Information to Users

Home , Alex Lifeson, Anatomy of a Drum Solo, Anthem Records, Any Way You Want It, A Farewell to Kings, A Show of Hands

INFORMATION TO USERS

This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer.

The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction.

In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.

Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps.

Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6” x 9” black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order.

ProQuest Information and Learning 300 North Zeeb Road. Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA 800-521-0600

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. STRUCTURE, FUNCTION, AND PROCESS IN THE EARLY SONG CYCLES AND EXTENDED SONGS OF THE CANADIAN ROCK GROUP RUSH

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Music

Theory in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

Brian M. Walsh, M.A.

*****

The Ohio State University 2002

Dissertation Committee: Approved by Professor Burdette Green, Adviser

Professor Marc Ainger Adviser Professor Charles Atkinson Music Theory Graduate Program

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number 3049131

UMI’

UMI Microform 3049131 Copyright 2002 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.

ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Copyright by Brian Michael Walsh 2002

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ABSTRACT

This study develops analytic methods that provide an informed explanation of the

musical aspects of Rush’s song cycles and extended songs composed “by committee”

during the period from 1974 to 1976. This period contains Rush’s first four studio

recordings: Rush (1974), Fly By Night (1975), Caress O f Steel (1975), and 2112 (1976).

This analytic approach takes advantage of the wealth of information available in

the traditional parameters of investigation (pitches, rhythms, form), but also attends to

details commonly overlooked. Rather than abandon existing systems, analytic techniques

commonly reserved for art music are modified by adopting an insider’s perspective on

the process of rock music composition, with the goal of establishing the norms of rock

form, harmony, and compositional process—an approach that is lacking in the current

literature. In certain cases new techniques are developed to address aspects of rock music

that are not well served by traditional analytic methods. The desired result is an informed

analysis that does not misrepresent the musical aspects of this important genre.

Chapter 1 presents a brief discussion of Rush, a literature review, and a statement

of goals. To establish a foundation for discussing the music of Rush, Chapter 2

investigates the norms of structure, function, and process in rock music and proposes the

application of a range of analytic techniques that explore select aspects of the “musical

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. text.” The second part of the study (Chapters 3-6) discusses songs on each of the four

studio recordings. In this context, Rush’s statement that 2112 represents the first real

synthesis of their diverse influences is measured. The concluding chapter explores the

larger issues raised by this study, both for the future study of Rush’s music and for the

analysis of popular music in general.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Dedicated to my wife Danielle for her infinite love and patience

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to thank my adviser, Burdette Green, for his constant encouragement,

enthusiasm for the topic, thoughtful suggestions, and for his infinite patience in

correcting my stylistic errors. Without his support, this study would not have been

possible.

I am eternally grateful to my wife, Danielle Hundley, for her unconditional love,

patience, support, and understanding through this entire endeavor.

I wish to thank Professor Gregory Proctor for his inspirational tutelage and for

providing the foundation of the functional analytic method developed in Chapter 2.

Special thanks to Pegi Cecconi and Anthem Records for the permission to use

Rush’s lyrics, album artwork, and musical examples.

I also wish to thank all my friends and family, especially Marie Zaim, for their

interest, support, and for allowing me to discuss aspects of this study with them ad

infinitum.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. VITA

October 29,1968 ...... Bora-Boston, Massachusetts

199 1 ...... B.A. Music, B.A. Psychology, Boston College

1994 ...... M A Music Theory, The Ohio State University

1992 - 1997 ...... Graduate Teaching Associate, The Ohio State University

1998 - 2000 ...... Sr. Software Instructor, ExecuTrain of Boston

2000 - present ...... Software Support Specialist, Deloitte & Touche

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: Music Theory

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Abstract ...... ii

Acknowledgments ...... v

Vita...... vi

List of Tables ...... x

List of Figures ...... xi

Chapters:

1. Introduction ...... 1

2. Structure, Function, and Process in Rock Music ...... 18

2.1 Structure...... 19 2.1.1 Rock song form ...... 21 2.1.2 Graphic diagramming system ...... 21 2.1.3 Overview of formal functions ...... 24 2.2 Function ...... 35 2.2.1 Guitar technique and its influence on rock harmony ...... 35 2.2.1.1 Notation and performance ...... '...... 35 2.2.1.2 Chord types ...... 38 2.2.1.3 Scale types ...... 46 2.2.2 Rock tonality ...... 49 2.2.2.1 Cadences ...... 50 2.22.2 Modality...... 53 2.2.2.3 Levels analysis and concepts of prolongation ...... 57 2.2.2.4 Functional analytic method ...... 60 2.3 Process ...... 77 2.3.1 Timbral and textural articulation of structure ...... 79 2.3.2 Stratification ...... 89 2.4 Summary...... 90

vii

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Chapters: Page

3. Rush (1974): Early Extended Songs ...... 92

3.1 General style traits on Rush...... 93 3.2 Other Extended Songs ...... 100 3.2.1.1 “Finding My Way” ...... 101 3.2.1.2 “Here Again” ...... 107 3.2.1.3 “Before And After” ...... 111 32.1.4 “Working Man” ...... 126 3.3 Summary...... 135

4. Fly By Night (1975): Rush’s “First” Song Cycle “By-Tor & The Snow Dog” 136

4.1 Fly By Night’s general style traits ...... 138 4.1.1 “Anthem” ...... 141 4.2 Other Extended Songs: “Fly By Night,” “In The End,” and “Rivendell” 147 4.2.1 “Fly By Night” ...... 148 4.2.2 “In The End” ...... 152 4.2.3 “Rivendell” ...... 154 4.3 The Song Cycle: “By-Tor & The Snow Dog” ...... 161 4.3.1 I. At The Tobes O f Hades and II. Across The Styx ...... 166 4.3.2 HI. Of The Battle ...... 169 4.3.2.1 i. Challenge And Defiance and ii. 7/4 War Furor ...... 170 4.3.2.2 iii. Aftermath ...... 179 4.3.2.3 iv. Hymn Of Triumph ...... 182 4.3.3 IV. Epilogue ...... 184 4.4 Summary...... 185

5. Caress O f Steel (1975): “The Necromancer” and “The Fountain Of Lamneth” ...... 186

5.1 Caress O fSteel’s general style traits ...... 188 5.2 Other extended songs: “Lakeside Park” and “Bastille Day” ...... 189 5.2.1 “Lakeside Park” ...... 190 5.2.2 “Bastille Day” ...... 192 5.3 Song Cycles ...... 198 5.3.1 “The Necromancer” ...... 198 5.3.1.1 I. Into The Darkness ...... 201 5.3.12 n. Under The Shadow ...... 207 5.3.13 m. Return Of The Prince ...... 215 5.3.2 “The Fountain Of Lamneth” ...... 219 5.32.1 I. In The Valley ...... 222 5.322 n. Didacts And Narpets ...... 231 5.3.23 HI. No One At The Bridge ...... 234 5.3.2.4 IV. Panacea ...... 242 5.3.2.5 V. Bacchus Plateau ...... 249 viii

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Chapters: Page

5.3.2.6 VI. The Fountain ...... 253 5.4 Summary...... 258

6 .2112 (1976): The Grand Song Cycle, “2112” ...... 259

6.1 “2112” ...... 260 6.1.1 I. Overture...... 272 6.1.2 II. The Temples Of Syrinx ...... 285 6.1.3 HI. Discovery ...... 291 6.1.4 IV. Presentation ...... 302 6.1.5 V. Oracle: The Dream ...... 308 6.1.6 VI. Soliloquy ...... 313 6.1.7 VII. Grand Finale ...... 319 6.2 Summary...... 328

7. Conclusions ...... 329

Bibliography ...... 337

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1.1 The percentage of song cycles in the first four albums ...... 5

1.2 Album sets in Rush’s output from 1976 to 1998 ...... 6

2.1 Harrison’s division of the primary triad scale degrees into bases, agents, and associates ...... 64

2.2 Harrison’s classification of secondary triads ...... 66

2.3 Summary of Bobbitt’s system of harmonic analysis and chord substitution 71

2.4 Combined analytic system of chord function ...... 74

2.5 Percussion legend and associated functions ...... 84

3.1 Rush: Track listing and durations ...... 93

3.2 Rush: Key relationships and Verse-Chorus phrase boundaries ...... 96

3.3 Rush: Tempo and duration relationships in “extended” songs ...... 100

4.1 Summary of Macan’s progressive rock musical traits ...... 138

4.2 Track listing and durations on Fly By Night...... 139

4.3 “By-Tor & The Snow Dog:” Themes, durations, and descriptions of “Challenge and Defiance.” ...... 173

5.1 Track listing and durations on Caress O fSteel ...... 188

5.2 “The Fountain Of Lamneth:” Song titles, durations, and lyric themes ...... 219

6.1 Textural/Timbral character associations in “2112” ...... 269

6.2 “2112:” Song titles, structures, and CD times ...... 270

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

2.1 Graphic illustration of “rock song form” ...... 21

2.2 Model of the graphic diagramming system ...... 22

2.3 Graphic representation of Forte’s 32-bar or “Popular Song Form” definition 26

2.4 Representation of local Verse and Chorus repetition schemes ...... 27

2.5 Representation of Covach’s Bridge definition ...... 28

2.6 Representation of large-scale Bridge repetition ...... 28

2.7 Representation of instrumental Bridge placement and alternate terminology 29

2.8 Representation of a common Solo placement and its relationship to established themes ...... 31

2.9 Representations of common Solo/Theme relationships ...... 32

2.10 Two thematic schemes for Introductions ...... 33

2.11 An example of the positional flexibility of Introductions ...... 33

2.12 Two examples of the thematic relationships in Closings ...... 34

2.13 Comparison of guitar harmonies in staff and tablature notation ...... 36

2.14 Comparison of E Major barre shape with F#n tablature ...... 37

2.15 Standard set of open-position Major and minor triads on the guitar ...... 39

2.16 Derivation of barre shapes from common open-position chords ...... 40

2.17 Barre shapes simplified to “power chords” and “power fifths” ...... 40

2.18 Transferability of minor and Major barre shapes in g minor...... 42

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure Page

2.19 Melodic progression realized as parallel barre chords in D Major ...... 42

220 Examples of “sus” chords ...... 43

2.21 Examples o f “added” chords ...... 44

2.22 Open and closed positions of a G Major chord on guitar ...... 45

2.23 The Major and minor pentatonic scales shown in tablature ...... 46

2.24 Graphic shorthand for the minor pentatonic scale ...... 47

2.25 Two versions of the a blues scale ...... 48

2.26 Graphic shorthand of the blues scale, Version 2 ...... 48

2.27 Two conventional rock cadences ...... 51

2.28 Two “modal” progressions ...... 54

2.29 Two “modal” progressions combined ...... 56

2.30 Winkler’s progression analyzed as subdominant prolongation ...... 59

2.31 Combined “modal” progression analyzed as prolongation ...... 59

2.32 Characteristic semitones and wholetones ...... 67

2.33 Application of Harrison’s functional analysis to “modal” progression ...... 68

2.34 Application of Bobbitt’s functional analysis to “modal” progression ...... 72

2.35 Bobbitt’s contrasting systems for secondary function notation ...... 73

236 Combined analysis of “modal” progressions ...... 75

2.37 Formal diagram with added timbral descriptions ...... 80

2.38 Diagram of Moore’s “sound box” ...... 80

2.39 Graphic representation of the panning process in a guitar Solo ...... 81

2.40 Representation of additive or accumulating texture ...... 82

2.41 Common placement of percussion elements in a phrase...... 85

2.42 Increasing textural density in drum kit ...... 86 xii

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure Page

2.43 Changing cymbal types across the Verse-Chorus pair ...... 87

2.44 Cymbal contrast across multiple Verse repetitions ...... 88

2.45 Stratification of bass and guitar harmonic function ...... 89

3.1 Diagram of common thematic relationships between guitar Solos and Verse- Chorus pairs ...... 94

3 2 “Need Some Love:” Analysis of simplified Verse and Chorus progressions ...... 97

3.3 ‘Take A Friend:” Analysis of simplified Verse and Chorus progressions ...... 99

3.4 Formal diagram of“Finding My Way” ...... 101

3.5 “Finding My Way:” Graphic representation of additive texture in Introduction 103

3.6 “Finding My Way:” Analysis of Verse and Chorus progressions ...... 104

3.7 “Finding My Way:” Ambiguity of tonic mode in Verse I. Track I (0:46-0:50) 105

3.8 “Finding My Way:” Analysis of D theme. Track 1 (2:30-2:57) ...... 106

3.9 Formal diagram of “Here Again” ...... 107

3.10 “Here Again:” Graphic representation of additional processes in the Solo ...... 108

3.11 “Here Again:” Analysis o f Verse and Chorus progressions ...... 110

3.12 “Before And After” Formal diagram of Introduction. Track 7 (0:00-2:16) ...... 112

3.13 “Before And After”—Introduction: Pairing of cymbals and guitar timbre to theme in the Introduction ...... 113

3.14 “Before And After”—Introduction: Modified sound box analysis ...... 113

3.15 “Before And After”—Introduction: First statement of the A theme. Track 7 (0:00-0:16)...... 114

3.16 “Before and After”—Introduction: Analysis of simplified progression ...... 115

3.17 “Before And After”—Introduction: A theme bass solo. Track 7 (0:17-0:34)... 117

3.18 “Before And After”—Introduction: B theme with simplified accompaniment Track 7 (1:11-1:19) ...... 118

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure Page

3.19 “Before And After”—Introduction: B theme variant. Track 7 (1:38-1:41) ...... 119

3.20 “Before And After”—Introduction: Link to the song. Track 7 (1:47-2:l6) ...... 120

3.21 Formal diagram of the song structure of “Before And After.” Track 7 (2:16-5:34) 122

3.22 “Before And After:” Chorus and Solo I. Track 7 (3:10-3:19) ...... 123

3.23 “Before And After.” Modulation from Solo I Retransition to Verse Introduction. Track 7 (3:44-3:39) ...... 124

3.24 “Before and After” Analysis of Verse progression ...... 125

3.25 Formal diagram of “Working Man” ...... 126

3.26 “Working Man”—Solo II: Juxtaposed improvised and composed elements ...... 127

3.27 “Working Man”—Solo II: Bass Introduction. Track 8 (2:05-2:10) ...... 128

3.28 “Working Man”—Solo II: Phrase articulation through instrument-specific gestures. Section I (2:11-3:12) ...... 129

3.29 “Working Man”—Solo II: D theme. Track 8 (3:13-3:22) ...... 130

3.30 “Working Man”—Solo II: False Retransition and opening of section Q. Track 8 (3:13-3:44)...... 132

3.31 “Working Man”—Solo II: Phrase articulation through instrument-specific gestures. Section II. Track 8 (3:38-4:33) ...... 133

