$OPRVWVLPLODUWR¿UVWUDLQ\VHDVRQ VHH7DEOHF LI WKHPRLVWXUHLVVWRUHGLQWKHVRLOE\QRWFXOWLYDWLQJLQWKH¿UVWUDLQ\VHDVRQEXWZHHGLQJDQG later mulching to reduce evaporation less. Poor yield potential 1st rainy season: M. mat. wheat like Kenya Kongoni, Triticale; green onions 2nd rainy season: V.e. mat. barley Pasture and forage 3 - 5 ha/LU on natural grassland, subterranean clover as additional forage

358 NYERI 17

LH 4 = Cattle-Sheep-Barley Zone i (s/m) + ZLWKLQWHUPHGLDWH¿UVWUDLQVD ZHDN VKRUWWRPHGLXPFURSSLQJVHDVRQDQGD ZHDN (vs/s) very short to short one Almost the same as potential as LH 4 (s/m) i (vs/s) but planting starts later towards middle rains -XQH 3ORZLQJQHYHUWKHOHVVHDUO\WRSUHVHUYHZDWHUIURP¿UVWUDLQ\VHDVRQ LH 4 = Cattle-Sheep-Barley Zone (vs)^(s) + with a (weak) very short cropping season, followed by a (weak) short one, and a (weak) (vs) very short one (See Diagram Ngobit, Deighton Downs Airstrip; curves of pyrethrum and wheat K. Bongo for comparison only) Almost the same potential as LH 4 (s/m) i (vs/s), but start of main rains and planting mid June; rapeseed leaves as vegetable. Yields improvable if water of 1st rainy season is conserved by contour ploughing and mulching

LH 5 = Lower Highland Ranching Zone LH 5 = Lower Highland Ranching Zone br i with bimodal rainfall and intermediate rains Not or only marginally suitable for rain-fed agriculture Pasture and forage Normally 3-5 ha/LU on natural Themeda grassland if well managed. No proper forage. Very suitable for grade cattle

359 18 NYERI

UM = UPPER MIDLAND ZONES UM 1 = Coffee-Tea Zone UM 1 = Coffee-Tea Zone ÀLP with a fully long cropping season, intermediate rains, and a medium one Very good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. mid March: Lima beans; cabbages, kales 2nd rainy season, start norm. mid Oct.: M. mat. beans like Cuarentino (Aug.- Dec./Jan.) Whole year, best pl. time mid March: Passion fruits, black wattle Good yield potential 1stUDLQ\VHDVRQ/DWHPDWPDL]HRI+VHULHV¿QJHUPLOOHWSRWDWRHVVZHHWSRWDWRHVPPDW VXQÀRZHUOLNH.HQ\D:KLWHRQLRQV 2ndUDLQ\VHDVRQ6ZHHWSRWDWRHVPPDWVXQÀRZHUOLNH+6$ KLJKHUSODFHV FDEEDJHV (Aug.- Dec.), onions, tomatoes Whole year: Tea (higher places), Arabica coffee (lower places), bananas, mountain paw paws, yams, loquats, avocados, kales, arrowroots Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: Cold tolerant sorghum, foxtail millet (July –Oct.); sweet potatoes (higher places) 2nd rainy season: L. mat. maize of H6...series (Aug.- Jan.), m. mat. of H5...series or EMCO 92 65 6HS±-DQ FROGWROVRUJKXP $XJ±)HE ¿QJHUPLOOHWSRWDWRHV $XJ'HF Whole year: Arabica coffee (higher places), tea (lower places), pineapples (lower places), Citrus, taro Pasture and forage 0.5-0.6 ha/LU on secondary pasture of Kikuyu grass but land too valuable for grazing; down to about 0.15 ha/LU feeding Napier grass, banana stems and leaves, sweet potato vines, maize stalks a.o. forage (see Table X) UM 2 = Main Coffee Zone UM 2 = Main Coffee Zone m/l i with a medium to long cropping season, intermediate rains and a medium to short 5) m/s one (See Diagram Mukuruweini) Very good yield potential 1stUDLQ\VHDVRQVWDUWQRUPPLG0DUFK0PDWVXQÀRZHUOLNH+\EULG6$ 2nd rainy season, start norm. mid Oct.: M. mat. beans like Cuarentino (Sep./Oct. – Jan./Feb.) Whole year, best pl. time mid March: Arabica coffee, loquats, mountain paw paws

Good yield potential 1st rainy season: M. mat. maize of H5...series or EMCO 92 SR, ratoon sorghum (lower places); m. mat. beans, potatoes1), sweet potatoes; cabbages, kales, tomatoes8), onions, French beans 2nd rainy season: E. mat. maize like Katumani comp. B7), e. mat. foxtail millet, e. mat. sorghum OLNH .; VZHHW SRWDWRHV $XJ6HS -DQ P PDW VXQÀRZHU OLNH + NDOHV cabbages8), onions, tomatoes8), French beans Whole year: Bananas, citrus, avocados, passion fruits, pineapples, taro in valleys, arrowroots, capsicum

Fair yield potential 2nd rainy season: M. mat. maize of H5...series or EMCO 92 SR (Aug./Sep.-Jan./Feb.)7)¿QJHU millet; e. mat. potatoes Whole year: Cassava (lower places), sugar cane (lower and wet places)8), Macadamia nuts Pasture and forage 0.6-1.0 ha/LU on secondary pasture, but land too valuable for grazing; down to less than 0.2 ha/LU feeding Napier or Bana grass, banana leaves, glycine a.o. forage (see Table X)

360 NYERI 19

UM 2 = Main Coffee Zone m + s/m with a medium cropping season and a short to medium one (See Diagram Karatina, Tumu Tumu Mission) Potential and stocking rates almost the same as UM 2 m/l i m/s less about 10% because of more intensive drought; all vegetables better in valleys, coffee yields good

UM 3 = Marginal Coffee Zone UM 3 = Marginal Coffee Zone m/s + s with a medium to short and a short cropping season6) Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. mid to end of March: E. mat. maize like Katumani comp. B7), ratoon of e. mat. sorghumPPDWVXQÀRZHUOLNH+PPDWEHDQVRQLRQVFDEEDJHV 2nd rainy season, start norm. mid Oct.: E. mat. foxtail millet; e. mat. sorghum like KARI Mtama HPDWVXQÀRZHUOLNH+6YHPDWEHDQV Whole year: Pineapples (best pl. time end of March), Macadamia nuts, perennial castor Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: M. mat. maize of H...series or EMCO 92 SR7)PPDW¿QJHUPLOOHWH P mat. beans, potatoes, sweet potatoes; kales, tomatoes 2nd rainy season: E. mat. maize like Katumani comp. B, e. mat. sorghum (almost 60%); e. mat. EHDQVHPDWVXQÀRZHUOLNHFDEEDJHV8), kales8), tomatoes8) :KROH\HDU$UDELFDFRIIHH ORZHUSODFHVSRRUDGGLWLRQDOLUULJDWLRQSUR¿WDEOH EDQDQDV ORZHU places marginal)8), citrus8), paw paws, cassava ( < 1500m), pigeon peas (lower places), avocado, mangoes

361 20 NYERI

Pasture and forage 0.7-1.1 ha/LU on secondary high grass savanna with zebra grass (Hyparrhenia rufa) predominant; down to less than 0.25 ha/LU feeding Napier or better Bana grass, glycine a. o. forage (see Table X)

UM 3 = Marginal Coffee Zone m/s + s/vs with a medium to short and a short to very short cropping season Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. mid to end of March: E. mat. maize like Katumani comp. B, e. mat. VRUJKXPPPDWEHDQVPPDWVXQÀRZHUOLNH+6$RQLRQVFDEEDJHV8) 2nd rainy season, start norm. end of Oct.: E. mat. foxtail millet Whole year: Pineapples, Macadamia nuts Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: Almost the same as UM 3 m/s + s, maize 10% less 2nd rainy season: Dryland comp. maize, e. mat. sorghum like 2 KX 17, v. e. mat. sorghum like IS 85 95 (50 – 60%); v. e. mat. Katheka beans; e. mat. cabbages Whole year: Almost the same as UM 3 m/s + s but a bit more marginal Pasture and forage Almost the same as UM 3 m/s + s but stocking rates are about 10% lower

362 NYERI 21

UM 4 = Sunflower- Maize Zone UM 4 = 6XQÀRZHU0DL]H=RQH s/m + s with a short to medium and a short cropping season9) Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. mid to end of March: E. mat. maize like Katumani CB, cold tol. e. mat. sorghum, ratoon of e. mat. sorghumHPDWEHDQVHPDWVXQÀRZHUOLNH+6 2ndUDLQ\VHDVRQVWDUWQRUPPLGRI2FW9HPDWVRUJKXPHPDWVXQÀRZHUOLNH ORZHU places) Whole year, best pl. time end of Oct.: Sisal Fair yield potential 1stUDLQ\VHDVRQ0PDWPDL]HRI+VHULHVRU(0&265¿QJHUPLOOHWGROLFKRVEHDQV potatoes (higher places), potatoes, sweet potatoes; Virginia tobacco (lower places); tomatoes, onions, cabbages, pumpkins, capsicum, kales 2nd rainy season: Katumani CB maize, e. mat. sorghum like 2 KX 17; potatoes (higher pl.), e. mat. beans, capsicum, tomatoes Whole year: Cassava, castor, pineapples, avocados Pasture and forage 0.8 – 1.2 ha/LU on high grass savanna with zebra grass (Hyparrhenia rufa) predominant; down to about 0.25 ha/LU feeding Bana grass, siratro (Macroptilium atropurpureum), horse tamarind (Leucaena tricandria) a.o. forage (see Table X) UM 4 = 6XQÀRZHU0DL]H=RQH s/m + s/vs with a short to medium and a short to very short cropping season $OPRVWWKHVDPHSRWHQWLDODVVPVEXWHPDWVXQÀRZHUnd rainy season only fair; stocking rates are about 10% less.

End Notes 1) Spraying against fungus diseases important 2) The bad tufted grasses Eleusine jaegeri and schimperi are expanding if the areas are overgrazed 3) On medium soils; on heavy soils permanent cropping possibilities. Given potentials refer to predominant heavy red loams. 4) A medium maturing variety for this rel. high altitude would be better but is not yet available 5)2QPHGLXPVRLOVRQKHDY\VRLOV¿UVWFURSSLQJVHDVRQKDVDORQJWRPHGLXPOHQJWKVHFRQGDPHGLXPRQH Potential refers to predominantly heavy red loams. 6)2QPHGLXPVRLOVRQKHDY\VRLOV¿UVWFURSSLQJVHDVRQKDVDORQJWRPHGLXPOHQJWKKLJKHUSODFHVHYHQPHGLXP to long. Given potential refers to predominantly heavy red loams. 7) Although Katumani has climatically a good yield potential, it may be on deep soils more advisable to plant a var. of the H5...series because of its higher productivity. 8) Better in valleys 9) On medium soils; on heavy soils veg. (growing) period 1st rainy season has a medium to short length, 2nd rainy season short to medium. Potentials refers to predominantly heavy red loams.

363 22 NYERI

TABLE 5a: CLIMATIC YIELD POTENTIALS OF SEASONAL CROPS 1) IN LH 3-4 s + s (calc. for station 9036072 Mweiga Estate with locally dominant Phaeozems)

First rainy season Second rainy season (start mid of March till mid of April) (start mid of October till mid of November)

Total Total Yield Estim. Estim. crop crop Potential average average Crop variety failures Crop variety failures (in % of yield yield out of 10 out of 10 optimum) (kg/ha)2) (kg/ha)2) seasons seasons Barley (m.m. Karne) 2390 0 Finger Millet (Ekalakala) 3) 2010 0 Maize Dolichos beans (Muguga I: MU 99301) 4310 0 (Kat/DL-1, up to 2000 m) 1580 0 Finger Millet (Ekalakala) 2140 0 Cowpeas Good Dolichos beans (Kunde 1, up to 2000 m) 900 0 (60 – 80 %) (Kat/DL-1, up to 2000 m) 1610 0 Cowpeas (Kunde 1, up to 2000 m) 890 0

Wheat Barley (med.mat. Karne) 2190 0 (e.m. Ngiri, Kenya Tembo) 1880 0 Wheat Wheat (m.m. Africa Mayo, (e.mat. Ngiri, Kenya Tembo) 1680 0 Kenya Nyoka) 2400 0 Wheat (m.m. Africa Mayo, Wheat Kenya Nyoka) 2170 0 (med.mat. Kenya Kongoni) 2150 0 Wheat (m.m. Kenya Kongoni) 2150 0 Fair Triticale Triticale (m.m. T65, T74, T62) 1740 0 (40 – 60 %) (med.mat. T65, T74, T62) 1950 0 Maize (Muguga I: MU 99301) 3920 0 Beans (Rosecoco) 990 0 Beans (Rose coco) 890 0 Beans (Red Haricot) 550 0 Beans (Red Haricot) 540 0 6XQÀRZHU + 1630 0 6XQÀRZHU + 1760 0

1) Only crops listed with total crop failures (TCF) generally less than 33 % (yield estimates acc. to calculations with MARCROP model of HORNETZ in HORNETZ, B., SHISANYA, Chr. & GITONGA, N.: Crop water relationships and thermal adaptation of kathika beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) and green grams (Vigna radiata) with special regard to temporal patterns of potential growth in the drylands of SE-Kenya.- Journal of Arid Environments 48, 2001, 591-601; see also Methodology in Vol. II/M of the handbook). 2) Well manured, fertilized and protected. Water loss as surface runoff has to be stopped by contour ridges. Calculated with MARCROP. 3)7KH¿JXUHVIRU¿QJHUPLOOHW(NDODNDODDUHGRXEWIXOGXHWRXQUHOLDEOHEDVHGDWD

364 NYERI 23

TABLE 5b: CLIMATIC YIELD POTENTIALS OF SEASONAL CROPS 1) IN LH 4 s/vs + s/vs (calc. for station 9036144 Mweiga Monte Carlo Ranch with locally dominant Phaeozems)

First rainy season Second rainy season (start mid of March till mid of April) (start mid of October till mid of November)

Total Total Yield Estim. Estim. crop crop Potential average average Crop variety failures Crop variety failures (in % of yield yield out of 10 out of 10 optimum) (kg/ha)2) (kg/ha)2) seasons seasons

Good Finger Millet (Ekalakala) 3) 1990 0 Finger Millet (Ekalakala) 3 1920 0 (60 – 80 %)

Barley (m.m. Karne) 2110 0 Barley (m.m. Karne) 2100 0 Wheat Wheat (e.m. Ngiri, Kenya Tembo) 1630 0 (e.m. Ngiri, Kenya Tembo) 1750 0 Wheat (m.m. Africa Mayo, Wheat (m.m. Africa Mayo, Kenya Nyoka) 2080 0 Kenya Nyoka) 2070 0 Wheat Wheat (m.m. Kenya Kongoni) 2100 0 (m.m. Kenya Kongoni) 2000 0 Triticale (m.m. T65, T74, T62) 1820 0 Fair Triticale Maize (Muguga I: MU 99301) 4070 0 (40 – 60 %) (m.m. T65, T74, T62) 1690 0 Beans (Rose coco) 850 1 Maize Beans (Red Haricot) 470 1 (Muguga I: MU 99301) 3390 0 6XQÀRZHU + 1650 0 Beans (Rose coco) 810 Beans (Red Haricot) 450 0 6XQÀRZHU + 1280 1 1 0

365 24 NYERI

TABLE 5c: CLIMATIC YIELD POTENTIALS OF SEASONAL CROPS 1) IN LH 4 (s/m) i (vs/s) (calc. for station 9037139 Naro Moru SS with locally dominant Phaeozems)

First rainy season Second rainy season (start mid of March till mid of April) (start mid of October till mid of November)

Total Total Yield Estim. Estim. crop crop Potential average average Crop variety failures Crop variety failures (in % of yield yield out of 10 out of 10 optimum) (kg/ha)2) (kg/ha)2) seasons seasons

Good Finger Millet (Ekalakala) 3) 1760 0 Finger Millet (Ekalakala) 3) 2100 0 (60 – 80 %)

Barley (e.m. Tumaini) 1720 1 Barley (e.m. Tumaini) 1860 1 Wheat (e.m. Ngiri, Kenya Wheat (e.m. Ngiri, Kenya Tembo) 1490 1 Tembo) 1390 1 Wheat (m.m. Africa Mayo, Wheat (m.m. Africa Mayo, Kenya Nyoka) 1800 1 Kenya Nyoka) 1680 1 Fair Maize (Muguga I: MU Wheat (m.m. Kenya Kongoni) 1700 1 (40 – 60 %) 99301) 3420 1 Triticale (m.m. T65, T74, T62) 1440 1 Beans (Rosecoco) 820 1 Maize (Muguga I: MU 99301) 3500 1 Beans (Red Haricot) 450 1 Beans (Rosecoco) 880 1 6XQÀRZHU + 1290 1 Beans (Red Haricot) 490 1 6XQÀRZHU + 1260 1

Wheat (m.m. Kenya Poor Kongoni) 1440 1 (20 – 40 %) Triticale (m.m. T65, T74, T62) 1330 1

366 NYERI 25

367 26 NYERI

SOIL DISTRIBUTION, FERTILITY AND MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS

The physiography of Nyeri district is dominated by the Nyandarua Range and Mt. Kenya in the east and northwest respectively. The Aberdare Range as well as its National Park straddles Nyeri district in the west. The central landscape consists of undulating volcanic topography dissected by rivers Gura, Chania and Sagana.

Formed from volcanic activity soils are predominantly moderate to highly fertile (Units RB) with minor variations occurring in the Aberdare and Mt. Kenya National Parks (Unit MV2). These soils are rich, deep and well drained for growing of most crops.

LEGEND TO THE SOIL MAP OF NYERI DISTRICT

([SODQDWLRQDWLRQRIWKH¿UVWFKDUDFWHU SK\VLRJUDSK\ RI WKH ¿UVW FKDUDFWHU SK\VLRJUDSK\

M Mountains and Major Scarps H Hills and Minor Scarps L Plateaus and High-Level Structural Plains R Volcanic Footridges V Minor Valleys

2. Explanation of second character (lithology)

B Basic and Ultra-Basic Igneous Rocks (basalts, nepheline phonolites; older basic tuffs included) C Complex U Undifferentiated Basement System Rocks (predominantly Gneisses) V Undifferentiated or Various Igneous Rocks

3.. Soil descriptions

MV2 Well drained, very deep, dark reddish brown to dark brown, very friable and smeary, clay loam to clay, with thick acid humic topsoil; in places shallow to moderately deep and rocky: Humic ANDOSOLS, partly lithic phase HU1 Somewhat excessively drained, moderately deep, red, very friable, sandy clay loam to sandy clay; in places rocky: Ferralic CAMBISOLS; with rhodic or orthic FERRALSOLS and Rock Outcrops

LB3 Well drained, moderately deep to deep, dark brown, friable to ﬁrm, clay loam to clay, predominantly with a thick humic topsoil: Ortho-luvic PHAEOZEMS; with chromic LUVISOLS

LB5 Moderately well drained, very deep, dark greyish brown, ﬁrm clay, predominantly with a humic topsoil; in places abruptly underlying a ﬁrm topsoil of sandy clay loam to sandy clay: Verto-luvic PHAEOZEMS; with eutric PLANOSOLS

LB6 Imperfectly drained, deep, black to dark grey, very ﬁrm, cracking clay: Pellic VERTISOLS and verto-luvic PHAEOZEMS

368 NYERI 27

LB7 Imperfectly drained, deep, dark greyish brown, ﬁrm clay (hardpan), abruptly underlying a topsoil of sandy clay loam: Eutric PLANOSOLS

LBA Association of: well drained to moderately well drained, deep, very dark greyish brown, ﬁrm, cracking clay, with a (thick) humic topsoil: Verto-luvic PHAEOZEMS and: well drained, moderately deep to deep, dark reddish brown to red, friable sandy clay to clay; in places shallow to moderately deep: Chromic and ferric LUVISOLS; with LITHOSOLS

RB1 Well drained, extremely deep, dark reddish brown to dark brown, friable clay, with an acid humic topsoil: Ando-humic NITISOLS; with humic ANDOSOLS

RB2 Well drained, extremely deep, dusky red to dark reddish brown, friable clay, with an acid humic topsoil: Humic NITISOLS

RB3 Well drained, extremely deep, dusky red to dark reddish brown, friable clay; with inclusions of well drained, moderately deep, dark red to dark reddish brown, friable clay over rock, pisoferric or petroferric material: Eutric NITISOLS; with nito-chromic CAMBISOLS and chromic ACRISOLS and LUVISOLS, partly lithic, pisoferric or petroferric phase

RB4 Well drained, moderately deep to very deep, dark reddish brown, friable to ﬁrm clay; in places with an acid humic topsoil: Nito-ferric LUVISOLS; with humic NITISOLS

RB5 Well drained, moderately deep to deep, dark reddish brown, friable to ﬁrm clay, with a humic topsoil: Chromic-luvic PHAEOZEMS

369 28 NYERI

370 NYERI 29

3.5.2 POPULATION AND LAND

Nyeri is the most expansive and vast district in Central Province covering 3,284 km2.Even though compared to the 1979 population census the population density of Nyeri district seem to have increased from 148 to 197 persons per km2 in the year 1999, it remains second least densely populated in Central Province. However, this gradual population growth rate has resulted to a decrease in agricultural land available per household from 1.80 ha to 1.60 ha in 1979 and 1999, respectively.

It is made of seven administrative divisions namely: Kieni W., Kieni E., Mathira, Mukurweini, Tetu and Othaya. The district comprises of 36 locations and 148 sub-locations (Table 6 & 7). The economic livelihood is dependent on agriculture as over 67% of total area is arable land. The main agro-ecological zones are UM 2 (Main Coﬀee Zone), LH 4 (Cattle - Sheep – Barley Zone) and LH 5 (Ranching Zone), accounting 16.4%, 15.6% and 11.8% of land use, respectively (Table 8). In all divisions except in Kieni E. and W., which are generally semi-arid, available agricultural land per household is less than 0.88 ha, while that per person is a mere 0.22 ha or even 0.15 only (Table 8). TABLE 6: POPULATION IN NYERI DISTRICT PER DIVISION, LOCATION AND SUB-LOCATION (Source: Census 1999)

DIVISION / LOCATION / 2 Density SUB-LOCATION Male Female Total Households Area in km KIENI WEST 33,683 34,778 68,461 16,699 626 109 MWIYOGO 5,098 5,214 10,312 2,446 132.1 78 Kabati 949 926 1,875 432 29.2 64 Muthuini 866 896 1,762 427 19.5 90 Labura 2,520 2,601 5,121 1,209 67.3 76 Mwiyogo 763 791 1,554 378 16.1 97 MWEIGA 7,287 7,768 15,055 4,152 68.3 220 Njenju 1,394 1,353 2,747 678 13.9 198 Bondeni 632 676 1,308 279 5.4 242 Kamatongu 3,299 3,659 6,958 2,199 36.4 191 Amboni 1,962 2,080 4,042 996 12.6 321 ENDARASHA 7,431 7,712 15,143 3,579 75.4 201 Mitero 1,608 1,652 3,260 703 15.2 214 Gakanga 912 906 1,818 429 23.3 78 Charity 2,124 2,132 4,256 904 22.8 187 Endarasha 2,787 3,022 5,809 1,543 14.1 412 GATARAKWA 8,179 8,131 16,310 3,809 212.9 77 Watuka 1,656 1,701 3,357 771 24.6 136 Lamuria 2,031 1,887 3,918 1,031 35.8 109 Embaringo 1,843 1,925 3,768 816 63.5 59 Kamariki 2,649 2,618 5,267 1,191 89 59 MUGUNDA 5,688 5,953 11,641 2,713 137.3 85 Karemeno 988 1,073 2,061 448 18.5 111 Ruirie 1,662 1,765 3,427 827 41.2 83 Kamiruri 1,264 1,401 2,665 623 19.5 137 Nairuitia 1,774 1,714 3,488 815 58.1 60 KIENI EAST 44,090 39,545 83,635 21,738 695 120 NAROMORU 9,211 8,718 17,929 4,667 128.3 140 Ndiriti 1,794 1,677 3,471 708 16.9 205

371 30 NYERI

TABLE 6: Continued

DIVISION / LOCATION / 2 Density SUB-LOCATION Male Female Total Households Area in km Naromoru 1,508 1,467 2,975 988 7 425 Kamburaini 2,849 2,557 5,406 1,440 43 126 Gaturiri 1,505 1,513 3,018 681 29.5 102 Rongai 1,555 1,504 3,059 850 31.9 96 KIAMATHAGE 5,783 5,414 11,197 2,836 88.7 126 Kabendera 1,681 1,631 3,312 750 11.2 296 Tigithi 689 672 1,361 360 16.6 82 Miricho 1,133 950 2,083 561 15.5 134 Gikamba 2,280 2,161 4,441 1,165 45.4 98 GAKAWA 13,841 10,795 24,636 6,371 210.9 117 Gathiuru 5,252 2,829 8,081 1,611 105.3 77 Githima 2,218 2,137 4,355 1,058 40.3 108 Kahurura 6,371 5,829 12,200 3,702 65.3 187 KABARU 9,600 9,438 19,038 4,918 148.4 128 Kirima 2,086 2,105 4,191 1,059 40.2 104 Ndathi 3,229 3,086 6,315 1,646 67.5 94 Kimahuri 2,861 2,784 5,645 1,462 13.7 412 Munyu 1,424 1,463 2,887 751 27 107 THIGU 5,655 5,180 10,835 2,946 118.7 91 Thungari 1,868 1,583 3,451 1,126 35.2 98 Luisoi 899 846 1,745 456 32.9 53 Thirigitu 1,598 1,540 3,138 751 27.9 112 Maragima 1,290 1,211 2,501 613 22.7 110 MATHIRA 72,614 78,384 150,998 38,662 257.5 586 KONYU 18,552 19,741 38,293 10,010 55.9 685 Karindundu 3,448 3,616 7,064 2,282 6 1177 Gakuyu 2,690 2,850 5,540 1,311 9.3 596 Mukore 2,193 2,476 4,669 1,098 7.3 640 Baricho 3,255 3,376 6,631 2,019 8 829 Itiati 2,296 2,496 4,792 1,096 8.8 545 Ichuga 2,205 2,356 4,561 1,007 8.9 512 Gachuku 2,465 2,571 5,036 1,197 7.6 663 KARATINA 3,191 3,843 7,034 2,265 3 2345 Cheru 658 864 1,522 316 1 1522 Kiharu 1,184 1,253 2,437 830 1 2437 Muthua 1,349 1,726 3,075 1,119 1 3075 IRIA-INI 13,131 13,967 27,098 7,090 51.1 530 Kiamwangi 2,172 2,225 4,397 1,211 13 338 Chehe 2,237 2,495 4,732 1,248 10.4 455 Karia 1,978 2,091 4,069 1,065 6.4 636 Gatundu 1,391 1,435 2,826 752 2.1 1346 Kiaguthu 1,578 1,586 3,164 792 2.1 1507 Thegenge 1,331 1,434 2,765 696 5.6 494

372 NYERI 31

TABLE 6: Continued

DIVISION / LOCATION / 2 Density SUB-LOCATION Male Female Total Households Area in km Kaguyu 2,444 2,701 5,145 1,326 11.5 447 MAGUTU 11,450 12,546 23,996 5,949 38.6 622 Gatei 3,745 4,103 7,848 1,936 10.2 769 Gitunduti 1,191 1,352 2,543 604 4.8 530 Gaikuyu 1,493 1,592 3,085 793 7.8 396 Gikumbo 1,142 1,293 2,435 576 4.4 553 Gathehu 2,059 2,243 4,302 963 7.4 581 Ragati 1,820 1,963 3,783 1,077 4 946 RUGURU 8,091 8,410 16,501 4,121 32 516 Kiamariga 2,120 2,366 4,486 1,090 8.8 510 Sagana 2,105 1,855 3,960 1,118 8.1 489 Iruri 1,865 2,046 3,911 943 6.9 567 Ruturu 2,001 2,143 4,144 970 8.2 505 KIRIMUKUYU 14,249 15,667 29,916 7,299 53.4 560 Thaithi 1,418 1,549 2,967 716 5.4 549 Thiu 1,878 2,024 3,902 968 5.7 685 Mbogoini 2,429 2,590 5,019 1,254 7.2 697 Ngaini 1,264 1,384 2,648 659 5.5 481 Ngandu 2,500 2,684 5,184 1,205 8.4 617 Gachuiro 2,241 2,565 4,806 1,155 10.7 449 Kiria 1,535 1,805 3,340 830 6.5 514 Mutathini 984 1,066 2,050 512 4 513 NGORANO 3,950 4,210 8,160 1,928 23.5 347 Karuthi 935 1,038 1,973 476 4.3 459 Hiriga 727 842 1,569 388 6.3 249 Gatunganga 1,271 1,320 2,591 642 6.7 387 Chieni 1,017 1,010 2,027 422 6.2 327 MUKURWEINI 41,435 46,012 87,447 21,605 179.5 487 GAKINDU 6,669 7,442 14,111 3,723 22.7 622 Gakinduini 1,693 1,830 3,523 1,039 5.8 607 Mbiuini 1,678 1,944 3,622 905 6.4 566 Njiru-ini 1,272 1,422 2,694 688 3.4 792 Gaikundo 828 937 1,765 452 2 883 Ruthanji 1,198 1,309 2,507 639 5.1 492 MUHITO 8,081 9,326 17,407 4,447 28.3 615 Murundu-ini 1,785 2,094 3,879 950 4.4 882 Thiha 1,626 1,741 3,367 813 6.8 495 Gatura 2,171 2,452 4,623 1,283 6.2 746 Munyu 1,466 1,728 3,194 808 6.2 515 GITHI 5,605 6,074 11,679 2,869 28.2 414 Ichamara 1,275 1,390 2,665 663 5.8 459 Kiharo 2,198 2,283 4,481 1,093 11.5 390 Ithanji 1,081 1,199 2,280 556 6.6 345

373 32 NYERI

TABLE 6: Continued

DIVISION / LOCATION / 2 Density SUB-LOCATION Male Female Total Households Area in km Kirerema 1,051 1,202 2,253 557 4.3 524 GIATHUGU 7,532 8,086 15,618 3,841 30.8 507 Igana 1,446 1,636 3,082 742 4.6 670 Mihuti 2,624 2,851 5,475 1,391 9.9 553 Mweru 1,686 1,738 3,424 797 7.4 463 Karundu 1,776 1,861 3,637 911 8.9 409 GIKONDI 8,956 10,278 19,234 4,587 37.8 509 Karaba 993 1,044 2,037 505 7.8 261 Kaharo 1,454 1,633 3,087 729 6.7 461 Kiirungi 1,807 2,137 3,944 997 6.5 607 Thimu 1,479 1,699 3,178 728 4.1 775 Karindi 1,440 1,727 3,167 757 5 633 Muthuthiini 1,783 2,038 3,821 871 7.7 496 RUTUNE 4,592 4,806 9,398 2,138 31.7 296 Kariara 1,324 1,382 2,706 618 8.7 311 Ngamwa 1,471 1,480 2,951 642 10 295 Mutundu 1,797 1,944 3,741 878 13 288 OTHAYA 42,170 46,121 88,291 21,368 184.2 479 CHINGA 10,453 11,008 21,461 5,061 61.6 348 Kagongo 1,187 1,302 2,489 603 5.8 429 Kairuthi 881 979 1,860 502 4 465 Kiaguthu 1,143 1,297 2,440 552 3.9 626 Gikigie 1,566 1,668 3,234 741 8.1 399 Mucharage 1,156 1,189 2,345 531 6.3 372 Gathera 1,333 1,321 2,654 569 19.9 133 Mumbuini 2,219 2,352 4,571 1,149 10.2 448 Gichiche 968 900 1,868 414 3.4 549 KARIMA 9,108 10,416 19,524 4,980 32.9 593 Thuti 1,893 2,245 4,138 1,023 6.8 609 Itemeini 1,466 1,692 3,158 733 5.3 596 Witima 1,691 1,973 3,664 961 6.8 539 Gura 1,939 2,174 4,113 961 8.5 484 Kihugiru 2,119 2,332 4,451 1,302 5.5 809 IRIA-INI 11,672 12,680 24,352 5,832 46.6 523 Gitundu 2,393 2,626 5,019 1,472 6.4 784 Thunguri 922 1,057 1,979 451 4.2 471 Kairuthi 2,075 2,165 4,240 984 8.3 511 Ihuririo 2,322 2,586 4,908 1,067 10.6 463 Kiahagu 2,118 2,261 4,379 1,002 6.5 674 Kiandemi 1,842 1,995 3,837 856 10.6 362 MAHIGA 10,937 12,017 22,954 5,495 43.1 533 Munyange 988 1,085 2,073 469 3.3 628 Kamoko 1,497 1,813 3,310 810 5.5 602