3.32 “Working Man”—Solo II: Final Retransition to Verse recapitulation. Track 8 (5:00-5:23)...... 134

4.1 Formal diagram of “Anthem” ...... 141

42 “Anthem:” Introduction theme A. Track 1 (0:00-0:32) ...... 142

43 “Anthem:” Analysis of simplified A2 theme. Track 1 (0:33-0:53) ...... 143

4.4 “Anthem:” Analysis of simplified Verse and Chorus progressions ...... 143

4.5 “Anthem:” Analysis of A4 theme. Track I (1:36-l :49) ...... 144

4.6 Lyrics to “Anthem” ...... 146

xiv

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure Page

4.7 “Fly By Night:” lyric sheet ...... 149

4.8 Formal diagram of“Fly By Night” ...... 150

4.9 ‘Tly By Night:” Introduction/Verse theme. Track 5 (Begins at 0:00) ...... 151

4.10 Formal diagram of “In the End” ...... 153

4.11 Formal diagram of “Rivendell” ...... 156

4.12 “Rivendell:” Introduction and Verse I. Track 7 (0:00-0:41) ...... 157

4.13 “Rivendell:” Analysis of simplified A Theme ...... 158

4.14 “Rivendell:” Analysis of B theme ...... 158

4.15 “Rivendell:” Analysis of simplified C theme and final cadence. Track 7 (4:05- End) ...... 160

4.16 Back cover o f Fly By Night...... 161

4.17 “By-Tor & The Snow Dog:” Lyric insert...... 162

4.18 Formal diagram of “By-Tor & The Snow Dog” ...... 164

4.19 “By-Tor & The Snow Dog:” Functional analysis of Verse and Chorus progressions ...... 167

4.20 “By-Tor & The Snow Dog”—“Of The Battle:” Diagram of sectional divisions and processes ...... 169

4.21 “By-Tor & The Snow Dog:” Three transition themes. Track 4 (1:11-1:46) ...... 171

4.22 “By-Tor & The Snow Dog:” Theme F. Track 4 (1:47-1:52) ...... 173

4.23 “By-Tor & The Snow Dog:” Theme F2. Track 4 (2:55-3:00) ...... 175

4.24 “By-Tor & The Snow Dog:” Theme F3. Track 4 (3:06-3:12,3:18-3:24) ...... 176

4.25 “By-Tor & The Snow Dog:” Theme F4. Track 4 (3:30-3:36) ...... 177

4.26 “By-Tor & The Snow Dog”—“7/4 War Furon” Theme G. Track 4 (3:54-4:31) ...... 178

4.27 “By-Tor & The Snow Dog”—“Aftermath:” Theme H. Track 4 (4:31-5:26).... 180

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4.28 “By-Tor & The Snow Dog”—“Aftermath:” Theme I. Track 4 (5:26-6:28) ...... 181

4.29 “By-Tor & The Snow Dog”—“Hymn Of Triumph:” Theme J. Track 4 (6:29- 6:38) ...... 182

4.30 “By-Tor & The Snow Dog”—“Hymn of Triumph:” Theme K. Track 4 (7:25- 7:34)...... 183

4.31 “By-Tor & The Snow Dog:” Closing. Track 4 (8:07-end) ...... 184

5.1 Formal diagram of “Lakeside Park” ...... 190

5.2 Formal Diagram of“Bastille Day” ...... 192

5.3 “Bastille Day:” Use of improvised and composed elements in Solo and Closing ...... 193

5.4 “Bastille Day:” Analysis of simplified A theme. Track I (0:00-0:17) ...... 194

5.5 “Bastille Day:” Analysis of A2 theme. Track 1 (2:14-2:33) ...... 195

5.6 “Bastille Day:” Analysis of A3 theme. Track 1 (2:34-2:48) ...... 196

5.7 “Bastille Day:” Analysis of unison close (A4 theme). Track I (3:50-4:04) ...... 197

5.8 Shared formal structure in ’The Necromancer” ...... 199

5.9 “The Necromancer” Diagram of large-scale thematic and timbral relationships 200

5.10 Lyrics of “Into The Darkness” ...... 201

5.11 “Into The Darkness:” Analysis of A theme. Track 4 (0.22-0:31) ...... 203

5.12 Formal diagram of “Into The Darkness” ...... 203

5.13 “Into The Darkness:” Diagram of accumulating texture in the opening crescendo ...... 204

5.14 “Into The Darkness:” Sound box diagram of opening accumulating texture 206

5.15 Lyrics of “Under the Shadow” ...... 207

5.16 Formal diagram of “Under the Shadow” ...... 208

xvi

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure Page

5.17 “Under the Shadow:” Drums with B theme rhythmic motive. Track 4 (4:17-4:23) ...... 209

5.18 “Under the Shadow:” Analysis of B theme. Track 4 (4:23-4:30) ...... 210

5.19 “Under the Shadow:” Analysis of B theme variant. Track 4 (4:36-4:46) ...... 210

5.20 “Under the Shadow:” Analysis of C theme. Track 4 (5:28-5:32) ...... 211

5.21 “Under the Shadow:” Analysis of unison close (C2 theme). Track 4 (6:32-7:01) 212

5.22 “Under the Shadow:” Analysis of D theme. Track 4 (7:06-7:09) ...... 213

5.23 “Under The Shadow:” Association of stereo position to improvised/composed pairs in Solo II ...... 213

524 “Under the Shadow:” D2 theme unison close. Track 4 (8:25-8:36) ...... 214

525 Lyrics of “Return Of The Prince” ...... 215

526 Formal diagram of “Return O f The Prince” ...... 216

5.27 “Return Of The Prince:” Analysis of E theme and chordal variant. Track 4 (8:39- 8:43,9:19-9:23) ...... 217

5.28 “Return Of The Prince:” Diagram of accumulating texture ...... 218

5.29 Reversed formal relations in “In The Valley” and “The Fountain” ...... 220

5.30 Formal diagram of “In The Valley” ...... 222

5.31 “In The Valley:” Diagram of shifting style elements ...... 223

5.32 “In The Valley:” Analysis of A theme. Track 5 (0:00-0:19) ...... 224

5.33 “In The Valley:” A Verse with simplified guitar. Track 5 (0:20-1:01) ...... 225

5.34 B Verse and Chorus lyrics for “In The Valley” ...... 227

5.35 “In The Valley:” C theme. Track 5 (1:37-1:50) ...... 228

5.36 “In The Valley:” Analysis of simplified D theme. Track 5 (2:27-2:52) ...... 230

5.37 Lyrics to “Didacts And Narpets” ...... 231

xvu

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure Paee

5.38 Formal diagram of “Didacts And Narpets” ...... 232

5.39 “Didacts And Narpets:” Analysis of simplified guitar progression. Track 5 (4:44- 5:14)...... 233

5.40 Lyrics for “No One At The Bridge” ...... 235

5.41 Formal diagram of “No One At The Bridge” ...... 236

5.42 “No One At The Bridge:” Diagram of accumulating texture across Verse and Bridge...... 237

5.43 “No One At The Bridge:” Analysis of A theme. Track 5 (5:21-5:45) ...... 238

5.44 “No One At The Bridge:” Analysis of simplified B Theme. Track 5 (6:05-6:29) ...... 240

5.45 “No One At The Bridge:” Analysis of C theme. Track 5 (7:40-8:15) ...... 241

5.46 Lyrics for “Panacea” ...... 243

5.47 Formal diagram of “Panacea” ...... 244

5.48 “Panacea:” Diagram of accumulating texture ...... 245

5.49 “Panacea:” Analysis of A theme. Track 5 (9:38-9:48) ...... 246

5.50 “Panacea:” Analysis of B theme fragment. Track 5 (9:49-9:53) ...... 247

5.51 “Panacea:” Analysis of simplified B theme. Track 5 (9:49-10:14) ...... 247

5.52 “Panacea:” Analysis of simplified C theme. Track 5 (10:15-10:37) ...... 248

5.53 “Panacea:” Analysis of simplified D theme. Track 5 (10:37-11:08) ...... 249

5.54 Lyrics for “Bacchus Plateau” ...... 250

5.55 Formal diagram of “Bacchus Plateau” ...... 251

5.56 “Bacchus Plateau:” Analysis of A theme. Track 5 (12:54-13:11)...... 252

5.57 “Bacchus Plateau:” Analysis of B theme opening. Track 5 (13:41-13:49) ____ 252

5.58 Formal diagram of “The Fountain” ...... 253

5.59 B Verse and Chorus lyrics for “The Fountain” ...... 255

xviii

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure Page

5.60 A Verse II lyrics for “The Fountain” ...... 256

5.61 “The Fountain:” Final chord. Track 5 (19:41-19:58) ...... 257

6.1 2112 Additional text from album insert ...... 263

6.2 2112: Cover a rt ...... 264

6.3 2112: Back cover art ...... 265

6.4 2112: Album insert art ...... 266

6.5 Diagram of thematic interrelationships and theme-character pairings in “2112”268

6.6 Formal diagram of “Overture” ...... 273

6.7 “Overture:” Analysis of A theme opening. Track I (0:46-1:04) ...... 274

6.8 “Overture:” Analysis ofB theme. Track 1 (1:18-1:30) ...... 275

6.9 “Overture:” Analysis of C theme. Track 1 (1:31-1:37) ...... 276

6.10 “Overture:” Sound box analysis of C theme ...... 277

6.11 “Overture:” Third and fourth statements of the C theme. Track I (1:45-l :58). 278

6.12 “Overture:” Analysis of D theme. Track 1 (1:57-2:06)...... 279

6.13 “Overture:” D theme close. Track 1 (2:27-2:30) ...... 280

6.14 “Overture:” Analysis of C2 theme. Track 1 (2:31-2:38) ...... 280

6.15 “Overture:” Analysis of C last close2. Track 1 (2:43-2:51) ...... 281

6.16 “Overture:” Analysis of E theme. Track 1 (2:58-3:04) ...... 282

6.17 “Overture:” Analysis of F theme. Track 1 (3:49-3:55) ...... 283

6.18 “Overture:” Analysis of final F theme statement and Closing. Track I (4:06-4:32 ...... 284

6.19 Lyrics for “The Temples Of Syrinx” ...... 286

6.20 Formal diagram of “The Temples Of Syrinx” ...... 287

6.21 “The Temples Of Syrinx:” Analysis of A2. Track 1 (4:32-4:40) ...... 288

xix

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure Pape

6.22 “The Temples O f Syrinx:” Analysis of C last close and C theme. Track 1 (5:00- 5:29) ...... 289

6.23 “The Temples Of Syrinx:” Analysis of link and F theme. Track 1 (5:31-5:41) 290

624 “The Temples O f Syrinx:” Analysis of link and H theme. Track I (6:30-6:39) 291

6.25 Formal diagram of “Discovery” ...... 293

6.26 “Discovery:” Opening of Introduction. Track I (6:49-6:54) ...... 294

6.27 “Discovery:” Development of protagonist’s music in the Introduction. Track 1 (7:23-7:50)...... 295

6.28 “Discovery:” Analysis of simplified I Theme. Track 1 (7:51-8:11) ...... 296

6.29 Lyrics for “Discovery: A Verse” ...... 296

6.30 “Discovery:” Analysis of J Theme. Track 1 (8:49-8:54) ...... 297

6.31 “Discovery:” Analysis of K. theme. Track I (9:07-9:10) ...... 298

6.32 Lyrics for “Discovery: B Verse” ...... 298

6.33 “Discovery:” Text painting at the close of the B Verse, and Transition n. Track I (9:23-9:44) ...... 299

6.34 “Discovery:” Analysis of simplified M theme. Track I (9:45-9:49) ...... 300

6.35 Lyrics for “Discovery: C Verse” ...... 300

6.36 Lyrics for “Presentation” ...... 303

6.37 Formal diagram of “Presentation” ...... 304

6.38 “Presentation:” Analysis of simplified N theme. Track I (10:15-10:24) ...... 305

6.39 “Presentation:” Analysis of D2 theme. Track 1 (10:33-10:42) ...... 306

6.40 “Presentation”—Closing: Analysis of final cadence. Track 1 (13:44-13:53).... 307

6.41 Lyrics for “Oracle: The Dream” ...... 309

6.42 Formal diagram o f “Oracle: The Dream” ...... 310

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure Page

6.43 “Oracle: The Dream”—Introduction: Analysis of simplified 0 theme. Track 1 (13:57-14:09) ...... 311

6.44 “Oracle: The Dream”—Closing: Analysis of final cadence. Track 1 (15:46- 15:55)...... 313

6.45 Lyrics for “Soliloquy” ...... 314

6.46 Formal diagram of “Soliloquy” ...... 315

6.47 “Soliloquy:” Introduction and analysis. Track 1 (16:03-16:12) ...... 316

6.48 “Soliloquy:” Analysis of simplified E theme. Track 1 (16:42-16:54) ...... 316

6.49 “Soliloquy”—B Verse H: Analysis of final cadence. Track 1 (18:04-18:18).. .318

6.50 Formal diagram of “Grand Finale” ...... 319

6.51 “Grand Finale”—Q Theme: Diagram of accumulating texture ...... 320

6.52 “Grand Finale:” Analysis of the Q theme Introduction. Track I (18:18-18:28) 321

6.53 “Grand Finale:” Q theme variant. Track I (18:32-18:34) ...... 322

6.54 “Grand Finale”—Q theme Solo. Track I (18:32-18:57) ...... 322

6.55 “Grand Finale”—Transition: Analysis of F part II2. Track I (18:58-19:04) 323

6.56 “Grand Finale:” Analysis of F part II3 theme. Track 1 (19:04-19:11) ...... 324

6.57 “Grand Finale”—Closing: R theme. Track 1 (19:44-20:33) ...... 376

xxi

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Though scholarship on rock music is abundant, fundamental questions about the

workings of rock music remain to be answered. Since the 1980s a heated debate has

focused on the topic of rock analysis, but no widely accepted approach has emerged.

Instead, the music is frequently treated as if its only value were to be found in how well it

articulates the affective content of the lyrics, in the socio-economic forces surrounding its

composition, or in gender issues.

The goal of this study is to develop analytic methods that provide an informed

explanation of the musical aspects of Rush’s song cycles and other extended songs

composed during the period 1974 to 1976. This analytic approach will take advantage of

the wealth of information available in the traditional parameters of investigation (pitches,

rhythms, form), but will also attend to details commonly overlooked in traditional

analysis. Rather than abandon existing systems, the intent is to modify the analytic

techniques commonly reserved for discussions of art music by adopting an insider’s

perspective on the process of rock music composition, with the goal of establishing the

norms of rock form, harmony, and compositional process—an approach that is lacking in

the current literature. In certain cases new techniques will be employed in order to

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. address aspects of rock music that are not well served by traditional analytic methods.

The hoped-for result will be an informed analysis that does not misrepresent the musical

aspects of this important genre.

Change has remained a constant factor throughout the long career of Canadian

rock group Rush. Differing from most artists who have maintained a similar longevity,

Geddy Lee (Bass, Synthesizers), Alex Lifeson (Guitar), and Neil Peart (Percussion) have

not been content to repeat themselves stylistically.1 This is how Lee expressed their

credo:

Our music is a little perverse in that it’s rock music, and it’s hard rock music, but we try and bring all these things into it We always try to keep the hard rock aspect of it there because that’s our first music. But anything else we can learn to help sophisticate that form of music, as far as our own sensibility goes, that’s really all we try to do (Katz, “Singing Bass,” 11).

This desire for change and sophistication has allowed Rush to embrace new musical

challenges through a continuous process of style experimentation and synthesis. The

range of styles Rush has embraced includes hard rock, progressive rock, heavy metal,

funk, reggae, synth pop, and alternative. Lee points out that Rush adopted these

contemporary styles not only to challenge themselves as songwriters and musicians, but

also to maintain a stylistic relevance:

1 Alan Moore helps articulate this distinction when he states, “bands who came to the forefront as part of teenage culture in the late 1960s and 1970s are either still current or more interestingly, reforming. What is important is not that these bands may have stayed together, but that their stylistic changes have been kept to a minimum.” Moore, Rock. The Primary Text: Developing a Musicology of Rock (Buckingham: Open University Press, 1993), 164. 2

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. But if you want to speak to people in the language of today you have to leam what that language is. I can’t pretend to be a contemporary musician if I don’t embrace contemporary trends or at least understand them, even if I decide to reject them (Stix, “Modem Master,” 64).

Rush, a very successful band outside the mainstream, has built a reputation based

on touring and recordings, rather than the more conventional path of Top 40 singles.2

Each of their many albums released since 1976 has achieved platinum status3 in the

United States. Such success without significant airplay confirms the special relationship

that the group has with its fans. Rush have always believed that if they wrote music that

they found enjoyable and challenging, their fans would follow. As Lee put it:

We assume that Rush’s audience is intelligent enough to understand our intentions. You can aim for the lowest common denominator or you can aim for the ideal listener, someone who understands your strengths and weaknesses and whose intelligence you can appeal to. I think that’s a healthy way to write (Quill, “Rush,” Canadian Composer. 48).

Rush’s song cycles and other extended songs are particularly worthy of academic

study for a number of reasons. Most important is that their music is serious, listening-

oriented rock music, not personality-oriented music. Rush’s music offers an opportunity

to examine a multitude of contemporary style traits as interpreted by other rock

musicians. Early on, this group developed a composition-by-committee process that has

lasted until the present. Peart writes the lyrics, and Lee and Lifeson write the music.

2 Bill Banasiewicz, Rush Visions: The Official Biography (Omnibus Press, 1988), 17.

3 Over one million copies sold.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Though their music has gone through stages of great complexity, they have

insisted on maintaining a trio lineup both in the studio and on tour,4 each player being a

top performer on his respective instrument The group’s repertory is interesting from an

analytic perspective because it can be appreciated and discussed at multiple levels of

structure. Moreover, it includes an ever-changing mixture of styles and techniques that

presents a challenge worthy of academic study.

The group draws special attention to the album 2112 (1976), as the “the first real

blend of [their] diverse and schizophrenic influences” (Banasiewicz, Rush. 25) and as the

major turning point in their career. Lifeson remarked, “if I had to pick a defining

moment it would have to be when we finished our fourth album, 2112. When that record

was done, we felt like it was the beginning of our own sound” (Aledort, “Grace Under

Pressure,” 62). Leading up to 2112, the period from 1974-1976 was marked by an

intense compositional focus on expanding conventional rock song forms, exemplified by

the song cycle. This period contains Rush’s first four studio recordings: Rush (1974), Fly

By Night (1975), Caress O fSteel (1975), and 2112 (1976).5 As Table 1 shows, their

4 There are some notable exceptions to this statement in Rush’s studio recordings where additional musicians were brought in to record parts. For example, Hugh Syme’s synthesizer work on ‘Tears” from 2112 (1976) and Ben Mink’s (of FM and k.d. lang fame) violin part on “Losing It” from Signals (1982). It is important to recognize these instances as die contribution of close friends and not the standard process of hiring outside musicians to augment or embellish the core group. These songs are part of another structural tradition, the inclusion of studio-production tracks on albums that used the studio as an instrument to its fullest potential without the concern of reproducing the material live. Rush never toured with additional support musicians. See Banasiewicz, Rush. 26 and 70.

5 Rush, Rush. (Compact Disc 314 534 623-2, Mercury, 1974); FlvBv Night (Compact Disc 314 534 624-2, Mercury, 1975); Caress O f Steel. (Compact Disc 314 534 625-2, Mercury, 1975); 2112. (Compact Disc 314 534 626-2, Mercury, 1976). 4

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. focus on the song cycle is clearly illustrated by the increase in the relative proportions

between cyclic and non-cyclic songs over the first four albums.

Rush Fly By Night Caress Of Steel 2112 Album Duration 40:04 37:29 44:44 38:43 Sum of Cyclic Songs 0:00 8:37 32:22 20:31 Sum as % of Total 0% 23% 72% 53%

Table 1.1: The percentage of song cycles in the first four albums

Rush’s first four recordings are important for the precedent they set for future

style acquisitions and for the foundation they lay for the analysis of later works. On All

The World's A Stage, the live recording that followed 2112, Rush began the practice of

using a live recording as a marker to close one style period and as a point of departure for

their next studio release. The liner notes makes this point clear:

It is not perfect, but it is faithful to us and to you This album to us, signifies the end of the beginning, a milestone to mark the close of chapter one, in the annals of Rush (Rush, All the World’s a Stage. (Compact Disc 822 552-2 M-l, Mercury, 1976).

This conscious sequencing of studio and live recordings into “album sets” centering upon

particular style and technical acquisitions is extremely useful to any study of Rush’s

music. Although Rush never used the phrase “album sets” to describe this structural

division of their output, in numerous sources they have discussed the function of the live

recordings as points of departure for the studio recordings that follow. As Lifeson stated,

“live albums give us some breathing space to cleanse ourselves and start on something

fresh and new” (Stix, “Alex Lifeson: Still in School,” 59). Four sets are shown in Table

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. I >.1

1974 Rush I 1975 Fly By Night I Song Cycle 1975 Caress O fSteel E 1976 2112 S 1976 All The World's A Stage 1 S ekw . . 1 1977 A Farewell To Kings I 1978 Hemispheres E Progressive Rock 1980 Permanent Waves E/S 1981 Moving Pictures S 1981 Exit Stage Left

. s & M 1 1982 Signals I 1984 Grace Under Pressure E Sound/Synthesizer 1985 Power Windows S Technology 1987 Hold Your Fire S 1988 A Show Of Hands lvv:;v,v, ■ . setiv • . 1 1989 Presto I 1991 Roll The Bones E Back to Basics 1993 Counterparts S 1996 Test For Echo S 1998 Different Stages I-Introduction E-Experimentation S-Synthesis

Table 1.2: Album sets in Rush’s output from 1976 to 1998

Within each album set there is a cycle of recordings that introduce the overriding

compositional focus, show experimentation in relation to the larger focus, and finally

synthesize the new focus with Rush’s existing style. These internal divisions are

illustrated in Table 2 with the letters I, E, and S. This process was not predetermined by

the group but resulted from the professional and artistic struggles that took place during

each recording in each set. Nevertheless, the designations given above represent the

common consensus found in quotes by Rush, though they classed different albums as 6

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. transitional or experimental at different stages in their career.6 Along with the cycles

established by studio and live recordings, this second layer of organization helps to

illustrate a fairly consistent result within each cycle.

In order to trace the developmental path from Rush to 2112, this analysis will

focus on formal structure, harmonic function, and the alternative processes of growth and

articulation in the music itself. Close examination of the musical object (the recording)

provides the clearest evidence of Rush’s compositional process. When leading

practitioners in rock are asked about their compositional process, these areas of analytic

concern become clear.

What I’ll do is I'll first get a key. Then after that I try to find a chord pattern, some kind of chord pattern I can write a melody to. Then I play the chord pattern and I play in rhythm in a certain key, and I start thinking of these great, outrageous melodies. [Brian Wilson on his composing process (Zollo, Songwriters on Sonewriting. 127)]

I’ll have a groove and some chords. [Bruce Homsby on composing songs (Ibid., 596)]

Kind of chord changes first, and feel of the song. The arrangement is finished before the melody or the lyrics are put on. [k.d. lang on composing with partner Ben Mink (Ibid., 608)]

Generally the lyrics would come after there’s a pretty strong structure. [Lindsey Buckingham (Ibid., 468)]

If the lyrics come first, we work around them and what moods they are trying to create. If the song’s a very up, positive thing, we use a lot of major chords; if it’s sadder, or more thought provoking, we’ll have “minorish” feels thrown in [Lifeson in “Alex Lifeson: Rush’s Kinetic Lead Guitarist,” Guitar Plaver. 66-67)]

It’s a matter of happenstance whether the music or Neil’s lyrics come first. [Lee in ‘Together Again in Rush,” Guitar World. 72)]

6 See John Swenson and Matt Resnicoff, ‘Together Again in Rush,” Guitar World. April 1988,73 and Stix, “Modem Master,” 61 for comments by Lee concerning 2112, Moving Pictures and Hold Your Fire as points of stylistic synthesis. Additional comments concerning the experimental recordings are placed in the following discussion of the first album set. 7

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. By treating the musical object as the matter of primary concern, one can inform and

revise current views on rock structure, function, and process and perhaps clarify some of

the misconceptions concerning rock practice that abound in the current literature.

Since all of Rush’s song cycles dating from this period are narratives,

consideration of the lyrics is a necessary but secondary issue. The relationship of the

lyrics to the music must always be carefully weighed in the light of the above quotes. As

Alan Moore cautions, “because the lyrics are there, it is easy to apply to the song

techniques of narrative analysis derived from literary and film theory. While this can be

a valuable exercise, it can too easily be allowed to stand for an understanding of the song

itself’ (Rock. 158-159). Although most popular music analysts adopt the traditional

formalist philosophy that the music is composed to reflect the “meaning” in the lyrics, it

is just as common for songwriters to write absolute music (progressions, “riffs,”

“grooves,”7 and even full-structured songs) before beginning the lyric content of the

song.8 As valuable a question as “how does the music, if at all, reflect the lyric content”

is “how does the lyric content, if at all, reflect the musical material?”9

7 See page 22 for the definition of groove.

s Theodore Gracyk provides a good discussion of the equal if not superior place the sound of the music has in the composition process in rock music, and that in certain famous examples the text was more an afterthought than the foundation of the song. Rhythm and Noise: An Aesthetic of Rock (Duke University Press, 1996), 65. He states, “yet when rock musicians discuss their work, we find that their creative process centers around aural rather than textual values.” Ibid., 63.

9 As Moore remarks, “by failing to take into account the attitude set up by the music, so many other analyses of song lyrics are not only incomplete, but lead to erroneous conclusions.” Rock. 59. 8

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The relevant literature for this study falls into four categories: Rush histories,

discussion of Rush’s lyrics, analyses of Rush’s music, and general popular music

analysis. Because of the wealth of writings on popular music and popular music analysis,

the literature review is selective. The goal is to discuss those authors who provide

overviews of the existing work on popular music analysis and to highlight those authors

who’s works are most relevant to the current study. Discussion of specific analytic

concepts is reserved for Chapter 2.

Four books have been written about the history of the group. The most

authoritative and best-known of these is Rush Visions: The Official Bioeraphv by Bill

Banasiewicz. Visions is useful as a thorough overview of Rush’s history through 1987.

While it takes a “fan” perspective, it includes invaluable insights about all of the albums

from Rush (1974) through Hold Your Fire (1987). Robert Telleria’s Rush: Tribute

(Merely Players), although more comprehensive in scope (1968-2001), is little more than

an encyclopedia of widely available Rush quotes and a series of lists: instruments,

awards, discography, tour sets, collectibles, etc.10 Lesser-known histories are Brian

Harrigan’s Rush11 and Steve Gett’s Success Under Pressure.12 Both lack the scope and

first person account of Banasiewicz’s book, but they contain valuable comments from the

band members. Harrigan covers Rush’s career from 1974 through 1981 and Gett from

1974 through 1982.

10 Robert Telleria, Rush: Tribute (Merely Plaversl (Kingston Canada: Quarry Press, 2002).

11 Brian Harrigan, Rush (Omnibus Press, 1982).

12 Steve Gett, Success Under Pressure (Cherry Lane Books, 1984). 9

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The lyrics of Rush’s music have received the greatest amount of attention. One of

the earliest studies is Deena Weinstein’s Serious Rock.13 in which she discusses the lyrics

of Roger Waters (from Pink Floyd), Bruce Springsteen, and Neil Peart. A more thorough

discussion of Rush’s lyrics is presented by Carol Selby Price in Mystic Rhvthms: the

philosophical vision of Rush.14 Price organizes and interprets selected songs by

categorizing them according to shared themes such as “Fear” and “Man and Machine.”

Both works deal exclusively with Rush’s lyrics; the music is not discussed.

Detailed analytic work has yet to be done on Rush’s early output, but selected

songs from 2112 to the present have been discussed by Durell Bowman. Bowman has

published excerpts of his forthcoming dissertation Permanent Change: Individualism.

Risk. Sub-Genres, and the Music of Rush15 in the book Proeressive Rock Reconsidered.16

Bowman’s focus, in both the article and the dissertation, is the lyrics and to a lesser

extent the music of selected Rush songs. When musical details are discussed, their

articulation of the lyric “meaning” is paramount.

13 Deena Weinstein, Serious Rock (Culture Texts, 1985).

14 Carol Selby-Price, Mystic Rhvthms: the philosophical vision of Rush (San Bernardino, California: Borgo Press, 1998).

15 Durell Bowman, Permanent Chance: Individualism. Risk Sub-Genres, and the Music of Rush, forthcoming dissertation from UCLA.