374 NYERI 33

TABLE 6: Continued

DIVISION / LOCATION / 2 Density SUB-LOCATION Male Female Total Households Area in km Gikoe 1,091 1,151 2,242 512 4.5 498 Ugachiku 1,554 1,656 3,210 786 5.2 617 Rukira 1,913 1,937 3,850 911 6.8 566 Gaturuturu 981 1,085 2,066 507 3.3 626 Gitugi 1,149 1,283 2,432 606 5.5 442 Kihome 727 830 1,557 403 5 311 Kiagonye 1,037 1,177 2,214 491 4 554 TETU 37,869 42,231 80,100 19,496 212 378 AGUTHI 6,363 7,253 13,616 3,228 24.3 560 Gichira 1,529 1,764 3,293 773 5.8 568 Mungaria 1,064 1,260 2,324 527 4.1 567 Ithekahuno 994 1,156 2,150 527 3.3 652 Thageini 1,129 1,291 2,420 585 4.9 494 Gititu 1,647 1,782 3,429 816 6.2 553 GAAKI 6,230 6,824 13,054 3,106 21.1 619 Huhoini 1,016 1,100 2,116 539 3.3 641 Kiawaithanji 1,006 1,037 2,043 472 3.5 584 Gaaki 2,208 2,513 4,721 1,117 7.9 598 Mutathiini 1,167 1,309 2,476 585 4.1 604 Gathaithi 833 865 1,698 393 2.3 738 THEGENGE 6,398 7,606 14,004 3,529 50.3 278 Wandumbi 331 392 723 185 2 362 Ndugamano 1,119 1,417 2,536 663 4.6 551 Tucha 105 67 172 34 23.6 7 Ihithe 723 770 1493 372 4.1 364 Mathakwaini 946 1,117 2,063 533 3.3 625 Hubuini 642 769 1,411 337 3 470 Kiamutiga 523 644 1,167 281 2.6 449 Karangia 1,255 1,514 2,769 673 3.6 769 Gathuthi 754 916 1,670 451 3.5 477 KARUNDU 8,234 9,230 17,464 4,268 27.2 642 Kigwandi 1,089 1,234 2,323 548 3.7 628 Unjiru 1,035 1,148 2,183 546 3.6 606 Kihora 626 679 1,305 320 2.6 502 Kariguini 989 1,067 2,056 483 2.9 709 Kianjogu 2,648 3,076 5,724 1,446 9 636 Mbaaini 604 675 1,279 314 1.8 711 Kaiguri 1,243 1,351 2,594 611 3.6 721 MAHOYA 5,056 5,085 10,141 2,589 60.6 167 Kabage 294 191 485 213 21.6 22 Kanjora 874 975 1,849 436 3.3 560 Karunaini 717 818 1,535 374 3.9 394 Ngooru 726 760 1,486 344 3.8 391

375 34 NYERI

TABLE 6: Continued

DIVISION / LOCATION / 2 Density SUB-LOCATION Male Female Total Households Area in km Ihururu 1,277 1,225 2,502 648 5.6 447 Thatha 746 756 1,502 351 4 376 Zaina 422 360 782 223 18.4 43 TETU 5,588 6,233 11,821 2,776 28.5 415 Kirurumi 1,425 1,482 2,907 656 10.4 280 Gatumbiro 740 849 1,589 369 2.9 548 Ichagachiru 917 1,075 1,992 457 4.8 415 Karaihu 911 1,007 1,918 466 4.9 391 Kigogoini 1,595 1,820 3,415 828 5.5 621 MUNICIPALITY 50,022 51,216 101,238 28,712 167.9 603 MUKARO 44,159 45,211 89,370 25,462 134.5 664 Majengo 10,822 9,905 20,727 6,604 7.6 2727 Kihuyo 1,070 1,097 2,167 497 4.2 516 Karia 1,215 1,288 2,503 604 3.6 695 Thuguma 3,310 3,570 6,880 2,200 17.8 387 Githiru 1,142 1,246 2,388 562 5.1 468 Muthuani 1,732 1,848 3,580 692 6.4 559 Kihatha 901 922 1,823 411 3.5 521 Riamukurwe 1,461 1,453 2,914 671 5.6 520 Gatitu 867 955 1,822 492 5 364 Kamakwa 5,741 5,786 11,527 3,941 5.1 2260 Marua 1,014 1,038 2,052 527 4 513 Mathari 3,598 3,619 7,217 1,714 39.6 182 Ruringu 4,608 5,093 9,701 3,285 3.1 3129 Chorongi 2,427 2,709 5,136 1,052 8.1 634 Kinunga 580 683 1,263 313 2.3 549 Munungaini 1,248 1,378 2,626 640 4.8 547 Muruguru 1,162 1,324 2,486 633 6.1 408 Gitathiini 1,261 1,297 2,558 624 2.6 984 KIGANJO 5,863 6,005 11,868 3,250 33.4 355 Kiganjo 1,310 1,170 2,480 889 5.3 468 Gachika 1,243 1,361 2,604 605 7.3 357 Kirichu 2,077 2,253 4,330 1,113 9.7 446 Nyaribo 1,233 1,221 2,454 643 11.1 221 ABERDARE FOREST 61 45 106 45 621.9 0 ABERDARE FOREST 61 45 106 45 621.9 0 MT KENYA FOREST 577 303 880 461 411.6 2 MT KENYA FOREST 577 303 880 461 411.6 2

376 NYERI 35

TABLE 7: COMPOSTION OF HOUSEHOLDS IN NYERI DISTRICT PER DIVISION, LOCATION AND SUB-LOCATION (Source: Census 1999)

Composition of Family DIVISION / LOCATION / Total Number of Persons per SUB-LOCATION Households 15 years and Under Household above 15 years KIENI WEST 16,699 2.5 1.6 4.10 MWIYOGO 2,446 2.6 1.6 4.22 Kabati 432 2.7 1.6 4.34 Muthuini 427 2.6 1.6 4.13 Labura 1,209 2.6 1.6 4.24 Mwiyogo 378 2.6 1.6 4.11 MWEIGA 4,152 2.2 1.4 3.63 Njenju 678 2.5 1.5 4.05 Bondeni 279 2.9 1.8 4.69 Kamatongu 2,199 2.0 1.2 3.16 Amboni 996 2.5 1.5 4.06 ENDARASHA 3,579 2.6 1.6 4.23 Mitero 703 2.9 1.8 4.64 Gakanga 429 2.6 1.6 4.24 Charity 904 2.9 1.8 4.71 Endarasha 1,543 2.3 1.4 3.76 GATARAKWA 3,809 2.7 1.6 4.28 Watuka 771 2.7 1.7 4.35 Lamuria 1,031 2.4 1.4 3.80 Embaringo 816 2.9 1.8 4.62 Kamariki 1,191 2.7 1.7 4.42 MUGUNDA 2,713 2.7 1.6 4.29 Karemeno 448 2.9 1.7 4.60 Ruirie 827 2.6 1.6 4.14 Kamiruri 623 2.7 1.6 4.28 Nairuitia 815 2.7 1.6 4.28 KIENI EAST 21,738 2.4 1.5 3.85 NAROMORU 4,667 2.4 1.5 3.84 Ndiriti 708 3.0 1.9 4.90 Naromoru 988 1.9 1.1 3.01 Kamburainin 1,440 2.3 1.4 3.75 Gaturiri 681 2.7 1.7 4.43 Rongai 850 2.2 1.4 3.60 KIAMATHAGE 2,836 2.4 1.5 3.95 Kabendera 750 2.7 1.7 4.42 Tigithi 360 2.3 1.4 3.78 Miricho 561 2.3 1.4 3.71 Gikamba 1,165 2.4 1.4 3.81 GAKAWA 6,371 2.4 1.5 3.87 Gathiuru 1,611 3.1 1.9 5.02 Githima 1,058 2.6 1.6 4.12

377 36 NYERI

TABLE 7: Continued

Composition of Family DIVISION / LOCATION / Total Number of Persons per SUB-LOCATION Households 15 years and Under Household above 15 years Kahurura 3,702 2.0 1.3 3.30 KABARU 4,918 2.4 1.5 3.87 Kirima 1,059 2.5 1.5 3.96 Ndathi 1,646 2.4 1.5 3.84 Kimahuri 1,462 2.4 1.5 3.86 Munyu 751 2.4 1.5 3.84 THIGU 2,946 2.3 1.4 3.68 Thungari 1,126 1.9 1.2 3.06 Luisoi 456 2.4 1.5 3.83 Thirigitu 751 2.6 1.6 4.18 Maragima 613 2.5 1.5 4.08 MATHIRA 38,662 2.4 1.5 3.91 KONYU 10,010 2.4 1.5 3.83 Karindundu 2,282 1.9 1.2 3.10 Gakuyu 1,311 2.6 1.6 4.23 Mukore 1,098 2.6 1.6 4.25 Baricho 2,019 2.0 1.2 3.28 Itiati 1,096 2.7 1.7 4.37 Ichuga 1,007 2.8 1.7 4.53 Gachuku 1,197 2.6 1.6 4.21 KARATINA 2,265 1.9 1.2 3.11 Cheru 316 3.0 1.8 4.82 Kiharu 830 1.8 1.1 2.94 Muthua 1,119 1.7 1.0 2.75 IRIA-INI 7,090 2.4 1.5 3.82 Kiamwangi 1,211 2.3 1.4 3.63 Chehe 1,248 2.4 1.4 3.79 Karia 1,065 2.4 1.5 3.82 Gatundu 752 2.3 1.4 3.76 Kiaguthu 792 2.5 1.5 3.99 Thegenge 696 2.5 1.5 3.97 Kaguyu 1,326 2.4 1.5 3.88 MAGUTU 5,949 2.5 1.5 4.03 Gatei 1,936 2.5 1.5 4.05 Gitunduti 604 2.6 1.6 4.21 Gaikuyu 793 2.4 1.5 3.89 Gikumbo 576 2.6 1.6 4.23 Gathehu 963 2.8 1.7 4.47 Ragati 1,077 2.2 1.3 3.51 RUGURU 4,121 2.5 1.5 4.00 Kiamariga 1,090 2.6 1.6 4.12 Sagana 1,118 2.2 1.3 3.54

378 NYERI 37

TABLE 7: Continued

Composition of Family DIVISION / LOCATION / Total Number of Persons per SUB-LOCATION Households 15 years and Under Household above 15 years Iruri 943 2.6 1.6 4.15 Ruturu 970 2.7 1.6 4.27 KIRIMUKUYU 7,299 2.5 1.6 4.10 Thaithi 716 2.6 1.6 4.14 Thiu 968 2.5 1.5 4.03 Mbogoini 1,254 2.5 1.5 4.00 Ngaini 659 2.5 1.5 4.02 Ngandu 1,205 2.7 1.6 4.30 Gachuiro 1,155 2.6 1.6 4.16 Kiria 830 2.5 1.5 4.02 Mutathini 512 2.5 1.5 4.00 NGORANO 1,928 2.6 1.6 4.23 Karuthi 476 2.6 1.6 4.14 Hiriga 388 2.5 1.5 4.04 Gatunganga 642 2.5 1.5 4.04 Chieni 422 3.0 1.8 4.80 MUKURWEINI 21,605 2.5 1.5 4.05 GAKINDU 3,723 2.4 1.4 3.79 Gakinduini 1,039 2.1 1.3 3.39 Mbiuini 905 2.5 1.5 4.00 Njiru-ini 688 2.4 1.5 3.92 Gaikundo 452 2.4 1.5 3.90 Ruthanji 639 2.4 1.5 3.92 MUHITO 4,447 2.4 1.5 3.91 Murundu-ini 950 2.5 1.6 4.08 Thiha 813 2.6 1.6 4.14 Gatura 1,283 2.2 1.4 3.60 Munyu 808 2.5 1.5 3.95 GITHI 2,869 2.5 1.5 4.07 Ichamara 663 2.5 1.5 4.02 Kiharo 1,093 2.5 1.6 4.10 Ithanji 556 2.5 1.6 4.10 Kirerema 557 2.5 1.5 4.04 GIATHUGU 3,841 2.5 1.5 4.07 Igana 742 2.6 1.6 4.15 Mihuti 1,391 2.4 1.5 3.94 Mweru 797 2.7 1.6 4.30 Karundu 911 2.5 1.5 3.99 GIKONDI 4,587 2.6 1.6 4.19 Karaba 505 2.5 1.5 4.03 Kaharo 729 2.6 1.6 4.23 Kiirungi 997 2.5 1.5 3.96

379 38 NYERI

TABLE 7: Continued

Composition of Family DIVISION / LOCATION / Total Number of Persons per SUB-LOCATION Households 15 years and Under Household above 15 years Thimu 728 2.7 1.7 4.37 Karindi 757 2.6 1.6 4.18 Muthuthiini 871 2.7 1.7 4.39 RUTUNE 2,138 2.7 1.7 4.40 Kariara 618 2.7 1.7 4.38 Ngamwa 642 2.9 1.7 4.60 Mutundu 878 2.6 1.6 4.26 OTHAYA 21,368 2.6 1.6 4.13 CHINGA 5,061 2.6 1.6 4.24 Kagongo 603 2.6 1.6 4.13 Kairuthi 502 2.3 1.4 3.71 Kiaguthu 552 2.7 1.7 4.42 Gikigie 741 2.7 1.7 4.36 Mucharage 531 2.7 1.7 4.42 Gathera 569 2.9 1.8 4.66 Mumbuini 1,149 2.5 1.5 3.98 Gichiche 414 2.8 1.7 4.51 KARIMA 4,980 2.4 1.5 3.92 Thuti 1,023 2.5 1.5 4.04 Itemeini 733 2.7 1.6 4.31 Witima 961 2.4 1.4 3.81 Gura 961 2.7 1.6 4.28 Kihugiru 1,302 2.1 1.3 3.42 IRIA-INI 5,832 2.6 1.6 4.18 Gitundu 1,472 2.1 1.3 3.41 Thunguri 451 2.7 1.7 4.39 Kairuthi 984 2.7 1.6 4.31 Ihuririo 1,067 2.9 1.7 4.60 Kiahagu 1,002 2.7 1.7 4.37 Kiandemi 856 2.8 1.7 4.48 MAHIGA 5,495 2.6 1.6 4.18 Munyange 469 2.7 1.7 4.42 Kamoko 810 2.5 1.6 4.09 Gikoe 512 2.7 1.7 4.38 Ugachiku 786 2.5 1.6 4.08 Rukira 911 2.6 1.6 4.23 Gaturuturu 507 2.5 1.5 4.07 Gitugi 606 2.5 1.5 4.01 Kihome 403 2.4 1.5 3.86 Kiaginye 491 2.8 1.7 4.51 TETU 19,496 2.5 1.6 4.11 AGUTHI 3,228 2.6 1.6 4.22

380 NYERI 39

TABLE 7: Continued

Composition of Family DIVISION / LOCATION / Total Number of Persons per SUB-LOCATION Households 15 years and Under Household above 15 years Gichira 773 2.6 1.6 4.26 Mungaria 527 2.7 1.7 4.41 Ithekahuno 527 2.5 1.5 4.08 Thageini 585 2.6 1.6 4.14 Gititu 816 2.6 1.6 4.20 GAAKI 3,106 2.6 1.6 4.20 Huhoini 539 2.4 1.5 3.93 Kiawaithanji 472 2.7 1.6 4.33 Gaaki 1,117 2.6 1.6 4.23 Mutathiini 585 2.6 1.6 4.23 Gathaithi 393 2.7 1.6 4.32 THEGENGE 3,529 2.5 1.5 3.97 Wandumbi 185 2.4 1.5 3.91 Ndugamano 663 2.4 1.5 3.83 Tucha 34 3.1 1.9 5.06 Ihithe 372 2.5 1.5 4.01 Mathakwaini 533 2.4 1.5 3.87 Hubuini 337 2.6 1.6 4.19 Kiamutiga 281 2.6 1.6 4.15 Karangia 673 2.6 1.6 4.11 Gathuthi 451 2.3 1.4 3.70 KARUNDU 4,268 2.5 1.6 4.09 Kigwandi 548 2.6 1.6 4.24 Unjiru 546 2.5 1.5 4.00 Kihora 320 2.5 1.5 4.08 Kariguini 483 2.6 1.6 4.26 Kianjogu 1,446 2.5 1.5 3.96 Mbaaini 314 2.5 1.5 4.07 Kaiguri 611 2.6 1.6 4.25 MAHOYA 2,589 2.4 1.5 3.92 Kabage 213 1.4 0.9 2.28 Kanjora 436 2.6 1.6 4.24 Karunaini 374 2.5 1.6 4.10 Ngooru 344 2.7 1.6 4.32 Ihururu 648 2.4 1.5 3.86 Thaitha 351 2.7 1.6 4.28 Zaina 223 2.2 1.3 3.51 TETU 2,776 2.6 1.6 4.26 Kirurumi 656 2.7 1.7 4.43 Gatumbiro 369 2.7 1.6 4.31 Ichagachiru 457 2.7 1.7 4.36 Karaihu 466 2.6 1.6 4.12

381 40 NYERI

TABLE 7: Continued

Composition of Family DIVISION / LOCATION / Total Number of Persons per SUB-LOCATION Households 15 years and Under Household above 15 years Kigogoini 828 2.6 1.6 4.12 MUNICIPALITY 28,712 2.2 1.3 3.53 MUKARO 25,462 2.2 1.3 3.51 Majengo 6,604 1.9 1.2 3.14 Kihuyo 497 2.7 1.7 4.36 Karia 604 2.6 1.6 4.14 Thuguma 2,200 1.9 1.2 3.13 Githiru 562 2.6 1.6 4.25 Muthuani 692 3.2 2.0 5.17 Kihatha 411 2.8 1.7 4.44 Riamukurwe 671 2.7 1.6 4.34 Gatitu 492 2.3 1.4 3.70 Kamakwa 3,941 1.8 1.1 2.92 Marua 527 2.4 1.5 3.89 Mathari 1,714 2.6 1.6 4.21 Ruringu 3,285 1.8 1.1 2.95 Chorongi 1,052 3.0 1.9 4.88 Kinunga 313 2.5 1.5 4.04 Munungaini 640 2.5 1.6 4.10 Muruguru 633 2.4 1.5 3.93 Gitathiini 624 2.5 1.6 4.10 KIGANJO 3,250 2.3 1.4 3.65 Kiganjo 889 1.7 1.1 2.79 Gachika 605 2.7 1.6 4.30 Kirichu 1,113 2.4 1.5 3.89 Nyaribo 643 2.4 1.4 3.82 ABERDARE FOREST 45 1.5 0.9 2.36 ABERDARE FOREST 45 1.5 0.9 2.36 MT KENYA FOREST 461 1.2 0.7 1.91 MT KENYA FOREST 461 1.2 0.7 1.91

382

NYERI 41 Person

in ha Household land per

Agricultural 0.67 0.16 0.64 0.15 0.85 0.22 UM4

46.2 2.68 0.70 UM 3 UM

Calculated from DAOs Reports) UM 2 UM

(Source : UM1

7.3 136.2 30.5 4.5 56.4 6.8 22.7 116.6 39.2 22.7 0.80 0.21 22.8 12.3 LH 5 LH

2 LH 4 LH

AEZ LH 3 LH

in ’00 ha = km LH 2 LH

Area in Agro-Ecological Zones Agro-Ecological in Area LH 1 LH

71.1 37.0 4.3 52.4 49.7 5.7

UH 3 UH

UH 2 UH

UH 1 UH Agricultural land Agricultural

174.0 2 National Parks National

in ’00 ha = km Forests 56.9 17.1 315.0 1.4 92.4 58.5 578.1 37.0 73.9 27.7 6.2 2.0 101.7 191.0 92.4 41.0 41.1 98.9 11.4 94.9 45.2 133.1 10.0 162.6 252.1 588.9 61.0 101.6 65.0 2.1 28.5 65.0 134.2 154.5 8.1 16.3 3.60 0.82 AGRICULTURAL LAND AREA AVAILABLE IN NYERI DISTRICT PER AEZ AND HOUSEHOLD AEZ PER IN NYERI DISTRICT AVAILABLE AREA LAND AGRICULTURAL Mathira Mukurweini Kieni East Kieni West Division without township Othaya Tetu Tetu TOTAL AREATOTAL 447.8 413.0 1888.0 120.8 175.5 92.7 181.5 73.2 171.0 325.2 246.9 57.3 321.5 84.6 85.2 1.33 0.34 TABLE 8: TABLE

383 42 NYERI

3.5.3 AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS: Development and Trends of Major Cash Crops

Agriculturally potential land in Nyeri district is about 188,800 ha. The farming structures are quite similar to those in Murang’a district. Three export cash crops provide the economic base for the population. Tea planting is still slowly increasing, it has reached 6,400 ha in 2003, yielding almost 11,100 kg/ha of green leaves per annum. Covering about 12,000 ha, coﬀee yields 330 kg/ha per annum. Pyrethrum production is 95 metric tons per year only. Yields of coﬀee and pyrethrum went down since many years due to low prices paid, in addition to inputs being expensive.

TABLE 9: NYERI DISTRICT TEA AREA, PRODUCTION AND YIELD TRENDS (Source: Ministry of Agriculture, DAOs Annual Reports and CBS) Area Production Yields Year ha tons kg/ha 1980/81 5,100 22,116 4,336 1981/82 5,170 27,823 5,382 1982/83 5,170 12,731 2,462 1983/84 5,270 35,742 6,782 1984/85 5,370 29,070 5,413 1985/86 5,527 31,010 5,611 1986/87 5,567 32,618 5,859 1987/88 6,167 38,860 6,301 1988/89 4,938 53,006 10,734 1989/90 4,985 54,859 11,005 1990/91 5,488 49,229 8,970 1991/92 6,031 45,087 7,476 1992/93 6,000 35,976 5,996 1993/94 5,890 37,807 6,419 1994/95 5,890 53,543 9,090 1995/96 5,890 54,493 9,252 1996/97 6,101 55,678 9,126 1997/98 6,352 57,005 8,974 1998/99 6,515 52,999 8,135 1999/00 6,352 69,656 10,966 2000/01 6,349 69,664 10,972 2001/02 6,350 70,010 11,025 2002/03 6,400 71,007 11,095 2003/04 6,101 71,737 11,758 2004/05 6,489 65,242 10,054

384 NYERI 43

TABLE 10: NYERI DISTRICT COFFEE AREA, PRODUCTION AND YIELD TRENDS

Area Production Yields Year ha tons kg/ha 1980/81 8,602 7,501 872 1981/82 8,510 6,999 822 1982/83 8,590 7,898 919 1983/84 9,990 10,362 1,037 1984/85 10,783 9,710 900 1985/86 10,783 9,450 876 1986/87 11,480 8,025 699 1987/88 11,718 14,603 1,246 1988/89 11,845 8,231 695 1989/90 13,625 11,888 873 1990/91 11,953 6,164 516 1991/92 11,965 4,681 391 1992/93 11397 3,935 345 1993/94 10,656 9,656 906 1994/95 11,101 6,459 582 1995/96 11,965 7,770 649 1996/97 12,000 7,985 665 1997/98 12,050 7,000 581 1998/99 12,079 3,600 298 1999/00 12,010 3,625 302 2000/01 12,000 3,605 300 2001/02 12,000 3,700 308 2002/03 12,054 3,972 330 TABLE 11: NYERI DISTRICT PYRETHRUM AREA, PRODUCTION AND YIELD TRENDS

Year Area Production tons Yields ha LQPHWULFWRQVRIGULHGÀRZHUV) kg/ha 1980/81 272 61.08 225 1981/82 173 139 803 1982/83 288 114 396 1983/84 150.7 18.5 123 1984/85 250 58 232 1985/86 400 91 228 1986/87 450 88 196 1987/88 400 88 220 1988/89 520 156 300 1989/90 520 416 800 1990/91 550 220 400 1991/92 230 103.3 449 1992/93 230 103.4 450 1993/94 250 150.6 602 1994/95 220 119 541 1995/96 180 84 467 1996/97 100 25.6 256 1997/98 150 32 213 1998/99 105 42.5 405 1999/00 84 17.3 206 2000/01 90 14.6 162 2001/02 89 15 169 2002/03 95 17.6 185 2003/04 88 43.3 492 2004/05 24 16.2 675 (Source: Ministry of Agriculture, DA O’s Annual Reports and CBS)

385 44 NYERI

DISTRIBUTIONOF FARMING ACTIVITIES DURING THE YEAR PER WEEK AND AGRO-ECOLOGI- CAL ZONES

386 NYERI 45

387 46 NYERI

388 NYERI 47

389 48 NYERI

390 NYERI 49

391 50 NYERI

392 NYERI 51

393 52 NYERI

3.5.4 FARM SURVEY IN NYERI DISTRICT

The Farm Survey (FS) conducted in 2004 covered five agro-ecological zones and their respective Subzones as shown in Table 12. Compared to the 1978 household FS, the 2004 FS was more elaborate and disaggregated various variables. The mean farm holding sizes were LH 1 – UM 1 (0.85 ha), UM 2 (0.85 ha), UM 3 (1.03 ha), UH 3 (7.23 ha) and UM 4 (7.67 ha). According to the 1978 FS, mean farm household sizes were LH 1 + UM 1 (2.1 ha), LH 1 + UM 1 – 2 (2.8 ha) and UM 2 – 3 (2.7 ha). By comparing similar Subzones, it is clear that mean farm household sizes have absolutely decreased by more than three times [e.g. LH 1:2.8/0.85]. Excluding AEZs UH 3 and UM 4 found in expansive semi-arid Kieni East and West divisions. The mean spatial distribution of people on the farm is given in Tables 13a – 13e. Mean household adult population ranges from 2.1 adults/family in Thigitu sub-location of Kieni East division to 4.1 adults/family in Gachika sub-location in the Nyeri Municipality division. Mean casual labour force engagement is widespread, ranging between 0.63 and 3.2. The mean of 1 child per family of the < 14 years population suggest a high dependency ratio in the district, thus leading to increased land use diversification and intensification patterns. TABLE 13: FARM SURVEY SITES IN NYERI DISTRICT Agro-Ecological Unit No. in District Farm Survey Sites Kenya AEZone Subzone Soil Unit Othaya Division, Chinga Location, 132 LH 1 – UH 1 f l i m RB 1 Kagongo Sub-location Kieni East Division, Thegu Location, 133 UM 4 s/m + s/vs RB 2 Thigitu Sub-location NYERI Mathira Division, Konyu Location, 134 UM 2 m/l i m/s RB 2 Baricho Sub-location Kieni W. Div., Gatarakwa Location, 135 UH 3 f(l) i (s/vs) RB 2 Embaringo Sub-location Municipality Div., Kiganjo Location, 136 UM 3 m/s + s RB 2 Gachika Sub-location

Nyeri district exhibits a high diversity of livestock husbandry practices than any other region in Central Province. Dairy is widespread throughout with a low mean of 1.27 cows in the Municipality Subzone and a high mean of 14.5 cows1) in Kieni East Subzone. Improved cross breeds were only reported in Kieni West division [ca. mean 0.3 cows]. Except in Baricho sub-location of Mathira division keeping of Zebu is still common, but at a small percentage. Sheep and goats keeping as well as poultry rearing were reported throughout the district. Rearing of rabbits was observed in Othaya, Mathira and Kieni West with means: ca. 0.1. Pigs are reared in Kieni East (mean: 0.57), Mathira (mean: 0.43) and Municipality (mean: 0.07). Donkeys as draught animals are prominent in Kieni East and Kieni West having each a mean of 0.03 animals. Bee-keeping is an important land practice found in Kieni West having a mean of 0.5 bee-hives (Tables 13a). The mean use of improved seeds at planting in the Othaya, Kieni East and Mathira Subzones is more than 54 % of area. Consequently, maize and beans intercrop are the most important annual food crops in both seasons in all agro-ecological zones surveyed. Tea and coﬀee are the most important permanent crops, except in Zones UH 3 and UM 4 (Tables 14a, c & d). Other permanent crops mentioned include: macadamia, bananas, avocados, pyrethrum, mangoes, paw paws, passion fruits and loquats. Generally, Kieni East por- trayed the least cropping diversity [mean: 4 crops/yr] and no permanent crop was reported in this Subzone. The highest cropping diversities were reported in the Municipality [mean: 9 crops/yr], Kieni West [mean: 7 crops/yr], Othaya [mean: 6 crops/yr] and Mathira [mean: 5 crops/yr] in their surveyed Subzones.

1) This high value is lopsised because of two large scale mixed farmers of Levels III each having 128 and 168 dairy cows. (TXDOO\WKHVDPHIDUPHUVNHSWDQGVKHHSDQGJRDWVUHVSHFWLYHO\)XUWKHUWKHVHWZRIDUPHUVLQÀXHQFHGWKHPHDQ farm size for this Subzone, with each having 96 ha and 24 ha, respectively.