16 Bowman, “Let Them All Make Their Own Music: Individualism, Rush, and the Progressive/Hard Rock Alloy, 1976-77,” Progressive Rock Reconsidered (Routledge, 2001). 10

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The most thorough study of popular music analytic methodology,

philosophy, and bibliography is Richard Middleton’s Studying Popular Music.17 He

provides exhaustive discussions of a wide spectrum of useful analytic techniques that

reflect an interdisciplinary approach. Although he shows some regard for traditional,

formalistic approaches, his philosophical orientation is clear when he states that

“cognitive science, experimental music psychology and artificial intelligence theory

come together” to “provide ethnomusicology and popular music studies with the weapons

that will dethrone traditional musicology from the centre of the analytic stage” (Studying

Popular Music. 191-192). He emphatically draws a distinction between formalist and

social approaches, and though he attempts to reconcile these opposing philosophies in

“Popular Music Analysis and Musicology: bridging the gap,” 18 his zealous argument

against traditional approaches is representative of the prevalent mistrust of applying these

techniques to popular music. In his view, a high degree of misinterpretation can result

from applying existing analytic techniques inappropriately. This viewpoint is not without

justification; examples of poorly applied traditional techniques abound.19

John Covach, one of the strongest supporters and practitioners of popular music

analysis, also presents a good overview of both issues and writers that are relevant to the

17 Richard Middleton, Studying Popular Music (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1990).

18 Middleton, “Popular Music Analysis and Musicology: bridging the gap,” Popular Music 12/2 (1993V

19 For example, see Middleton’s criticism of Wilfrid Meller’s in Studying Popular Music. 112-114; Moore’s discussion of Walter Everett in Rock. 12,29; and Tim Hughes’ criticism of Matthew Brown and Graeme Boone in his “Review of John Covach and Graeme Boone, eds. Understanding Rock: Essays in Musical Analysis ,” Indiana Theory Review 21 (2000): 210-217. 11

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. analytic study of popular music in “We Won’t Get Fooled Again: Rock Music and

Musical Analysis.” 20 In contrast to Middleton, his intended audience is the academically

trained theorist. A portion of his article considers problems with musicological and

popular-music studies approaches, “two positions that address the analysis of popular

music that have been forwarded outside the discipline of music theory.” As he states,

“both of these positions are critical of the notion that traditional analysis can offer much

to popular-music studies and even assert that such analytic perspectives can distort an

interpretation of the music in fundamental ways (“We Won’t Get Fooled Again,” 121).”

Covach disagrees with the frequent dismissal of traditional analytic techniques by these

groups, believing that “rejecting the applicability of current analytic methods to rock

music is premature and ultimately unnecessarily limiting” (Ibid., 131). He is quick to

point out that the relationship between art-music and popular music is not black and

white, and that they are not completely alien to each other as is often assumed.21 In

essence, writers who suggest alternate techniques for discussing popular music, insuring

the proper distance from the “domineering” techniques of traditional analysis, are in

danger of substituting one system of a priori assumptions that dictate methodology,

repertoire, and process with another.22 Unfortunately, despite the attention paid to

popular music analysis there is, as Covach points out, “no clear discipline of rock studies,

20 Covach reviews writers (for example, Richard Middleton, John Shepherd and Peter Wicke) who see the use of art-music terminology in popular music analysis as misleading and even wrong because of the value judgments and expectations that come with each term. “We Won't Get Fooled Again: Rock Music and Musical Analysis,” In Theory Only 13/1-4(1997): 129.

21 Covach, “We won’t get fooled again,” 129.

22 Ibid., 127-128. 12

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. no consensus on what might constitute its focus or its limits, as a field of study or set of

approaches; and it is not clear that there ever will or should be” (Understanding Rock.

vii).

In Rock: The Primary Text Alan Moore raises the issue that the music itself is

often marginalized in favor of socially oriented parameters. He is one of a handful of

writers who approaches rock practice directly, addressing both insider practices and

analytic techniques.23

This book has been written in the conviction that, within rock criticism and commentary in general, insufficient attention is paid to what I call the primary text , i.e. that constituted by the sounds themselves, as opposed to commentaries on them, which constitute the secondary text. (Rock. I)

Moore correctly points out that writers from all philosophies have used rock music as a

platform to discuss issues secondary to the recorded sound. Regrettably, this mode of

writing dominates what is written about rock music, resulting in an analytic culture that

stresses the writer’s commentary on the lyrics and the music as something inherently

more interesting than the music itself.24

23 Moore’s articles on rock harmonic practice—“Patterns of Harmony.” Popular Music 11/1 (1992); and “The So-Called Flattened Seventh in Rock.” Popular Music 14/2 (1995)—are discussed in the section on rock harmonic practice and analysis (see page 35).

24 For example, see Covach’s critique of Susan McClary in “We Won’t Get Fooled Again,” 126-127. 13

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Moore clearly understands the driving issue that lies behind so many current

debates in popular music analysis: the location of “meaning.”

The oppositional views adopted by musicologists and sociologists arise because, whereas musicologists have assumed that the internal logic constitutes the entire meaning of music, sociologists have argued that the social role of music constitutes its entire meaning. Neither position, I think, is useful to adopt. Internal and external features inform each other (Rock. 5).

Moreover, Moore believes “it is the mode adopted by the listener that determines what

the music will yield” (Rock. 25).

David Brackett, in his review of Moore’s Rock, stresses the importance of

recognizing whether the writer is discussing the music from the perspective of the listener

or the composer.

When we talk about music materials and meaning as theorists we must always respect the plurality of meaning, and that always placing the burden of meaning on die listener is unfair to the composer. The question we must ask ourselves as theorists is which one do we choose and following Middleton, in what proportions?” (Music Theory Spectrum 13/1 (1994), 122).

Brackett’s distinction points to the importance of considering the composer’s perspective

in popular music analysis, informing analytic technique through actual practice as well as

perception.

Richard Bobbitt’s Harmonic Technique in the Rock Idiom: The Theory and

Practice of Rock Harmony 25is the most thorough study of rock harmonic practice to

date.26 Unfortunately, little has been done to advance the study of rock harmony since its

25 Richard Bobbitt, Harmonic Technique in the Rock Idiom: The Theory and Practice of Rock Harmony (Belmont, California: Wadsworth Pub. Co., 1976).

26 The only other comparable source is Volkmar Kramarz’s Harmonieanalvse der Rockmusik: Von Folk und Blues zu Rock und New Wave (Schott’s Sohne: Mainz 1983). Despite its title, Kramarz’s book is equal parts history, melody, and harmony. The book 14

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. publication in 1976 and Bobbitt’s work is infrequently cited. Though it draws heavily

from Jazz harmonic theory, much of Bobbitt’s discussion is specific and relevant to rock.

His work supplies several refinements to the analytic method developed in Chapter 2.

Though discussions vary on exactly what should constitute the analytic focus of

popular music scholarship, what is most important to derive from writers such as

Middleton, Covach, Moore, and Brackett is the need for and viability of multiple analytic

approaches. The sheer number of available approaches, and the results they achieve,

attest to the fact that “meaning” in all music must be acknowledged as plural. Although

most pleas for an interdisciplinary approach call for the blend of music analytic

techniques with elements outside the music, as a matter of practice little attention is given

to exploring the structural and processual meanings that can be derived from analysis of

the recorded sound.27

As an example, important foundational work has yet to be done in areas such as

harmonic syntax and function. The lack of understanding of guitar practice and of the

extended functional relationships in rock has fostered the general neglect of the primary

text. Alternative explanations of modality and primitivism sound compelling, but do not

stand up to careful scrutiny. Few writers have understood that the problem is not one of

non-tonality, but of adjusting our conception of tonal function. When alternative

techniques are generated without first exploring the usefulness of modifying traditional

provides an excellent overview of several styles but is less theoretically compelling from an analytic perspective. Kramarz utilizes several analytic techniques throughout to illustrate stylistic features, including jazz chord symbols, Roman numerals, and a strict Riemannian functional analysis.

27 Hughes recognizes the continued absence of this type of analysis in his 2000 review of Understanding Rock. Indiana Theory Review. 197. 15

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. techniques, the results can lead to overly complicated systems whose results can often be

explained in simpler, more conventional terminology.28

A clear and informed understanding of formal structure, harmonic function, and

the variety of alternative growth processes is needed in order to discuss this interesting

phase of Rush’s development in the proper context Since the current analytic literature

on rock demonstrates over and over again a fundamental misunderstanding of rock

practice, an attempt at clarification is timely. Rather than propose new systems for each

of these topic areas, the focus will be on adapting existing systems whenever possible,

and introducing new techniques as needed. Since popular music itself stands as a blend

of styles and syntaxes, an eclectic approach is needed to account for the multiple musical

dimensions at work. Rush’s developmental path to 2112 provides both an interesting

historic context and an opportunity to refine analytic tools for the discussion of rock

music.

In order to establish a foundation for discussing the music of Rush, this study

investigates the norms of structure, function, and process in rock music and proposes the

application of appropriate analytic techniques. Formal convention and structure is

discussed first because much of rock compositional practice and process is tied to it. For

example, the intimate connection between structure and processes of growth and

articulation necessitate the establishing of formal conventions as a first step. The second

part of the study follows a chronological discussion of each of the four studio recordings,

to show Rush’s evolving approach to their use of extended forms. In this context, Rush’s

For example, Mark Steedman’s “A generative grammar for jazz chord sequences” in Popular Music 2 (1984k 37-67. 16

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. statement that 2112 represents the first real synthesis of their diverse influences can be

measured. Discussion of the recording Rush in Chapter 3 serves the dual purpose of

establishing Rush’s early style traits in the three areas of analytic concern and providing

the basis for comparing their later recordings. The conclusion of the study in Chapter 7

will explore the larger issues raised by this study, both for the future study of Rush’s

music and for the analysis of popular music in general.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER 2

STRUCTURE, FUNCTION, AND PROCESS IN ROCK MUSIC

In order to discuss the series of style changes that occurred between Rush and

2112, it is necessary to define some norms of 70s rock music and to establish techniques

for analyzing the music. The objective here is not to attempt a comprehensive style

analysis of 70s rock music but to articulate general concepts that are commonly

overlooked or misunderstood. Greater substance will be added to these concepts in the

later discussion of Rush’s song cycles and other extended songs. Though every musical

dimension plays a role in establishing the components of style, formal structure,

harmonic function, and timbral/textural process are three areas of particular relevance to

Rush’s music in this early period of development.

Because rock musicians often think in terms of formal sections when composing

and discussing their music, we must determine the elements of “rock song form” in order

to gauge structural changes such as those that were introduced from Rush to 2112. A

formal diagramming system will be introduced to graphically summarize pertinent formal

details. Moreover, since rhythmicized harmonic progressions are commonly the starting

point for rock songs, attention to these progressions can clarify the relationship between

traditional and rock harmonic syntax, and can determine “why” rock harmony is

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. fundamentally different, not just “how” it differs. Examining common rock chord types,

the influence of guitar technique, and rock harmonic function are essential steps.

Because the “sound” of rock is often considered its defining feature, understanding

techniques of timbral and textural process, and their relation to traditional harmony and

form, is also essential.

2.1 Structure

The discussion of form is frequently lacking in the current literature. Because

most writers believe that melody and harmony generate large-scale structure, form in

rock music is often seen as a by-product of pitch relationships, or at least as subservient

to them.29 Representation of the music through levels analyses is a tell-tale trait of this

orientation.30 In addition, form is often ignored in analytic discussions because rock

songs are perceived as being formulaic.31 For example, Moore’s treatment of form in

Rock—one of the most thorough discussions of rock form to be found—adds up to only

two pages of text.32 Moreover, the formal discussions that do exist are often

characterized by an inconsistency in terminology, especially in the use of terms that have

29 As Moore states, “the notes contribute to the form of entire songs.” Rock. 47.

30 For examples see Moore, The Beatles: Set. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Lori Bums, “Joannie Get Angry: k.d. lang’s Feminist Revison,” Understanding Rock (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997); and Walter Everett ‘Text-painting in the foreground and middleground of Paul McCartney's Beatle song She’s leaving home: a musical study of psychological conflict,” In Theory Only, vol. 9,1985; and “Swallowed by a Song: Paul Simon’s Crisis of Crisis of Chromaticism,” Understanding Rnclr 113-154.

31 Middleton, Popular Music. 48-49.

32 Moore, Rock. 47-48,50-51. 19

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. changed meaning from style to style.33 What is rarely found in these discussions is an

exploration of the song forms themselves or of the compositional processes that shape

them.

Generally speaking, rock composers do not consider form as the by-product of

melodic and harmonic generation but rather as the organizing framework in which

melodic and harmonic elements are arranged.34 The previous quotes from Zollo’s

Songwriters on Songwriting attest to the importance of large-scale formal schemes in the

songwriting of many rock musicians.35 Taking musical ideas and words, shaping them

into Verse, Chorus, and Solo sections is central to the compositional process. What is

required then is an analytic reorientation. Formal structure must be viewed as the

organizing factor. For these reasons it is important to view the song forms from an

insider’s stance, making possible the exploration of finer levels of detail in the factors

that govern each formal section.

33 For an example, see the discussion of Chorus on page 26.

34 This process of organizing material into formal functions is mentioned by Neil Peart in “Fireworks: The making of Hold Your Fire ” in the tour book for Rush’s Hold Your Fire tour, 1987,2.

35 See page 7. 20

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2.1.1 Rock sone form

In order to evaluate a songwriter’s approach to form it is useful to define a core

“rock song form.” Both the composer and the listener share expectations about the

song’s design, expectations that may or may not be fulfilled. Like the concept of sonata

form in art music, a rock song model offers a basis for comparing formal modifications at

multiple levels of organization.

The core structure in “rock song form” is the Verse-Chorus pair. As shown in

figure 2.2, the Verse-Chorus pair is commonly repeated, and may be separated by a Solo

or Bridge.36 The dashed lines indicate that both the Introduction and the Closing are

optional.

Core tliil Core Uoit

• • • • Solo or ; Introduction ; Verse Chonu Verse Chorus Cloting Bridfe • •• •

Figure 2.1: Graphic illustration of “rock song form”

Though few exact recreations of this structure appear in actual practice, this basic

formula lies at the heart of conventional rock song form.

2.1.2 Graphic diaeramming system

To aid in the analysis of the thematic relationships, repetition patterns, and

sectional characteristics of rock song form, a uniform graphic diagramming system is

36 In practice, it is also common to separate the Verse-Chorus pair with a Bridge. This use of the Bridge is discussed on pages 27-28. 21

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. used throughout this study. This system is tailored to rock music, though aspects are

clearly indebted to formalist analysis (e.g., section and theme labeling). The topmost

groupings represent the large-scale parsing of the formal sections: the subsequent levels

reveal finer details about each section.

Function „• Verse miftfii&H Chorus Subdivisions Intro Verse I Theme A A B C Phrasing 2x4m 4x4m 4+4m (4x4m)+2m

Figure 2.2: Model of the graphic diagramming system

At the top, the formal functions are indicated by the labels commonly favored by rock

musicians. Each section is set in alternating shades of gray to articulate the segmentation,

and the length of each section approximates its proportion relative to the larger song. The

approximations are based on the compact disc timings and phrase structure.

The subdivision level allows for the commonplace segmentation of formal areas

into smaller, related sections. When the Introduction and Verse I share the same thematic

“feel,” as in figure 2.2, both sections are grouped under the broader function of Verse.