394 NYERI 53

395 54 NYERI

TABLE 14a:ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ LH 1 – UM 1OF NYERI DISTRICT Subzone: f l i m, Soil unit: RB 1 Survey area 132 (Kagongo) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Range Land Family Casual Number of ha Sheep & Adults Labourers children under Dairy Zebu Goats Rabbits Poultry 14 years Avg.0 0.85 1.83 0.03 1.03 0.13 3.37 2.57 0.63 0.6 Avg.1 0.85 2.5 1 2.58 2 5.94 2.57 1.27 2.57 Up. Qu. 0.95 2 0 2.25 0 4 4 1 0.5 Lo. Qu. 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0

Land Use Perennial pasture & Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Fallow Other Use Range ha ha Fodder Crops ha ha ha Avg.0 0.2 0.40 0.16 - 0.09 Avg.1 0.2 0.41 0.19 - 0.19 Up. Qu. 0.2 0.43 0.2 0.01 0.13 Lo. Qu. 0.1 0.24 0.05 0.01 0

Farming Diversity & Stocking Intensity Stocking Rate

Cropping Farm Land Perennial pasture & Improved Range Diversity TLU/ha Fodder Crops Cattle Crops/year TLU/ha % of total Sheep & Sheep & Dairy Zebu Goats Dairy Zebu Goats Avg.0 6.1 2.4 0.04 0.2 12.6 0.2 1.3 73.3 Avg.1 6.1 3.3 1.2 0.6 14.3 5.2 2.7 100 Up. Qu. 7 2.3 0 0.5 11 0 2.3 100 Lo. Qu. 5 0000000 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied

Fertilizer applied as pure nutrient Plant protection Improved kg/ha Manure seeds used applied Insecticide Fungicide Range % of area NPO K O t/ha 2 5 2 kg/ha kg/ha AC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC Avg.0 53.6 - - 40.3 20.4 ----1.60.84.62.3 Avg.1 61.9 - - 50.8 25.7 ----5.24 2.7 6.3 3.2 Up. Qu. 66. 7 - - 50 23.5 ----2.51.252.4 Lo. Qu. 16. 7 - - 3 1.26 - - 4.2 1.8 0000

396 NYERI 55

TABLE 14b: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ UM 4 OF NYERI DISTRICT Subzone: s/m + s/vs, Soil unit: RB 2 Survey area 133 (Thigitu) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Range Land Family Casual Numbers of ha Sheep & Adults Labourers children Dairy Zebu Goats Pigs Donkeys Poultry < 14 years Avg.0 7.67 14.5 2.27 30.9 0.57 0.03 12.17 2.1 1.9 1.53 Avg.1 7.67 19.77 6.8 34.33 17 1 22.81 2.1 3.17 2.71 Up. Qu. 5.6 7.25 3.5 31.25 0 0 24.5 3 3 3 Lo. Qu. 0.58 0 0 7.75 0 0 0 1 0 0

Land Use Perennial Pasture & Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Fallow Other Use Range ha ha Fodder Crops ha ha ha Avg.0 0.75 0 6.41 0.02 0.49 Avg.1 0.75 - 8.36 - 0.92 Up. Qu. 1 0 4.25 0.08 0.27 Lo. Qu. 0.4 0 0.04 - 0.14

Farming Diversity & Stocking Intensity Stocking Rate

Cropping Farm Land Perennial pasture & Improved Range Diversity TLU/ha Fodder Crops Cattle Crops/year TLU/ha % of total Sheep & Sheep & Dairy Zebu Goats Dairy Zebu Goats Avg.0 3.7 2.1 0.3 0.8 2.5 0.4 1.0 68.3 Avg.1 3.8 2.8 0.9 0.9 2.6 0.81 0.8 93.2 Up. Qu. 4 1.4 0.6 1.1 1.9 0.82 1.5 100 Lo. Qu. 200-00-0 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied

Fertilizer applied as pure nutrient Plant protection Improved kg/ha Manure seeds used Range applied t/ha % of area NPO K O Insecticide Fungicide 2 5 2 kg/ha kg/ha AC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC Avg.0 56.6 9.3 - 12.5 ---2.3 - 0.21 - 0.2 - Avg.1 60.6 53.7 - 72.3 ---2.5 - 1.55 - 1.2 - Up. Qu. 71.5 0 - 0 ---2.3 - 0 - 0 - Lo. Qu. 35.8 0 - 0 ---2.2 - 0 - 0 -

397 56 NYERI

TABLE 14c: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ UM 2 OF NYERI DISTRICT Subzone: m/l i m/s, Soil unit: RB 2 Survey area 134 (Baricho) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Range Land Family Casual Number of ha Sheep & Adults Labourers children under Dairy Zebu Goats Pigs Rabbits Poultry 14 years Avg.0 0.85 1.97 0 0.7 0.43 0.13 6.07 2.07 3.2 0.07 Avg.1 0.85 2.36 - 4.2 3.25 2 10.11 2.07 3.84 1 Up. Qu. 1.3 3 0 0 0 0 10.75 2.25 2 0 Lo. Qu. 0.29 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0

Land Use Perennial pasture & Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Forage Fallow Other Use Range ha ha Fodder Crops ha ha ha ha Avg.0 0.16 0.26 0.18 0.01 - 0.24 Avg.1 0.16 0.26 0.18 0.1 - 0.24 Up. Qu. 0.2 0.31 0.2 0 0.24 0.35 Lo. Qu. 0.05 0.1 0.05 0 0.07 0.02

Farming Diversity & Stocking Intensity Stocking Rate

Cropping Farm Land Perennial pasture & Improved Range Diversity TLU/ha Fodder Crops Cattle Crops/year TLU/ha % of total Sheep & Sheep & Dairy Zebu Goats Dairy Zebu Goats Avg.0 5.1 2.6 0 0.2 12.2 0 0.8 83.3 Avg.1 5.1 3.1 0 1.0 14.1 0 4.6 100 Up. Qu. 6.3 2.5 0 0 16.5 0 0 100 Lo. Qu. 4 - 0 0 - 0 0 100 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied

398 NYERI 57

TABLE 14d: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ UH 3 OF NYERI DISTRICT Subzone: f(l) i (s/vs), Soil unit: RB 2 Survey area 135 (Embaringo) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Range Land Family Casual Number of ha Sheep & B/ Adults Laborers children Dairy Zebu Cross Goats Donkeys Rabbits hives Poultry < 14 years Avg.0 7.28 4.17 0.27 0.27 7.9 0.03 0.1 0.5 5.5 4.1 3.03 1.33 Avg.1 7.28 5 4 8 11.29 1 3 7.5 13.75 4.1 4.33 2.35 Up. Qu. 8.45 5.25 0 0 15.5 0 0 0 9.25 5 4 2 Lo. Qu. 0.8 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0

Land Use Perennial pasture & Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Fallow Other Use Range ha ha Fodder Crops ha ha ha Avg.0 2.0 0.04 4.46 0.01 0.77 Avg.1 2.0 0.04 4.46 0.01 0.77 Up. Qu. 2.25 0 4 2.0 0.2 Lo. Qu. 0.6 0 0 0.2 0

Farming Diversity & Stocking Intensity Stocking Rate

Cropping Farm Land Perennial pasture & Improved Range Diversity TLU/ha Fodder Crops Cattle Crops/year TLU/ha % of total Sheep Sheep Dairy Cross Zebu & Goats Dairy Cross Zebu & Goats Avg.0 6.6 0.67 0.04 0.04 0.22 1.09 0.06 0.06 0.35 86.7 Avg.1 6.6 0.74 1.10 0.55 0.31 1.21 1.79 0.90 0.51 96.3 Up. Qu. 9 0.78 0 0 0.37 1.65 0 0 0.78 100 Lo. Qu. 4 - 0 0 0 - - - - 100 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied

Fertilizer applied as pure nutrient Plant protection Improved kg/ha Manure seeds used Range applied t/ha % of area NPO K O Insecticide Fungicide 2 5 2 kg/ha kg/ha AC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC Avg.0 15.0 0.9 44 5.1 - --5.1 - 0.1 2.7 1.5 - Avg.1 37.5 3.8 - 8.9 - --6.1 - 0.5 - 3.1 - Up. Qu. 7.5 0.1 - 5.3 - --2.5 - 0 - 0.5 - Lo. Qu. 00-0---0.9-0-0-

399 58 NYERI

TABLE 14e: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ UM 3 OF NYERI DISTRICT Subzone: m/s + s, Soil unit: RB 2 Survey area 136 (Gachika) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Range Land Family Casual Number of ha Sheep & B/ Adults Labourers children Dairy Zebu Goats Pigs hives Poultry < 14 years Avg.0 1.03 1.27 0.03 2.7 0.07 0.03 5.2 2.3 1.37 0.33 Avg.1 1.03 1.58 1 4.05 2 1 9.75 2.3 2.41 2.5 Up. Qu. 1.3 2 0 4 0 0 10 3 2 0 Lo. Qu. 0.6 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

Land Use Perennial pasture & Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Fallow Other Use Range ha ha Fodder Crops ha ha ha Avg.0 0.49 0.29 0.14 0.01 0.10 Avg.1 0.49 0.29 0.16 - 0.16 Up. Qu. 0.6 0.4 0.2 - 0.1 Lo. Qu. 0.26 0.1 0.14 0.01 0.09

Farming Diversity & Stocking Intensity Stocking Rate

Cropping Farm Land Perennial pasture & Improved Range Diversity TLU/ha Fodder Crops Cattle Crops/year TLU/ha % of total Sheep & Sheep & Dairy Zebu Goats Dairy Zebu Goats Avg.0 8.8 1.36 0.03 0.53 4.85 0.12 1.88 78.3 Avg.1 8.8 1.70 0.97 0.79 6.06 3.48 2.82 97.9 Up. Qu. 10 1.73 0 0.63 5.5 0 2 100 Lo. Qu. 7.8 1.83 0 0 11 0 0 87.5 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied Fertilizer applied as pure nutrient Improved kg/ha Manure Plant protection seeds used applied Insecticide Fungicide Range % of area NPO K O t/ha 2 5 2 kg/ha kg/ha AC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC Avg.0 38.8 4.08 6.9 15.4 26.1 --14.9 25.3 0.01 0.01 0.14 0.2 Avg.1 58.2 11.1 18.9 19.2 32.6 --16.5 28.1 0.2 0.4 4.1 6.7 Up. Qu. 54.6 2.8 4.3 16.7 25 --23.3 35 0 0 0 0 Lo. Qu. 0 0048--3.6 7.2 0 0 0 0

400 NYERI 59

TABLE 15a: CROPPING PATTERNS IN AEZ LH 1- UH 1 OF NYERI DISTRICT Subzone: f l i m, Soil unit: RB 1 Survey area 132 (Kagongo)

First Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Cabbages 0.01 0.1 0 0 0.2 3.31 Irish potatoes, kales & cabbages 0.01 0.1 0 0 0.2 3.31 Maize & beans 0.13 0.15 0.2 0.05 4.1 67.77 Irish potatoes 0.03 0.07 0.05 0 1.25 20.66 Irish potatoes & beans 0.01 0.08 0 0 0.15 2.48 Sweet potatoes 0.01 0.05 0 0 0.15 2.48 Total Sample Area 0.2 6.05 100

Second Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crop 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.03 0.2 0 0 0.8 14.55 Cabbages 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 1.82 Irish potatoes, kales & cabbages 0.01 0.1 0 0 0.2 3.64 Maize & Beans 0.09 0.14 0.1 0 2.7 49.09 Irish potatoes 0.05 0.07 0.1 0 1.55 28.18 Irish potatoes & beans 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.91 Sweet potatoes 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.1 1.82 Total Sample Area 0.18 5.5 100

Perennial Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile Total Sample Area of 30 Farms ha ha ha ha ha % Avocado 0.01 0.02 0.00 0 0.17 1.32 Bananas 0.01 0.02 0.01 0 0.35 2.71 Coffee 0.08 0.14 0.1 0 2.45 18.99 Macadamia 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.10 0.78 Mangoes 0.00 0.02 0 0 0.03 0.23 Tea 0.33 0.38 0.4 0.18 9.8 75.97 Total Sample Area 0.43 12.9 100

NOTES: Avg.0 = average of all sample farms Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these

401 60 NYERI

TABLE 15b: CROPPING PATTERNS IN AEZ UM 4 OF NYERI DISTRICT Subzone: s/m + s/vs, Soil unit: RB 2 Survey area 133 (Thigitu)

First Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average 0 Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops ha 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.50 Capsicum 0.02 0.25 0 0 0.5 2.48 Irish potatoes 0.09 0.23 0.13 0 2.7 13.37 Maize 0.03 0.8 0 0 0.8 3.96 Maize & beans 0.41 0.50 0.4 0.18 12.4 61.39 Maize & I/potatoes 0.05 0.16 0.1 0 1.4 6.93 Maize, beans & I/potatoes 0.07 0.53 0 0 2.1 10.40 Wheat 0.01 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.99 Total Sample Area 0.68 20.2 100

Second Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.50 Capsicum 0.02 0.25 0 0 0.5 2.48 Irish potatoes 0.09 0.23 0.13 0 2.7 13.37 Maize 0.03 0.8 0 0 0.8 3.96 Maize & beans 0.41 0.50 0.4 0.18 12.4 61.39 Maize & Irish potatoes 0.05 0.16 0.1 0 1.4 6.93 Maize, beans & I/potatoes 0.07 0.53 0 0 2.1 10.40 Wheat 0.01 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.99 Total Sample Area 0.68 20.2 100

Note: NO Perennial CROPS WERE REPORTED IN THIS SURVEY UNIT

NOTES: Avg.0 = average of all sample farms Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these

402 NYERI 61

TABLE 15c: CROPPING PATTERNS IN AEZ UM 2 OF NYERI DISTRICT Subzone: m/l i m/s, Soil unit: RB 2 Survey area 134 (Baricho) First Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Cabbages 0.00 0.01 0 0 0.01 0.25 I/potatoes & arrow roots 0.00 0.02 0 0 0.02 0.49 Irish potatoes 0.01 0.03 0.00 0 0.20 4.93 Kales 0.00 0.01 0 0 0.01 0.25 Maize 0.04 0.14 0.03 0 1.12 27.59 Maize & beans 0.07 0.15 0.12 0 1.95 48.03 Maize & Irish potatoes 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 1.23 Maize, beans & I/potatoes 0.02 0.11 0 0 0.64 15.76 Tomatoes 0.00 0.03 0 0 0.06 1.48 Total Sample Area 0.14 4.06 100

Second Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.00 0.06 0 0 0.11 3.12 Cabbages 0.01 0.07 0 0 0.35 9.92 I/potatoes & arrow roots 0.00 0.02 0 0 0.02 0.57 Irish potatoes 0.01 0.03 0.01 0 0.21 5.95 Kales 0.00 0.06 0 0 0.06 1.70 Maize 0.02 0.12 0 0 0.74 20.96 Maize & beans 0.05 0.12 0.07 0 1.41 39.94 Maize & I/potatoes 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 1.42 Maize, beans & I/potatoes 0.02 0.09 0 0 0.46 13.03 Tomatoes 0.00 0.12 0 0 0.12 3.40 Total Sample Area 0.11 3.53 100

Perennial Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha % ha ha ha ha Avocado 0.00 0.04 0 0 0.11 1.18 Bananas 0.03 0.08 0.07 0.01 1.75 18.76 Coffee 0.25 0.31 0.31 0.1 5.95 63.77 Macadamia 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.54 Passion fruits 0.02 0.21 0.03 0 1.08 11.58 Passions & capsicum 0.01 0.19 0 0 0.39 4.18 Total Sample Area 0.31 9.33 100

NOTES: Avg.0 = average of all sample farms; Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these

403 62 NYERI

TABLE 15d: CROPPING PATTERNS IN AEZ UH 3 OF NYERI DISTRICT Subzone: f(l) i (s/vs), Soil unit: RB 2 Survey area 135 (Embaringo) First Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.03 0.13 0 0 0.8 3.36 Cabbages 0.02 0.14 0 0 0.55 2.31 Carrots 0.02 0.08 0.05 0 0.65 2.73 Garlic 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.42 Irish potatoes 0.22 0.27 0.4 0.1 6.5 27.29 Maize 0.09 0.32 0.06 0 2.55 10.71 Maize & beans 0.07 0.37 0 0 2.2 9.24 Maize & I/potatoes 0.03 0.5 0 0 1 4.20 Maize & peas 0.08 0.21 0.11 0 2.52 10.58 Maize, beans & peas 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.42 Onions 0.05 0.19 0.06 0 1.55 6.51 Peas 0.03 0.18 0 0 0.9 3.78 Wheat 0.15 0.88 0 0 4.4 18.47 Total Sample Area 0.79 23.82 100 Second Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.01 0.1 0 0 0.3 0.70 Cabbages 0.02 0.13 0 0 0.5 1.16 Carrots 0.03 0.08 0.05 0 0.75 1.75 Garlic 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.23 Irish potatoes 0.19 0.26 0.2 0 5.65 13.15 Maize 0.11 0.28 0.13 0 3.38 7.87 Maize & beans 0.04 0.6 0 0 1.2 2.79 Maize & I/potatoes 0.03 0.5 0 0 1 2.33 Maize & peas 0.17 0.36 0.2 0 4.97 11.57 Maize, beans & peas 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.23 Onions 0.02 0.1 0.01 0 0.7 1.63 Peas 0.03 0.18 0 0 0.9 2.10 Wheat 0.78 1.38 0.8 0 23.4 54.48 Total Sample Area 1.43 42.95 100 Perennial Crops Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crop 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Pyrethrum 0.05 0.23 0 0 1.4 100 Total Sample Area 0.05 1.4 100

Avg.0 = average of all sample farms; Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these

404 NYERI 61

TABLE 15e: CROPPING PATTERNS IN AEZ UM 3 OF NYERI DISTRICT Subzone: m/s + s, Soil unit: RB 2 Survey Area 136 (Gachika) First Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.05 0.16 0.09 0 1.64 9.99 Cassava 0.01 0.03 0.00 0 0.24 1.46 Horticulture 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.30 Irish potatoes 0.06 0.06 0.1 0 1.67 10.18 Kales 0.00 0.03 0 0 0.03 0.18 Maize 0.14 0.31 0.2 0 4.08 24.86 Maize & beans 0.23 0.28 0.4 0.09 7 42.66 Maize & I/potatoes 0.04 0.16 0.06 0 1.24 7.56 Sweet potatoes 0.01 0.06 0 0 0.24 1.46 Vegetables 0.00 0.11 0 0 0.22 1.34 Total Sample Area 0.54 16.41 100 Second Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.05 0.15 0.09 0 1.48 9.54 Horticulture 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.32 Irish potatoes 0.06 0.06 0.1 0 1.67 10.76 Kales 0.00 0.03 0 0 0.03 0.19 Maize 0.12 0.28 0.2 0 3.68 23.71 Maize & beans 0.23 0.28 0.4 0.09 7 45.10 Maize & I/potatoes 0.04 0.16 0.06 0 1.24 7.99 Sweet potatoes 0.01 0.08 0 0 0.15 0.97 Vegetables 0.00 0.11 0 0 0.22 1.42 Total Sample Area 0.51 15.52 100 Perennial Crops Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Avocado 0.02 0.05 0.04 0 0.53 4.62 Bananas 0.05 0.07 0.05 0.00 1.50 13.09 Coffee 0.27 0.30 0.4 0.1 8.03 70.07 Loquats 0.00 0.04 0 0 0.04 0.35 Macadamia 0.00 0.04 0 0 0.08 0.70 Mangoes 0.04 0.06 0.06 0.00 1.23 10.73 Passion fruits 0.00 0.04 0 0 0.04 0.35 Paw paws 0.00 0.01 0 0 0.01 0.09 Total Sample Area 0.38 11.46 100

Avg.0 = average of all sample farms; Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these

405 64 NYERI

3.5.5 INTRODUCTION TO THE ACTUAL LAND USE SYSTEMS AND POTENTIAL INTENSIFICATION BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT

The main Agroecological Zones of Nyeri District in which farm surveys were conducted are:LH 1, UH 3, UM 1, UM 2, UM 3, UM 4.

Subzone LH 1-UM 1, f l i m of the Lower Highland Tea – Dairy Zone to the Upper Midland Tea-Coffee Zone

This is a Tea – Dairy Zone, transitional to the Tea-Coﬀee Zone, with Perennial cropping possibilities, dividable in a long to very long cropping season followed by a medium one typiﬁed by Kagongo sub-location in Chinga Location of Othaya Division in Nyeri District. The 60 % reliable length of growing period for cereals and legumes during the 1st and 2nd rains season is over 200 days and between 130 – 140 days, respectively. The 66 % probability of rainfall during the 1st and 2nd rains season lies between 450 – 900 mm and 400 – 540 mm, respectively. Mean annual rainfall is between 1200 – 1700 mm. In this Subzone, the dominant soil formations are the ando-humic Nitisols and the humic Andosols. These are well-drained, fertile deep volcanic soils suitable for both crop growing and animal pasture.

In this Subzone average farm size is 0.85 ha with maize and beans intercrop being the most dominant annual crops throughout the year. Irish potatoes are intercropped with crops including: kales, cabbages, beans and maize. Sweet potatoes are mostly grown for vines to be used as fodder crop for dairy cows. Undoubtedly, tea is the most important Perennial crop followed by coﬀee due to the ambient agro-ecological conditions. Bananas, avocados, macadamia and mangoes in that order are prominent too. Passion fruits seem to be performing poorly due to frequent fog. Use of N-fertiliser is absolutely very low as farmers seem to prefer application of compound fertilizers with high P content and other agro-chemicals. Use of certiﬁed seeds is moderate: ~ 54 %, while application of the farm manures is very low (Tables 13a & 15a). As such, crop yields per capita household are below optimum. Given the potential viability of this Subzone, farmers must intensify and diversify land use management practices by being given opportunities to access credit from relevant institutions.

In Kenya a profound transition is underway as smallholder farmers move from subsistence, cereal – based farming to mixed – enterprise, market – oriented systems. In subsistence systems, relatively few resources are available and their use is straight forward, with crop residues from maize – legume intercrops fed to livestock and the obtainable manure applied to home gardens. This trend leads to nutrient depletion in crop fields, particularly when land is no longer available for natural fallow. As their systems diversify, a wider range of organic resources become available to farmers and more possible uses emerge. Those resources that serve as feed for confined animals are generally used for that purpose. Livestock manure is fully recovered, and generally composted and applied to cash crops, but is also available to fodder and field crops. Income generated through cash cropping allows for purchased inputs, particularly feed and fertilizer. Low fertility technologies including strategically combined fertilizers and short – term improved fallows. Field and fodder crops are more frequently rotated. Composting makes better use of assorted organic resources, and allows for improved nutrient contents of otherwise lower quality materials. Orchards and other tree enterprises are initiated that not only generate revenue, but also biomass that can be used elsewhere on the farm. Household enterprises may also extend beyond agriculture, particularly into cottage industries. This sort of diversified organic resource management leads to better lives and contributes to rural transformation.

406 NYERI 65

TABLE 15a: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN MAIN AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) OF ZONE LH-UM 1, f l i m, RB 1 Survey area 132 (Kagongo) AEZ: LH 1 TEA – DAIRY ZONE to UM 1 TEA-COFFEE ZONE Subzone:flim (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season: 200 or >; 2nd rainy season: 130 - 140) Crop, Yields3) and Inputs Unit with predom. Soil: RB 1= ando-humic NITISOLS; with humic ANDOSOLS Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season 2nd rainy season: 400 – 540 mm in 450 – 900 mm at least 10 out 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level Maize local I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) pure stand Yields3) kg/ha - Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Hybrid maize Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha

Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Hybrid maize intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha 881 1322 1395 3000 - 935 939 2000 Fertilizer: N kg/ha ------

P2O5 kg/ha 6.0 50.0 59.0 - 89.6 100 K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha 8.4 - - - - -

Notes 1) Source: Interview of 30 farmers (if possible 10 in each level) 2004 by Divisional and Field staff 2) Figures of these cereals growing periods should be reached or surpassed in 6 out of 10 years; growing periods may be considered longer due to immediately following second rainy season by middle rains. Then the second growing period is VKRUWHUWKDQWKHJLYHQ¿JXUHV 3) Achieved average yields with average rainfall 4) Farmers with medium inputs 5) Farmers with high inputs of fertilizer, insecticides, soil and water conservation 6) Potential yield according to crop list and local climate of this Agro-Ecological Unit if soils are optimally fertilized, plus optimal crop management

407 66 NYERI

Subzone UH 3, f(l) i (s/vs) of the Upper Highland Wheat–Barley Zone

This is the Wheat-Barley Zone with a fully (weak) long cropping season, intermediate rains, and a (weak) short to very short one as typiﬁed in Embaringo sub-location of Gatarakwa Location in Kieni West Division, Nyeri district. The 60 % reliability of the length of cereal and legume growing period during the 1st and 2nd rainy seasons is 175 – 235 days and between 75 – 85 days, respectively. Mean annual rainfall ranges from 950 – 1200 mm, with 66% probability of 480 – 680 mm and 280 – 400 mm in the 1st and 2nd rainy seasons, respectively. Dominated by humic Nitisols (deep, fertile, well drained volcanic soils), this Subzone exhibits a diversity of agricultural land use patterns.

In this expansive semi-humid Subzone, mean farm holding size was 7.28 ha1). This can easily be attributed to the diversity of livestock practices reported here (Table 13d). This Subzone reported a high mean of dairy cows per farmer as well as sheep and goats (ca. 4.2 cows & 8 sheep and goats, respectively). In addition, poultry, a few zebu and donkeys are kept. Donkeys have two distinct advantages: draught animals and are resilient to the harsh conditions.

Large family household sizes prevail here too; that is the mean rate of 4.1 adults, 3.0 casuals and 1.3 children. From a random sample of 30 respondents, one is inclined to conclude that this is a densely populated Subzone exhibiting a very high dependant ratio. High casual labour force prevalent is needed for herding, milking and working on the large farm ﬁelds. However, caution should be exercised when interpreting this result because of seven large scale mixed farmers in our sample.

The application of fertilizers is low, use of certiﬁed seeds too (15%). Wheat, maize and peas or beans intercrop are the common agricultural practices, but dominant are Irish potatoes (Table 14d). No Perennial crop was reported here apart of a little pyrethrum. This could be due to the high altitude.

Some farmers are venturing into bee-keeping. Sinking of water boreholes and increasing market accessibility should be a priority to all stakeholders concerned with rural development.

Notes 1) This high value is exaggerated by the sample survey because seven farmers reported total farm (in ha) of 38, 16, 40 at Level I and 41, 14.4, 9.8 and 20 at Level II. Such bias can lead to misinterpretations.

408 NYERI 67

TABLE 15b: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN MAIN AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) OF ZONE UH 3, f(l) i (s/vs), RB 2 Survey area 135 (Embaringo) AEZ: UH 3 WHEAT-BARLEY ZONE Subzone: f(l) i (s/vs) (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season: 175 – 235 or >; Crop, Yields3) 2nd rainy season: 75 – 85) and Inputs Unit with predom. Soil: RB 2 = humic NITISOLS Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season: 2nd rainy season: 28 – 400 mm in 480 – 680 mm at least 10 out of 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level Maize local I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) pure stand Yields3) kg/ha --- Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Hybrid maize Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha 320 160

P2O5 kg/ha - - K2O kg/ha - - Manure t/ha - - Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Hybrid maize intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha

409 68 NYERI

Subzone UM 2 m/l i m/s of the Upper Midland Main Coffee Zone

This is the Main Coﬀee Zone with a medium to long cropping season, intermediate rains, and a medium to short one found in Baricho sub-location of Konyu Location in Mathira Division, Nyeri District. The 60 % reliable length of growing period for cereals and legumes during the 1st and 2nd rainy season is more than 160 days and between 115 – 130 days, respectively. The average annual rainfall lies between 950 – 1500 mm, with 66 % probability of 400 – 700 mm and 280 – 430 mm in the 1st and 2nd rainy season, respectively. Humic Nitisols are the dominant soil types.

During the 1978 FS, mean holding farm size was 2.7 ha which has decreased by more three times, resulting to 0.85 ha in 2004 (Table 13a). With such decreased land size, farmers have turned to zero grazing and keeping of pigs and rabbits which require minimum space. The use of certiﬁed seeds at planting is high: ~ 59.3 %, the application of agro-chemicals (N & P fertilizers, fungicides and pesticides) is totally absent (Table 13c). Therefore, one cannot expect any high yields without the application of fertilizers and organic manures. Intercropping is a common land use pattern here. Among the annual crops grown in both seasons include: maize - beans intercrop (the most dominant), followed by maize/bean/Irish potatoes and Irish potatoes & arrow - roots. Similarly, the other crops grown in order of importance are: cabbages, tomatoes and kales. Coﬀee is the most important Perennial crop followed by bananas, passion fruits, avocados and macadamia in that order. Passion fruits are also intercropped with capsicum.

This is a highly productive Subzone as pure stand maize yields of up to 8000 kg/ha are achievable if proper farm and crop husbandry practices are adhered to (Table 15c). To optimize household output per capita, farmers must observe the following: intensify use of farmyard and/or green manures, minimum tillage, apply environmentally friendly agro-chemicals and adopt intensive land use practices (e. g. bee-keeping, ﬁsh ponds, etc). If such management practices are well-adopted and implemented, household income will signiﬁcantly improve.

410 NYERI 69

TABLE 15c: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN MAIN AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) OF ZONE UM 2, m/l i m/s, RB 2

Survey area 134 (Baricho) AEZ: UM 2 MAIN COFFEE ZONE Subzone: m/l i m/s (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season: 160 or >; 2nd rainy season: 115 – 130) Crop, Yields3) and Inputs Unit with predom. Soil: RB 2= humic NOTISOLS Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season: 2nd rainy season: 280 – 430 mm in 400 – 700 mm at least 10 out of 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level Maize local pure I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) stand Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Hybrid maize Yields3) kg/ha ------Fertilizer: N kg/ha ------

P2O5 kg/ha ------K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha ------

Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Hybrid maize intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha - 3923 4993 7000 - 2707 2709 4500 Fertilizer: N kg/ha ------

P2O5 kg/ha ------K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha ------

411 70 NYERI

Subzone UM 4, s/m + s/vsRIWKH6XQÀRZHU0DL]H=RQH

This is theSunﬂower-Maize Zone with a short to medium and a short to very short cropping season typiﬁed by Thigitu sub-location in Thegu location of Kieni East division in Nyeri district. The 60 % chances of the length of cereal and legumes growing during the 1st and 2nd rainy seasons is between 105 – 120 days and 75 – 85 days, respectively. Mean annual rainfall amount ranges from 870 – 1000 mm. The 66 % probability of rainfall during 1st and 2nd rains season is 250 - 450 mm and 250 – 320 mm, respectively. Humic Nitisols are the most prevalent soils in this Subzone.

Land use is highly diverse and expansive (Table 13b), especially livestock domestication. With a mean household farm of size: 7.67 ha1), this Subzone reported a substantial diversity of animal keeping dominated by dairy with a mean of 14.5 cows. The zebu and improved cross - breeds are less important..

Large family household sizes prevail here too, that is the mean rate of 4.1 adults, 3.0 casuals and 1.3 children. From a random sample of 30 respondents, one is inclined to conclude that this is a densely populated Subzone exhibiting a very high dependant ratio. More casual labour force is needed for herding, milking and working on the existing large farm fields. However, caution should be exercised when interpreting this result because of the presence of seven large scale mixed farmers in our sample. Mean use of certified seeds at planting is fairly high: ~ 57 %, the application of N and P fertilizers in annual crops is very different, the mean is 9 kg /ha N and 13 kg/ha P, respectively. But those farmers who use it apply at the rate 54 N and 72 P kg/ha.

In terms of crops and their cropping patterns during the 1st rainy season, intercrops of maize & beans are dominant, coupled with Irish potatoes. No reliable ﬁgures were reported for the 2nd rainy season. There is no Perennial cash crop reported here because of the semi-arid conditions. It is clear that maize and beans intercropped is not a favourable land use practice here, hence the dismal yields per capita (Table 15d).

Notes 1)7KLVKLJKYDOXHLVDELDVDVVRFLDWHGZLWK¿YHIDUPHUVKDYLQJWRWDOIDUPVL]HV LQKD RIDQGDW/HYHO,DQGDQG 96 at Level III.

412 NYERI 71

TABLE 15d: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN MAIN AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) OF ZONE UM 4, s/m + s/vs, RB 2

Survey area 133 (Thigitu) AEZ: UM 4 SUNFLOWER – MAIZE ZONE Sub-zone: s/m + s/vs (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season: 105 – 115; 2nd rainy season: 85 Crop, Yields3) and – 100) Inputs Unit with predom. Soil: RB 2= humic NITISOLS Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season: 250 – 350 mm 2nd rainy season: 250 – 300 mm in at least 10 out 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level Maize local pure I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) stand Yields3) kg/ha --- Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Hybrid maize Yields3) kg/ha - - Fertilizer: N kg/ha - -

P2O5 kg/ha - - K2O kg/ha - - Manure t/ha - - Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Hybrid maize intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha

413 72 NYERI

Subzone UM 3 m/s + s of the Upper Midland Marginal Coffee Zone

This is the Marginal Coﬀee Zone with a medium to short and a short cropping season represented by Gachika sub-location in Kiganjo location of the Municipality division in Nyeri district. In this Subzone, mean annual rainfall amount lies between 850 – 900 mm having a 66 % probability of 250 – 350 mm and 250 – 300 mm during the 1st and 2nd rainy seasons, respectively. The 60 % reliability length of growing cereals and legumes in the two seasons is 105 – 115 days and 85 – 100 days, respectively (Table 15e).

The basic land use and household parameters are shown in Table 13e. Mean holding farm size is 1.03 ha. Dairy farming under zero grazing is fast gaining prominence over local zebu breeds (ca. mean dairy: 1.27/0.03 = ~ 42 times). The rearing of pigs seems to be enterprising (mean: 0.07). Equally important are statistics of adult population per household (mean: 2.3 adults and 1.4 casuals. Mean use of improved seeds at planting is low: ~ 40 % of the farmers reporting usage. Application of N and P fertilizers in annual crops is very low, 4.1 kg/ha and 14.9 kg/ha, respectively. However, application of organic farm manures is encouraging. Level I management input farmers apply about 4.0 t/ha, while Level II input farmers are capable of applying ~ 15 t/ha. Use of other agro-chemicals is moderate (Table 13e).

In this Subzone, crops and the seasonal cropping patterns are slightly diverse and complex. Similar crops and cropping land use patterns prevail in both seasons. The intercrop of maize and beans dominates. Maize & Irish potatoes are also intercropped. Among the annual crops grown in the order of significance are: maize, Irish potatoes, beans, sweet potatoes, cassava, vegetables such as kales and other horticultural crops were reported (Table 14e). Coffee is an important Perennial crop followed by bananas, mangoes, avocados, macadamia, loquats, passion fruits and paw paws. It is worth noting that the proximity of this Subzone to Nyeri, the provincial headquarter of Central province, puts farmers in an advantageous position for marketing the farm produce mentioned above. Moreover, with more land use diversification and intensification greater yields per capita are attainable (Table 15e).

414 NYERI 73

TABLE 15e: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN MAIN AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) OF ZONE UM 3, m/s + s, RB 2 Survey area 136 (Gachika) AEZ: UM 3 MARGINAL COFFEE ZONE Subzone: m/s+s (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season: 120 – 135; 2nd rainy season: 85 – 100) Crop, Yields3) and Inputs Unit with predom. Soil: RB 2= humic NITISOLS Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season: 2nd rainy season: 250 – 320 mm in 250 –450 mm at least 10 out of 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level Maize local I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) mono-cropped Yields3) kg/ha --- Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Hybrid maize Yields3) kg/ha - 3600 4180 5500 - 2363 2840 4000 Fertilizer: N kg/ha - 85 14.7 - 8.5 16.3

P2O5 kg/ha - 50.0 55.1 - 50.0 61.1 K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha ------

Maize local intercropped With beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Hybrid maize intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha 1901 2526 2861 4200 1245 1556 1948 3500 Fertilizer: N kg/ha - 4.3 8.5 - 4.3 -

P2O5 kg/ha 9.1 25.0 32.1 9.1 25.0 32.1 K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha 8.2 - - 8.2 - -

415 74 NYERI

3.5.6 FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPORTANT AGRO-ECOLOGICAL UNITS

The Fertiliser Use Recommendation Project of the GTZ (1986 - 92) had three trial sites in Nyeri district but only two yielded reliable results: one on Nitisols at Chehe in LH 1, the other near Kiganjo in UM 4 on less acid Nitisols. For the other zones, subzones and units Muriuki and Qureshi showed which results from other districts could be representative (see map of Fertiliser Recommendations and Farm Survey Areas) and made curves for fertiliser response1).

Recommended rates of an AEU increase into a wetter subzone and decrease into a drier one if the soil unit extends there (see dark and light grey shades in the small maps). We have tend to lower the rates due to the low ﬁnancial basis of the smallholder farmers. The optimum can be calculated from the curve formulas in Muriuki & Qureshi Fertiliser Use Manual, KARI, Nairobi 2001. In the long run the maintenance amount must be given to maintain the nutrient content. Some quantities for it can be seen at the end of this chapter and in the chapter 3.1 General Remarks.

Higher recommendations are given in the Smallholder Farming Handbook of the IRACC and MSS, Nai- robi 1997, but the economic investment and risk is too high for the local farmers here. A rural small credit system for the inputs could help a lot. Where scientific sources for quantifying the rates are lacking, some conclusions could be taken from the difference of inputs and yields between the low and high production levels of the Farm Survey 2004/05. An empty column “Other Nutrients Recommended” does not mean that there is nothing necessary, but due to lack of trial data. For deficiency symptoms and ways of addressing these, see Muriuki, A.W. and Qureshi, J.N. (2001), Table 1&2, p.22-23.

Finally it must be mentioned again that ﬁeld grade fertilizers will increase the yields only in the short term since the micronutrients not included in the fertiliser become exhausted rapidly. Manuring almost up to the full return of the extracted nutrients is a must in order to have a stable agrobiological system with continuous production2).

On the other hand even macronutrients like potassium (K) which has not been mentioned must be applied urgently because there is still not enough in the soil, given that in the long run 1 t of maize needs 23 kg K, 1 t of sorghum even 45 kg, 1 t of groundnuts 50 kg. Cassava is less demanding, only 7 kg K per t, but needs additionally 2 kg of cobalt (Co) and 1 kg of magnesium (Mg) 3).

1) Muriuki, A.W. & Qureshi, J.N.: Fertiliser Use Manual. Nairobi kari . 2) Southern China has parts with similar soils to Kenya and stabilized productivity there for hundreds of years by returning to the ﬁelds as much as possible, even the ashes, excrements and urea. 3) Figures in handbooks, from international experience.

416 NYERI 75

417 76 NYERI

418 NYERI 77

TABLE 17a: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT UH2 l or l/m i m/s, RB2 of the PYRETHRUM-WHEAT ZONE

Av. Exp. Yield Av. Yield Av. Yield Crop varieties and + Response- Recommended Increase if Increase if 5 t/ha Fertiliser Rates this Rate is Manure are Other Nutrients Season curve Recommended kg/ha kg/ha Applied Applied kg/ha kg/ha First Rainy Season Hybrid maize No experiments (50 N)1) but may (ca. 800) (ca. 500) * Hybr. maize & beans have been car- be uneconomical Wheat ried out here Second Rainy S. Hybrid maize The late mat. maize continues into Hybr. maize & peas the next season Semi-perennial crops 1 teaspoon of DSP Pyrethrum 300 in planting hole 2)

Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 126; IRACC: Smallholder Farming Handbook for Self Employment, Nairobi 1997, p. 183; conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004

1)([WUDSRODWHG([WUDSRODWHG¿JXUHIURPWKHVDPHVRLO EXW80 LQ0XUDQJ¶DGL ¿JXUH IURP WKH VDPH VRLO EXW 80 LQ 0XUDQJ¶D GLVWULFWVWULFW 2) After 2 months 1 kg of C.A.N. or A.S.N. per 80 m of row (see IRACC p. 183) * No data available

TABLE 17b: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNITS UH-LH3 (l/m) i + f(s) & f(m) if(s), RB2 of the TRANSITIONAL WHEAT/MAIZE-BARLEY ZONE Av. Yield Av. Yield Av. Exp. Yield Increase if 5 t/ha Crop varieties and + Response- Recommended Increase if Other Nutrients Fertiliser Rates this Rate is Manure are Recommended Season curve kg/ha Applied 1) Applied kg/ha kg/ha kg/ha First Rainy Season Hybrid maize No experiments (50 N)1) but may (ca. 500) (ca. 300) Some rock Hybr. maize & beans have been car- be uneconomical phosphate ried out here Wheat Second Rainy S. Local maize Loc. maize & peas

Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 129; IRACC: conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004

1)([WUDSRODWHG([WUDSRODWHG¿JXUHIURPWKHVDPHVRLO EXW80 LQ0XUDQJ¶DGL ¿JXUH IURP WKH VDPH VRLO EXW 80 LQ 0XUDQJ¶D GLVWULFWVWULFW

419 78 NYERI

TABLE 17c: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT /+ÀLP, RB1 of the TEA and DAIRY ZONE

Av. Exp. Yield Av. Yield Av. Yield Crop varieties and + Response- Recommended Increase if Increase if 5 t/ha Fertiliser Rates this Rate is Manure are Other Nutrients Season curve 1) Recommended kg/ha kg/ha Applied Applied kg/ha kg/ha First Rainy Season Hybrid maize 1500 + none – – ca. 500 Lime (ph ~ 4.5) Some rock Hybr. maize & beans 680 + 12.3 N 50 N 615 maize * phosphate Second Rainy S. Hybrid maize 2300 + none – – ca. 700 Lime (ph ~ 4.5) Some rock Hybr. maize & beans 1230 + none – – * phosphate Both seasons Potatoes 4860 + 7.5 NP 50 N + 20 P 7500 ca. 1500 Lime Cabbages 4600 + 500 P 30 P 15000 ca. 5000 Lime 2t o Perennial crops

Tea 2) 300 N + 70 P + 50 K 5000 Copper, Zinc

Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 128; conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004

420 NYERI 79

TABLE 17d: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT 80ÀLP, RB1 of the TEA and COFFEE ZONE

Tea 2) 300 N + 70 P + 50 K 5000 * Copper, Zinc Coffee 150 N + 100 P ca. 1000 *

Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 128; conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004

421 80 NYERI

TABLE 17e: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT UM2 m/l i m/s, RB2 of the MAIN COFFEE ZONE

Av. Exp. Yield Av. Yield Av. Yield Crop varieties and + Response- Recommended Increase if Increase if 5 t/ha Other Nutrients Fertiliser Rates this Rate is Manure are Season curve 1) Recommended kg/ha kg/ha Applied Applied kg/ha kg/ha First Rainy Season Hybrid maize 1850 + 13 N (50 N) not econ. 2) 650 ca. 500 Potassium Some rock Hybr. maize & beans 2700 + 8.9 N not economical * phosphate Second Rainy S. Hybrid maize 1350 + 24 N – – ca. 600 Some rock Hybr. maize & beans 2600 + 22 N – – * phosphate Both seasons Potatoes 8920 + 29 N 25 N 7500 ca. 1500 Potassium Perennial crops Coffee 3) 150 N + 100 P ca. 1000 *

Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 126; conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004

1)$SSO\$SSO\WRJHWKHUZLWKPLQHUDOIHUWLOLVHUVIRUEHWWHUHIIHFWDQGPD[LPXPEHQH¿W WRJHWKHU ZLWK PLQHUDO IHUWLOLVHUV IRU EHWWHU HIIHFW DQG PD[LPXP EHQH¿W 2) Economical rate is considered about 20 kg more maize for 1 kg nutrient content. 3) See also recommendations of local Coffee Board and of IRACC: Smallholder Farming Handbook for Self Employment, Nairobi 1997, p. 147.

TABLE 17f: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT UM3 m/s + s, RB2 of the MARG. COFFEE ZONE Av. Yield Av. Yield Av. Exp. Yield Recommended Increase if Increase if 5 t/ha Crop varieties and + Response- Fertiliser Rates this Rate is Manure are Other Nutrients Season curve kg/ha Applied Applied Recommended kg/ha kg/ha kg/ha First Rainy Season 1270 + Hybrid maize 20.8 N - 0.24 N2 40 N 450 ca. 300 + 4.8 P Hybr. maize & beans 910 + 11.6 P 50 P 1) Some rock 580 maize * phosphate Second Rainy S. KCB maize 815 + none – – Some rock KCB maize & beans 540 + none – – * phosphate Beans 400 + 7.0 P 50 P 1) 350 * Both seasons Cabbages 4600 + 350 P 30 P 10500 ca. 5000

Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 128; conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004

1),W,WPD\EHXQHFRQRPLFLQWKH¿UVW\HDUVEXW3EHFRPHVQHFHVVDU\EHFDXVHWKHFRQWHQWLVORZLQWKHVRLO PD\ EH XQHFRQRPLF LQ WKH ¿UVW \HDUV EXW 3 EHFRPHV QHFHVVDU\ EHFDXVH WKH FRQWHQW LV ORZ LQ WKH VRLO * No data available.

422 NYERI 81

TABLE 17g: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT UM4 s/m + s, RB2 of the SUNFLOWER- MAIZE ZONE

Av. Exp. Yield Av. Yield Av. Yield Crop varieties and + Response- Recommended Increase if Increase if 5 t/ha Fertiliser Rates this Rate is Manure are Other Nutrients Season curve Recommended kg/ha kg/ha Applied Applied kg/ha kg/ha First Rainy Season Hybrid maize 1250 + 20.8 N 40 N 440 ca. 300 Hybr. maize & beans 910 + 11.6 P 50 P 1) Some rock 580 maize * phosphate Second Rainy S. KCB maize 815 + none – – Some rock KCB maize & beans 540 + none – – * phosphate Beans 400 + 7.0 P 50 P 1) 350 * Both seasons Cabbages 4600 + 300 P 30 P 9000 ca. 5000

Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 128; conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004

423 424 KIRINYAGA 1

3.6 KIRINYAGA DISTRICT

TABLE OF CONTENTS District Page

3.6.1 Natural Potential 3 Introduction 3 Annual Rainfall Map 4 Table 1: Annual Rainfall 5 Table 2: Temperature 5 Table 3: Potential Evapotranspiration 6 Seasonal Rainfall Maps 7 Table 4: Climate in the Agro-Ecological Zones and Subzones 9 Agro-Ecological Zones Map 10 Agro-Ecological Zones and Subzones (=Legend to the AEZ Map), with Land Use Potentials and Water Availability & Requirement Diagrams 11 Soil Map 19 Soil Distribution, Fertility and Major Characteristics with Legend to the Soil Map 20

3.6.2 Population and Land 22

Table 5: Population 22 Table 6: Composition of Households 25 Table 7: Available Land Area 27

3.6.3 Agricultural Statistics 28 Development and Trends of Major Crops 28 Table 8: Tea 28 Table 9: Coﬀee 29 Distribution of Farming Activities During the Year 30 Tables 10 a-p: Farming Activities in the Agro-Ecological Zones 30

3.6.4 Farm Survey 38 Table 11: Farm Survey Sites Representative of the Dominating Agro-Ecological Subzones and Units 38 Farm Survey Areas and Fertiliser Recommendations Map 39 Tables 12 a-f: Assets, Land Use, Farming Intensity and Inputs 40 Tables 13 a-f: Cropping Pattern 45

425 2 KIRINYAGA

3.6.5 Introduction to the Actual Land Use Systems and to the Potential Intensiﬁcation by Better Farm Management in Dominating Agro-Ecological Subzones 50

Tables 14 a-e: Increase of Yields by Better Farm Management 51-59 UM1 fl i m of the Tea and Coffee Zone 50 UM2 m/l i s/m of the Maine Coffee Zone 52 UM3 m/s + s of the Marginal Coffee Zone 54 LM3 s + s of the Cotton Zone 56 LM4 s + s/vs of the Marginal Cotton Zone 58

3.6.6 Fertiliser and Manure Recommendations for Important Agro-Ecological Units 60 Map of Important Agro-Ecological Units 61 Tables 15 a-f: Fertiliser and Manure Recommendations: 63-67 LH1 l/vl^m, MV2 and RB1 of the Tea Zone 62 UM1 fl i m, RB1 of the Tea and Coffee Zone 62 UM2 m/l i m/s & m i s/m, RB2 of the Main Coffee Zone 64 UM3 m/s + s, RB2 of the Marginal Coffee Zone 64 LM3 s/m + s & s+s,LB2 and RB3 of the Cotton Zone 66 LM4 s + s/vs & s/vs + vs/s, LB8 of the Marginal Cotton Zone 66

426 KIRINYAGA 3

3.6.1 NATURAL POTENTIAL

INTRODUCTION

The typical agro-ecological pattern of the south-eastern slopes of the Aberdare Range is continued on the southern and eastern slopes of Mt. Kenya, due to the eﬀects of the southeast trade wind which brings rainfall up to a maximum of > 2200 mm annual average at about 2500 m. Higher up, the rainfall decreases due to the lower moisture content of the trade wind inversion, but the higher altitudes are still so wet and steep that forest or conservation (National Parks) is the best land use. The lower herbaceous parts of the Tropical Alpine Zones may be opened in future for seasonal grazing of livestock for farmers living below the forests, due to the demands of increasing land pressure.

The decrease of rainfall downwards from the 2500 m maximum level does not create water stress in the 15 km broad zones down to 1600 m, where 1600 mm is the annual average. The low evaporation due to cloud cover and morning mists, and the storage capacity of more than 300 mm in the deeply weathered volcanic soils mean that a high proportion of the rainfall is available to plants.

Below that altitude, the rainy seasons become considerably shorter, down to an expectation of less than 80 days in 10 years out of 15 for the first rainy season, and less than 65 for the second rainy season. Con- sidering the fact that the two-thirds rainfall reliability drops to 250 mm in the first rainy season, and to 200 mm in the second one, it becomes clear that maize crop failures will occur regularly, and that the Mwea Tebere Irrigation Scheme is very important in that area. The irrigation possibilities are not discussed in the Agro-Ecological Zones because the Zones are based on natural climatic conditions, not on artificial ones. We have the typical sequence from the Tea-Dairy Zone LH 1 through the three different coffee zones UM 1, 2, and 3, to the better and the Marginal Cotton Zone LM 3 and LM 4, as in Murang’a District.

427 4 KIRINYAGA

428 KIRINYAGA 5

TABLE 1: RAINFALL FIGURES FROM SELECTED TYPICAL STATIONS HAVING AT LEAST 15 YEARS OF RECORD

Agro Ecol. Annual Monthly rainfall in mm No. and Kind of Name of Station Zone & rainfall altitude records J FMAMJ J ASOND Subzone mm 9037031 Kerugoya UM 2-1 Average 1470 30 30 96 351 299 62 54 63 53 178 185 69 1570 m Water Development m/l i m/s 66% rel.1 1332 15 12 49 261 235 42 47 45 38 95 152 41 9037096 Sagana Fish LM 3 Av. 1180 27 36 88 313 226 32 25 24 26 144 181 58 1200 m Culture Farm s/m + s 66%3 9037103 Murinduko UM 4 Av. 1030 22 27 88 257 150 17 20 19 19 138 203 69 1352 m Exp. Farm s/m + s 66%2 895 7 6 70 200 90 10 10 12 10 112 180 40 9037110 Mwea Tebere LM 3-4 Av. 960 23 25 78 260 149 19 20 17 19 122 180 48 1219 m Chief´s Camp s + s 66%3 9037112 Mwea Tebere LM 4 Av. 890 38 33 77 224 145 10 12 11 11 82 195 52 1158 m Exp. Station s + s/vs 66%3 9037115 Kerugoya Castle LH 1 Av. 2136 68 64 110 366 493 138 153 144 111 162 213 114 2040 m Forest Station l/vl^m 66%2 2005 43 50 58 315 380 120 114 130 86 10 165 98 9037127 Upper Kamweti UH 0 Av. 2263 100 92 125 339 323 164 186 171 139 268 228 128 2438 m Forest Station 66%2 2150 52 50 75 235 280 130 135 150 90 185 190 102 9037129 Lower Kamweti UM 1-LH 1 Av. 1869 37 40 94 365 356 101 125 123 90 232 227 79 1752 m Forest Guard Post l/vl^m 66%3 9037137 Wamumu LM 4 Av. 836 21 28 95 240 129 19 7 1 9 78 160 49 1219 m Approved School s/vs + vs/s 66%3 9037147 Murubara LM 4 Av. 910 17 24 98 249 146 22 17 13 18 101 164 41 1219 m Village s/vs + vs/s 66%3 9037174 Kibirigwi Farmers UM 2 Av. 1375 36 32 91 332 280 51 43 35 43 187 178 67 1433 m Co-op Society m/l + m/s 66%3 9037178 Nguguini UM 2 Av. 1233 24 22 83 198 281 58 40 55 50 187 160 75 1615 m Factory m/l + m/s 66%3 9037179 Tebere Cotton LM 3 Av. 973 13 20 82 278 117 22 22 10 20 128 181 80 1247 m Res. Station s + s 66%3

17KHVH¿JXUHVRIUDLQIDOOUHOLDELOLW\VKRXOGEHH[FHHGHGQRUPDOO\LQRXWRI\HDUV 2 Estimate of this reliability by correlation, no detailed data available to GTZ for enough years.

TABLE 2: TEMPERATURE DATA

Temperature in°C No. and Name of AEZ1 Kind of Belt altitude Station records J F M A M J J A S O N D Yr. limits

Mean max. 28,7 30,3 30,4 28,6 27,2 26,4 25,1 25,4 28,2 29,5 27,5 27,2 27,9 1290 m LM 9037112 Mwea Mean temp. 21,2 22,3 23,4 23,0 22,2 21,0 20,2 20,3 22,0 23,2 22,0 21,0 21,8 LM 4 1159 m Exp. Stn. Mean min. 13,7 14,3 16,3 17,4 17,2 15,6 15,2 15,2 15,8 16,9 16,4 14,7 15,7 750 m Abs. min. 7,2 7,8 10,0 10,6 12,0 9,9 8,3 8,9 8,9 8,9 10,0 9,3 9,3 IL

Mean max. 28,4 29,7 30,0 27,9 26,8 25,5 24,3 24,9 27,5 28,8 26,9 26,9 27,3 1340 m 9037179 Tebere Cotton Mean temp. 20,9 22,2 23,2 22,7 21,9 20,7 19,8 20,0 21,5 22,6 21,5 20,8 21,5 LM LM 3 1247 m Res. Station Mean min. 13,4 14,7 16,3 17,4 16,9 15,8 15,3 15,1 15,5 16,3 16,1 14,7 15,6 800 m Abs. min. 9,3 9,8 10,0 14,0 13,0 10,5 9,0 9,5 10,5 8,0 11,0 11,0 10,5 IL

1 AEZ = Agro-ecological zone

429 6 KIRINYAGA

TABLE 3: AVERAGE POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

Average Potential Evapotranspiration PET in mm Av. Rainfall Type1) No. and Name of Station altitude AEZ Year % J F M A M J J A S O N D Year in mm of PET

9037096 Sagana Fish Cul- UM- 148 147 160 131 126 105 100 111 100 149 127 137 1539 1180 77% 1312 m ture Farm (Kir. D.) LM 3

9037112 Mwea Irrigation LM 173 168 185 154 138 119 115 128 115 176 146 154 1770 890 50% 1246 m Agromet. Stn. 3-4

9037179 Tebere Cotton LM 172 166 181 151 133 119 118 130 114 164 144 153 1744 971 55% 1247 m Research Stn. 3-4

430 KIRINYAGA 7

431 8 KIRINYAGA

432 KIRINYAGA 9

TABLE 4: CLIMATE IN THE AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

UH 0 Forest Reserve Forest Zone

LH 0 Forest Reserve Forest Zone

LH 1 Tea-Dairy l/vl^m 1760-2130 17.8-14.5 1700-2150 900-1100 500-620 210 or more 140-150 250-260 Zone

UM 1 Coffee-Tea ÀLP 1520-1820 19.3-17.5 1400-1700 750-950 430-520 200 or more 130-150 230-250 Zone

UM 2 m/l i m/s 1220-1500 600-800 400-460 170 or more 115-130 285-300 Main Coffee 1400-1580 20.1-19.0 Zone m + s/m 1200-1250 580-620 380-430 160 or more 105-115 –

UM 3 Marginal m/s+s 1310-1400 20.6-20.1 1100-1250 450-580 350-400 120-140 85-105 – Coffee Zone

UM 4 s/m+s 950-1200 420-500 330-350 105-115 85-105 – 6XQÀRZHU 1280-1340 20.9-20.4 Maize Zone s+s 350-960 400-420 320-330 90-105 85-105 –

LM 3 s/m+s 950-1200 420-500 320-350 105-115 85-100 – 1220-1280 21.2-20.9 Cotton Zone s+s 900-1100 380-460 280-330 85-105 85-95 –

LM 4 s + s/vs 850-950 330-400 250-300 85-105 75-85 – Marginal 1090-1220 22.0-21.2 Cotton Zone s/vs + vs/s 800-850 300-350 200-250 75-85 55-75 –

433 10 KIRINYAGA

434 KIRINYAGA 11

AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES AND SUBZONES

TA = TROPICAL-ALPINE ZONES

TA 0 = Rocks and Glaciers

TA I+II = Tropical-Alpine Moor- and Heathlands Here National Park Limited grazing potential

UH = UPPER HIGHLAND ZONES

UH 0 = Forest Zone Too wet, steep and too important as catchment area, therefore not cleared. Bamboo thickets. Forest Reserve

LH = LOWER HIGHLAND ZONES

LH 0 = Forest Zone Almost the same as UH 0 but many valuable timbers and no bamboo. Forest Reserve

435 12 KIRINYAGA

LH 1 = Tea - Dairy Zone

LH 1 = Tea – Dairy Zone l/v l^m with a long to very long cropping season followed by a medium one1) (See Diagram Chehe, Nyeri District)

Very good yield potential (av. over 80% of the optimum) 1st rainy season, norm. mid March: Peas, cabbages, lettuce 2nd rainy season, start norm. mid Oct.: Peas Good yield potential (av. 60 – 80% of the optimum) 1st rainy season: Lima beans; carrots, leek, kales, endive 2nd rainy season: Potatoes, cabbages, carrots, kales Whole year, best pl. time mid March: Tea (high quality), loquats Fair yield potential (av. 40 – 60% of the optimum) 1st rainy season: Late mat. maize (danger of soil erosion if monocropped); beans (2 times, 2nd end of July – Nov.), potatoes (e. of Feb.- July) 2nd rainy season: Late mat. maize (b. of June-b. of Jan.); m. mat. beans, leek, lettuce Whole year: Pyrethrum (too wet), plums, pears, passion fruits (lower places) Pasture and forage Around 0.5 ha/LU on secondary pasture of Kikuyu grass, suitable for grade dairy cows; clover and other fodder crops for higher productivity (see Table X)

UM = UPPER MIDLAND ZONES

UM 1 = Coffee-Tea Zone

UM 1 = Coffee-Tea Zone ÀLP with a fully long cropping season, intermediate rains, and a medium one Very good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. mid March: Lima beans; cabbages, kales 2nd rainy season, start norm. mid Oct., but some middle rains in July/August: M. mat. beans like Quarentino (Aug.- Dec./Jan.) Whole year, best pl. time mid March: Passion fruits, black wattle

Good yield potential 1stUDLQ\VHDVRQ/DWHPDWPDL]H¿QJHUPLOOHWSRWDWRHV2)PPDWVXQÀRZHUOLNH.HQ\DIHGKD onions, French beans 2ndUDLQ\VHDVRQ0PDWPDL]H(0&265VZHHWSRWDWRHVPPDWVXQÀRZHUOLNH+\EULG S 301 A; cabbages (Aug.- Dec.), kales, onions, tomatoes, sweet pepper, French beans Whole year: Tea, Arabica coffee, bananas, yams, mountain paw paws, loquats, avocados, passion fruits, arrowroots3) Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: Cold tol. sorghum, m. mat. foxtail millet (July –Oct., seeds from Meru District); sweet potatoes, tomatoes, sweet pepper 2nd rainy season: M. mat. maize of H5.. series (Sep.- Jan.), late mat. maize (e. of June – b. of -DQ FROGWROVRUJKXP $XJ±)HE ¿QJHUPLOOHWSRWDWRHV $XJ'HF Whole year: Citrus, taro3), pineapples (lower places) Pasture and forage ca. 0.5 ha/LU on secondary pasture of Kikuyu grass; down to less than 0.15 ha/LU feeding Napier grass, banana stems and leaves, sweet potato vines, maize stalks a.o. forage (see Table X). Zero grazing recommended because land is scarce

436 KIRINYAGA 13

UM 2 = Main Coffee Zone UM 2 = Main Coffee Zone m/l i m/s with a medium to long cropping season, intermediate rains,and a medium to short one4) (See Diagram Kerugoya Hospital) Very good yield potential 1stUDLQ\VHDVRQVWDUWQRUPPLG0DUFK0PDWVXQÀRZHUOLNH+6$ 2nd rainy season, start norm. mid Oct.: Beans (Sep./Oct. – Jan./Feb.) Whole year, best pl. time mid March: Arabica coffee (~80%), loquats, mountain paw paws Good yield potential 1st rainy season: M. mat. maize of H5.. series or EMCO 92 SR, ratoon sorghum (lower places); m. mat. beans, French beans, potatoes2), sweet potatoes; cabbages, kales, tomatoes8), onions 2nd rainy season: M. mat. maize EMCO 92 SR, e. mat. sorghum like 2 KX 17, e. mat. foxtail PLOOHWVZHHWSRWDWRHV $XJ6HS-DQ HPDWVXQÀRZHUPPDWEHDQV)UHQFKEHDQV kales, cabbages, onions, tomatoes Whole year: Bananas, citrus, avocados, passion fruits, arrowroots3), macadamia nuts Fair yield potential 2nd rainy season: M. mat. maize of H5.. series(Sep.-Jan./Feb.), late mat. maize (July- Dec.), ¿QJHUPLOOHWHPDWSRWDWRHV Whole year: Cassava, sugarcane (lower and wet places), mangoes Pasture and forage 0.5-0.9 ha/LU on secondary pasture of star grass (Cynodon dactylon) but land is too valuable for grazing; down to less than 0.15 ha/LU feeding Napier or Bana grass, banana leaves and stems, maize stalks, sweet potato vines a.o. forage (see Table X)

437 14 KIRINYAGA

UM 2 = Main Coffee Zone m + m/s with a medium cropping season and a short to medium one Potential and stocking rates almost the same as UM 2 m/l i m/s less about 10% of perennial or late maturing crops and of stocking rates because of more intensive long dry season; all vegetables better in valleys, coffee yields good UM 3 = Marginal Coffee Zone UM 3 = Marginal Coffee Zone m/s + s with a medium to short and a short cropping season5) Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. mid to end of March: E. mat. maize like Katumani comp. B, m. mat. maize (higher places), ratoon of e. mat. sorghum; e. mat. beans, French beans; m. mat. VXQÀRZHUOLNH+RQLRQVFDEEDJHV3) 2nd rainy season, start norm. mid Oct.: E. mat. foxtail millet; e. mat. sorghum like 2 KX 17; e. PDWVXQÀRZHUOLNH Whole year: Pineapples (best pl. time end of March), macadamia nuts, perennial castor Fair yield potential VWUDLQ\VHDVRQ0PDWPDL]H ORZHUSODFHV PPDW¿QJHUPLOOHWPPDWEHDQVVZHHW potatoes; cabbages, kales, tomatoes3) 2nd rainy season: E. mat. maize, e. mat. beans, French beans; e. mat. cabbages3), kales3), tomatoes3), Virginia tobacco (lower places) :KROH\HDU$UDELFDFRIIHH ORZHUSODFHVSRRUWKHUHDGGLWLRQDOLUULJDWLRQSUR¿WDEOH EDQDQDV (lower places marginal), avocado, citrus, paw paws, cassava, pigeon peas (lower places) Pasture and forage 0.7-1.1 ha/LU on secondary high grass savanna with zebra grass (Hyparrhenia rufa) predominant; down to less than 0.2 ha/LU feeding Napier or Bana grass, glycine, maize stalks, sweet potato vines and other forage (see Table X) UM 4 = Sunflower - Maize Zone UM 4 = 6XQÀRZHU0DL]H=RQH s/m + s with a short to medium and a short cropping season6) Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. mid to end of March: E. mat. maize like Katumani comp. B, e. mat. sorghum like Serena, ratoon of e. mat. sorghumHWRPPDWEHDQVPPDWVXQÀRZHU like H 8998 2nd rainy season, start norm. mid of Oct.: E. mat. maize, e mat. foxtail millet, v. e. mat. sorghum; HPDWEHDQVHPDWVXQÀRZHUOLNH Whole year, best pl. time end of Oct.: Sisal, pineapples Fair yield potential 1stUDLQ\VHDVRQ0PDWPDL]H¿QJHUPLOOHWGROLFKRVEHDQV)UHQFKEHDQVFDEEDJHVVZHHW potatoes; Virginia tobacco; tomatoes3), onions, Irish potatoes (higher places) 2nd rainy season: E. mat. sorghum like 2 KX 17; French beans Whole year: Cassava, castor, pigeon peas (lower places) Poor yield potential 2nd rainy season: E. mat. sweet potatoes3) Whole year: Bananas3), citrus3), mangoes, paw paws3) Pasture and forage around 1 ha/LU on high grass savanna with zebra grass (Hyparrhenia rufa) predominant; down to less than 0.25 ha/LU feeding Bana grass, siratro (Macroptilium atropurpureum), horse tamarind (Leucaena tricandria), maize stalks and silage (of green maize or fodder sorghum) a.o. UM 4 = 6XQÀRZHU0DL]H=RQH s + s with two short cropping seasons Very small, crop potential almost as UM 4 s/m + s, but m. mat. maize not recommended any more except on very suitable heavy soils, on medium soils e. mat. maize. Stocking rates a bit lower.