Like the Verse, the Solo section often requires subdivisions. By this means, the

subdivision level can indicate local functions within large-scale functions. At either

level, Roman numerals may be used to designate when the text is set strophically. If a

function area contains multiple sections, the Roman numeral designations appear in the

subdivision level.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The category “theme” as it is used here requires a word of caution. What

constitutes a theme in rock music can differ greatly from the connotation found in

traditional formalist analysis. Instead of a melodic or linear construct, the rock “theme”

points to a rhythmicized chord progression as the basic thematic material. Melodic

material is often absent. Thus the category is expanded to include “riffs” and

rhythmicized chord progressions as well as conventional melodic material. In figure 2.2

each theme is assigned an uppercase letter, and superscript numbers (A2) are used to

represent variant forms.

Middleton addresses this issue of “theme” in a circuitous way in his discussion of

gestural analysis.

A basic starting-point to the gestural modeling of song-types is the notion of rhythmic “groove.” Different configurations of note placing, articulation, and accent from the various components of the percussion kit, at specific tempi, play a large part in defining styles. But very quickly this takes on more extended textural aspects; the gestural shape varies according to the type of bassline and placing and articulation of notes from other instruments: guitars, keyboards, horns. These interactions produce a gestural centre or ‘given’, around which may popular songs present themselves (“Popular music analysis and musicology,” 180).

Middleton’s discussion amounts to an ornate way of acknowledging the fact that rock

themes have a strong rhythmic foundation emphasized in “groove,” and in the associated

information provided by all of the instruments. The instruments combine to create a

compound groove and the harmonic and melodic content: his “given” or simply “the

theme.”37 This description is not entirely reflective of practice: often some instruments

establish the dominant groove, while the drums play a subordinate role by accompanying

37 Middleton’s quote is most important for the attention it gives to the percussion in rock music. Discussion of percussion cues and techniques forms a major portion of the discussion of alternative processes, beginning on page 83. 23

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. with a simple backbeat (bass on beats 1 and 3, snare on beats 2 and 4). Rather than

substitute new terminology, a simple broadening of the term “theme” serves the purpose.

Discussions of phrase structure in rock music often refer to its preference for

“square” 2,4 and 8 measure units,38 but in practice, rock phrasing is flexible and requires

a notation that can illustrate subtle relationships. It is important to note that in the

diagramming the “phrasing” illustrates the parsing and repetition of the rhythmicized

chord progression, not the vocal melody.

In figure 2.2 the Verse has a “square” structure of 4x4 measures (abbreviated m);

a regular four-measure theme is stated four times. Because the Verse accompaniment is

based on the Introduction theme, it is likewise labeled A. If the last repeat of the four-

measure theme were truncated by two measures, the notation would be 3x4m+2m. In the

Bridge the B theme comprises two distinct four-measure phrases, notated 4+4m. If one

were to repeat this larger phrase, the notation would be 2x(4+4m). The Chorus shows a

slightly different arrangement in which three repetitions of a four-measure phrase are

followed by new material to close. To articulate this addition of new material, the section

is notated (4x4m) +2m; the parentheses represent a grouping of like elements. The thick

vertical gray bar in figure 2.2 indicates that the C theme elides with the following section.

2.1.3 Overview of formal functions

Judgments about Rush’s, or any group’s use of rock structure depend on details of

formal sections, their large-scale placement, and their repetition schemes. The functional

designations (Verse, Chorus, Bridge) not only serve to classify functions, but they also

38 For examples see Moore, Rock. SO; and Middleton, Popular Music. 49. 24

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. enable the comparison of song structures and the exploration of the musical processes.

Sections can set up expectations that can be realized or not, but certain relationships are

expected in order to constitute “rock song form.” Deviations from the core model can

prove to be a meaningful factor in the analyst’s approach to a particular song.

The text setting and thematic contrasts within the core Verse-Chorus pairs provide

vital details to rock song analysis.39 In general, designations of strophic and refrain text

setting are useful because other texted sections, Choruses and Bridges for example,

sometimes exhibit strophic as well as refrain settings. Moore’s careful distinction

between the strophic setting of the Verse and the refrain setting of the Chorus is

absolutely essential.40 Each component in the Verse-Chorus pair has an associated

narrative function. As in opera recitative and aria pairs, in “rock song form" the Verse

text functions as the primary narrative element with the Chorus providing the reflective

component. The strophic setting of the Verse lends itself to the presentation of the

details; each new Verse reveals additional information about the changing storyline. The

Chorus, with its refrain setting, allows for the repetition of the distilled message of the

song. The Verse and Chorus are characteristically set to different themes, though not

necessarily in different keys.

39 For the sake of clarity, formal terms are capitalized herein to articulate their purpose as functional designations and to parallel the functional harmony discussion. When citing or paraphrasing other writers this format is followed. The traditional system of labeling strophic sections with lowercase terms (verse) and refrain sections with capitalized terms (Chorus) is not employed. Any deviation from the strophic Verse-refrain Chorus setting will be discussed in the accompanying analysis.

40 Moore, Rock. 47-48. 25

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A fundamental difference exists between the rock concept of Chorus and its

designation as part of the classic pop song structure. As shown in Allen Forte’s The

American Popular Ballad of the Golden Era. 1924-1950.32-bar form contains a three-

part structure, the Refrain, containing two strophically set Choruses separated by a

Bridge.41

I 32-bar form Verse Chorus I Bridge Chorus 2 16m 16m 8m 8m

Figure 2.3: Graphic representation of Forte’s 32-bar or “Popular Song Form” definition

This confusion in terminology and practice is echoed in Middleton’s discussion of rock

song norms when he writes “most rock songs are strophic (that is, the same music, a

chorus, is repeated to changing words)” (Studying Popular Music. 48-49). This example

serves as a warning for the analyst. The use of idiomatic terminology does not always

refer to the same historical object or to the proper context.

Repetition schemes play a major role in rock song form both locally and globally.

The “rock song form,” shown earlier in figure 2.2, is an example of large-scale formal

repetition where the Verse-Chorus pair is repeated as a group.42 It is also common for the

41 Allen Forte, The American Popular Ballad of the Golden Era. 1924-1950 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995), 38. Although it’s not the common usage, Forte’s definition of 32-bar form is useful as an illustration of the dangers of shared terminology.

42 For an interesting variation on this pattern see Journey, “Any Way You Want It,” Departure. (Compact Disc Compact Disc CK67727, Sony/Columbia,1980). 26

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Verse to be omitted after the Solo. Within the Verse-Chorus pair either the Verse or the

Chorus may be repeated locally as shown in figure 2.4.43

Verse-Chorus■ Pair Verse-Chorus Pair A

Figure 2.4: Representation of local Verse and Chorus repetition schemes

The combination of localized and large-scale repetitions in this example generates a

fuller, more interesting song form. In essence, the Verse-Chorus pair is repeated at the

large-scale level even though the internal repetition scheme is distinct in each case.

Beauty in rock form is found in the countless elaborations of the core Verse-

Chorus pair. Though rock musicians do not speak in terms of elaborating forms through

Bridges, Solos, and Introductions, the concept of building on the Verse-Chorus pair is

analytically useful. By focusing on Verse-Chorus pair, analysts can better judge the

extent to which a rock composer extends or abandons formal conventions.

One formal section that can serve to elaborate the Verse-Chorus pair is the

Bridge. As its name implies its function is connective. In traditional popular song, the

Bridge connects two musically related and strophically texted Chorus statements in the

Refrain. In this context it serves to provide contrast and to connect the two statements (as

seen in fig. 2.3). In rock usage the Bridge can connect at the local level within the Verse-

Chorus pair or at a large-scale level, but internal Bridge repetition at the local level is

43 The following illustrations are only concerned with the functional and theme labeling, not the phrase-level patterning. 27

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. uncommon. Covach’s description of the Bridge as an extension of the Verse is one of

several possibilities.44

Verse D s n V e r s e H H « S a A B A | C

Figure 2.5: Representation of Covach’s Bridge definition

At the local level the Bridge functions as an embellishment or extension of the basic

Verse-Chorus pair, and this type of extension is commonly repeated at the large-scale

dimension.45

Venel IfiMIBBMBM OBM MHHBi ABCABC Extended Pair Repetition

Figure 2.6: Representation of large-scale Bridge repetition

Whether the Bridge it is texted or not is an additional distinction in the definition

of the Bridge. In the case of texted Bridges the section’s function is quite conventional.

When instrumental sections connect or “bridge” other segments in a song, the terms

44 “The use of bridge material to extend the Verse sections is also traceable to rock sources.” Covach, “Progressive rock, Close to the edge, and the boundaries of style,” Understandine Rock. 14.

45 For representative examples see: Dokken, ‘Dream Warriors,” Back for the Attack. (Compact Disc 9 60735-2, Elektra, 1987); Tori Amos, “Crucify,” Little Earthquakes. (Compact Disc 7 82358-2, Atlantic 1991). 28

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. “Interlude” and ‘Transition” are often used by musicians and may be more appropriate

with respect to the function of the section.46 As shown in figure 2.7, Interlude is used to

designate a contrasting instrumental section between two statements of the same theme

and Transition is used to designate a contrasting instrumental section between two

different themes.

Vecse Chorus B

VcrgelBwMHMM V ersell A B A

Figure 2.7: Representation of instrumental Bridge placement and alternate terminology

Solos are perhaps the most common means of elaborating the Verse-Chorus pair.

Unlike other formal elaborations, Solos rarely repeat at any level of the formal structure.

Misconceptions abound regarding the function of Solos. For example, Moore’s

comments on the Solo in rock music are generally derogatory.

On Cream’s “Spoonful:” All three players treat this improvisation as individuals, each moving off on his own flight (this requires no great skill when the whole improvisation is based on a regular quaver and pentatonic E—anything can be made to sound right with literally anything else within these bounds) (Rock. 69).

On improvisation: Pre-arranged signals, indicating to certain players perhaps to ‘drop out,’ or indicating that a solo passage is about to end. In rock contexts...improvisation consists of the re-playing of formulae (Ibid., 73).

46 For representative examples see: Verse-Interlude-Verse: that dog, “Never Say Never,” Retreat from the Sun. (Compact Disc dgcd-25115, dgc, 1997); The Who, “Pinball Wizard,” Tommy. (Compact Disc MCAD2-10005 DIDX-158, MCA Records, 1969/1984). 29

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Most improvised solos serve a dual role. For the listener they extend the moment of experience (the individual song), while for the performer they offer an opportunity for virtuoso display. There is rarely any structural reason [emphasis mine] why a solo could not be transported to any other song sharing the same key and speed (Ibid., 77).

These broad comments indicate a fundamental misunderstanding of rock practice while

inadvertently alluding to important stylistic practices. In the first quote Moore raises the

important issue of layering or stratification. The concept of multiple musical strands,

each moving according to its own inner logic, but simultaneously, is a hallmark of

improvisation in rock, jazz, and other styles of music. During the 1970s this process was

most commonly found in instrumental Solos. Where Moore errs is in stating that this

process “requires no great skiir and “anything can be made to sound right.” Rock Solos

often incorporate formulaic elements, but the better the performer, the less obvious these

formulas are. Just as rock song form is not a simple stringing together of formulae,

soloing is not a simple stringing together of pre-arranged ideas if the musicians are first

rate. What is important here is the recognition of “pre-arranged signals” used to

communicate the process of the Solo to the other musicians. Graeme Boone documents

an idiomatic instance of this signaling in his discussion of Jerry Garcia’s solo in “Black

Star.” He observes that Garcia “focuses increasingly on short repeated riffs as a means to

heighten the climactic effect,” in essence signaling to the other musicians the upcoming

close of the extended solo (“Dark Star” 190). Such details, even more than note-for-note

transcriptions, are most informative in rock analysis. What Boone’s comment raises is

the issue of process and cues in guitar Solos.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Commonly the Solo occurs after the establishment of the Verse-Chorus pair, and

usually after the basic structure has been repeated at lease once. As figure 2.8 shows, a

new thematic feel may accompany the Solo.47

V ersel IM m n lh I £ A B A B C B

Figure 2.8: Representation of a common Solo placement and its relationship to established themes

Elements of 32-bar pop song form can be seen to underlie this patterning; the Solo acts as

a substitute for the Bridge that commonly separates the Chorus statements. When the

Solo is based on new material, Moore’s judgments may reflect practice, but when the

Solo uses established material for the Solo accompaniment theme,48 he fails to recognize

the structural significance.

47 For representative examples see: Cheap Trick, “Hot Love,” Cheap Trick. (Compact Disc EK 34400, Epic, 1977); Ozzy Osbourne, “Crazy Train,” The Blizzard of Oz. (Compact Disc 85247, Epic, 1980).

48 Boone’s analysis illustrates this same relation: the Solo begins over the Verse progression. ‘Tonal and expressive ambiguity in Dark Star.” Understanding Rock. 189. 31

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. i a m a 1 r B

i m Sol© nan A B Az+B2 A

Introduction. Chorus

Figure 2.9: Representations of common Solo/Theme relationships

In the three cases shown in figure 2.9 there are thematic relationships that tie the Solo to

the specific song. In the first two cases the Solo fulfills the added function of completing

another Verse-Chorus pair. In the final case the reusing of elements outside the Verse-

Chorus pair, in this case the Introduction, forms the basis of the Solo accompaniment

theme.49

Introductions and Closings provide further opportunities for elaboration and

extension. As with Bridges and Solos, Introductions and Closings often appear as

elaborations of the basic Verse-Chorus pair and the relationships among the musical

themes are important to consider.50

49 Leroy Ostransky describes the practice of improvisation in jazz, “Improvisation, then, consists of performing variations on a theme-and the theme may be either a melodic subject or a harmonic progression (or under certain circumstances, a rhythmic pattern).” The Anatomy of Jazz (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1960), 65. There are some similarities with rock practice in his description, especially when a harmonic progression forms the basis of the Solo accompaniment.

50 The commonality of these related Verse Introductions is indicated in Boone, “Dark Star,” 173. The relation of these introductions to blues practice is discussed in Peter Van der Merwe, Origins of the Popular Stvle. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 150. 32

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Introduction ■ ■ r ~

Verse Introduction Verse AAB

Figure 2.10: Two thematic schemes for Introductions

In practice any formal section may have an Introduction. The introducing of a texted

section by previewing its instrumental accompaniment is a frequent compositional

technique in rock. Moreover, Introductions may return as part of an extended Verse-

Chorus pair. These Verse and Chorus Introductions will be displayed in levels to show

their relation to the large-scale Verse-Chorus pair.SI

V erse Introduction Verse Introduction Chorus AAB B

Figure 2.11: An example of the positional flexibility of Introductions

Closings usually do not repeat, but it is not uncommon for them to be related to previous

musical material.