438 KIRINYAGA 15

LM = LOWER MIDLAND ZONES LM 3 = Cotton Zone LM 3 = Cotton Zone s/m + s with a short to medium and a short cropping season7) Very good yield potential 2nd rainy season, start norm. mid Oct.: E. mat. proso millet like Serere Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. end of March: E. mat. maize like Katumani comp. B., e. mat. sorghum like Serena, ratoon of sorghum, e. mat. bulrush millet (if possible awned var.), e. mat. foxtail millet ( nearly 80%); e. to m. mat. beans, cowpeas, chick peas (late planted on KEODFNVRLOV JUHHQJUDPVPPDWVXQÀRZHUOLNH+)UHQFKEHDQVZDWHUPHORQV 2nd rainy season: Dryland comp. maize, e. mat. sorghum like 2 KX 17, e. mat. bulrush millet; JUHHQJUDPVFRZSHDVSLJHRQSHDV 2FW6HS GZDUIVXQÀRZHUFRWWRQELPRGDOYDULHW\ (end of Sep./Oct.- Aug.); French beans, water melons Whole year: Macadamia nuts, pineapples, castor, sisal Fair yield potential 1stUDLQ\VHDVRQ0PDWPDL]H¿QJHUPLOOHWHPDWIR[WDLOPLOOHWGROLFKRVEHDQV groundnuts (in light soils), e. mat. soya beans; sweet potatoes; Virginia tobacco (higher places); tomatoes, onions, brinjals 2nd rainy season: Katumani maize; dolichos beans, e. mat. beans; cotton bimodal variety on PHGLXPVRLOVHPDWVXQÀRZHUOLNH Whole year: Cassava, mangoes, paw paws3), bananas3) Poor yield potential 2nd rainy season: Virginia tobacco; e. mat. sweet potatoes Whole year: Citrus3), sugarcane3) Pasture and forage 0.8 – 1.3 ha/LU on high grass savanna with zebra grass (Hyparrhenia rufa) predominant, down to less than 0.25 ha/LU feeding Bana and Napier grass, sitatro, horse tamarind (Leucaena tricandria) a. o. (see Table X) LM 3 = Cotton Zone s + s with two short cropping seasons8) (See Diagram Tebere Camp) Very good yield potential 2nd rainy season, start norm. mid Oct.: E. mat. proso millet like Serere I Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. end of March: E. mat. maize like KCB, ratoon of e. mat. sorghum like 2 KX 17, e. mat. bulrush millet (if possible awned var.), e. mat. foxtail and proso millet; e. mat. beans, cowpeas, French beans, chick peas (on heavy black soils), green grams; e. PDWVXQÀRZHUOLNH 2nd rainy season: E. mat. sorghum like 2 KX 17, e. mat. bulrush millet; green grams, cowpeas, pigeon peas (Oct.- Sep.); cotton bimodal var. on good, well drained heavy soils (b. of Oct. ±$XJa GZDUIVXQÀRZHU)UHQFKEHDQV Whole year, best pl. time end of Oct.: Sisal, castor Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: M. mat. maize; dolichos beans, groundnuts in light soils, e. mat. soya beans; sweet potatoes; Virginia tobacco; tomatoes, onions, brinjals 2nd rainy season: Dryland comp. maize (50-60%), Katumani maize; dolichos beans, e. mat. EHDQVFRWWRQELPRGDOYDURQPHGLXPVRLOVHPDWVXQÀRZHU Whole year: Cassava, pineapples, mangoes, macadamia nuts, bananas Poor yield potential 2nd rainy season: Virginia tobacco (better with seedbed irrigation); e. mat. sweet potatoes Whole year: Citrus, sugarcane

439 16 KIRINYAGA

Pasture and forage 0.9 – 1.5 ha/LU on high grass savanna with zebra grass (Hyparrhenia rufa) predominant, down to less than 0.25 ha/LU feeding Bana grass a. o. forage (see Table X)

LM 4 = Marginal Cotton Zone LM 4 = Marginal Cotton Zone s + s/vs with a short and a short to very short cropping season Potential almost as LM 3 s + s but cotton marginal (except on very suitable soils) and stocking rates a little bit lower LM 4 = Marginal Cotton Zone s/vs+vs/s with a short to very short and a very short to short cropping season9)

Good yield potential 1st rainy season, start norm. end of March: V. e. mat. maize like Dryland comp. maize (~ 60%), v. e. mat. sorghum like IS 85 95, e. mat. bulrush millet, e. mat. proso millet like Serere I, e. mat. foxtail millet like I Se 285; moth beans, e. mat. cowpeas 2nd rainy season, start norm. end of Oct.: E. mat. proso and foxtail millet; moth beans Whole year: Buffalo gourds (on sandy soils), Marama beans (Tylosema esculentum)10) , castor; rice on irrigated heavy black soils

440 KIRINYAGA 17

Fair yield potential 1st rainy season: E. mat. maize like Kat. CB; e. mat. beans, chick peas (late planted on h. bl. soils), black and green grams (50 –60%), e. mat. soya beans, dolichos beans, v. e. mat. Bambarra nuts (on light soils); sweet potatoes, French beans, tomatoes 2nd rainy season: V. e. mat. sorghum (50 –60%), e. mat. bulrush millet, Dryland comp. maize on heavy soils (40-50%); v. e. mat. beans, pigeon peas (Oct. – Sep.), French beans, cowpeas, tomatoes Whole year: Sisal (50 –60%), cassava Poor yield potential (marginal) 2nd rainy season: Cotton bimodal var. (e. of Sep./Oct.- Aug.); Dryland comp. maize (nearly 40% on m. soils, 30- 40% on light soils); sweet potatoes Whole year: Macadamia nuts, bananas3) Pasture and forage 1.5 – 3 ha/LU on mixed medium grass savanna with red oats grass (Themeda triandra) predominant; if degraded well improvable by saltbush (Atriplex nummularia) and horse tamarind (Leucaena tricandria) as palatable shrubs; additional forage or fodder legumes like moth bean vines (see Table X)

End Notes 1) On medium soils; on heavy soils permanent cropping possibilities. Given potentials refers to predominant heavy loams 2) Spraying against fungus diseases important 3) Better in valleys 4) On medium soils; on heavy soils there is a long to medium and a medium to short cropping season. Given potentials refers to predominant heavy red loams 5) On medium soils; on heavy soils first cropping season has a medium length, higher places even medium to long. Given potential refers to predominant heavy red loams 6) On medium soils; on heavy soils first cropping season has a medium to short length. Given potential refers to predominant heavy soils 7) On medium soils; on heavy soil first cropping season has a medium to short length. Given potential refers to predominant heavy soils 8) On medium soils; on heavy soils first cropping season has a short to medium length. Given potential refers to predominant heavy soils 9) On medium soils; on heavy soils first cropping season has a short length, second a short to very short one. Potentials refers to predominant heavy soils; black ones should be well drained for most crops 10) Still experimental

441 18 KIRINYAGA

442 KIRINYAGA 19

SOIL DISTRIBUTION, FERTILITY AND MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS

Mt. Kenya, situated in the northern part of the district, is the highest elevation in the area. Southwards, mountain foothills, plateaus and high-level structural plains are the predominating landforms. The area consists mainly of the volcanic bedrock of Mt. Kenya, with some small areas southwest of Kerugoya, south of Embu and in the utmost southeastern part of the district consisting of rocks of the varying Basement System. Mountain soils occur in broad zones from west to east, changing from a medium texture in the highest parts, over a medium to heavy texture in the middle, to heavy texture in the lower parts. Soils in the southeastern part of the district occur in varied patches and show mainly a heavy texture.

On the higher parts of Mt. Kenya, mountain soils (MV 1 & 2) of moderate fertility are found. On the Volcanic foothills, soil units RB 1, 2, 3 occur. They all have a moderately high to high natural fertility. Hill soils of low natural fertility, like unit HU 1 and HUC, are found on Inselbergs. Here, the volcanic bedrock gives way to rocks of the Basement System consisting predominantly of gneisses.

The soil unit LB 1 of low fertility and the soil units LB 2 and LB 8 of moderate fertility occupy the lower plateaus of Mt. Kenya. On the uplands, soils of low fertility (unit UU 1) occur.

The drainage system is well developed and established. Tributaries of river Tana including Sagana, Thiba as well as Nyamindi rising from the steep slopes Mt. Kenya dendritically dissect the district forming the Tana drainage complex.

Most soils are deep to very deep, fertile and well drained to poorly drained due to topography.

LEGEND TO THE SOIL MAP OF KIRINYAGA DISTRICT

([SODQDWLRQDWLRQRIWKH¿UVWFKDUDFWHU SK\VLRJUDSK\ RI WKH ¿UVW FKDUDFWHU SK\VLRJUDSK\

M Mountains and Major Scarps H Hills and Minor Scarps L Plateaus and High-Level Structural Plains R Volcanic Footridges U Uplands, Upper, Middle and Lower Levels

2. Explanation of second character (lithology)

B Basic and Ultra-Basic Igneous Rocks (basalts, nepheline phonolites; older basic tuffs included) U Undifferentiated Basement System Rocks (predominantly gneisses) V Undifferentiated or Various Igneous Rocks

3.. Soil descriptions

HU1 Somewhat excessively drained, moderately deep, red, very friable, sandy clay loam to sand clay; in places rocky: Ferralic CAMBISOLS; with rhodic or orthic FERRALSOLS and Rock Outcrops

443 20 KIRINYAGA

LB1 Well drained, very deep, dark red, ﬁrm, very friable clay: Niti-rhodic FERRALSOLS

RB1 Well drained, extremely deep, dark reddish brown to dark brown, friable and slightly smeary clay, with an acid humic topsoil: Ando-humic NITISOLS; with humic ANDOSOLS RB2 Well drained, extremely deep, dusky red to dark reddish brown, friable clay, with an acid humic topsoil: Humic NITISOLS

RB3 Well drained, extremely deep, dusky red to dark reddish brown, friable clay; with inclusions of well drained, moderately deep, dark red to dark reddish brown, friable clay over rock, pisoferric or petroferric material: Eutric NITISOLS; with nito-chromic CAMBISOLS and chromoc ACRISOLS and LUVISOLS, partly lithic, pisoferric or petroferric phase

UU1 Well drained, moderately deep to deep, dark red to yellowish red, friable, sandy clay loam to clay: Rhodic and orthic FERRALSOS; with ferralo-chromic/orthic/ferric ACRISOLS

444 KIRINYAGA 21

3.6.2 POPULATION AND LAND

This is the fourth vast and expansive district in Central Province covering 1478 km2 exhibiting a moderate population density of 309 persons/km2. Between 1979 and 1999 its population grew from 291,431 to 457,105 an increase of 2.84% per year. The district is made of four administrative divisions: Ndia, Central, Gichugu, and Mwea. In all divisions except Mwea high population density prevails, almost or exceeding 500 persons/km2. Tables 5 and 6 summarize the spatial distribution, composition as well as density per administrative unit.

On the other hand, Table 7 broadly indicates the predominant agro-ecological zones in Kirinyaga. Both LM 4 (Marginal Cotton Zone) and LM 3 account for 57.7% of the land while coﬀee zones cover roughly 30%. Available arable land per household as well as per person is unsustainable, ranging from 0.62 - 1.6 ha and 0.16 – 0.4 ha, respectively. This is surprising, given the fact the Kirinyaga district has Mwea rice irrigation scheme, which is the largest in Kenya.

TABLE 5: POPULATION IN KIRINYAGA DISTRICT PER DIVISION, LOCATION AND SUB-LOCATION (Source: Census 1999)

DIVISION/LOCATION/SUB- Area Density LOCATION Male Female Total Households in km2 NDIA 66,285 69052 135,337 34,363 276.4 490 KIINE NORTH 11,776 12,496 24,272 6,183 50.7 479 Kiangai 3,990 4,276 8,266 2,180 15 551 Kibingoti 2,929 3,014 5,943 1,462 13.5 440 Ngunguini 2,742 3,066 5,808 1,498 11.8 492 Ruiru 2,115 2,140 4,255 1,043 10.4 409 KIINE SOUTH 13,316 13,595 26,911 7,081 70.7 381 Mukui 1,909 1,925 3,834 918 6.3 609 Thigirichi 2,406 2,426 4,832 1,106 18.6 260 Nyangio 2,324 2,434 4,758 1,161 13.5 352 Gacharu 2,515 2,533 5,048 1,232 15.4 328 Sagana 4,162 4,277 8,439 2,664 16.9 499 MUKURE 9,143 9,356 18,499 4,586 36.7 504 Mukure 4,073 4,167 8,240 2,027 18.7 441 Kanyokora 2,945 2,995 5,940 1,477 10.9 545 Kagioini 2,125 2,194 4,319 1,082 7.1 608 MWERUA 11,627 12,040 23,667 6,139 53.2 445 Gitaku 3,502 3,641 7,143 1,765 15.6 458 Maitharui 2,029 2,081 4,110 1,027 10.2 403 Kianjang’a 2,018 2,154 4,172 1,010 7.6 549 Kithumbu 4,078 4,164 8,242 2,337 19.8 416 KANYEKIINE 10,060 10,265 20,325 4,768 36 565 Kathare 3,070 3,207 6,277 1,500 11.8 532 Kianjege 2,120 2,163 4,283 957 7.2 595 Kanyei 3,007 3,050 6,057 1,483 8.7 696 Kiaga 1,863 1,845 3,708 828 8.3 447 MUTIRA 10,363 11,300 21,663 5,606 29.1 744 Kabari 4,042 4,420 8,462 2,369 10 846 Kirunda 3,161 3,342 6,503 1,577 8.3 783

445 22 KIRINYAGA

TABLE 5: Continued

DIVISION/LOCATION/SUB- Area LOCATION Male Female Total Households in km2 Density Kagumo 1,162 1,368 2,530 612 4.6 550 Kaguyu 1,998 2,170 4,168 1,048 6.2 672 CENTRAL 36,405 37,663 74,068 19,316 108.5 683 KERUGOYA 11,133 12,082 23,215 6,661 22 1,055 Kaguyu 6,944 7,693 14,637 4,534 9.9 1,478 Kaitheri 1,789 1,829 3,618 995 4.4 822 Kimandi 2,400 2,560 4,960 1,132 7.7 644 KUTUS 5,803 5,816 11,619 3,246 27.9 416 Kangu 1,161 1,222 2,383 565 9.2 259 Kamuigua 2,315 2,199 4,514 1,332 9.8 461 Kithiriti 2,327 2,395 4,722 1,349 8.9 531 KOROMA 6,756 6,541 13,297 2,990 25.2 528 Nduini 1,886 1,939 3,825 880 9.2 416 Karia 2,326 1,953 4,279 943 5.4 792 Ngaru 2,544 2,649 5,193 1,167 10.6 490 Inoi 12,713 13,224 2,5937 6,419 33.4 777 Mbeti 2,030 2,170 4,200 1,094 5 840 Thaita 2,897 3,057 5,954 1,365 9.2 647 Kariko 4,663 4,853 9,516 2,430 11.6 820 Ndimi 3,123 3,144 6,267 1,530 7.6 825 GICHUGU 60,049 61,689 12,1738 29,220 229.7 530 KABARE 7,277 7,481 14,758 3,456 30.1 490 Ngiroche 1,491 1,607 3,098 718 6.5 477 Kiritini 2,159 2,185 4,344 1,076 6.2 701 Rukenya 1,794 1,811 3,605 799 8.6 419 Mikarara 1,833 1,878 3,711 863 8.8 422 KIRIMA 10,248 11,086 21,334 5,206 32.9 648 Njuku 4,195 4,405 8,600 2,123 13.2 652 Mutige 1,969 2,171 4,140 1,026 6 690 Gachigi 4,084 4,510 8,594 2,057 13.7 627 BARAGWI 9,601 9,946 19,547 4,805 31.5 621 Thimu 2,225 2,227 4,452 1,083 5.8 768 Gatu 2,423 2,700 5,123 1,165 8.7 589 Raimu 2,322 2,272 4,594 1,303 5.3 867 Rwambiti 2,631 2,747 5,378 1,254 11.7 460 NGARIAMA 9,071 9,163 18,234 4,528 37.7 484 Kabari 2,105 2,029 4,134 995 7.7 537 Rungeto 2,575 2,600 5,175 1,260 12 431 Nyangeni 2,516 2,632 5,148 1,248 10.1 510 Thirikwa 1,875 1,902 3,777 1,025 7.9 478 KARUMANDI 12,040 12,177 24,217 5,729 37.4 648 Kariru 1,933 1,883 3,816 889 7.7 496 Thumaita 4,810 4,848 9,658 2,260 14.3 675

446 KIRINYAGA 23

TABLE 5: Continued

DIVISION/LOCATION/SUB- Area Density LOCATION Male Female Total Households in km2 Kiaruri 2,460 2,600 5,060 1,214 7.7 657 Guama 2,837 2,846 5,683 1,366 7.7 738 MWEA 63,926 62,036 125,962 31,540 512.8 246 TEBERE 15,094 14,360 29,454 8,064 84.5 349 Karukungu 9,957 10,105 20,062 5,859 59.5 337 Gathigiriri 2,822 2,082 4,904 1,098 13.2 372 Mahigaini 2,315 2,173 4,488 1,107 11.8 380 KANGAI 7,902 7,998 15,900 3,719 39.3 405 Mathigaini 1,379 1,438 2,817 685 10.3 273 Kathiga 4,103 4,157 8,260 1,942 18.6 444 Komboini 2,420 2,403 4,823 1,092 10.4 464 MUTITHI 10,231 9,971 20,202 5,234 105.7 191 Kiandegwa 1,900 1,897 3,797 997 14 271 Kabiriri 3,342 3,277 6,619 1,750 38.8 171 Kinyaga 2,812 2,725 5,537 1,460 18.7 296 Rukanga 2,177 2,072 4,249 1,027 34.2 124 MURINDUKO 10,415 9,926 20,341 4,818 158.4 128 Kamunyange 2,242 2,139 4,381 1,100 19.3 227 MIUU 1,140 1,060 2,200 533 80.3 27 Mugamba-Ciura 3,190 3,006 6,196 1,427 27.9 222 Riagicheru 3,843 3,721 7,564 1,758 30.9 245 Thiba 14,548 13,982 28,530 6,626 93.3 306 Wamumu 6,752 6,250 13,002 2,858 59.1 220 Nguka 3,818 3,958 7,776 1,898 17.9 434 Thiba 3,978 3,774 7,752 1,870 16.3 476 NYANGATI 5,736 5,799 11,535 3,079 31.6 365 Nyangati 3,252 3,331 6,583 1,795 15.5 425 Kirimara 1,156 1,175 2,331 596 9.2 253 Mathangauta 1,328 1,293 2,621 688 6.9 380 MT. KENYA FOREST - - 350.7 - - - MT. KENYA FOREST - - 350.7 - - -

447 24 KIRINYAGA

TABLE 6: COMPOSTION OF HOUSEHOLDS IN KIRINYAGA DISTRICT PER DIVISION, LOCATION AND SUB-LOCATION (Source: Census 1999)

Composition of Family DIVISION/LOCATION/SUB- Total Number of Persons per LOCATION Households 15 years and Household above Under 15 years NDIA 34,363 2.5 1.4 3.9 KIINE NORTH 6,183 2.5 1.4 3.9 Kiangai 2,180 2.4 1.4 3.8 Kibingoti 1,462 2.6 1.5 4.1 Ngunguini 1,498 2.5 1.4 3.9 Ruiru 1,043 2.6 1.5 4.1 KIINE SOUTH 7,081 2.4 1.4 3.8 Mukui 918 2.7 1.5 4.2 Thigirichi 1,106 2.8 1.6 4.4 Nyangio 1,161 2.6 1.5 4.1 Gacharu 1,232 2.6 1.5 4.1 Sagana 2,664 2.0 1.1 3.2 MUKURE 4,586 2.6 1.5 4.0 Mukure 2,027 2.6 1.5 4.1 Kanyokora 1,477 2.6 1.5 4.0 Kagioini 1,082 2.5 1.4 4.0 MWERUA 6,139 2.5 1.4 3.9 Gitaki 1,765 2.6 1.5 4.0 Maitharui 1,027 2.6 1.5 4.0 Kianjang’a 1,010 2.6 1.5 4.1 Kithumbu 2,337 2.2 1.3 3.5 KANYEKIINE 4,768 2.7 1.5 4.3 Kathare 1,500 2.7 1.5 4.2 Kianjege 957 2.9 1.6 4.5 Kanyei 1,483 2.6 1.5 4.1 Kiaga 828 2.9 1.6 4.5 MUTIRA 5,606 2.5 1.4 3.9 Kabari 2,369 2.3 1.3 3.6 Kirunda 1,577 2.6 1.5 4.1 Kagumo 612 2.6 1.5 4.1 Kaguyu 1,048 2.5 1.4 4.0 CENTRAL 19,316 2.4 1.4 3.8 KERUGOYA 6,661 2.2 1.3 3.5 Kaguyu 4,534 2.1 1.2 3.2 Kaitheri 995 2.3 1.3 3.6 Kimandi 1,132 2.8 1.6 4.4 KUTUS 3,246 2.3 1.3 3.6 Kangu 565 2.7 1.5 4.2 Kamuigua 1,332 2.2 1.2 3.4 Kithiriti 1,349 2.2 1.3 3.5 KOROMA 2,990 2.8 1.6 4.4

448 KIRINYAGA 25

TABLE 6: Continued

Composition of Family DIVISION/LOCATION/SUB- Total Number of Persons per LOCATION Households 15 years and Household above Under 15 years Nduini 880 2.8 1.6 4.3 Karia 943 2.9 1.6 4.5 Ngaru 1,167 2.8 1.6 4.4 Inoi 6,419 2.6 1.5 4.0 Mbeti 1,094 2.4 1.4 3.8 Thaita 1,365 2.8 1.6 4.4 Kariko 2,430 2.5 1.4 3.9 Ndimi 1,530 2.6 1.5 4.1 GICHUGU 29,220 2.7 1.5 4.2 KABARE 3,456 2.7 1.5 4.3 Ngiroche 718 2.8 1.6 4.3 Kiritini 1,076 2.6 1.5 4.0 Rukenya 799 2.9 1.6 4.5 Mikarara 863 2.7 1.6 4.3 KIRIMA 5,206 2.6 1.5 4.1 Njuku 2,123 2.6 1.5 4.1 Mutige 1,026 2.6 1.5 4.0 Gachigi 2,057 2.7 1.5 4.2 BARAGWI 4,805 2.6 1.5 4.1 Thimu 1,083 2.6 1.5 4.1 Gatu 1,165 2.8 1.6 4.4 Raimu 1,303 2.2 1.3 3.5 Rwambiti 1,254 2.7 1.6 4.3 NGARIAMA 4,528 2.6 1.5 4.0 Kabari 995 2.6 1.5 4.2 Rungeto 1,260 2.6 1.5 4.1 Nyangeni 1,248 2.6 1.5 4.1 Thirikwa 1,025 2.3 1.3 3.7 KARUMANDI 5,729 2.7 1.5 4.2 Kariru 889 2.7 1.6 4.3 Thumaita 2,260 2.7 1.5 4.3 Kiaruri 1,214 2.7 1.5 4.2 Guama 1,366 2.7 1.5 4.2 MWEA 31,540 2.5 1.4 4.0 TEBERE 8,064 2.3 1.3 3.7 Karukungu 5,859 2.2 1.2 3.4 Gathigiriri 1,098 2.8 1.6 4.5 Mahigaini 1,107 2.6 1.5 4.1 KANGAI 3,719 2.7 1.5 4.3 Mathigaini 685 2.6 1.5 4.1 Kathiga 1,942 2.7 1.5 4.3 Komboini 1,092 2.8 1.6 4.4

449 26 KIRINYAGA

TABLE 6: Continued

Composition of Family DIVISION/LOCATION/SUB- Total Number of Persons per LOCATION Households 15 years and Household above Under 15 years MUTITHI 5,234 2.5 1.4 3.9 Kiandegwa 997 2.4 1.4 3.8 Kabiriri 1,750 2.4 1.4 3.8 Kinyaga 1,460 2.4 1.4 3.8 Rukanga 1,027 2.6 1.5 4.1 MURINDUKO 4,818 2.7 1.5 4.2 Kamunyange 1,100 2.5 1.4 4.0 MIUU 533 2.6 1.5 4.1 Mugamba-Ciura 1,427 2.8 1.6 4.3 Riagicheru 1,758 2.7 1.6 4.3 Thiba 6,626 2.7 1.6 4.3 Wamumu 2,858 2.9 1.6 4.5 Nguka 1,898 2.6 1.5 4.1 Thiba 1,870 2.6 1.5 4.1 NYANGATI 3,079 2.4 1.4 3.7 Nyangati 1,795 2.3 1.3 3.7 Kirimara 596 2.5 1.4 3.9 Mathangauta 688 2.4 1.4 3.8 MT. KENYA FOREST - --- MT. KENYA FOREST ----

TABLE 7: AVAILABLE LAND AREA IN KIRINYAGA DISTRICT PER AEZ AND HOUSEHOLD (Source: Census 1999)

in ’00 ha = km2 in ’00 ha = km2 in ha Non agricultural Area in agro-ecological zones Agricultural land AEZ land per Division without township Forests Mt. Kenya National Park Agricultural land LH 1 UM 1 UM 2 UM 3 UM 4 LM 3 LM 4 Household Person

Ndia 51.5 214.0 20.8 50.7 68.1 62.3 13.5 30.2 2.6 0.62 0.16 Gichugu 69.6 29.6 257.0 50.4 103.5 62.2 40.7 0.85 0.21 Mwea - - 504.0 2.1 37.6 132.6 332.7 1.60 0.40 Forest Area 307.0 TOTAL 428.1 29.6 975.0 71.2 154.2 130.3 105.1 51.1 164.8 335.3 1.29 0.30

N/B: Central Division has been omitted in this AEZ zoning. It had not been created at the time of preparing the 1997/2001 District Development Plan that was used to generate data for this table.

450 KIRINYAGA 27

AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS: Development and Trends of Major Cash Crops

Kirinyaga is one of the smallest districts in Kenya. With an arable land of about 97,500 hectares, the main cash crops grown are tea and coffee (Tables 8 and 9). In addition, cotton and irrigated rice are grown in the lower agro-ecological zones. Tea grows on approximately 5,500 ha and yields more than 9,000 kg of green leaves per ha per annum. On the other hand, coffee is grown on 14,000 ha, yielding 490 kg/ha per annum of clean coffee. The general decline in coffee yields could be attributed to the unstable low market prices and thereforethe prevailing mismanagement in the coffee sector. The situation is expected to improve, given that reforms are back on track in this sector. During the Farm Survey of 2004, it was observed that many farmers had pruned back the coffee plants and/or uprooted most of them, to give way for the planting of other crops.

TABLE 8: KIRINYAGA DISTRICT COFFEE AREA, PRODUCTION AND YIELD TRENDS (Source: Ministry of Agriculture, DAOs Annual Reports and CBS)

Area Production Yields Year ha tons kg/ha 1980/81 9,015 8,518 945 1981/82 7,480 6,137 820 1982/83 7,534 6,318 839 1983/84 9,219 8,984 975 1984/85 10,586 9,493 897 1985/86 11,025 9,075 823 1986/87 12,729 8,154 641 1987/88 13,584 11,408 840 1988/89 15,709 9,184 585 1989/90 15,938 9,474 594 1990/91 14,753 6,874 466 1991/92 14,700 8,282 563 1992/93 14,405 4,163 289 1993/94 14,575 4,826 331 1994/95 14,219 6,219 437 1995/96 14,850 6,870 463 1996/97 13,770 5,445 395 1997/98 14,180 6,510 459 1998/99 14,753 6,874 466 1999/00 12,280 5,500 448 2000/01 12,850 5,948 463 2001/02 13,340 6,190 464 2002/03 14,110 6,874 487 2004/05 14,368 25,324.1 1,762

451 28 KIRINYAGA

TABLE 9: KIRINYAGA DISTRICT TEA AREA, PRODUCTION AND YIELD TRENDS (Source: Ministry of Agriculture, DAOs Annual Reports and CBS) Area Production Yields Year ha tons kg/ha 1980/81 3,195 18,068 5,656 1981/82 3292 29285 8896 1982/83 3,326 25048 7,531 1983/84 3,432 31,382 9,145 1984/85 3,628 31,969 8,813 1985/86 3,730 34726 9,310 1986/87 3,908 39,500 10,108 1987/88 3,980 43,400 10,904 1988/89 3,998 44,512 11,333 1989/90 4,607 44,911 10,661 1990/91 5,030 48,721 9,686 1991/92 5,000 45,070 9,014 1992/93 4,590 43,697 9,561 1993/94 4,500 45,102 10,023 1994/95 4,850 38,234 7,883 1995/96 4,850 55,949 11,536 1996/97 5,610 50,702 9,038 1997/98 5,680 55,958 9,851 1998/99 5,550 49,631 8,942 1999/00 5,501 52,637 9,568 2000/01 4,909 55,764 11,359 2001/02 4,670 42,376 9,074 2002/03 4,985 54,641 10,961 2003/04 5,500 51,306 9,328 2004/05 5,500 56,417 10,257.6

452 KIRINYAGA 29

DISTRIBUTIONOF FARMING ACTIVITIES DURING THE YEAR PER WEEK AND AGRO-ECOLOGI- CAL ZONES

453 30 KIRINYAGA

454 KIRINYAGA 31

455 32 KIRINYAGA

456 KIRINYAGA 33

457 34 KIRINYAGA

458 KIRINYAGA 35

459 36 KIRINYAGA

460 KIRINYAGA 37

461 38 KIRINYAGA

3.6.4 FARM SURVEY IN KIRINYAGA DISTRICT According to the Farm Survey conducted in 2004, four main agro-ecological zones and their respective dominant subzones were surveyed (Table 11). Consequently, mean holding farm sizes were UM 1 (0.56 ha), UM 2 (1.09 ha), UM 3 (1.08 ha), LM 3 (1.11 ha), LM 4 (1.53 ha) as shown in Table 12. In 1978 for the same agro-ecological zones, mean household farm sizes were UM 1-2-3 (2.8 ha) and LM 4 (6.2 ha). It can be clearly seen that farm sizes have drastically reduced due to population pressure. The implications for such rapid land shrinkage includes fragmentation, intensiﬁcation, soil erosion, exhaustion and infertility, hence less input use per capita resulting to less yield output per capita (Table 14). TABLE 11: FARM SURVEY SITES IN KIRINYAGA DISTRICT

No. in Agro-Ecological Unit District Farm Survey Sites Kenya AEZone Subzone Soil Unit

Central Division, Kerugoya 137 UM 1 f l i m RB 1 Location, Kaguyu Sub-location

Ndia Division, Mutira Location, 138 UM 2(-1) m/l i m/s RB 2 Kirunda Sub-location

KIRINYAGA Ndia Division, Mwerua Location, 139 LM (toUM) 3 s + s to s/m + s RB 3 Kithumbu Sub-location Mwea Division, Mutithi 140 LM 4(-3) s + s/vs LB 8 (& 2) Location, Kinyaga Sub-location

Ndia Division, Mwerua Location, 141 UM 3(-4) m/s + s RB 3 Kianjang’a Sub-location

In all these agro-ecological zones, maize and beans intercropped or otherwise is the most dominant annual cropping land use, while coffee, tea and bananas are the major cash crops. It should be pointed out that more enterprising annual and permanent crops like French beans and macadamia are gaining prominence over the traditional well-established crops. Dairy farming and other livestock enterprises [sheep and goats, poultry both exotic and local as well pig and rabbit keeping] practices are significant in all agro-ecological zones. Except in UM 3 and LM 4 agro-ecological zones, keeping of local zebu breeds is not a common practice. With respect on the number of people on the farm, in all agro-ecological zones, the mean adult family was lowest in UM 2 (2.07) and highest in LM 4 (3.67). Casual labour force is prevalent throughout, while permanent labour-force was only reported in the tea-coffee agro-ecological zone (UM 1) with a low mean of 0.03. The dependant population (children < 14 years) was highest, ca. 2 children per family in UM 3 and LM 4 and ca. 1 child per farmer in UM 1 and 2. Use of improved seeds in the surveyed units was highest in LM 4 ~ 50%, lowest in UM 2: 22% and moderately low in UM 1 ~ 31%, and UM 3 ~ 47%.. In Kenya a profound transition is underway as smallholder farmers move from subsistence, cereal – based farming to mixed – enterprise, market – oriented systems. In subsistence systems, relatively few resources are available and their use is straight forward, with crop residues from maize – legume intercrops fed to livestock and the obtainable manure applied to home gardens. This trend leads to nutrient depletion in crop fields, particularly when land is no longer available for natural fallow. As the systems diversify, a wider range of organic resources become available to farmers and more possible uses emerge. Those resources that serve as feed for confined animals are generally used for that purpose. Livestock manure is fully recovered, and generally composted and applied to cash crops, but is also available to fodder and field crops. Income generated through cash cropping allows for purchased inputs, particularly feed and fertilizer. Low fertility raising technologies include strategically combined fertilizers and short–term improved fallows. Field and fodder crops are more frequently rotated. Composting makes better use of assorted organic resources, and allows for improved nutrient contents of otherwise lower quality materials. Orchards and other tree enterprises are initiated that not only generate revenue, but also biomass that can be used elsewhere on the farm. House- hold enterprises may also extend beyond agriculture, particularly into cottage industries. This sort of diversified organic resource management leads to better lives and contributes to positive rural transformation.

462 KIRINYAGA 39

463 40 KIRINYAGA

TABLE 12a: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ UM 1 OF KIRINYAGA DISTRICT Subzone: f l i m, Soil unit: RB 1 Survey area 137 (Kaguyu) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Range Number of Land Sheep Family Casual Perennial ha Adults Labourers Labourers children under Dairy Zebu & Poultry Pigs 14 years Goats Avg.0 0.56 2.03 - 0.5 3 0.27 2.7 0.7 0.03 0.27 Avg.1 0.56 2.54 - 1.88 30 4 2.7 1.75 1 1.6 Up. Qu. 0.79 3 - 1 0 0 4 1 0 0 Lo. Qu. 0.3 1 - 0 0 0 2 0 0 0

Land Use Perennial pasture & Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Fallow Other Use Range ha ha Fodder Crops ha ha ha Avg.0 0.19 0.18 0.07 - 0.12 Avg.1 0.19 0.23 0.09 - 0.15 Up. Qu. 0.25 0.26 0.1 - 0.18 Lo. Qu. 0.2 0.02 0.05 - 0.03

Farming Diversity & Stocking Intensity Stocking Rate

Cropping Farm Land Perennial pasture & Improved Range Diversity TLU/ha Fodder Crops Cattle Crops/year TLU/ha % of total Sheep & Sheep & Dairy Zebu Goats Dairy Zebu Goats Avg.0 4.8 4.1 0 0.18 32.54 0 1.45 80 Avg.1 4.8 4.9 0 0.68 28.64 0 4 100 Up. Qu. 6 5.5 0 0.33 33 0 2 100 Lo. Qu. 2.8 3.7 0 0 - - - 100 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied

Fertilizer applied as pure nutrient Plant protection Improved kg/ha Manure seeds used applied Insecticide Fungicide Range % of area NPO K O t/ha 2 5 2 kg/ha kg/ha AC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC Avg.0 31.1 17.3 18.7 17.6 18.9 --32.9 - 4.8 5.2 1.4 1.5 Avg.1 66.6 17.3 16.7 20.6 19.8 --31.7 - 25.9 24.9 6.4 6.1 Up. Qu. 51.3 24 22.9 24.4 23.2 --28-0000 Lo. Qu. 0 8 - 3 15.9 --7.5 - 0 0 0 0

464 KIRINYAGA 41

TABLE 12b: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ UM 2(-1) OF KIRINYAGA DISTRICT Subzone: m/l i m/s, Soil unit: RB 2 Survey area 138 (Kirunda) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Range Land Family Casual Numbers ha Sheep & Poultry Poultry Adults Labourers of children Dairy Zebu Goats Rabbits (local) (exotic) < 14 years Avg.0 1.09 2.4 - 1.07 0.13 3.7 27.13 2.07 0.67 0.83 Avg.1 1.09 3 - 2.91 4 13.88 271.33 2.07 2.5 1.92 Up. Qu. 1.6 3.25 - 2 0 8.5 0 2 1 2 Lo. Qu. 0.4 1 - 0 0 0 0 2 0 0

Land Use Perennial pasture & Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Forage Fallow Other Use Range ha ha Fodder Crops ha ha ha ha Avg.0 0.28 0.54 0.14 0.02 - 0.11 Avg.1 0.28 0.54 0.19 0.22 - 0.15 Up. Qu. 0.4 0.77 0.22 0 0.11 0.1 Lo. Qu. 0.15 0.2 0.02 0 0.03 0

Farming Diversity & Stocking Intensity Stocking Rate

Cropping Farm Land Perennial pasture & Improved Range Intensity TLU/ha Fodder Crops Cattle % of Crops/year TLU/ha total Sheep & Sheep & Dairy Zebu Goats Dairy Zebu Goats Avg.0 5.6 2.50 0 0.20 18.38 0 1.48 80 Avg.1 5.6 3.12 0 0.55 17.61 0 3.10 100 Up. Qu. 7 2.23 0 0.25 16.25 0 1.82 100 Lo. Qu. 3.75 2.75 0 0 73.33 0 0 100 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied

Fertilizer applied as pure nutrient Plant protection Improved kg/ha Manure seeds used applied Insecticide Fungicide Range % of area NPO K O t/ha 2 5 2 kg/ha kg/ha AC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC Avg.0 22.0 79.5 40.8 43.3 22.2 --28.3 14.5 4.3 2.2 2.9 1.5 Avg.1 44.1 79.5 49.0 60.1 37.1 --27.2 16.8 8.9 5.5 4.5 2.9 Up. Qu. 24.0 75. 39 31.3 16.2 --15.7 8.2 5.4 2.8 2.5 1.3 Lo. Qu. 0-2400--10.5 2.5 0 0 0 0

465 42 KIRINYAGA

TABLE 12c: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ LM (to UM) 3 OF KIRINYAGA DISTRICT Subzone: s + s to m/s + s, Soil unit: RB 3 Survey area139 (Kithumbu) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Range Land Family Casual Number of ha Sheep & Adults Labourers children under Dairy Zebu Goats Poultry Rabbits 14 years Avg.0 1.11 1.73 0.83 1.37 7.9 0.2 2.43 0.57 1.97 Avg.1 1.11 3.25 4.17 3.73 13.17 6 2.43 2.13 2.81 Up. Qu. 1.6 3 0 2.25 11 0 2.25 1.25 3 Lo. Qu. 0.48 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0

Land Use Perennial pasture & Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Fallow Other Use Range ha ha Fodder Crops ha ha ha Avg.0 0.50 0.13 0.14 0.02 0.32 Avg.1 0.50 0.22 0.32 - 0.37 Up. Qu. 0.6 0.2 0.1 0.14 0.56 Lo. Qu. 0.18 0 0.1 0.1 0.1

Farming Diversity & Stocking Intensity Stocking Rate

Cropping Farm Land Perennial pasture & Improved Range Diversity TLU/ha Fodder Crops Cattle Crops/year TLU/ha % of total Sheep & Sheep & Dairy Zebu Goats Dairy Zebu Goats Avg.0 3.8 1.72 0.75 0.25 13.93 6.09 2.0 48.1 Avg.1 3.8 3.03 3.75 0.67 10.66 13.20 2.4 90.1 Up. Qu. 5.5 2.06 0 0.28 33 0 4.5 100 Lo. Qu. 3 000- - - 0 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied

Fertilizer applied as pure nutrient Plant protection Improved kg/ha Manure seeds used applied Range % of area NPO K O t/ha Insecticide Fungicide 2 5 2 kg/ha kg/ha AC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC Avg.0 31.4 8.1 30 5.3 19.5 --14.3 - 1.8 6.5 2.5 9.1 Avg.1 67.3 9.4 22.4 7.8 18.5 --22.2 - 6.1 14.6 8.6 20.4 Up. Qu. 53.9 6.7 20 5.7 17 --8.8 26.3 2.5 7.5 1.4 4.2 Lo. Qu. 0 2-0---0-0-0-

466 KIRINYAGA 43

TABLE 12d: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ LM 4(-3) OF KIRINYAGA DISTRICT Subzone: s/vs + s, Soil unit: LB 8 (& 2) Survey area140 (Kinyaga) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Range Land Family Casual Number of ha Sheep & Adults Labourers children Dairy Zebu Goats Poultry Rabbits < 14 years Avg.0 1.53 0.07 2.2 3.6 3.33 0.2 2.57 0.07 1.6 Avg.1 1.53 2 3.67 4.70 25 6 2.57 2 2.18 Up. Qu. 2.33 0 3.25 5.25 0 0 4 0 2.25 Lo. Qu. 0.75 0 0 1.5 0 0 2 0 0

Land Use Perennial pasture & Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Fallow Other Use Range ha ha Fodder Crops ha ha ha Avg.0 0.97 0.02 0.27 0.05 0.22 Avg.1 0.97 0.12 0.81 - 0.61 Up. Qu. 1.45 0 0.24 0.44 0.2 Lo. Qu. 0.4 0 0 0.35 0

Farming Diversity & Stocking Intensity Stocking Rate

Cropping Farm Land Perennial pasture & Improved Range Diversity TLU/ha Fodder Crops Cattle Crops/year TLU/ha % of total Sheep & Sheep & Dairy Zebu Goats Dairy Zebu Goats Avg.0 3.16 0.05 1.44 0.47 0.27 8.19 2.68 0.741 Avg.1 3.16 1.44 2.40 0.61 2.73 4.55 1.16 22.22 Up. Qu. 4 0 1.40 0.45 0 13.50 4.36 0 Lo. Qu. 2 0 0 0.4 - - - 0 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied

Fertilizer applied as pure nutrient Plant protection Improved kg/ha Manure seeds used applied Range % of area NPO K O t/ha Insecticide Fungicide 2 5 2 kg/ha kg/ha AC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC Avg.0 50.4 14.7 - 14.3 - --4.5 - 1.7 - 1.0 - Avg.1 75.6 31.4 - 28.5 - --9.6 - 9.9 - 6.3 - Up. Qu. 56.7 13.8 - 14.1 - --1.8 - 0 - 0 - Lo. Qu. 0 0-0---0 - 0 - 0 -

467 44 KIRINYAGA

TABLE 12e: ASSETS, LAND USE, FARMING INTENSITY AND INPUTS IN AEZ UM 3(-4) OF KIRINYAGA DISTRICT Subzone: m/s + s, Soil unit: LB 8 Survey area141 (Kianjang’a) Assets People on farm Livestock Numbers Range Land Family Casual Number of ha Sheep & Adults Labourers children Dairy Zebu Goats Poultry Rabbits under 14 years Avg.0 1.08 2.03 0 1.1 11.77 0.67 3.67 2.47 1.77 Avg.1 1.08 2.35 - 2.36 16.05 10 3.67 10.57 2.21 Up. Qu. 1.63 3 0 2 10 0 5 0.25 2 Lo. Qu. 0.38 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 1

Land Use Perennial pasture & Ann. Crops Perm. Crops Forage Other Use Range ha ha Fodder Crops ha ha ha Avg.0 0.47 0.45 0.05 0.01 0.10 Avg.1 0.47 0.46 0.10 0.11 0.15 Up. Qu. 0.8 0.63 0.1 0 0.1 Lo. Qu. 0.16 0.1 0.08 0 0.04

Farming Diversity & Stocking Intensity Stocking Rate

Cropping Farm Land Perennial pasture & Improved Range Diversity TLU/ha Fodder Crops Cattle Crops/year TLU/ha % of total Sheep & Sheep & Dairy Zebu Goats Dairy Zebu Goats Avg.0 4.8 2.10 0 0.21 42.8 0 4.2 86.7 Avg.1 4.8 2.43 0 0.44 24.7 0 4.5 100 Up. Qu. 6 2.37 0 0.29 33.0 0 4 100 Lo. Qu. 3 2.93 0 0 - - - 100 TLU: Tropical Livestock Unit is a KARI derived factor loading for animals stock in the tropics e.g. dairy =1.1, local breeds=1.0, cross breeds=1.05, sheep=0.11 and goats=0.09.

Inputs Applied

Fertilizer applied as pure nutrient Plant protection Improved kg/ha Manure seeds used applied Range % of area NPO K O t/ha Insecticide Fungicide 2 5 2 kg/ha kg/ha AC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC AC PC Avg.0 47.3 24.9 24.3 29.7 29 --17.8 17.4 1.3 1.3 6.0 5.8 Avg.1 83.4 28.2 30.7 36.8 40 --17.2 18.7 2.2 2.4 10.3 11.2 Up. Qu. 61.0 25 32 25 32 --12.7 16.2 1.3 1.6 4.1 5.2 Lo. Qu. 0 1.9 3 0 0 --- -0000

468 KIRINYAGA 45

TABLE 13a: CROPPING PATTERNS IN AEZ UM 1 OF KIRINYAGA DISTRICT Subzone: f l i m, Soil unit: RB 1 Survey area 137 (Kaguyu) First Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.01 0.08 0 0 0.15 2.38 Cabbages 0.01 0.13 0 0 0.25 3.97 Coriander (Dhania) 0.00 0.03 0 0 0.03 0.48 French beans 0.01 0.2 0 0 0.3 4.77 Kales 0.04 0.08 0.06 0 1.15 18.28 Maize 0.05 0.15 0.1 0 1.55 24.64 Maize & Beans 0.06 0.2 0.1 0 1.85 29.41 Maize & tomatoes 0.01 0.16 0 0 0.16 2.54 Capsicum (Sweet pepper) 0.00 0.06 0 0 0.11 1.75 Sweet potatoes 0.01 0.06 0 0 0.35 5.56 Tomatoes 0.01 0.08 0 0 0.39 6.20 Total Sample Area 0.21 6.29 100 Second Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.02 0.16 0 0 0.65 12.29 Cabbages 0.02 0.12 0 0 0.49 9.26 Coriander (Dhania) 0.00 0.03 0 0 0.03 0.57 French beans 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 1.89 Irish potatoes 0.01 0.09 0 0 0.43 8.13 Kales 0.02 0.06 0.05 0 0.71 13.42 Kales & Cabbages 0.01 0.16 0 0 0.16 3.02 Maize 0.02 0.11 0 0 0.45 8.51 Maize & Beans 0.06 0.19 0.1 0 1.75 33.08 Capsicum (Sweet pepper) 0.00 0.01 0 0 0.01 0.19 Tomatoes 0.02 0.13 0 0 0.51 9.64 Total Sample Area 0.18 5.29 100 Perennial Crops Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile 30 Farms ha ha ha ha ha % Bananas 0.04 0.07 0.05 0 1.18 20.70 Coffee 0.12 0.16 0.2 0.01 3.60 63.16 Passion fruits 0.00 0.04 0 0 0.12 2.11 Paw paws 0.00 0.01 0 0 0.01 0.18 Tea 0.03 0.16 0 0 0.79 13.86 Total Sample Area 0.19 5.7 100

Avg.0 = average of all sample farms; Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these

469 46 KIRINYAGA

TABLE 13b: CROPPING PATTERNS IN AEZ UM 2(-1) OF KIRINYAGA DISTRICT Subzone: m/l i m/s, Soil unit: RB 2 Survey area 138 (Kirunda) First Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.02 0.18 0 0 0.55 6.03 Carrots 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.55 French beans 0.01 0.2 0 0 0.2 2.19 Irish potatoes 0.02 0.09 0 0 0.45 4.93 Kales 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.55 Maize 0.07 0.20 0.06 0 2.03 22.26 Maize & Beans 0.15 0.33 0.2 0 4.9 53.73 Sweet potatoes 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 1.10 Tomatoes 0.03 0.26 0 0 0.79 8.66 Total Sample Area 0.31 9.12 100

Second Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.05 0.21 0.01 0 1.5 21.46 Cabbages & tomatoes 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.72 French beans 0.01 0.2 0 0 0.2 2.86 Irish potatoes 0.03 0.09 0.05 0 0.89 12.73 Kales 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.72 Maize 0.02 0.15 0 0 0.45 6.44 Maize & Beans 0.12 0.28 0.13 0 3.7 52.93 Tomatoes 0.01 0.08 0 0 0.15 2.15 Total Sample Area 0.24 6.99 100

Perennial Crops Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Bananas 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.02 2.17 13.39 Coffee 0.28 0.35 0.4 0.07 7.65 47.19 Macadamia 0.03 0.12 0.07 0 1.16 7.16 Mangoes 0.00 0.06 0 0 0.06 0.37 Passion fruits 0.02 0.16 0 0 0.55 3.39 Tea 0.15 0.26 0.25 0 4.52 27.88 Trees 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.10 0.62 Total Sample Area 0.54 16.21 100

NOTES: Avg.0 = average of all sample farms Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these

470 KIRINYAGA 47

TABLE 13c: CROPPING PATTERNS IN AEZ LM (to UM) 3 OF KIRINYAGA DISTRICT Subzone: s + s to s/m + s, Soil unit: RB 3 Survey area139 (Kithumbu)

First Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Brinjals 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.63 French beans 0.07 0.37 0 0 2.2 13.85 Kales 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.63 Maize 0.03 0.33 0 0 0.98 6.17 Maize & Beans 0.33 0.44 0.4 0.08 10.2 64.23 Onions 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.63 Rice (irrigated) 0.03 0.27 0 0 0.8 5.04 Tomatoes 0.04 0.26 0 0 1.3 8.19 Water melons 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.63 Total Sample Area 0.50 15.88 100

Second Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % French beans 0.07 0.33 0 0 2 12.92 French beans & Maize 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.65 Kales 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.65 Maize 0.03 0.33 0 0 0.98 6.33 Maize & Beans 0.34 0.44 0.4 0.08 10.2 65.89 Rice (irrigated) 0.03 0.27 0 0 0.8 5.17 Tomatoes 0.04 0.3 0 0 1.2 7.75 Water melons 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.65 Total Sample Area 0.51 15.48 100

Perennial Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Bananas 0.10 0.16 0.2 0 3.19 81.38 Chewing cane 0.01 0.02 0 0 0.1 2.55 Coffee 0.02 0.16 0 0 0.63 16.07 Total Sample Area 0.13 3.92 100

NOTES: Avg.0 = average of all sample farms Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these

471 48 KIRINYAGA

TABLE 13d: CROPPING PATTERNS IN AEZ LM 4(-3) OF KIRINYAGA DISTRICT Subzone: s/vs + s, Soil unit: LB 8 (& 2) Survey area140 (Kinyaga)

First Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Crops Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.01 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.69 Black grams 0.01 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.69 French beans 0.01 0.4 0 0 0.4 1.37 Green grams 0.01 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.69 Maize 0.16 0.63 0.4 5 17.18 Maize & Beans 0.74 0.82 1.2 0.38 22.2 76.29 Sweet potatoes 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.34 Tomatoes 0.03 0.27 0 0 0.8 2.75 Total Sample Area 0.97 29.1 100

Second Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.01 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.69 Capsicum (Sweet pepper) 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.34 Cow peas 0.01 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.69 French beans 0.01 0.4 0 0 0.4 1.37 Green grams 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.34 Kales 0.01 0.1 0 0 0.2 0.69 Maize 0.19 0.8 0.1 0 5.6 19.24 Maize & Beans 0.70 0.77 1.03 0.38 20.9 71.82 Sweet potatoes 0.00 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.34 Tomatoes 0.04 0.26 0 0 1.3 4.47 Total Sample Area 0.97 29.1 100

Perennial Crops

Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Bananas 0.01 0.09 0 0 0.18 29.03 Coffee 0.01 0.15 0 0 0.44 70.97 Total Sample Area 0.02 0.62 100

NOTES: Avg.0 = average of all sample farms Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these

472 KIRINYAGA 49

TABLE 13e: CROPPING PATTERNS IN AEZ UM 3(-4) OF KIRINYAGA DISTRICT Subzone: m/s + s, Soil unit: RB 3 Survey area141 (Kianjang’a)

First Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.01 0.1 0 0 0.3 2.11 Cabbages 0.01 0.08 0 0 0.15 1.06 French beans 0.01 0.13 0 0 0.4 2.82 Irish potatoes 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.35 Kales 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.35 Maize 0.07 0.40 0 0 2.02 14.24 Maize & Beans 0.34 0.41 0.6 0.09 10.27 72.37 Onions 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.35 Sweet potatoes 0.01 0.15 0 0 0.3 2.11 Tomatoes 0.02 0.2 0 0 0.6 4.23 Total Sample Area 0.47 14.19 100

Second Rainy Season Annual & Bi-annual Crops Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Beans 0.01 0.1 0 0 0.2 1.44 Cabbages 0.01 0.08 0 0 0.15 1.08 French beans 0.01 0.15 0 0 0.3 2.16 Kales 0.01 0.08 0 0 0.15 1.08 Maize 0.04 0.33 0 0 1.3 9.35 Maize & Beans 0.30 0.37 0.36 0.09 9.3 66.91 Onions 0.00 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.36 Sweet potatoes 0.01 0.13 0 0 0.25 1.80 Tobacco 0.04 0.28 0 0 1.1 7.91 Tomatoes 0.04 0.28 0 0 1.1 7.91 Total Sample Area 0.47 13.9 100

Perennial Crops Average Average Upper Lower Total Sample Area of 30 Farms Crops 0 1 Quartile Quartile ha ha ha ha ha % Avocado 0.01 0.4 0 0 0.4 2.98 Bananas 0.12 0.23 0.15 0 3.5 26.06 Coffee 0.30 0.34 0.4 0.07 8.93 66.49 Macadamia 0.02 0.3 0 0 0.6 4.47 Total Sample Area 0.45 13.43 100

NOTES: Avg.0 = average of all sample farms Avg.1 = average of farms, excluding zero entries Up. Qu./Lo. = Upper/Lower Quartile, refers to individual farms, 50% of all sample cases lie between these

473 50 KIRINYAGA

3.6.5 INTRODUCTION TO THE ACTUAL LAND USE SYSTEMS AND POTENTIAL INTENSIFICATION BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT

The main Agroecological Zones of Kirinyaga district in which farm surveys were conducted are: UM 1, UM 2, UM 3, LM 3 and LM 4.

Subzone UM 1, f l i m of the Upper Midland Coffee – Tea Zone

This is aTea - Coffee Zone, characterized with a fully long cropping season, intermediate rains and a medium one typical in Kaguyu sub-location of Kirinyaga district. Dairy farming is prominent for household milk needs and as a source of household income. Keeping of pigs seems to be at infancy as a supplementary income- generating venture. A variety of annual [both 1st and 2nd rains season] as well as cash crops are grown as shown in Table 13a. Maize and beans intercropped or otherwise are dominant annual crops grown in both seasons, although other significant crops include: kales, tomatoes, cabbages, Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes, French beans, sweet pepper and Coriander. Coffee, bananas and tea dominate Perennial crops with passion fruits and paw paws becoming equally important as sources of additional cash income. Farmers do not apply adequate fertilizers and manure on their farms. Thus, average farm inputs and outputs are very low (Tables 12a and 14a). However, given the viability and potential of this zone, higher outputs can be achieved through sound land use management (diversification, soil nutrient conservation and recycling) coupled with sufficient agricultural information and government incentives (e.g. subsidized fertilizers, agro-chemicals and improved infrastructure, among others).

Groups of neighbouring farmers share common obstacles and opportunities and it is reasonable that they organize for collective action. The self–help groups that arise commonly devote their eﬀorts to accessing information, learning new technologies and pooling resources to acquire inputs or market surpluses. Most farmers, however, lack experience in forming self–help groups, particularly with the steps necessary to for- malize and register their new organization.

Part of the need for grassroots rural organizations in Kenya is related to the collapse of formal extensions services to the small hold agricultural sector. Many years previously, several programs were initiated in maize marketing, fertilizer supply and veterinary medicine but for a complex suite of causes, these services became scattered at best, and virtually non–existent for most1). A abrupt introduction of market liberalization and structural adjustment imposed upon Kenya by international donors and lending institutions was partly responsible for the removal of subsidies, but equally responsible was lack of a new approach to equitable service provision that followed these changes in national policies2). Yet, even farmers receiving the best extensions services often ﬁnd it in their common interest to form local organizations aimed at improving their individual farms and their communities3). Good farming involves intuition and skill but seldom close–held secrets. Indeed, the willingness of farmers to assist one another is a comforting feature of rural life.

Notes 1) EICHER, C. K. (1999): Institutions and the African Farmer. CIMMYT Economics Program Third Distinguished Economist Lecture. CIMMYT, Mexico 2) WOOMER, P. L., OMARE, M. N., and MUKHWANA, E. J. (2004): The operations of rural self – help groups. In: Savala, C. E. N., OMARE, M. N., and WOOMER, P. L. (Eds.) (2004) Organic Resource Management in Kenya: Persepectives and Guidelines. FORMAT, Nairobi, pp. 131 – 145. 3) TERRENT, J. and POERB, H. (1986) Strengthening community – based technolog management systems. In: Kortens, D. C. (Ed.) (1986) Community Management, Asian Experience and Perspectives. Kumarian Press. West Hartford, Connecticut, U. S. A., pp. 172 – 182.

474 KIRINYAGA 51

TABLE 14a: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN MAIN AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) OF ZONE UM 1, f l i m, RB 1 Survey area 137 (Kaguyu) AEZ: UM 1 COFFEE – TEA ZONE Subzone: f l i m (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season: 200 or >; 2nd rainy season: 130 – 150) Crop, Yields3) and Inputs Unit with predom. Soil: RB 1 = ando-humic NITOSOLS; with humic ANDOSOLS Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season: 2nd rainy season: 430 – 520 mm in 750 – 950 mm at least 10 out of 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level Maize local pure I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) stand Yields3) kg/ha --- Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Hybrid maize Yields3) kg/ha - 3825 4382 6000 - - 4671 6300 Fertilizer: N kg/ha - 10 20 - - 25

P2O5 kg/ha - 15 20 - - 20 K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha - - 2 - - 3 Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha

Hybrid maize intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha - 3676 3857 5000 - 990 1242 4000 Fertilizer: N kg/ha - 10 * - 5 5

P2O5 kg/ha - 10 * - - - K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha - 1 * - 2 2

475 52 KIRINYAGA

Subzone UM 2, m/l i m/s of the Upper Midland Main Coffee Zone

This is theMain Coﬀee Zone, characterized with a medium to long cropping season, intermediate rains, and a medium to short one as typiﬁed (with a tendency to UM 1)by Kirunda sub-location of Kirinyaga district. The 60 % reliability of the length of cereal and legume growing period during the 1st and 2nd rainy season is 170 or more and 115 – 130 days, respectively. The mean annual rainfall is between 1220 – 1500 mm. The 66 % reliability of rainfall during the 1st rainy season (March – May) and the 2nd rainy season (October – Febru- ary) is between 600 – 800 mm and 400 – 460 mm respectively. The dominant soils are fertile, well drained deep humic Nitisols but more and more exhausted without manuring and adequate fertilizer application.

The average household farm size in this Subzone had decreased from 2.8 ha to 1.09 ha in 1978 and 2004, respectively. This is an indication of actual land fragmentation as a result of high population growth. Dairy farming is well established over local breeds like Zebu. Quite more intense animal husbandry practices reported here include rabbit rearing and exotic poultry keeping (Table 12b). Exhibiting a diversity of annual food and Perennial crops this Subzone is dominated by maize/beans intercropped in both seasons. In the order of importance the other annual crops include: Irish potatoes, tomatoes, French beans, sweet potatoes, cabbages, carrots and kales. Similarly in the order of importance among perennial, crops coffee dominates, followed by tea, bananas, macadamia, passion fruits, trees and mangoes (Table 13b). The acreage for macadamia is likely to increase in future over that of coffee especially if stable market prices continue to prevail. The use of certified hybrid maize seeds was quite low ca. mean ~22 % as well as application of N and P fertilizers. Equally, the use of farm yard manure was completely absent in this Subzone, hence the low yield returns per annum (Table 14b). For optimal yields per capita, farmers must invest in less capital intensive farming enterprise e.g. bee-keeping [presence of tree woodlots] and intensify use of both farm yard and green manures in the cultivation of the crops mentioned above.

476 KIRINYAGA 53

TABLE 14b: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN MAIN AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) OF ZONE UM 2(-1), m/l i m/s, RB 2 Survey area 138 (Kirunda) AEZ: UM 2 MAIN COFFEE ZONE (with tendency to UM 1) Subzone: m/l i m/s (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season: 170 or >; 2nd rainy season: 115 – 130) Crop, Yields3) and Inputs Unit with predom. Soil: RB 2 = humic NITOSOLS Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season: 2nd rainy season: 400 – 460 mm in 600 – 800 mm at least 10 out of 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level Maize local 4) 5) 6) 4) 5) 6) pure stand I=low II=med. III=high AEU Pot. I=low II=med. III=high AEU Pot. Yields3) kg/ha --- Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Hybrid maize Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha

Hybrid maize intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha - 4848 4896 5500 - 1710 1796 3500 Fertilizer: N kg/ha - 27 30 - - - P O kg/ha - 12.6 14.8 - 19.4 20 2 5 ------K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha ------

Notes 1) Source: Small Farm Survey (2004) 2) Figures of these cereals growing periods should be reached or surpassed in 6 out of 10 years; growing periods may be considered longer due to immediately following second rainy season by middle rains. Then the second growing period is VKRUWHQHGWKDQWKHJLYHQ¿JXUHV 3) Achieved average yields with average rainfall 4) Farmers with medium inputs 5) Farmers with high inputs of fertilizer, insecticides, soil and water conservation 6) Potential yield according to crop list and local climate of this Agro-Ecological Unit if soils are optimally fertilized, plus optimal crop management

477 54 KIRINYAGA

Subzone UM 3, m/s + s of the Upper Midland Marginal Coffee Zone

This is a Marginal Coﬀee Zone, with a medium to short and a short cropping season found in Kianjang’a sub- location of Kirinyaga district. The 60 % reliability of the length cereal and legume growing period during the 1st and 2nd rainy season is 120 – 140 and 85 – 105 days, respectively. On the other hand, mean annual rainfall amount is between 1100 – 1250 mm. The 66 % probability of rainfall during st1 and 2nd rainy season, normally between March - May and October - January is 450 – 580 mm and 350 – 400 mm, respectively. Four broad soil formations occur here namely eutric Nitisols (dominating), nito-chromic Cambisols, chromic Acrisols and Luvisols.