51 For example see Rush, “The Fountain of Lamneth: In The Valley,” Caress Of Steel. 33

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A 1 B | A z+B2

Introduction ■ a re n a C horus H e n a n A | B c c 2

Figure 2.12: Two examples of the thematic relationships in Closings

An understanding of rock formal conventions requires an informed understanding

of the music itself. Rock musicians consider formal structure early in the compositional

process, sometimes before the melody or the lyrics are addressed. To aid in rock analysis

a basic “rock song form” was presented as a model to gauge the distinctive features of a

songwriter’s product. By understanding the special formal conventions, repetition

schemes, and thematic interrelationships, an insider’s view of the musical process can be

approximated.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2.2 Function

2.2.1 fluitar technique and its influence on rock harmony

The overriding importance of harmony in rock music is made clear in the

comments of musicians and writers alike. But, because so much rock music is composed

at the guitar, the influence and understanding of instrument-specific practice becomes an

essential prerequisite to harmonic analysis. To that end, an informed analytic approach

must consider several aspects of guitar practice as it relates to chord position, notation,

chord types, and scalar options.

2.2.1.1 Notation and performance

Moore raises one of the most important issues concerning the discussion of rock

harmony—composing at the instrument.

One further distinction, which is always overlooked in any discussion of rock harmonies, concerns whether songs have been written “at the fretboard” or “at the keyboard.” . . . Here the mechanistic differences between the guitar and the piano/organ/synthesizer are vital (Rock. 54)

Consider the two chords in fig. 2.13 as they would appear in staff notation and in guitar

tablature. The tablature represents the fretboard of the guitar, where the highest line

represents the highest string. Each number identifies the fret on which the pitch is

fingered; zero represents an open string. Guitar music is traditionally notated one octave

higher than it sounds and the tablature is realized according to the standard guitar tuning

(from low to high, E-A-D-G-B-E).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 2.13: Comparison of guitar harmonies in staff and tablature notation

Both chords contain minor second adjacencies and added tones outside the underlying F#

triad and A dyad, resulting in harmonies that appear complex in notation. Analysts from

a traditional background and writers lacking guitar experience would likely regard these

chords as being complex in structure and perhaps in “meaning.” Given the context of

rock, where major and minor triads dominate the harmonic style, many writers have

assumed that these complex chords were chosen for some extra-musical reason, perhaps

to underscore the meaning of the lyrics. Harmonic sophistication might also be attributed

to the musician under discussion. Just because a chord appears complex in notation does

not indicate it is complicated to play, or complicated in meaning (musical or extra

musical). Chord shapes and positions are often chosen by proximity, familiarity, ease of

fingering, open chord vs. barre (fully-fretted) chord shapes, the limits of the composer’s

chord vocabulary, as well as by more traditional considerations including voice-leading

and conventional progressions. A closer look at figure 2.13 reveals that the first chord is

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. a variant of the standard 6th string major barresz shape with the highest two strings left

open.

I------.i------

Figure 2.14: Comparison of E Major barre shape with F#11 tablature

As a compositional choice both chords in figure 2.14 are easy to play, but the second

chord results in a more colorful harmony. In fact, at the core of both the chords in figure

2.13 are slight modifications of traditional guitar chord shapes. Without the tactile

experience of playing the instrument, even an understanding of tablature could result in a

misjudgment of the significance of these harmonies. The question raised is whether

“complex” chords in rock are chosen for an associative meaning, simply for color, or

because they are easy to play. No one answer may suffice, but the need to inform value

judgments by considering instrument-specific techniques becomes apparent.

52 The definition of barre chords is presented on page 37. 37

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2.2.1.2 Chord types

Issues of key choice, idiomatic cadences, parallelism, and chord timbre all

demonstrate the influence of instrument specific practices. In rock harmony there is a

basic set of chord types that dominate practice. The fundamental structures of rock

harmony are triads, and these are limited almost exclusively to major and minor triads.53

Diminished and augmented triads are not idiomatic, and chord inversion is not a hallmark

of the style.54 Though seventh chords, “sus,” and “added” chords appear, their

dissonances are usually not functional in the traditional sense but are instead used for

their color.55

One clear influence of guitar technique on harmonic progression in rock is the

influence of idiomatic chord shapes. As Moore states, “if barre chords are not used, the

guitar clearly forces a songwriter into a limited repertoire of harmonies” (Rock. 54).

What Moore is addressing is the limited set of available open chords.

53 See Bobbitt, Harmonic Technique. 33; and Moore, Rock. 48.

54 “It should be noted that chordal inversions are rarely used in rock: they tend to appear only within certain (more aesthetically motivated) styles, where their role is usually to allow the construction of a stepwise bass line.” Moore, “The So-Called Flattened Seventh,” 191.

55 Middleton, Studying Popular Music. 105; Moore, Rock. 48-49; Ostransky, The Anatomy o f Jazz. 109-111. A vivid example of this is the blues progression realized in dominant seventh chords: I7-I7-I7-I7|IV7-IV7-I7-I7|V7-IV7-I7-I7. In this case there is no implied resolution of the 7th according to voice-leading rules. Most likely the result is due to parallel motion. 38

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 2.IS: Standard set of open-position Major and minor triads on the guitar

Simply put, open position chords utilize open strings whereas barre or closed chord

fingerings are completely fretted/6 The open-chord collection in figure 2.15 consists of

three triads with variable thirds (E, A, D) and two that appear in major form only (G, C).

Other open chords and shapes are possible, but this list constitutes the fundamental open-

chord vocabulary for guitarists. This limited set of open chords provides the basis for

many progressions in 70s rock music.37 The influence this has on key choice and

progressions within a key cannot be underestimated, especially when considering Rush’s

music.

The four main barre chord shapes in rock guitar are derived from four of the basic

open-chord shapes. As shown in figure 2.16 these are the 6th (low E) string major and

minor forms, and the 5th (A) string major and minor forms. Examining the fingering

56 Moore’s definition of open position is correct in classical terminology but not as it refers to rock guitar chord shapes. Rock. 199.

57 This set of open chords can be seen as the basis for Hedlam’s discussion of riffs and harmonies where the progressions A-C-G and E-G-A “serve as the basis for a seemingly endless number of songs.” “Blues Transformations in the Music of Cream,” Understanding Rock. 85. 39

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. patterns on the 5th, 4th and 3rd strings in the first two measures and the 4th, 3rd and 2nd

strings in the last two measures shows the closeness of derivation.

Open Bane Open Bure Open Bane Open Bane 4

TB: s:

Figure 2.16: Derivation of barre shapes from common open-position chords

The simplification of the barre chord shape to a root-fifth-optional octave sonority named

a “power chord” or “power fifth” is frequently found in rock.58

| fH ------1------1 ------4 ------^ 1 a « 5

= 1: II

Figure 2.17: Barre shapes simplified to “power chords” and “power fifths”

58 Moore views power chords as making the harmonies explicit and not the product of counterpoint. Rock. 38. Bobbitt tries to make a “primitive eclecticism” argument for fourths and fifths in rock rather than seeing their instrument-specific derivation. Harmonic Technique. 129. 40

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. These two power chords provide simple, easy-to-realize chord shapes that sound full

when compared to their full-barre counterparts,59 especially when both are played with

heavy distortion.60 Exclusive use of these power chord structures provides evidence

against the exclusive influence of counterpoint in rock harmonic practice.

An issue raised by these various shapes is the transferability of chord shapes in

rock music.61 Once a major barre, minor barre, or “power fifth” shape is positioned on

the neck it can be moved higher and lower on the same string to reproduce the same

chord type.

59 McDonald argues that guitarists could simplify harmonies because thickness of harmony was no longer dependent on number of notes due to distortion. “Exploring modal subversions in alternative music,” Popular Music 19/3 (2000), 356-357. More relevant to practice is the consideration of ease of fingering and the simple derivation of the shapes from barre chords.

60 Shelia Whiteley mentions several times in her article the impact distortion has on the performed pitches, what she terms “resultant discordant partials.” “Progressive rock, psychedelic coding in the work of Jimi Hendrix,” Popular Music 9 (1990): 41-42. See Gracyk for an excellent discussion of the effect of amplification on notes played, especially the resultant harmonics. Rhvthm and Noise. 112-113.

61 Van der Merwe recognizes the guitar-specific influence on harmony and chord voicing, mentioning that the guitarist “stops the first chord and then slides his whole left hand up one fret” in his discussion of the bVII-I progression. Origins. 266. Moore sees the harmonic progression bVH-1 as a practical, instrument driven technique of sliding a barre chord up a whole step, but quickly counters with an example on piano to illustrate that it is not just an instrument-specific vocabulary. “The So-Called Flattened Seventh,” 191. 41

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 2.18: Transferability of minor and Major barre shapes in g minor

One explanation for this parallelism is that there is a melodic basis to the progression,

most commonly expressed in the bass position of each chord.

Figure 2.19: Melodic progression realized as parallel barre chords in D Major

Bobbitt makes several arguments for this chord-melody approach in rock, but where his

system is geared towards the process as a harmonization of a melodic figure in the

highest voice,62 in rock practice it is likely that any melodic motion harmonized in this

fashion contains the melodic line as the lowest note in each chord, with the chord quality

62 Bobbitt, Harmonic Technique. 30-32. 42

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. restricted to major and minor triads in root position. This parallelism is most apparent in

particular idiomatic cadential motions derived from blues practice.63

There are additional “color” chords that appear frequently in rock; the two main

categories are the “sus” and the “added.” 64 In the “sus” category (standing for

suspended) the two most common triads are the sus2 (often realized as its octave

equivalent, the ninth) and sus4. In both cases a “frozen” suspension is substituted for the

third of the given triad. Differing greatly from the use of suspensions in art music, these

tones are generally not prepared or resolved according to voice-leading conventions.

Dtu*4 Aius2

Figure 2.20: Examples of “sus” chords

63 See the discussion below on page SO.

64 See Bobbitt in Harmonic Technique, first concerning add9 and add6 chords (13) and then the sus4 chord (121-126). 43

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The second category, “added,” denotes triads that, simply, have pitches outside the triad

added to them.

Aidd9 Gadd6 Baddll

Figure 2.21: Examples of “added” chords

The added notes are not treated as functional dissonances requiring resolution according

to the rules of counterpoint and are not necessarily the by-product of extended tertian

harmony. Though these tones may have originated from melodic origins in earlier music,

Forte’s discussion of the “Assimilation of Decorative Notes” is informative and

applicable in this discussion. Though he does not discuss “sus” chords specifically, the

general concept of the decorative assimilation of a note of a melodic origin into a

harmony is pertinent (for example as an assimilated neighbor tone or suspension).63 Most

important to the larger understanding of rock harmonic practice is the realization that

there is a lack of contrapuntal influence in these harmonies.

65 Forte, The American popular ballad. 7. 44

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Idiomatic guitar shapes also include relative timbral differentiations that are not

evident in traditional notation. Figure 2.22 shows four fingerings of a G major chord.

» ...... o ...... OO F # * = S = ! S------# = N a 11 at i1 [i 1sr

■ ------H------1

Figure 2.22: Open and closed positions of a G Major chord on guitar

To the analyst the four fingerings have more in common than not. To the guitarist the

difference is the choice between open and closed (or barre) chord voicings. The first

three are readily available permutations of an open G major chord arranged from left to

right in increasing “closedness.” The final chord shows a barre G major chord.

In contrast to keyboard instruments, the same note can be performed at several

locations on the guitar. Though the notes may appear identical in notation, their

realization makes a noticeable difference in the sound of the chord in performance.

Thickness of the string, open or fretted, and relative position on the neck (high or low) all

affect the timbre of the played note. Open chords have a sound distinct from barre chords

and tend to sustain longer; effects, including distortion, tend to augment this “sustain.” A

classical analogy is found in the instruction to string players to perform a passage solely

on a particular string, sul G for example. Guitar and bass, like so many classical

instruments, lose much of their character when reduced to and thought of in terms of 45

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. piano notation. These issues of notation, instrument realization, and timbral distinctness

are essential considerations in discussions of rock music.

2.2.1.3 Scale types

A few specialized scale types require mention as compositional materials native

to 70s rock. Though the full array of “church modes” and other exotic—in many cases

jazz-derived—scales were available, 70s rock musicians preferred the use of the

pentatonic and blues scales to generate linear themes or “riffs.” A “riff’ is “a short

melodic ostinato which may be repeated either intact or varied to accommodate an

underlying harmonic pattern” (Robinson, Dictionary of Jazz. 375). “Riff’ structure is

intimately tied to scales and their realization on the guitar. Two versions of the

pentatonic scale are common in rock.

, Major Pcnutonic Minor Pcnutonic

4 ^ = - j j 'J i ^

------* 4------2------s------. _ 5_ ... _

Figure 2.23: The Major and minor pentatonic scales shown in tablature

Of particular interest in rock “riffs” is the minor pentatonic. Its most familiar realization

on the guitar is referred to as a “box position” due to the box-like shape it forms on the

fretboard. Though the tablature in figure 2.23 illustrates this point, a clearer

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. representation is the standard shorthand for scales and chords used by guitar teachers and

seen in fake books. Dots represent notes to be played on a particular fret and a particular

string represented by the six horizontal lines. Like tablature, the graphic is read from the

lowest string at the bottom to the highest string at the top. In the following example the

scale is extended to the highest string to emphasize this conventional “box” position.

5th fret

Figure 2.24: Graphic shorthand for the minor pentatonic scale

As with other guitar chord shapes, these patterns are fairly easy to realize on the guitar.

The blues scale, shown in figure 2.25, also used to generate rock “riffs,” can be thought

of as a chromaticized version of the minor pentatonic: filling in the space between £ and

$ in Version 1, additionally b l *and ^ in Version 2.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Vtnicn I Voiion 2 ■■■» ■ i * 1

$ ^ ~ j = ; > • %

------:-----:-----1-----5-----6-----r----- , . ■ ■ * 1 ’ Lj----->-----S------^ ^ ------

Figure 2.25: Two versions of the a blues scale

In the same way it is easy to visualize this filling in of the box position through the

graphic scalar notation.

5th fret

Figure 2.26: Graphic shorthand of the blues scale, Version 2

The relationship between scale, mode, and harmonic progression in rock is complex. The

functional implications of these scales are discussed later in the analysis of Rush’s music.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2.2.2 Roclc tonality

As with the previous discussion of form, traditional analytic techniques have

greatly influenced current perspectives on rock harmony. Because rock exhibits

harmonic elements not covered by traditional tonal theory, may writers conclude that

rock is not structured according to tonal principles. Covach sees rock harmonic structure

in this light:

Rock music raises issues in tonal theory that simply do not come up in the consideration of the masterworks and that this music is different in these often tacit ways is partly what we mean when we say that rock constitutes a different style of music (“We won’t get fooled again,” 132-133).