During the 2004 survey mean household farm size was 1.08 ha, twice less compared to the 1978 survey: 2.8ha, thus leading to more intensive and diverse land use practices including livestock as well as in growing of annual crops (Table 12e & 13e). In this Subzone, prominent annual crops in order of importance were: maize-beans intercrop, French beans, tobacco, tomatoes, kales and onions. The subhumid prevailing agro-climatic conditions promote the growing of coﬀee, bananas, macadamia nuts and avocadoes as major perennial crops (Table 13e).

Because of low application of farm inputs per capita, yields per capita output are low (Table 14c). To increase sustained yield per capita, farmers should be encouraged to adopt soil moisture- conserving (mulching, terraces and gabions) technologies to minimize potential evapotranspiration rates. Farmers should be encouraged to diversify crops (e. g. diﬀerent banana varieties, water melons, sweet potatoes, pumpkins, arrow roots, etc). Farmers should be discouraged from relying heavily on inorganic fertilizers but instead should be encouraged to use farm and/or compost manures. To optimize annual crop yields, reliable advisory services and information should be disseminated to farmers through local administration. Farmer participation in planning and execution of extensions work improves the impact of extension, technology dissemination and adoption. Constant communication among key players must be maintained and delivered in ways that are understandable to farmers. Farming constraints must be carefully identiﬁed and prioritized, to enhance subsequent uptake of technologies that should, in principle, complement the farmers’ practice and solve, not aggravate a production problem.

478 KIRINYAGA 55

TABLE 14c: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN MAIN AGRO-ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) OF ZONE UM 3(-4), m/s + s, RB 3 Survey area 141 (Kianyang’a) AEZ: UM 3 MARGINAL COFFEE ZONE (with tendency to UM 4) Subzone: m/s + s (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season: 110 – 130; 2nd rainy season: 90 – 100) 3) Crop, Yields Unit with predom. Soil: RB 3 = eutric NITOSOLS; with nito-chromic CAMBISOLS and and Inputs chromic ACRISOLS and LUVISOLS, partly lithic, pisoferric or petroferric phase Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season: 2nd rainy season: 350 – 380 mm in 450 – 580 mm at least 10 out of 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level Maize local I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) I=low II=med.4) III=high5) AEU Pot.6) pure stand Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Hybrid maize Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha

Hybrid maize Var. H513 a.o. intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha 1816 1590 2068 4000 684 1281 2099 3500 Fertilizer: N kg/ha 3.4 31.9 33.3 3.4 35.2 56.3 P O kg/ha 0 33.3 37.9 0 41.9 56.3 2 5 - - - - K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha - 16.9 22.8 - 25.2 28.6

479 56 KIRINYAGA

Subzone LM 3, s + s of the Lower Midland Cotton Zone

This is theCotton Zones, with two short cropping seasons represented by Kithumbu sub-location of Ndia division. The upper parts of this place have a wetter ﬁrst rainy season and to the Upper Midland temperature belt. The 60% reliability of the length of the cereal and legume growing period is 85-105 days in the ﬁrst rainy season and 85-95 days in the second one. The 66% probability of rainfall in the st1 and 2nd rainy seasonsis 380-460 mm and 280-330 mm respectively. The dominant soil types are eutric Nitisols with nito- chromic Cambisols and chromic Acrisols, partly pisoferric or petroferric phase.

At the time of the survey 2004, there was no cotton reported due to low producer prices (Tab. 13c). Cur- rently, there is an initiative by the government to promote cotton production. French beans have become an important cash crop in this zone. More scope is in market crops like tomatoes, water-melons and brinjals. Sweet varieties of bananas are marketable too as well as rice, but the possibilities for irrigation are limited, four farmers only have it. Chewing cane is a less important crop in valleys of the lower side of this subzone. The dominant food crops are maize, beans and bananas.

The crop potential is not yet fully exploited (see legend of AEZ map). However, tree crops like mangoes and Oranges could be planted, while utilising the under-canopy in the short term before the conopy closes. Hedges of Calliandra calothyrsus would be good for forage and green manure because keeping the level of the soil fertility is the main problem since Perennial land use became necessary. There is almost no space for regeneration fallows on such small plots. In livestock, dairy cows are the biggest number. This is a good sign for the intensiﬁcation of animal production, but the main problem is the limited land for pasture and forage, 0.14 ha!

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TABLE 14d: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN MAIN AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) OF ZONE LM 3 (to UM 3), s+s, RB 3 Survey area 139(Kithumbu) AEZ: LM 3 COTTON ZONE, transitional to MARGINAL COFFEE ZONE UM 3 Subzone: s+s (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season: 85 –105; 2nd rainy season: 85 – 95) Crop, Yields3) and Inputs Unit with predom. Soil: LB 8 = pellic VERTISOLS, stony phase and partly saline phase; Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season: 2nd rainy season: 280 – 330 mm in 380 – 460 mm at 10 out 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level Maize local 4) 5) 6) 4) 5) 6) mono-cropped I=low II=med. III=high AEU Pot. I=low II=med. III=high AEU Pot. Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Hybrid maize Yields3) Kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha

Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha

Hybrid maize Var. H513 a.o. intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha 947 1654 1753 3000 810 1538 1612 2500 Fertilizer: N kg/ha 0 16.7 19.2 0 19.5 20.4

P2O5 kg/ha 0 17.1 18.7 0 19.9 20.0 K2O kg/ha ------Manure t/ha 0 2.2 5.9 0 2.6 6.2

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Subzone LM 4, s + s/vs of the Lower Midland Marginal Cotton Zone

This is the Marginal Cotton Zone, with a short and short to very short cropping seasons characterized by Kinyaga sub-location of Mwea division. In this subzone, the 60 % reliability of the length of cereal and legume growing period during the 1st and 2nd rainy seasons is 85 – 105 and 75 – 85 days, respectively. Moreover, the 66 % probability of rainfall in the 1st and 2nd rainy season is 330 – 400 mm and 250 – 300 mm. The dominant soil types are saline Vertisols.

Compared to the 1978 Farm Survey, mean household farm sizes drastically reduced from 6.2 ha to 1.53 ha in 2004. Kinyaga reveals a profound diversity of animal and crop husbandry practices (Table 12d) and a complexity of both annual and Perennial crops (ca. 5 crops per year). Maize and beans intercrop dominates annual crops in both seasons. However a profound trend in the diversity, similarity and prominence emerged of the higher value crops grown both seasons and subzones (Table 13d). For instance, in both subzones in all seasons tomatoes were ranked 2nd to maize- beans intercrop. Similarly, French beans were ranked 3rd in both seasons in Kinyaga in the 1st rainy season. Onions remain least in all seasons. Other major food crops reported in order of importance were: black grams, sweet potatoes, cowpeas, kales, bananas and green grams.

It is important to highlight that despite the prevalent short growing periods here, this Subzone possesses untapped agricultural potential. Arguably, cheap available labour coupled with proper marketing networks as well as reliable agri-extensions services can lead to food self-sufficiency and provide income thereby improving the household living standards. Evidence indicates that with more diversification and intensification farmers can optimize desired maize yields per capita (Tables 14d & e). Farmers must use fertilizers and manures on a continuous basis if improved yields per farm unit are to be enhanced. It should, however, be pointed out here that the type of animal housing, storage strategies and the type of feed provided to farm animals each affect manure quality.

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TABLE 14e: INCREASE OF YIELDS BY BETTER FARM MANAGEMENT IN MAIN AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT1) OF ZONE LM 4(-3), s + s/vs, LB 8 (& 2) Survey area140 (Kinyaga) AEZ: LM 4 MARGINAL COTTON ZONE Subzone: s + s/vs (Periods in days2): 1st rainy season: 85 – 105; 2nd rainy season: 75 – 85) Crop, Yields3) and Inputs Unit with predom. Soil: LB 8 = pellic VERTISOLS, stony phase and partly saline phase; Reliable rainfall: 1st rainy season: 2nd rainy season: 250 – 300 mm in 330 – 400 mm at least 10 out 15 years Farmers in Prod. Level Farmers in Prod. Level

4) 5) AEU 4) 5) AEU Maize local I=low II=med. III=high Pot.6) I=low II=med. III=high Pot.6) monocropped Yields3) kg/ha --- Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Hybrid maize Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Maize local intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha Fertilizer: N kg/ha

P2O5 kg/ha K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha Hybrid maize Var. H505 a.o. intercropped with beans Yields3) kg/ha ? 1533 1586 2500 ? 956 1046 2000 Fertilizer: N kg/ha 23 50 59 23 50 59

P2O5 kg/ha 0 38 43 0 38 43 K2O kg/ha Manure t/ha 0 13.1 20.8 0 13.1 20.8

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3.6.6 FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPORTANT AGRO-ECOLOGICAL UNITS

The Fertiliser Use Recommendation Project of the GTZ (1986 - 92) had two trial sites in Kirinyaga district, one on Nitisols at Kerugoya in UM 1, the other in Karaba in LM 4 on pellic Vertisols. For the other zones, subzones and units Muriuki and Qureshi showed which results from other districts could be representative (see map of Fertiliser Recommendations and Farm Survey Areas) and constructed curves for fertiliser response1.

Recommended rates of an AEU increase into a wetter subzone and decrease into a drier one if the soil unit extends there (see dark and light grey shades in the small maps). We have tend to recommend lower rates due to the low ﬁnancial basis of the smallholder farmers. The optimum can be calculated from the curve formulas in Muriuki & Qureshi Fertiliser Use Manual, KARI, Nairobi 2001. In the long run the minimum sustainable amount must be given to maintain the nutrient content status. Some of these proposed quantities for it can be seen at the end of this chapter and in the chapter 3.1 General Remarks.

Higher recommendations are given in the Smallholder Farming Handbook of the IRACC and MSS, Nai- robi 1997, but the economic investment and risk is too high for the local farmers here. A rural small credit system for the inputs could help a lot. Where scientific sources for quantifying the rates are lacking, some conclusions could be taken from the difference of inputs and yields between the low and high production levels of the Farm Survey 2004/05. An empty column “Other Nutrients Recommended” does not mean that there is nothing to be applied, but it is because of lack of trials data. Symptoms of nutrient deficiencies and methods of alleviating these can be seen in Muriuki, A.W. and Qureshi, J.N. (2001), Table 1&2, p.22-23.

Finally it must be mentioned again that fertilising alone will increase the yields only in the short term. The micronutrients not included in the fertiliser become exhausted rapidly. Manuring almost up to the full return of the extracted nutrients is a must in order to have a stable agrobiological system with continuous production2.

On the other hand even macronutrients like potassium (K) which has not been emphasised because of the assumption that there is still enough in the soil, must be given in the long run because 1 t of maize needs 23 kg K, 1 t of sorghum even 45 kg, 1 t of groundnuts 50 kg. Cassava is less demanding, only 7 kg K per t, but needs additionally 2 kg of cobalt (Co) and 1 kg of magnesium (Mg) 3.

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TABLE 15a: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNITS LH1 l/vl^m, MV2 and RB1 of the TEA and DAIRY ZONE

Av. Exp. Yield Av. Yield Av. Yield Crop varieties and + Response- Recommended Increase if Increase if 5 t/ha Fertiliser Rates this Rate is Manure are Other Nutrients Season curve Recommended kg/ha kg/ha Applied Applied kg/ha kg/ha First Rainy Season1) Hybrid maize 1500 + none – – ca. 500 Lime 3) Some rock Hybr. maize & beans 680 + 12.3 N 50 N 615 maize * phosphate Second Rainy S. Hybrid maize 2300 + none – – ca. 700 Lime Some rock Hybr. maize & beans 1230 + none – – * phosphate Both seasons Potatoes 4860 + 7.5 NP 50 N + 20 P 7500 ca. 1500 Lime Cabbages 4600 + 500 P 30 P 15000 ca. 5000 Lime 2t o Perennial crops

2) 300 N + 70 P + Tea 50 K 5000 Copper, Zinc Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 128; conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004

1) Late maturing crops continue to next rainy season. 2) See also recommendations of local Tea Authoritie and of IRACC: Smallholder Farming Handbook for Self Employment, Nairobi 1997, p. 174, for rates in 1st,2nd, and 3rd year after planting. 3)%HDQV%HDQVGRQRWZHOOLQXSSHUSDUWVGXULQJ¿UVWUDLQ\VHDVRQWRR GR QRW ZHOO LQ XSSHU SDUWV GXULQJ ¿UVW UDLQ\ VHDVRQ WRRZHWDQGFROG ZHW DQG FROG; * 1RNo GDWDdata DYDLODEOHavailable

TABLE 15b: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNIT 80ÀLP, RB1 of the TEA and COFFEE ZONE Av. Yield Av. Yield Av. Exp. Yield Recommended Increase if Increase if 5 t/ha Crop varieties and + Response- Fertiliser Rates this Rate is Manure are Other Nutrients Season curve kg/ha Applied Applied Recommended kg/ha kg/ha kg/ha First Rainy Season1) Hybrid maize 1520 + none not economical - ca. 500 Lime, Potass.(=K) Hybr. maize & beans 680 + 12.3 N 30 N + 25 P 370 maize2)) – Lime Second Rainy S. Hybrid maize 2300 + none Beans (lower parts) 4) 20 P 750 * Lime, Potass. Both Seasons Potatoes 4850 + 7.5 NP 50 N + 20 P 7500 ca. 1500 Lime, Potass. Cabbages 4600 + 500 P 30 P 15000 ca. 5000 Lime, Potass. Perennial crops Tea3)) 370 N + 75 P + 50 K ca. 6000 – Coffee4)) 160 N + 150 P 900 * Lime

Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 128; IRACC: Smallholder Farming Handbook for Self Employment, Nairobi 1997, p. 147 & 174; conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004

1) Late maturing crops continue to next rainy season. 2)%HDQV%HDQVGRQRWZHOOLQXSSHUSDUWVGXULQJ¿UVWUDLQ\VHDVRQWRR GR QRW ZHOO LQ XSSHU SDUWV GXULQJ ¿UVW UDLQ\ VHDVRQ WRRZHWDQGFROG ZHW DQG FROG. 3) See also recommendations of local Tea Authorities or Companies and IRACC, p. 174.174.. 4) See also recent recommendations of local Coffee Cooperatives and Embu Agric. Res. Stn.; * No data available

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TABLE 15c: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNITS UM2 m/l i m/s & m i s/m, RB2 of the MAIN COFFEE ZONE Av. Yield Av. Exp. Yield Av. Yield Recommended Increase if Increase if 5 t/ha Crop varieties and + Response- Manure are Other Nutrients Season curve Fertiliser Rates this Rate is Recommended kg/ha Applied 1) Applied kg/ha kg/ha kg/ha First Rainy Season Hybrid maize 2400 +8.8 N 75 N 660 2) *K

1750 + 2) Hybr. maize & beans 23.6 N - 0.26 N2 50 N 630 maize * K Second Rainy S. Hybrid maize 1800 + 6.8 N 75 N 510 2) *K Hybr. maize & beans 1430 + 7.3 N 50 N 365 2) maize * K Both Seasons Potatoes 8000 + 51.7 N 75 N 3900 * K Cabbages 4100 + 140 N 50 N ca. 7000 * K Perennial crops Coffee3)) 150 N + 100 P ca. 1000 * K

Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 130; IRACC: Smallholder Farming Handbook for Self Employment, Nairobi 1997, p. 147; conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004

1) Double rates will bring almost increase if climate is suitable and there are no pests and diseases 2) May be not economical 3) See also recent recommendations of local Coffee Cooperatives and Embu Agric. Res. Stn.; * No data available

TABLE 15d: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNITS UM3 m/s + s, RB2 of the MAIZE and MARG. COFFEE ZONE

1750 + 2) Hybr. maize & beans 23.6 N - 0.26 N2 50 N 630 maize * K Second Rainy S. KCB maize 1800 + 6.8 N 75 N 510 2) *K KCB maize & beans 1250 + 7.3 N 50 N 365 2) maize * K Both Seasons Potatoes 8000 + 51.7 N 75 N 3900 * K Cabbages 4100 + 140 N 50 N ca. 7000 * K Perennial crops Coffee 150 N + 100 P ca. 800 * K

Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 130; IRACC: Smallholder Farming Handbook for Self Employment, Nairobi 1997, p. 147; conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004

1) Double rates will bring almost increase if climate is suitable and there are no pests and diseases 2) May not be economical; * No data available

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TABLE 15e: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNITS LM3 s/m + s & s + s, LB2 & RB3 of the MAIZE AND COTTON ZONE

Av. Exp. Yield Av. Yield Av. Yield Crop varieties and + Response- Recommended Increase if Increase if 5 t/ha Fertiliser Rates this Rate is Manure are Other Nutrients Season curve Recommended kg/ha kg/ha Applied Applied kg/ha kg/ha First Rainy Season KCB maize 965 + 0.3 NP not economical ca. 200 * 420 + 6.6 P + KCB maize & cowp. 0.1 NP not economical * 1460 + 8.2 P + Sorghum 0.4 NP 25 N + 25 P 455 ca. 250 * Second Rainy S. KCB maize 950 + 0.3 NP not economical ca. 200 Both Seasons (2. to 1.) Cotton 100 C.A.N. 1)

Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 130; IRACC: Smallholder Farming Handbook for Self Employment, Nairobi 1997, p. 155; conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004

1) Transferred recommendation from Eastern Province. None is given for Central Province in the cited sources. Ask for local experience. * No data available

TABLE 15f: FERTILISER AND MANURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AGRO- ECOLOGICAL UNITS LM4 s + s/vs & s/vs + vs/s, LB8 of the MAIZE AND MARGINAL COTTON ZONE Av. Yield Av. Yield Av. Exp. Yield Recommended Increase if Increase if 5 t/ha Crop varieties and + Response- Fertiliser Rates this Rate is Manure are Other Nutrients Season curve kg/ha Applied Applied Recommended kg/ha kg/ha kg/ha First Rainy Season 1545 + KCB maize 32 N - 0.23 N2 50 N 1125 ca. 300 * KCB maize & green grams. 1375 + none * Second Rainy S. DLC maize 1280 + 10.1 N not economical ca. 250 DLC maize & green 1430 + 6.3 N + grams 8.4 P - 0.9 NP2 50 P 420 maize *

Sources: MURIUKI & QURESHI: Fertiliser Use Manual 2001, p. 130; conclusions from the Farm Survey 2004 * No data available

491 ANNEX

ANNEX

492 ANNEX

Methodology part of Farm Management Handbook of Kenya (revised for Western Province)

Crop yield simulation models and ENSO approach

By Prof. Dr. Berthold Hornetz University of Trier, Germany

1. Calculation of agrohumid periods (AHP) and yield potentials by using crop-simulation models and ENSO

1.1 Introduction and general structure of the models 1.2 Approaches and programmes 1.2.1 Calculation and configuration of agrohumid periods (AHP) by using simulation programme WATBAL 2003 1.2.2 Calculation and configuration of yield potentials by using crop simulation programme MARCROP 1.2.3 ENSO concept

2. Configuration of agro-ecological zones and crop potentials by using an EDP search programme

493 ANNEX

1. Calculation of agrohumid periods (AHP) and yield potentials by using crop-simulation model and ENSO forecasting

1.1 Introduction and general structure of the model

Agro-ecological zonation as a concept of sustainable land use planning in the tropics has to contain different methodological approaches for allowing tempo-spatial recommendations for different stakeholders. An important constraint for farmers, for instance, is the need of information about yield expectations of annual and perennial crops –probably before the onset of the rainy seasons-, so that they are able to provide themselves with specific seed material and cultivate crops adapted to the expected/forecasted performance of the coming rainy season. According to Penning de Vries (1990; cited in: Hornetz, 1997) “…crop modelling can support farming indirectly by being a source from which guidelines, diagrams and extension service advice can be derived, and by enabling explicit alternatives for agricultural development to be drawn up”. Ritchie (1991; cited in: Hornetz, 1997) believes that crop simulation modelling opens the possibility to avoid resource consuming trial and error experimentation for forecasting tempo-spatial distribution of crop yields. Good models should be calibrated and validated as well be able to - delineate the stage-specific development of crops/plants (including yield sensitive aspects); - estimate/calculate morphological development of plant parts (e.g. roots, LAI); - estimate/calculate yield parameters in correlation to soil water balances (being most important in particular in tropical dry lands).

In Kenya crop simulation models have been successfully used in the interpretation of research results in complex and highly variable cropping systems (Shisanya, 1996). Crop modelling has also been applied for evaluating soil and water conservation measures for improved crop production (e.g. Kiome, 1992; Rötter, 1993; all cited in: Shisanya, 1996). However, sophisticated models of soil-water-dynamics like WOFOST or CERES including all climatic, soil-hydraulic and plant physiological parameters show a very limited success in forecasting yield potentials on a regional level (Rötter, 1989; Hornetz, 1997). The detailed parameters -which they need for calculating- are usually only available at selected stations, mostly with a limited regional representativeness. The models WATBAL 2003 and MARCROP presented below have been calibrated and validated for different areas and regions (e.g. Kenya, Ethiopia, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Paraguay; Hornetz, 1997; Hornetz et al., 2001, 2006; Shisanya, 1996). Several parts are incorporated: 1. A super ordinate controlling part processes the climatic data of daily rainfall in Kenya since 1926 and calculated figures of evapotranspiration (according to Woodhead, 1968) as well as the various crop scenarios with characteristic crop coefficients, leaf and root development characteristics, yield and stress physiological parameters (see e.g. Hornetz, 1991; Shisanya, 1996). 2. In a first simulation approach (WATBAL 2003; see next page) lengths and intensities of the agrohumid periods (AHP; see Jätzold & Schmidt, 1982) are calculated on a decadc (10 days) data base for defined sites. This enables stakeholders to decide whether it is possible to cultivate certain crop varieties on particular soils within a growing period. 3. By means of the yield simulation programme MARCROP (e.g. Hornetz et al., 2001) yield probabilities –as defined by Jätzold & Schmidt (1982)- are calculated site specifically for defined crop varieties on particular soils (using a daily data base). 4. Farmer (1988), Ogallo (1988) and Willems (1993) have shown that the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon has a significant influence on the performance of the rains (in particular the short rains) in the southern, eastern and northern parts of Kenya. Here, the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) was used as a discriminating criterion for each individual rainy season (into ENSO, Anti-ENSO and Normal conditions); thus being able to forecast rainfall conditions of the short rains almost 2 months before the onset of the rains (Willems, 1993; Hornetz et al., 2001).

494 ANNEX

5. The statistical combination of calculated yield potentials (by MARCROP) with theENSO approach leads to a configuration of detailed temporal patterns of the yield performances. This allows stakeholders to decide which kind of crop and crop variety can be cultivated during the coming season. Such temporal patterns of yield potentials are delineated spatially by using the subzones of the AEZ which are divided by different soils into agroecological units.

1.2 Approaches and programmes 1.2.1 Calculation and configuration of agrohumid periods (AHP) by using simulation programme WATBAL 2003

The input data for the determination of the beginning, end, lengths and intensities of the AHP’s were decadic rainfall (P) and potential evapotranspiration (PET; according to the modified PENMAN/McCULLOCH approach: McCulloch, 1965; Woodhead, 1968) (see Figure 1.1). The programme calculates per overlapping double years the length of different independent growing periods (bimodal and trimodal patterns; see Jätzold & Schmidt, 1982) at maximum. The length of the growing period is defined as the period between the beginning of vegetation activities (initial period) and the attainment of physical maturity of annual crops (corresponding decades: TI and TE). In the algorithm the following parameters which can be totally varied to describe all possible combinations of plant physiological parameters of an agronomic location are found: - The crop physiologically yet justifiable minimum water requirements, expressed as KC-values of the first and last three (to four) decades (= ten-day-periods) can be expressed empirically by combining these figures by progressive addition (Hornetz, 1991). Thus

ISUM = KC/min 1 + 2 KC/min 2 + KC/min 3

ESUM = KC/min n-2 + 2 KC/min n-1 + KC/min n

If calculated water supply of any sequence of three (or four) decades exceeds the value for ISUM (as a virtual sum), given in the defined scenario, the beginning of the growing period (TI) is found. - The short-term absolute minimum water requirement within the growing period (e.g. dry spells) is represented by the virtual sum ELIM; according to Kutsch & Schuh (1983) this is a period of 2 decades in general for annual crops. Therefore

ELIM = KC/min i + KC/min i+1

This means that if the calculated water supply lies below this threshold for not more than 20 days, it can be a assumed an intermediate short dry period but not yet the end of the growing period; whereas, these dry conditions during one month at least cannot generally support the crop and therefore, the end of the growing period (TE) will have been reached.

495 ANNEX

Figure 1.1: Flow chart of WATBAL 2003 (source: Müller, 2003)

496 ANNEX

The combination of this convention with the scenario variable ESUM leads to an unequivocal estimation of the end of a growing period. A further refinement is achieved by the fact that the end decade TE is determined whether the water supply of the last three (or four) decades lay below or above the value for ESUM. - The KC value determining the optimum crop water requirement in terms of full water supply is called OLIM. With this parameter all soil water surplus (above OLIM) in the water balance of the crop stand can be evaluated whether it will be stored or drained. - The mean water holding capacity of the soil within the main rooting zone is expressed inthe scenario as STOCK (in mm). This parameter allows estimating roughly the influence of the soil storage on the length of the AHP. - The parameter DUR defines the minimum length of a growing period (which should be given out by the programme). - RE refers to “effective rainfall” (acc. to FAO, 1975; cited in: Hornetz, 1991), i.e. the fraction of rainfall (X/100) which penetrates into the rooting zone. - The parameter IR (= initial rain) is used for defining the minimum amount of rainfall (in mm) required for an expected beginning of a growing period; this value is defined due to the amount of soil water which is necessary to stimulate the growth of defined plants (e.g. 10 mm for pasture and xerophytic plants; 20 mm for mesophytic plants).

Müller (2003) has integrated the calculation procedures as well as the input and output tables of WATBAL 2003 into an EXCEL databank (more details Müller, 2005). The results of the AHP calculations are configured into diagrams showing different physiological scenarios (crop and grass growing conditions coloured with dark and light green; see Figure 1.2) as well as periods without growing conditions. Figures of the cumulated precipitation during the crop growing periods are integrated into the decades of the AHP’s; thus allowing a quick overview of the amount of rainfall accumulating during the running AHP. Additionally, rainfall amounts as well as number of days during the AHP’s are listed in a table at the right side of the diagram differentiated into ENSO, Anti-ENSO and Normal conditions. Finally, the programme is calculating descriptive statistics, giving information on median and 2/3 probability of rainfall and lengths of AHP’s as well as probabilities for the occurrence of conditions for AHP’s within the decades of the year (on the bottom of the diagram).

497 ANNEX

Figure 1.2: Growing periods in AEZ LH 3-4 s + s (= with two short cropping seasons) at 9036072 Mweiga Estate (acc. to calculations with WATBAL 2003)

Station name Cereal and legumes growing period Dry conditions Cumulated precipitation ENSO-classification: Mweiga Estate =agro-humid period (AHP), during agro-humid period in mm E = El-Nino-year (ENSO) w = weak Station no. Altitude AEZ min. 40 days Subzone: A = Anti-ENSO-year m = moderate 9036072 1890m LH3-4 =grass growing period only s + s N = Normal-year s = strong

Year Year Rainfall / c.& leg. gr.p. March April May June July August September October November December January February ENSO-class. ENSO-class. 1st AHP 2nd AHP to August 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 123456 since August mm days mm days Am 52/51 52/51 N N 52/53 52/53 Ew Ew 53/54 53/54 N N 54/55 54/55 Am Am 55/56 55/56 Am Am 56/57 56/57 N N 57/58 57/58 Es Es 58/59 58/59 Ew Ew 59/60 000g 51 152 176 182 218 218 218 243 255 265 282 282 ggggggg38 68 80 148 153 178 202 213 213 263 263 9 21 59/60 N 282 120 284 130 N 60/61 gg50 72 158 197 228 228 243 266 269 g 0000000000076 99 136 154 161 240 240 245 265 g 60/61 N 269 110 (265) (90) N 61/62 00g 68 126 177 228 234 240 g 00032 59 151 162 162 194 21 44 96 258 383 579 726 774 774 786 865 988 988 993 1020 g 0 61/62 N 240 60 1052 160 N 62/63 00gggg31 113 113 113 0000gggggg0 g 39 87 101 141 211 246 300 326 356 373 383 433 16 45 62/63 N 113 40 433 120 N 63/64 64 86 93 93 175 280 330 359 394 394 394 0000gggg0000g 52 131 164 211 229 295 295 304 333 360 2 27 63/64 Ew 394 130 362 110 Ew 64/65 107 107 142 220 328 450 462 476 482 504 518 528 554 554 586 663 681 681 681 ggg43 50 69 107 147 192 203 240 320 320 335 352 gg64/65 Aw 679 200 352 120 Aw 65/66 ggggg56 88 122 140 140 165 167 180 194 ggggg000g 58 127 139 169 181 192 200 g 0 gg30 37 65/66 Am 194 90 200 70 Am 66/67 91 91 136 198 269 329 349 349 377 381 391 398 g 000000000067 153 180 229 236 253 297 297 311 322 ggg66/67 N 398 140 322 100 N 67/68 ggg44 116 160 309 320 369 393 396 396 0 g 36 57 75 81 148 gg30 130 254 314 331 404 480 480 480 0034 103 39 114 67/68 N 396 90 480 90 N 68/69 296 386 420 486 567 765 845 871 905 935 959 959 971 977 994 1014 1026 gg0000g 30 44 156 215 227 227 gg48 92 1 22 68/69 Em 1129 210 227 60 Em 69/70 22 30 86 86 106 110 212 263 294 328 328 328 ggggggggggggg41 78 91 93 132 201 265 352 373 6 6 69/70 Ew 410 160 379 110 Ew 70/71 36 54 129 139 149 252 302 314 353 364 394 396 415 415 gggggg00108 131 197 218 228 244 273 374 376 418 438 453 gg70/71 Am 415 140 453 120 Am 71/72 000099 243 285 359 359 364 393 402 418 427 434 450 468 474 g 000000064 123 153 233 289 303 307 398 g 20 71/72 N 474 140 398 80 N 72/73 20 39 62 105 122 122 165 220 280 280 303 313 321 gg00000039 118 173 287 332 335 341 gggggg82 82 72/73 Em 321 140 341 70 Em 73/74 122 134 144 g 64 127 162 176 198 198 210 ggggggg0 29 44 54 122 122 197 226 235 249 259 275 311 327 330 ggg73/74 As 210 120 330 140 As 74/75 gg44 97 150 182 200 200 246 247 247 273 329 350 354 368 396 405 410 g 0028 43 119 144 174 204 221 257 269 276 gg0074/75 Aw 410 170 276 100 Aw 75/76 000051 99 108 172 198 204 204 235 248 260 308 322 369 374 394 6 43 60 60 125 125 163 189 249 249 249 286 286 296 320 9 33 75/76 Am 400 160 347 160 Am 76/77 55 55 g 0 38 51 82 137 176 176 181 195 198 229 256 268 276 279 gggggggg45 83 124 185 207 219 240 251 9 52 76/77 Ew 279 140 260 90 Ew 77/78 71 107 108 220 258 276 319 357 371 371 g 0000000000gg43 143 173 214 254 300 328 367 414 414 414 81 87 77/78 Ew 362 110 414 110 Ew 78/79 164 177 261 307 318 432 477 487 487 514 528 536 gggggggggg40 87 130 157 181 223 291 317 336 375 454 576 56 78 78/79 N 536 140 576 120 N 79/80 78 162 166 207 264 264 369 403 605 669 692 692 707 718 g 000000130 146 146 223 239 246 246 0 gggg79/80 Ew 718 160 246 70 Ew 80/81 ggg42 92 111 000000000000052 93 157 169 208 267 305 315 320 338 gggg80/81 N (111) (30) 338 100 N 81/82 g 42 141 193 274 297 339 447 447 457 gggggggggggg37 82 106 113 163 222 270 330 366 380 387 ggg81/82 N 457 90 387 110 N 82/83 ggg46 72 170 252 360 449 453 460 474 gggggggg34 52 229 259 278 294 387 417 450 452 457 000gg82/83 Es 474 90 457 110 Es 83/84 ggggg81 163 222 258 262 276 308 312 313 gggggg0 ggggggg30 139 139 139 165 165 g 21 83/84 Aw 313 90 165 60 Aw 84/85 37 gg00ggggg00000000000115 126 201 240 312 336 348 392 392 392 0 83 195 6 13 84/85 Aw --392 100 Aw 85/86 gg70 97 195 244 271 293 302 304 gggggg000000gg41 61 86 114 138 146 151 gg00085/86 N 304 100 151 70 N 86/87 ggg31 52 191 229 305 359 362 432 440 440 469 470 g 000000038 73 80 143 00000086/87 Em 470 120 143 40 Em 87/88 0 gggg31 90 119 224 302 304 307 000gggg0000041 82 103 106 106 0 ggggg0 87/88 Ew 307 70 106 50 Ew 88/89 40 68 161 182 368 439 494 499 500 527 537 559 559 574 589 604 611 642 662 32 43 87 88 97 117 144 144 154 178 210 210 250 281 353 21 48 88/89 As 662 190 353 150 As 89/90 48 79 80 182 202 313 347 377 389 392 g 0 gg59 63 134 201 247 282 296 326 329 g 0 gg89/90 N 392 120 329 90 N 90/91 56 72 131 188 216 258 277 298 304 314 gg0000000000g 38 86 106 149 166 221 243 90/91 Ew 314 100 243 70 Ew 91/92 91/92 Es Es 92/93 92/93 Ew Ew 93/94 93/94 N N 94/95 94/95 Ew #no AH cond. 16 16 14 10 5 2 1 1 1 3 9 12 17 17 20 20 21 22 25 27 26 24 17 9 4 3 1 1 1 2 6 10 11 13 16 14 Median rain- 394 339 #AHP cond. 16 16 18 22 27 30 30 30 30 29 23 20 14 14 11 10 9 8 6 4 5 8 15 23 28 29 31 30 30 29 25 21 20 17 14 16 fall in AHPs ### ### %AHP/valid y. 50% 50% 56% 69% 84% 94% 97% 97% 97% 91% 72% 63% 45% 45% 35% 33% 30% 27% 19% 13% 16% 25% 47% 72% 88% 91% 97% 97% 97% 94% 81% 68% 65% 57% 47% 53% 66% reliab. of 321 329 m. grass gr.p. rainf. in AHPs median AHP 00123456789100000000000012345678910110 1 60%-reliable 100 90 length of AHP 11 00