What is most important to understand is that the “issues” Covach raises need to be seen

as not excluding traditional tonality, but as expanding it. Extended cadence types, the

reorientation of conventional Tonic-Dominant polarity, explanations of modality, and the

questionable influence of voice-leading all contribute to the wide-spread

misunderstanding of rock harmonic practice.

Unfortunately, the exploration of how rock differs and of how this affects analysis

has yet to be accomplished. In order to achieve adequate tools for the analysis of rock

harmony, it is also necessary to consider current analytic approaches before proceeding to

the derivation of the functional analytic method to be used in this study. Traditional

analytic techniques, including Roman numeral analysis and levels analysis, and more

recent explanations of modal derivation merely reveal that rock is different, not how it

differs.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2.2.2.1 Cadences

Many misconceptions regarding rock harmonic practice are a direct result of the

extended cadential formulae and subdominant reorientation in rock.

The influence of the circle-of-flfths paradigm has declined since the mid-1950s. The harmonic languages of rock and soul have moved away from the all-encompassing influence of the dominant function. This could be due to the increased influence o f the blues, in which the subdominantfunction has, to a certain extent, replaced the dominant Junction as a structural basis [emphasis mine]. Such harmonic habits are encouraged when composers use guitars rather than pianos to work out their harmony. In rock we frequently encounter the progression I-bVII-IV-I, which virtually turns our paradigm upside-down (Winkler, ‘Toward a Theory of Popular Harmony,” 22).

Winkler’s discussion of I-bVII-IV-I points to a foreground progression that not only

confounds traditional analytic techniques—such as Roman numeral analysis—but

appears to directly oppose tradition. By drawing attention to this “upside-down”

paradigm, a sequence of falling fourths, Winkler contrasts rock practice with the stylistic

secondary dominant sequences in Classical and Jazz music. Van der Merwe echoes

Winkler’s statement when he isolates “the weakening of the opposition between tonic and

dominant,” fewer half cadences, and “the supplanting in importance of the dominant by

the subdominant” as definitive rock harmonic traits.66

In addition to the increased emphasis on the Subdominant, the extended family of

cadences available in rock music helps to clarify its difference. Two cadences,

referenced over and over again in rock literature, are shown in figure 2.27: blll-I/i and bVn-I/i.

66 Van der Merwe, Origins. 287-290. 50

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A: bm i bvn i

Figure 2.27: Two conventional rock cadences

Both of these progression are unconventional when compared to traditional tonal theory.

For example, Aldwell and Schachter’s discussion of m and VII in Harmony and Voice

Leading can be seen as representative of traditional tonal thinking on the whole: neither

of these progressions is discussed. Their remark on the relationship between bVII and V

in Baroque music hints at the historical connection of these harmonies, but bVTI is

ultimately seen as subordinate.67

One of the finest resources on the cultural origins and prevalence of these

cadences is Van der Merwe’s Origins of the Popular Style—a lexicon of historical

sources and musical examples. Though he does not deal directly with rock music, Van

der Merwe discusses the melodic, harmonic, and rhythmic characteristics of rock’s

predecessors in exacting detail. His work is a testament to the commonality of these

cadences outside the art music tradition. Of particular relevance is the weight he places

on cadences (both vocal and harmonic) that fall by minor third. In the conclusion of his

chapter on the blues mode in African music, he states, “the wealth of African cadences

was almost restricted to the characteristic dropping third” (145).

67 Edward Aldwell and Carl Schachter, Harmony and Voice Leading (Orlando, Florida: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1989), 222. 51

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. In the current literature, the conflict between theory and practice manifests itself

in a multitude of ways. Moore’s article on the bVII relationship unmistakably exhibits

this conflict.

It is my aim here to identify the widespread occurrence of [b] VII leading to I. My ears refuse to hear [b] VII as merely a substitute V, and this is perhaps the crux of the matter (“The So-Called Flattened Seventh,” 187)

Clearly, the [b]VII-I cadence does not have the finality of the traditional V-I, although it is articulated as a full close in all the examples I have presented. In terms of poetics, it seems to me to qualify the certainty of V-I nevertheless (Ibid., 193).

Moore’s conflict over the function of bVII is illustrative of the imposing influence of

traditional viewpoints, even when faced with practical evidence to the contrary. Like

Boone, he quotes the leading-tone tonic relationship as evidence that bVII cannot

exhibit the same cadential force of V, or be reflective of a tonal system on the whole. As

Winkler and Van der Merwe acknowledge, rock music often lacks the Dominant focus of

common-practice tonality and, because of this, Moore sees rock practice as

fundamentally different.69 Few propose70 that we modify our conception of function to

account for these cadential relationships rather than deny that these cadences have a

similar finality. By allowing traditional viewpoints to dictate that IV-I, bVTI-I, and bm-I

are interpreted as weaker, “functionless” terminal cadences, analysts are more likely than

not to make errors in judgment, value assessment, and compositional process in their

discussions of popular music.

68 Boone, “Dark Star," 176.

69 Moore, “The So-Called Flattened Seventh,” 187.

70 Middleton, Studying Popular Music. 196. 52

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2.2.22 Modality

One popular explanation of rock’s harmonic difference is that it is modal rather

than tonal. When harmonic progressions fall outside traditional norms and contain

uncommon cadences, simple modal labeling is deemed analytically sufficient by many

writers.71 The unquestionable presence of modality in guitar pedagogy and practice

makes this issue all the more difficult; lessons on the various “church modes,” their

fingerings, and their use for improvisational purposes are common in guitar magazines

and in private instruction.72 The essential question that has yet to be addressed is “does a

modal explanation provide the best description of rock harmonic practice and the most

useful analytic technique?”

In “Patterns of Harmony”—one of the major writings associating rock harmony

with modal harmony—Moore provides a categorized lexicon of “modal” progressions for

future studies. Like most writers who associate rock harmony with modality, modality is

not used to explain the process of the progression, simply to provide a “probable”

derivation of the non-standard harmonies. Moore assigns a mode to a collection of

chords, placing the appropriate Roman numerals beneath them, without regard for

recurring relationships across modes and the transferability of those relationships. In

fact, Moore insists that modal harmony is non-functional:

71 See Moore, “Patterns of Harmony,” 77; Moore, Rock. 49-50,75-76,140-141; Covach, Understanding Rock. 10; Middleton, Studying Popular Music. 198-200; Winkler, ‘Toward a theory of popular Harmony,” 22.

72 The terms “church modes” and modal are used in order to distinguish this manner of modal analysis from the more general use of mode as part of the major/minor system. “Church modes” in rock parallel the scales found in academic and jazz theory: Ionian/Major, Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, Mixolydian, Aeolian/Minor, and Locrian. 53

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. I have adopted a functional harmony (Roman numeral) system for presentation rather than a simple chord-name system, although by this I do not intend to suggest that the rules of classical functional harmony operate: indeed, it will become clear that they cannot (“Patterns of Harmony,” 74).

In order to achieve his modal categorizations, Moore mentions secondary elements such

as ‘‘metric, rhythmic and accentual modes of stress” as determining the tonic in a modal

system in place of harmonic function.73 He does not entertain the fact that these methods

of articulating the tonic, quite similar to tonic accentuation in classical music, are used by

musicians as ways of articulating what they perceive as the tonic.74

A strict modal interpretation is seriously challenged by the frequent mixture of

major and minor that occurs in rock music. Neither progression in figure 2.28 exhibits

chord content that is exclusive to one mode.75

J'i j J l!

D: I V b v n I I n t v V I

Figure 2.28: Two “modal” progressions

73 Moore, “Patterns of Harmony,” 77.

74 It is noteworthy that no musician in Zollo’s Songwriters on Songwritine mentions a modal approach to composing. The term key is most frequently encountered.

75 For examples and variants of these progressions see: a. Rush, “I Think I’m Going Bald,” Caress Of Steel: b. Cheap Trick, “Come On, Come On,” In Color. (Compact Disc EK 65573, Epic/LEGACY, 1977). 54

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Progression a in figure 2.28 is a typical rock progression that illustrates a bVII chord in

an otherwise major key. As Moore suggests in Rock, the C major chord is simply a

“Mixolydian VII.”76 For Moore, this borrowing is an adequate explanation for the

deviation in pitch content from a strict D major key, and an otherwise traditional

progression in D major. What this does not explain is the function of the C major triad or

the deviation from the strict D Mixolydian pitch content (D-E-F#-G-A-B-C-D) through

the inclusion of the A major chord (A-C#-E). As with progression a, the pitch content of

progression b is not strictly D major or D Lydian but both. Moore might label the E

major chord “Lydian II” to explain its presence in D major, but this still fails to address

the function of the E major chord in the larger progression. Traditionally, the E major

chord would function as some sort of secondary dominant (V/V) in D major, but its

resolution proves that assumption incorrect by traditional relationships. Does a simple

modal derivation aid in theoretical understanding of rock harmonic practice if, in many

cases, the music under discussion contains elements from several modes simultaneously?

76 Moore, Rock. 49. 55

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Combining the two progressions further compounds the inadequacy of the modal

method.

J * T ...... *S“" -- \ 2 • I * D: i n iv v bvn i

Figure 2.29: Two “modal” progressions combined

Discussing “Lydian Os” and “Mixolydian VIIs” may indicate the probable modes of

origin, but the end result brings the analyst no closer to the function of the harmonies. A

modal analysis simply does not provide an adequate explanation as to how the

progression in figure 2.29 functions in D major, let alone D Major/Lydian/Mixolydian.

What few analysts recognize is that rock modality is hardly ever clear-cut; songs

often exhibit traits from multiple modes simultaneously. In addition, certain idiomatic

progressions, for example bm-I, cannot be explained by a modal derivation. Though

rock exhibits harmonic traits that could be interpreted as modal, adopting an expanded

system of traditional mode mixture yields a more concise set of relationships. Van der

Merwe acknowledges this type of mixture in popular music:

Instead of the clear contrast between major and minor of the classical style, there is a spectrum between the two, minor in this case being synonymous with “bluesy” (Origins. 126-127).

Van der Merwe’s association of bluesy elements with minor keys is an important concept

in rock analysis. With this adjustment to an expanded major/minor system, the common

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. use of bVII, for example, need not be restricted to a single mode (bVII-I=Mixolydian,

bVTI-i=Aeolian or Dorian) but can be seen for its larger relationship to the tonic.

Much of the difference in rock harmony can be attributed to an extended system

of functional relationships; the very “issues” raised by Covach. Rather than exclude the

frequent presence of traditional functional progressions in rock, what is required is a

reorientation of harmonic function in order to include these alternate cadences in a larger

system of harmonic function. Contrary to prevailing doctrine, modality does not exclude

functionality.

2.2.2.3 Levels analysis and concepts of prolongation

Levels analysis represents one of the most common wholesale applications of art-

music theory to rock. A serious reassessment of the technique’s appropriateness to rock

is needed as examples of misinterpretation are common.

Tonal harmonic function carries with it a code of predictable idioms and relationships. This popular song works within and plays upon well-known harmonic conventions, and a graph of the melodic and harmonic events clearly demonstrates the moments when harmonic implications are denied or realized (Lori Bums, “Joanie Get Angry: k.d. lang’s Feminist Revision,” Understanding Rock. 99).

Missing but implied structural tones that are called for, but do not appear, in the voice- leading structure (Walter Everett, “Swallowed by a Song: Paul Simon’s Crisis of Chromaticism,” Understanding Rock, 143).

In both cases the authors are undoubtedly judging rock harmonic and melodic practice on

the well-established codes of classical theory. Claiming that the music is somehow

lacking something, or that rock harmonic practice follows exactly the same conventions

as tonal art music, do not do justice to rock’s difference. The temptation is strong to

apply a respected and rigorous analytic method to rock, but this wholesale application of

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. levels analysis can come at the expense of understanding actual practice. Given the

possibility that the melody of a rock song was the last element to be composed,77

combined with the prominent parallelism and non-functional dissonance in rock, the

appropriateness of traditional levels analysis must come into question for its ability to

reflect the musical forces that shape rock music.78

Though levels analysis may not be the most appropriate analytic tool for rock

harmonic progression, Middleton suggests a modification of levels theory that aids in

clarifying the progressions in figures 2.28 and 2.29.

If we rewrite the [Schenkerian] V-I bias in terms of a principle of tonicity—the prolongation of a tonic chord through structures of harmonic difference, which may take many other forms than V—a method which is more flexible but which retains the concept of hierarchy emerges (Middleton, Studying Popular Music. 196).

Middleton points to the possibility that prolongation techniques in rock might include

harmonic relationships other than traditional secondary dominants. By combining

Middleton’s modification with the previous discussion of extended cadential

relationships, new structures of prolongation become available. Revisiting the I-bVII-IV-

I progression mentioned by Winkler, the Subdominant is shown as an agent of

prolongation in figure 2.30.

77 See the musician quotes on page 7.

78 For a contrasting viewpoint, see Brown, “Little W ingA Study in Musical Cognition,” Understanding Rock. 161. For Brown, Schenkerian analysis provides a useful analytic technique: “since blues pieces essentially conform to the principles of common-practice tonality, Hendrix’s problem space can be defined by the rules of tonal harmony and counterpoint” 58

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ■a j 8 ^ ------J— 1 — O - ■

D: r jv l , IV I

Figure 2.30: Winkler’s progression analyzed as subdominant prolongation

Both hierarchy and prolongation are modified to reflect rock practice: a fundamental

I-IV-I progression is prolonged through the application of a secondary Subdominant.

Though the progression could be seen as an expression of D Mixolydian, bVII appears

not merely as a modal borrowing but as a participant in a functional progression.

Several aspects of the earlier combined “modal” progression (figure 2.29) become

clear, meaningful, and useful when techniques of prolongation, informed through rock

cadences, are applied in figure 2.31.

t ...... ^ i i ? a 3 3 D: I V______b W ______I__ v bvn i

Figure 2.31: Combined “modal” progression analyzed as prolongation

In addition to IV, bin and bVH can also appear as secondary relationships in rock. The

progression II-IV-V is now shown as a prolongation of the dominant through a transfer of

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the final V-bVII-I progression. Attempting to force the progression into one mode or

another is no longer necessary: each chord has a function in the larger progression,

regardless of how different it may be from traditional tonal practice. As with figure 2.30,

figure 2.31 can be seen as an elaboration of a fundamental I-V-bVH-I progression.

Though the accompanying Roman numeral analysis still emphasizes the “difference” of

bVH without explaining its function, modified concepts of prolongation do provide an

important clarification of the rock harmonic process.