First rainy season Second rainy season years of usable records: 31 years of usable records: 32

Risks for bad per- Risks for bad performance or TCF: 1 time without cereal and formance or TCF: 0 times without cereal and legumes growing periods = 3 % legumes growing periods = 0 %

Chances for good Chances for good perfomance: 30 times with cereal and legumes growing perfomance: 32 times with cereal and legumes growing period (valid seasons only)1) = 97 % period (valid seasons only)1) = 100 %

Maize (Muguga I) 18 gr. periods of 120 days = 58 % of the seasons Maize (Mug. I) 9 gr. periods of 120 days = 28 % of the seasons E.mat. wheat 21 gr. periods of 110 days = 68 % of the seasons E.mat. wheat 14 gr. periods of 110 days = 44 % of the seasons E. mat. Beans 27 gr. periods of 90 days = 87 % of the seasons E.mat. beans 22 gr. periods of 90 days = 69 % of the seasons V.e.mat. Barley 27 gr. periods of 80 days = 87 % of the seasons V.e.mat. barley 23 gr. periods of 80 days = 72 % of the seasons

Existential risks: No cereal growing period in a year or more: 0 times = 0 % of the years WATBAL run specifications 2) 3 or more consecutive rainy seasons without the min. AHP of 40 days: 0 times in 32 years ISUM ESUM ELIM OLIM STOCKRE IR No grass growing period in a season: 0 times = 0 % of the seasons 1 2,4 2,4 0,4 1 320 0,9 25 No grass growing period in a year or more: 0 times = 0 % of the years � 1,5 1,2 0,2 1 320 0,9 15 rainfall scenario: DISCON

1) Gap in relevant records max. 1 month 2) AHP = Agrohumid period ( ) Brackets mean it may be more but lack of rainfall records

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1.2.2 Calculation and configuration of yield potentials by using crop simulation programme MARCROP

1.2.2.1 Crop Water Requirements (CWR)

The potential evapotranspiration (PET, here as formerly usual ET0) is normally used as the reference in the calculation of potential evapotranspiration from a crop stand (ETcrop). This is done by using plant and time specific correction factors referred to as KC-values. The determination of crop water requirements is generally given by Doorenbos & Pruitt (1977):

ET crop = KC * ET0

Various KC-values for different crops have been given by Doorenbos & Pruitt (1977) and Achtnich (1980). In a series of laboratory and field experiments, Hornetz (1991), Shisanya (1996), Hornetz (1993), Hornetz et al. (2001), Hornetz et al. (2006) have calculated a number of crop water requirement coefficients for different crops and crop varieties. The daily measurements of these values are highly correlated with the mathematical approach/formula developed by Kutsch & Schuh (1980) which is based on an e-function. The following parameters are necessary for the computation of the water requirements: a) the duration of the different vegetation phases (initial, vegetative, generative, ripening); b) the water requirement coefficients for the initial period, peak period and the period of physical maturity. The accuracy of the mathematical function was tested by e.g. Hornetz et al. (1992) and Hornetz et al. (2001) for different crops in the climatological laboratory of the University of Trier. They found very high significant correlations (r = 0.86 - 0.99) between the actual KC-values (measured as daily water consumption data by a weighing lysimeter) and those estimated from the mathematical approach of Kutsch & Schuh (1980).

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Figure 1.3: General crop water requirement curve and related crop coefficients (after: Doorenbos & Pruitt, 1977; Kutsch & Schuh, 1980)

1.2.2.2 Theoretical root development and Leaf Area Index (LAI)

The importance of plant roots influencing the effectiveness of the plant to extract soil water cannot be underestimated. Causton & Venus (1981) introduced the RICHARD’s function into plant growth analysis. They found that this function gives trends sufficiently sensible from a biological viewpoint due to the fact that the function is based on a biologically realistic model and the function is a bounded monotonic one (Kutsch & Schuh, 1983). The basis of modelling using this function offers the empirical observation (= linear allometry) of different parts of the plant (Causton & and Venus, 1981). Under allometry, the growth of some parts of the plant proceeds at a rate faster than the others and then later on retrogresses.

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In the program the algorithm of a straight forward simple linear allometric relationship between leaf growth (using LAI) and root growth was employed. The estimation of the theoretical root development (di) was done in the algorithm following the RICHARD’s function (see Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4: Model for the root development of a plant according to the RICHARD’s function (source: Hornetz, 1991)

The same algorithm was used for calculating the temporal development of the Leaf Area Index (LAI).

1.2.2.3 Actual root development and Leaf Area Index

The theoretical values for root and LAI development must be converted into actual ones. This was done by assuming a linear allometric relationship between foliage growth and root development (Causton & Venus, 1981). As parameters for this purpose, the actual water supply and the relative yield reduction coefficient (KY) as defined by Doorenbos & Kassam (1979) were used. Thus the theoretical (di) and actual (di*) root length/LAI were linked according to Kutsch & Schuh (1983).

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1.2.2.4 Actual soil water storage

The estimation of actual soil moisture storage in the present study was based on the multi-strata soil moisture model of Koitzsch (1977; cited in: Shisanya, 1996). As in the model, the following factors were taken into account:

- With optimum water supply the plants take water mainly from the soil strata near the surface. - When water becomes short in supply, the water drawn from every sub-stratum is proportional to the amount of water in the sub-stratum which can still be used by the plants. - After heavy rainfall the water requirements are initially met from the filled sub-strata. - During the infiltration process the infiltrated water can be used by the plants for as long as it is within the rooting zone. In the algorithm the thickness of the different soil moisture strata is obtained simultaneously with the growing length of the root complex. For the daily water balancing (see Figure 1.6) the cumulative water holding capacity (CUM; see Figure 1.5) of all previous strata is evaluated if there will be any surplus water above the corresponding water holding capacity. Amounts below this threshold are directly moved to the next day. An eventual surplus is drained into the next lower stratum where it can be tapped together with additional capillary water (K) by further advancing roots. This model is refined by the fact that for each ten centimetre of soil layer a representative value should be given for the maximum (CM; i.e. field capacity) and the effective, i.e. the plant-available water holding capacity (CE).

Figure 1.5: Multi-strata soil moisture model (source: Hornetz, 1991)

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1.2.2.5 Stress physiological patterns

The above described model was further refined by Hornetz (1991) considering the following parameters of stress physiology with relevance to yield: - threshold values of hydrature depending on certain amounts of actual soil moisture; - adaptation of transpiration rates and consumptive water use to the decreasing soil water reserves; - drought resisting mechanisms (morphological and physiological responses) and retardation of the permanent plant-specific wilting point, increasing the amount of plant-available water.

Therefore, the concept of “hydrature phases” of Kreeb (1958; cited in: Hornetz, 1991) and soil related parameters that are important in yield assessment were introduced. Based on experimental results, the adaptation of transpiration rates and consumptive water use to decreasing soil water reserves was confirmed. In this connection, the validity of the traditionally fixing of the permanent wilting point (PWP) at pF = 4.2 was questioned, in particular in the case of drought resistant/adapted plants. In the new algorithm the actual water balance, experimentally defined, is the difference between the plant available water in the moist soil and the new crop depended plant available water in the rooting zone (CE). A new parameter in MARCROP algorithm was introduced, denoted by KC* (= ecophysiologically adapted KC-values). This parameter reflects the reactions of drought resistant plants to stress, e.g. osmotic adjustment, parahelionastic response, stomatal closure etc. These morphological and physiological plant responses were correlated to the hydrature classes. This methodological approach is permitting the combination of ecophysiological observations and measurements with agronomic factors. It is, for example, essential to distinguish the optimum hydrature period (hydrature period 1, “Optimumphase”) from the post-optimum hydrature period hydrature period 2, “Nachotimumphase”) because this decrease in hydrature –which is measurable as a significant drop in the water potential (Hornetz, 1991)- is related to relative highest yield. The ending hydrature period (hydrature period 4, “Endphase”) possesses equal relevance due to the delay of transpiration and photosynthesis. Using the occurrence frequency of each hydrature class during each of the different yield sensitive phenological phases, agroecological types (AET) are defined. These types provide the possibility of evaluating the yield potential during a given agrohumid period. According to Jätzold & Schmidt (1982) as well as FAO (1986) AET are defined as

AET 1 : optimum/very good (80 – 100 % of potential yield) AET 2 : sub-optimum/good (60 – 80 % of potential yield) AET 3 : average/fair (40 – 60 % of potential yield) AET 4 & 5 : marginal/poor (20 – 40 % of potential yield) AET 6a : minimum (10 – 20 % of potential yield) AET 6b-d : Total Crop Failure

503 ANNEX

1.2.2.6 Structure and algorithms of the MARCROP programme

Figure 1.6 is reflecting structure and algorithms of MARCROP. Different parameters have been additionally integrated into the model in order to take into consideration agroecologically important aspects and developments: e.g. - reduction coefficients for effective rainfall (as influenced by evaporation, interception, runoff, land use techniques etc.); - stored soil moisture at the beginning of an agrohumid period; - capillary soil water rising from deeper soil layers or ground water table; - coefficients and thresholds (of plant-available soil water) for describing wilting points and hydrature classes of defined crops.

Figure 1.6: Structure and algorithms of MARCROP (source: Hornetz, 1991)

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1.2.2.6 Structure and algorithms of the MARCROP programme 1.2.2.7 Results of calculations with MARCROP

Figure 1.6 is reflecting structure and algorithms of MARCROP. Different parameters have been additionally MARCROP results are not only given out in tabular form (see e.g. Table 1.1) but also graphically, which integrated into the model in order to take into consideration agroecologically important aspects and reflects the daily trend of the important parameter inputs (see Figure 1.7). developments: e.g. - reduction coefficients for effective rainfall (as influenced by evaporation, interception, runoff, land Figure 1.7: Optimum agroecological type (AET 1) for tepary beans at KARI/NRRC/ICRISAT Kiboko use techniques etc.); (Short rains 1990) (source: Hornetz, 1997) - stored soil moisture at the beginning of an agrohumid period; - capillary soil water rising from deeper soil layers or ground water table; - coefficients and thresholds (of plant-available soil water) for describing wilting points and hydrature classes of defined crops.

Figure 1.6: Structure and algorithms of MARCROP (source: Hornetz, 1991)

For estimating yield potentials and expectations the calculated agroecological types (AET) are annually listed within the simulation programme and can be statistically evaluated according to the different crop and soil scenarios. After that, mean AET figures are used to calculate Total Crop Failures (TCF; out of 10 years) and yield expectations (see Hornetz et al., 2001) as well as mean potential yields (in kg/ha) –as a combination of mean AET and optimum yields of defined crops according to experimental results (see Table 1.1). These results are listed in tables and enable us to understand properly the land use possibilities. Table 1.1.and 1.2 are reflecting the results of the crop yield simulation for different soil types; yield expectations on Ferralsols (Table 1.1) are about 10-20 % higher than on less fertile Acrisols and Luvisols (Table 1.2).

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Table 1.1: Climatic yield potentials of seasonal crops1) in AEZ LH 3-4 s + s (calc. for 9036072 Mweiga Estate with loc. dominating Phaeozems)

First rainy season Second rainy season (start mid of March till mid of April) (start mid of October till mid of November)

Total Total Yield Potential Estim. crop crop (in % of Opti- average failures Crop variety Estim. failures mum) Crop variety yield (kg/ out out ha)2) of 10 of 10 seasons seasons Very good (80 - 100 %) Barley (v.e.m. Kashmir) 1360 0 Barley (v.e.m. Kashmir) 1270 0 Barley (m.m. Karne) 2390 0 Finger Millet (Ekalakala) 2010 0 Good Maize (Muguga I: MU (60 – 80 %) 99301) 4310 0 Finger Millet (Ekalakala) 2140 0 Wheat (e.m. Ngiri, Kenya Barley (m.m. Karne) 2190 0 Tembo) 1880 0 Wheat (e.m. Ngiri, Kenya Wheat (m.m. Africa Mayo, Tembo) 1680 0 Kenya Nyoka) 2400 0 Wheat (m.m. Africa Wheat (m.m. KS Mwamba) 3420 0 Mayo, Kenya Nyoka) 2170 0 Wheat (m.m. Kenya Wheat (m.m. KS Kongoni) 3420 0 Mwamba) 3060 0 Fair Triticale (m.m. T65, T74, Wheat (m.m. Kenya (40 – 60 %) T62) 1950 0 Kongoni) 3060 0 Beans (Rose coco) 990 0 Triticale (m.m. T65, T74, Beans (Red Haricot) 550 0 T62) 1740 0 Sunflower (H 8998) 1630 0 Maize (Muguga I: MU 99301) 3920 0 Beans (Rose coco) 890 0 Beans (Red Haricot) 540 0 Sunflower (H 8998) 1760 0 Poor (20 – 40 %)

1) Only crops listed with total crop failures (TCF) generally less than 33 % (acc. to yield calculations with MARCROP model of HORNETZ, 2001; see Methodology in Vol. II/M). 2) Well manured, fertilized and protected. Water loss as surface runoff is stopped by contour ridges, calculated with MARCROP.

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1.2.3 The ENSO concept

The research results on the influence of the ENSO phenomenon in Kenya (e.g. Farmer, 1988; Ogallo, 1988; Shisanya, 1996) open the possibility to forecast the intensity of most rainy seasons before they start, due to the air pressure differences between the eastern and western parts of the Pacific Ocean (Tahiti and Darwin/ Australia) –resulting in worldwide teleconnection processes. One or two months before the onset of a rainy season a small difference (Southern Oscillation Index SOI < 1.05) is already indicating an ENSO season with more rain, a high air pressure difference (SOI > 2.33) an Anti-ENSO season with less rain, especially for the 2nd rainy season (see Table 1.2). This enables farmers to choose the probable right seed variety and plant density to avoid risks or increase chances for successful cropping as Shisanya (1996) has shown. It is now to the Government to organize the flow of this vital information from the Meteorological Department to the media. These information should be reachable by the local authorities and farmers in time so that they can follow the advice given e.g. in the Farm Management Handbook which should be transmitted finally by the Field Officers. It may also be a sophisticated method of drought warning that farmers sell part of their livestock before the animals loose weight and the prices drop. But this transfer of information has to be well organized so that the right seed is available at the right place in the right time; and farmers may have the chance to get a credit after a bad season for new seed and livestock. The analysis of Makindu/Eastern Province (Table 1.2, 1.3) –a typical location for the semi-arid areas of SE-Kenya- shows some general aspects of the influence of the ENSO phenomenon: The frequency of the predominantly good ENSO years has significantly increased during the last 4 decades of the 20th century, probably a positive effect of the global warming. Fortunately, the frequency of the predominantly bad Anti- ENSO years has not significantly increased (Table 1.2).

Table 1.2: Rainfall and growing periods in Normal, ENSO and Anti-ENSO seasons at 9237000 Makindu, Makueni District/SE-Kenya (acc. to calculations with WATBAL 2003)

First Rainy Season Second Rainy Season Normal ENSO Anti-ENSO Normal ENSO Anti-ENSO Occurring 32 out of 71 20 out of 71 19 out of 71 30 out of 70 17 out of 70 18 out of 70 1930 - 2000 = 45 % = 28 % = 27 % = 43 % = 24 % = 26 % Occurring 13 out of 40 15 out of 40 12 out of 40 13 out of 40 15 out of 40 12 out of 40 1961 - 2000 = 32 % = 38 % = 30 % = 32 % = 38 % = 30 % Median rainfall in growing period 168 mm 155 mm 100 mm 265 mm 285 mm 190 mm Median length of growing period 50 days 50 days 35 days 60 days 72 days 50 days

In the first rainy season, the effect of an ENSO year is almost zero because then the influence is already coming to its end after starting in August. Rainfall is not higher than in normal seasons (in the sample it is accidentally even a bit less), and also the length of the agrohumid growing period is the same. However, the influence of an Anti-ENSO year is much more evident and important in the first rainy season: The median rainfall and the length of the growing period drop at Makindu in 3 out of 4 seasons below the minimum for the least demanding crops (minor millets). In the second rainy season the positive effect of an ENSO situation is visible here: Although the increase of the median rainfall is small (8 %) and just 11 out of 17 seasons got more than the median of the normal ones, the length of the growing period is 20 % longer, here 72 compared to 60 days. This is an important difference in the Livestock-Millet Zone 5, because then maize (DLC) has a good chance, it is the higher yielding and more preferred food crop.

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The negative influence of an Anti-ENSO situation is more significant than in the first rainy season. The median rainfall drops at Makindu to 190 mm only and the length of growing period to 50 days. But according to the probability it is better to plant minor millet then instead of expecting a crop failure with maize.

Table 1.3: Climatic yield potentials of seasonal crops1) in ENSO, Normal and Anti-ENSO years (second rainy season) 2) in AEZ LM 5 vu + vs/s (calc. for 9237000 Makindu Met. St. with different soils 3))

Total crop failures Estimated average yield Crop Variety Soil out of 10 years (in kg/ha) Anti- Anti- ENSO Normal ENSO ENSO Normal ENSO Maize Ferralsol 0 0 0 1580 1380 1050 (Dryland Comp.) Luvi-/Acrisol 0 1 1 1130 1100 700

Bulrush millet Ferralsol 1 1 1 1960 1920 1320 (Serere Comp. II) Luvi-/Acrisol 1 2 3 1720 1640 1080

Sorghum Ferralsol 0 0 0 1670 1640 1050 (KARI/Mtama-1) Luvi-/Acrisol 0 1 1 1470 1430 920

Tepary beans Ferralsol 1 1 1 780 670 560 Luvi-/Acrisol 1 2 3 750 550 400

Beans Ferralsol 2 4 5 720 540 470 (Rosecoco) Luvi-/Acrisol 3 4 7 530 340 230

Cowpeas Ferralsol 1 2 4 1060 900 590 (K 80) Luvi-/Acrisols 1 3 4 880 650 520

Soybeans Ferralsol 0 1 1 1680 1500 1030 (Nyala) Luvi-/Acrisol 1 2 2 1330 1250 900

Groundnuts Ferralsol 1 4 5 750 750 500 (Makulu Red) Luvi-/Acrisol 3 4 6 620 680 460 1) Crops listed acc. to yield calculations with MARCROP model of Hornetz et al. (2001). 2) 15 ENSO seasons, 10 Normal seasons and 10 Anti-ENSO were calculated and configured from 1961 till 1997. 3) Well manured, fertilized and protected. Water loss as surface runoff is stopped by contour ridges calculated with MARCROP.

Table 1.3 shows that at Makindu estimated average yields in Anti-ENSO seasons are 30-40 % lower for all crops (also for soybean) on different soils than under ENSO conditions; for Normal seasons yield results are about 10-20 % lower. On less fertile Luvi-/Acrisols Total Crop Failures are generally 10-20 % higher than on the dominating Ferralsols; yield results show similar patterns under the different rainfall conditions, however, on a lower level resulting by a general decrease of about 10-20 %.

508 ANNEX

Similar observations were made with different leguminous crops like drought-resistant tepary beans and green grams as well as drought-susceptible mwezi moja beans at NRRC Kiboko near Makindu (AEZ: LM 5- 6): Calculations with the crop simulation model MARCROP from 1959 till 1991 showed that Total Crop Failures (TCF) for the fast growing tepary beans occurred in 13-14 % of the second rainy seasons under normal and Anti-ENSO conditions, but none in ENSO seasons; for green grams this risk is about 21 % under normal, 38 % under Anti-ENSO and only 11 % under ENSO conditions. For the high yielding and fast growing mwezi moja beans there is a risk for TCF of about 57 % under normal and 62 % under Anti-ENSO conditions – however, only 22 % in ENSO seasons (Hornetz et al., 2001).

2. Configuration of agro-ecological zones and crop potentials by using the EDP search programme DBS Makindu

Within his masters’ thesis Thorsten Schorn (Schorn, 2006) has elaborated adata bank system (DBS) called Makindu consisting of • a data bank management system (DBMS) and • a data bank (DB) by using MS ACCESS software. The DB contains a number of data files for 4 district groups in Eastern Province (Meru North & Tharaka, Meru Central & Meru South, Embu & Mbeere, Machakos & Makueni) concerning e.g. a) tables of • temperature and rainfall conditions as well as altitudes of 85 AEZ and 171 subzones during growing (= agrohumid) periods • lengths of growing periods within the AEZ and subzones • about 700 selected perennial and annual crop varieties and their growing periods (days to maturity) b) 144 maps of • AEZ • Subzones

The main advantage of the DBS Makindu is that the files of the data bank can be linked together by means of a DBMS, so that crop varieties can be selected within defined agro-ecological units (AEZ or even subzones) and growing periods (long rains and short rains) according to their climatological requirements and vice versa. So lists of crop varieties are automatically produced and printed. Maps are showing the distribution potentials of these plants within the agro-ecological units; thus enabling stakeholders to gain a quick overview of agronomic potentials. DBS Makindu can be supplemented by adding additional crop varieties, AEZ, subzones and districts, even soils and yield potentials as calculated by crop simulation model MARCROP and taking into consideration forecasting approaches like the ENSO concept.

509 ANNEX

References

Achtnich, W. (1980): Bewässerungslandbau. Agrotechnische Grundlagen der Bewässerungswirtschaft.- Stuttgart

Causton, D.R. and Venus, J.C. (1981): The biometry of plant growth.- London

Doorenbos, J. and Kassam, A.H. (1979): Yield response to water.- (= FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper, 33), Rome Doorenbos, J. and Pruitt, W.O. (1977): Crop water requirements.- (= FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper, 24), Rome

Farmer, G. (1988): Seasonal forecasting of the Kenya Coast short rains, 1901-1984.- Journal of Climatology, 8, 489-497

Hornetz, B. (1991): Optimierung der Landnutzung im Trockengrenzbereich des Anbaues.- (=Trierer Geographische Studien, 8), Trier

Hornetz, B. (1993): Möglichkeiten ökophysiologischer Untersuchungen als Basis einer auf Computersimulationsmodelle und GIS gestützten ressourcenschonenden Landnutzungsplanung an der Trockengrenze des Anbaues in N-Kenya (am Beispiel von Marama-Bohnen- Tylosema esculentum).- in: Hornetz, B. and Zimmer, D. (Eds.): Beiträge zur Kultur- und Regionalgeographie. Festschrift für Ralph Jätzold (= Trierer Geographische Studien, 9), Trier, 165-179

Hornetz, B. (1997): Ressourcenschutz und Ernährungssicherung in den semiariden Gebieten Kenyas.- Berlin

Hornetz, B., Jätzold, R., Litschko, T. and Opp, D. (1992): Beziehungen zwischen Klima, Weideverhältnissen und Anbaumöglichkeiten in marginalen semi-ariden Tropen mit Beispielen aus Nord- und Ostkenya.- (= Materialien zur Ostafrika-Forschung, 9), Trier

Hornetz, B., Shisanya, C.A. and Gitonga, N.M. (2001): Crop water relationships and thermal adaptation of kathika beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and green grams (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek) with special reference to temporal patterns of potential growth in the drylands of SE Kenya.- Journal of Arid Environments, 48, 591-601

Hornetz, B., Shisanya, C.A., Gitonga, N.M. and Maingi, J.M. (2006): Studies on the possibility of expanding soybean (Glycine max. (L.) Merril) cultivation by smallholders in different agro-ecological zones of Kenya (with special reference to varieties with the ability of promiscuous nodulation and tempo-spatial patterns of chances and risks for cultivation).- (= Materialien zur Ostafrika-Forschung, 30), Trier

Jätzold, R. and Schmidt, H. (1982): Farm management handbook of Kenya.- Vol. II, Part A, Rossdorf/ Nairobi

Kutsch, H. and Schuh, H.-J. (1980): Versuch der mathematischen Darstellung der Wasserbedarfskoeffizienten für bewässerte Kulturen.- Zeitschrift für Bewässerungswirtschaft, 15, 183-191

Kutsch, H. and Schuh, H.-J. (1983): Simplified computer-based modelling of water balance in defined crop stands.- in: Reiner, L. and Geidel, H. (Eds.): Informationsverarbeitung Agrarwissenschaft, 7, München,

510 ERRATA

239-253

McCulloch, J.S.G. (1965): Tables for the rapid computation of the PENMAN estimate of evaporation.- East African Agricultural and Forestry Journal, 30, 286-295

Müller, M. (2003): Dynamik agroökologischer Zonen in den semiariden Trockenräumen Kenyas unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des (Anti-)ENSO-Phänomens.- unpublished MSc. thesis, Trier

Müller, M. (2005): Benutzer-Handbuch für WATBAL 2003.- unpublished paper, Trier

Ogallo, L.J. (1988): Relationships between seasonal rainfall in East Africa and the southern oscillation.- Journal of Climatology, 8, 31-43

Schorn, T. (2006): Der Einsatz von Datenbanken in der Landnutzungsplanung am Beispiel der Eastern Province/Kenia.- MSc. thesis, University of Trier, Trier

Shisanya, C.A. (1996): Chances and risks of maize and bean growing in the semi-arid areas of South-East Kenya during expected deficient, normal and above normal rainfall of the short rainy seasons. (= Materialien zur Ostafrika-Forschung 14), Trier

Willems, W. (1993): El Niño und die ’short rains’ in den Trockenräumen von Kenya. Saisonale Niederschlagsvorhersage für einen Trockenraum auf der Basis eines stochastischen Modells für tägliche Niederschläge.- (= Materialien zur Ostafrika-Forschung, 10), Trier

Woodhead, T. (1968): Studies of potential evaporation in Kenya.- Nairobi

511 ERRATA

ERRATA

512 ERRATA

ERRATA to the Second Edition of Subpart B 2 Central Province

P. 4, last line: W. Zettelmeyer was contributor to the first edition, not to the nd2 .

P. 5: The printer is Continental Graphics

P. 9, footnote 1: The General Part (Methodology) is not Vol . II/M but anAnnex after p. 491

P. 16, under column 0: PET must be > 1.25 PET; under column 6: 0,1-PET must be 0.1 – 0.25 PET; under column 7: < PET must be < 0.1 PET.

P. 18, TABLE II: After 55 – 74 the footnote2 was written as a normal figure, after 40 – 54 the same error with footnote3.

ETO (= potential evapotranspiration) should be written scientifically ET0 or easier understandable PET. At vu it should be better written: a min. gr. p. in less than 6 out of 10 y. Instead of A must be written ^ to show the connection of both rainy seasons.

P. 27: Repeats p. 26. Put in appendix 1 instead.

P. 29: The words of the headline must be separated.

P. 41: The on this place expected Chapter 1.2.4 THE POTENTIAL OF AGROFORESTRY TO IMPROVE AND RESTORE THE FERTILITY as in Western Province is here in a specific form for Central Province Chapter 2.7, p. 75.

P. 46, line 2: Omit AND MIDDLE RAINS (July – Sept). They don’t occur in these subzones.

P. 49, TABLE VII: Add source: KARI & GTZ: Fertil. Use Recommendations of the FURP Project, Vol. 4 Kiambu District. Nairobi 1995.

P. 58, line 5: Put in after m. mat: KS 2010

P. 61, first line: SAFFLOR should be the last line of p. 60.

P. 77, line 2: The words must be separated.

P. 96, last potential, (see Diagram Ngobit Deighton Downs): Put in after Downs: , p. 359

P. 145, Table 14 c, Manure column: bur must be but

P. 145 & 147, Table 14 d & e: No response-curves are given for maize and peas because fertilising would be not economical except in the long run to achieve sustainability.

P. 169, 1.: Instead of U Uplands, put the differentiation Uh, Um, Ul Uplands:

513 ERRATA

P. 169, 2.: Put in C Complex G Granite and Granodiorite I Intermediate Igneous Rocks N Biotite Gneisses R Quartz-Feldspat Gneisses X Undifferentiated or various rocks

P. 170: UIG 3 must be Ul G 3 because I means Intermediate Igneous Rocks, but l means lower level which is correct here. UIG 4 must be Ul G 4 UIGA1 must be Ul GA 1

P. 171: UIN1 must be Ul N 1 UIN3 must be Ul N 3 UIRA must be Ul RA UIX1 must be Ul X 1 UIX2 must be Ul X 2

P. 246-258: The pages are mixed up. Follow the numbers of the district pages.

P. 257, line 3: TA I II must be TA I + II The diagram for LH 1 see p. 356.

P. 355, 356, 361 & 362, diagrams: Put the small rainfall figures one column to the right.

P. 384, line 7: Instead of 93 metric tons per year only write: dramatically reduced to 16 metric tons per year.

P. 420 & 421, Tables 17 c & d: 123 N must be 12.3 N

P. 451, Table 8: Omit the last line, there must be an error in the production and yield.

P. 483, last bloc: H 505 must be H 515

Annex p. 22, line 4: Instead of ‘agro-ecological units (AEZ or even subzones)’ write agro-ecological zones and subzones.

Add: The programme should be supplied by a CD-ROM from the GTZ at Kilimo House, Nairobi. It can be used for Central Province too except for Nyandarua District because of its middle rains.

514