2.2.2.4 Functional analytic method

In order to reflect the presence of traditional and blues elements in rock harmony,

a modified technique of functional analysis will be adopted here. Though functional

analytic techniques were developed for a particular repertoire, namely tonal art music, the

basic need to discuss harmonic relationships, and the preference for certain harmonic

patterns, remains a key element in defining rock harmonic practice. It would be difficult

to argue that most rock songs lack an unmistakable tonic either in conception or

reception. For this very reason a functional analytic approach is valid because, as

Harrison states, “the sense of function depends entirely on the sense of tonal center”

(Harmonic Function in Chromatic Music. 37). An important benefit of a functional

approach is that it allows for the contextualization of chord function—clearly indicating

how the chords relate to each other and to the Tonic, while avoiding the stigma that is

commonly associated with traditional formalist techniques of Roman numeral and levels

analysis. The goal of presenting a modified system of functional analysis is to provide

the rock analyst with a tool that is capable of explaining the function of each chord in

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. rock harmonic progressions. A functional approach allows for the broader set of

cadences and secondary functions to coexist with traditional harmonic functions, directly

addressing the shifting relationships that make rock unique.

The following discussion derives from several sources. The first and foremost are

personal experiences with rock music over many years and the influence of studies with

Professor Gregory Proctor. Of the sources that deal with a functional approach to music

analysis, two are chosen for their particular relevance. Daniel Harrison’s Harmonic

Function in Chromatic Music: A Renewed Dualist Theory and an Account of its

Precedents and Richard Bobbitt’s Harmonic Technique in the Rock Idiom: The Theory

and Practice of Rock Harmony are both extremely valuable sources for concepts of

functional analysis relevant to rock harmonic practice.

Daniel Harrison’s work in Harmonic Function in Chromatic Music is particularly

relevant to this study. He is similarly motivated to provide tools for discussing a

repertoire that is commonly dismissed for its lack of tonal function: chromatic music

from the late nineteenth century to the early twentieth century. He states, “in large part

what follows is an accommodation of theory to practice, an accommodation that perhaps

entails uncomfortable alterations of traditional theoretical beliefs” (12). Though rock

music characteristically lacks the intense chromaticism and wealth of harmonic classes

found in romantic and “modernist” music, Harrison’s statement is equally relevant to

rock.

A few notational details require clarification up front. For Harrison, as with

Riemann before him, the three functional states are Tonic, Dominant, and Subdominant.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. These three primary functions are abbreviated T, S and D. In this study, borrowing from

Harrison, the typographical distinction is made between functions (always capitalized)

and names of triads (always lowercase).79

Several of Harrison’s general concepts raise important considerations when

analyzing rock music.

Harmonic function essentially results from the judgment that certain chords and tonal combinations sound and behave alike, even though these individuals might not be analyzed into equivalent harmonic classes, at least those that are conventionally recognized For instance, although the V and VII triads are formations with striking and undeniable similarity of sound and operation, they are deemed to belong to different harmonic classes, as their labels testify—the former to the class of chords having 5 as the root, the latter to having 7. In terms of concrete chordal structures, then, harmonic function is more about similarity than equivalence (37).

A journey logged in the book of harmonic function is a record of shifting impressions of Tonic, Dominant and Subdominant In functional mixture, we have seen that these impressions can be sensed synchronically within single harmonic entities. But the record also contains diachronic impressions—how functions shift and change over time. From this perspective, functions are not so much established as they are activated and given voice (90).

Harrison’s discussion of functional behavior raises the plausibility that the extended

cadential relationships in rock can be assigned a function based on their behavior. Not

only are functions tied to specific harmonies in a key, but context can indicate a shift in

function. For example, the IV chord is generally regarded as a synchronic expression of

the Subdominant, but if IV were to progress to bVII, the possibility exists that IV

functions as the Dominant of bVH. This contextualization of function will help to clarify

rock harmonic practice in the following discussion.

For Harrison, harmonic progression is a dynamic process: “one function does not

merely give way to another; rather it discharges on another, with the result that there is a

79 Harrison, Harmonic Function, xiii. 62

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. sense of movement of tonal energy among the different functional states” (90). Harrison

believes functional harmony is not solely dependent on rules of voice leading—an

important concept for its application to rock music: “harmonic ideas can be

communicated without the medium of correct voice leading, that parallel fifths do not

destroy the fundamental sense of tonal music, the doomsaying prophecies of generations

of theorists notwithstanding” (124). What this allows for is the reorientation of

prolongation techniques: functional relationships can now be viewed as the basis of

prolongation, independent of any voice leading, structural lines, or counterpoint.

Two elements of Harrison’s theory are essential to a modified theory of rock tonal

function: the functional characteristics of individual chord members in the primary and

secondary triads; and allowing different expressions of Dominant and Subdominant

function in the parallel major and minor modes. The first part of this theory, appearing in

the section “Scale Degree and Harmonic Function,” isolates and organizes functional

behaviors at the scale-degree level.

Forgoing the assumption that harmonic function is a product of homogeneous and unitary chords permits an understanding of chords as assemblies of scale degrees. In this regime, harmonic function resides in the scale degrees that make up chords. Analysis, then, involves an etymologically appropriate act of dissolving a chord, of disassembling it into scale-degree components (42).

Though it might appear an extreme step in classifying harmonic function, there is much

truth and relevance to Harrison’s statement It is clear in practice that single notes can

provide an equivalent representation of harmonic functions: can easily represent a D-

T cadence. Central to his theory is the classification of each triad’s scale-degrees as

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. bases (root), agents (3rd), and associates (5th).80 This discussion of scale degree and

harmonic function is driven by the relationships found in the primary triads (tonic,

subdominant and dominant), as shown in Table 3.

subdominant (IV) tonic (I) dominant (V) Associates (5th) TI’ * Agents (3rd) Bases (root) 'T *

Table 2.1: Harrison’s division of the primary triad scale degrees into bases, agents, and associates

Bases, agents, and associates each have different roles and strengths in

communicating harmonic function. These functions are inherent in particular members

and, at other times, dependent on chord inversion. Harrison explains bases as “reductions

of the three functions to their distilled bases” (45). Agents provide the strongest

indicators of harmonic function in the primary triads because “agents, in contrast to

bases, are entirely dedicated to the function in question, in the sense that all the scale

degrees working as agents are unique entities.” Attached to one function, and one

function only, agents are “unequivocal communicators of their function and are able to

work without constraints or conditions” (49). In addition, “agents are further

differentiated from bases in that they communicate not only functional attitudes but also

the modal character of these attitudes” (50). Viewing the above theory in practice, a bass

line F-G-C in the key of C clearly illustrates a S-D-T progression. Unless the thirds of

80 Harrison, Harmonic Function. 45. 64

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. one or all of the triads accompany the line, the bass line alone fails to communicate any

information as to the mode of the progression: primary bases are “modally mute” (50).

The issue of inversion becomes all the more relevant in the discussion of

associates. Associates are the weakest indicators of harmonic function because they

“remind us of the fickleness of functional bases—that the same scale degree so

functionally powerful in one situation can be virtually ineffective in another” (55). Very

different from the agents, the associates are not unique among the scale degrees in the ,A A / \ primary triads, save for 2. Both the tonic and subdominant associates (5 and I

respectively) are also the bases of the dominant and tonic. “Having the associate in the

lowest voice creates the possibility for it to be heard as the base of another function,

making the chord functionally ambiguous” (58). The most common instance of this

phenomenon is the cadential six-four, where the presence of the associate as the lowest

sounding pitch requires a functional reorientation from T to D. Though bases are strong

indicators of harmonic function, they are “dependent on position as lowest sounding

voice (46).”

In his discussion of the secondary triads, Harrison raises the important concept of

Junctional plurality : where a composite of functions can often be seen at play in a given

harmony. Though Harrison reserves this designation of functional mixture for the

diatonic secondary triads, the above example of the cadential six-four shows this mixture

at the level of the primary triads as well. He states, “since secondary triads contain scale

degrees affiliated with different functions, they are Junctionally mixed structures, able to

communicate more than one function” (60). Doubling and inversion are prime indicators

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. of functional direction and strength, though the context of the surrounding harmonies

often provides greater clarification. Table 4 summarizes these relationships.

Dominant Subdominant ii ' f * Associate Base Agent

Tonic Dominant iii ' f T I Agent Base | Agent

Subdominant Tonic vi O Agent Base Agent

Dominant Subdominant **o I ^ vii ...... Agent | Associate Base

Table 2.2: Harrison’s classification of secondary triads

Harrison’s statements concerning the functional equivalence of chords and scale

degrees from the “opposite” mode are most important to a functional interpretation of A a rock harmony. It is here that the function of bin and bVII are clarified. Though b6 and 7

are traditionally the characteristic agents of Subdominant and Dominant harmony in a

dualist system, Harrison finds similar function expressed in the parallel modes.

Despite the preferences that functions show for certain modes, they are able to express their function in the opposite mode, although with some loss of power. Agency is not dependent on mode, even though mode determines the pitch class inhabiting the scale degree of the agent Mode, however, does affect the strength of a function, with the result that a function expressed in its opposite mode, so to speak, loses some of the certainty and stability associated with the modally matched version. Nonetheless, the difference between a function matched to its mode and one that is not is really one of degree, not of kind (52-53). 66

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. What this establishes are shades of the same function. Harrison’s conclusion that the

modal equivalents must display a “loss of power” is only valid in an abstract sense, but

he is careful to emphasize that they still embody the same function.

a a The reliance on the dualist semitones requires Hamson to argue that b6 and 7 are

the stronger transmitters of Subdominant and Dominant function. Once again, the undue

influence of theory over practice is evident A useful way of interpreting this information

is to view both the major mode "7^ and minor models' as reflective of traditional harmonic A A practice, and minor mode 7 and major mode 6 as demonstrating blues practice—though a

careful consideration of context is always the truest measurement of a chord’s function.

In essence, rock maintains a preference for characteristic whole steps as opposed to

traditional half steps (see figure 2.32).

b6- ...... 5 7. —.. . —i 6 ...... 5 h 7* ...... I m m m P p N

Traditional Rock

Figure 2.32: Characteristic semitones and wholetones

Stylistically, figure 2.33 explains much about the differences between rock and

traditional syntax: in rock harmonic practice the major subdominant is the most frequent

expression of Subdominant function, and the minor dominant (bVTI) is a more common

expression of Dominant function. 67

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. With this change in perspective the function of bVII is made clean in both major

and minor keys, bVTI can be an alternative expression of Dominant function. As

Harrison remarks “minor-mode^expresses Dominant function in the same way as can its

major-mode counterpart,^’ (S3). Applying Harrison’s method to the previous “modal”

progression, making sure to emphasize functional prolongation, provides a more

informed analysis of the function of bVII.

Figure 2.33: Application of Harrison’s functional analysis to “modal” progression

By combining Harrison’s functional categorization of bVH with Middleton’s reworking

of prolongation in figure 2.32, V and bVTI are shown as two Dominant approaches to the

dominant and the tonic.

Harrison’s explanation of the “functionally mixed” secondary triads clarifies the

function of bin. Viewing the classifications set forth in Table 4, bin is shown to be a A A mixture of Dominant (5,7) and Tonic (3) functions. The stylistic bm-I cadence can now

be assigned the functional designation T-T—the first T supplies a “bluesy”

embellishment of the tonic proper. Both inversions of the triad express a D-T discharge:

first inversion shows the traditional^-^ bass motion, with the second inversion AA demonstrating the idiomatic b7-l motion. 68

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Unfortunately, the lack of modal origin in Harrison’s analytic notation is

problematic for rock analysis because one of the important distinctions to be made is how

rock syntax differs from traditional syntax. The notation ofblll-I as T-T is a clear

illustration of the need for a modally sensitive analytic notation. By labeling A major, a

minor, c# diminished and C major as D in the key of D major, Harrison’s method

marginalizes the differences between traditional practice and the music under

discussion.81 Following Van der Merwe’s comment on the “bluesy” associations with the

minor mode, it is impossible to see the combination of traditional and “bluesy” Dominant

approaches to the tonic in Harrison’s analytic notation. Functional progressions are in

danger of appearing traditional in the resulting analysis when they clearly are not.

Given the current state of rock harmonic analysis, it is surprising that Bobbitt’s

Harmonic Theory in the Rock Idiom is so infrequently cited.82 Bobbitt imparts a great

understanding of conventional harmonic progressions and practice for the general study

of rock music. His analytic method is functional, though he seems unduly influenced by

philosophy rather than practice when he insists that rock harmonic practice strives for

ambiguity.83 His sensitivity to the mode of origin in his analyses adds clarity to the

unique nature of rock mode mixture, a clarity absent in Harrison’s method.

81 See his analyses for examples of D applied to minor-mode dominants. Harrison, Harmonic Function. 54.

82 The reader looking for the clearest and most concise summary of Bobbitt’s techniques is directed to pp. 143-170.

83 Bobbitt, 65-66,80.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Bobbitt’s overview of rock harmonic practice draws attention to elements that are

hallmarks of the rock style: the prevalence of major and minor triads84 and the increased

importance of subdominant and minor dominant (v and bVTI) harmonies.83 Tonic,

Subdominant, and Dominant are given the central functional role as they are in other

functional systems, notated through a combination of Roman numeral and jazz notation.86

All other harmonies can be explained as substitutions for the three primary functions,

secondary dominants, or as serving the function of linear prolongation.

Bobbitt’s system of chord substitution clearly places his analytic technique in the

realm of functional harmony. His rules, derived from jazz substitution theory, are direct

and simple to apply.

A substitute chord, in this study, is regarded as a chord structure that can take the place of another chord and, accordingly , functionally replace that chord in a given progression. A triad must have two common tones to function as a substitute. A seventh chord must have three common tones to function as a substitute. Generally, a substitute produces deceptive deviations in a progression or provides an alternative structure that suggests new or additional progressions. The deceptive cadence illustrates one of the earlier uses of substitute chords [emphasis mine] (40-41).

Bobbitt’s assertion that substitutions are deceptive is dictated more by theory than by

practice. A summary of Bobbitt’s substitution relationships and analytic notation is

presented in Table S.87

84 Bobbitt, 33.

85 Ibid., 37,143-144.

86 Ibid., 27.

87 Ibid., ISO. This information is presented in casual prose in Harmonic Technique. Table S was developed to clarify die interrelationships. 70

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TErd-below ’ ^i^TBfird-above £-'r-y. m ; : jfijijiujTriil - - substitute ' V V. ‘ ‘ C "»-•=*' ■' substitute? j f ' . e p n l e i t : ■■ : .. -ISP

vi Isubi I Isut >2 iii

Im Im(sub) bra

ii IVsub IV

bH IVm(sub )2 IVm IVm(sub)i bVI

Vm Vm(sub) bVII

Table 2.3: Summary of Bobbitt’s system of harmonic analysis and chord substitution

Bobbitt’s notation is based on the three primary triads: I, IV and V. All remaining

diatonic major and minor triads, from both the parallel major and minor modes, can be

seen as substitutions for these primary functions. Same-mode substitutes appear with the

word “sub” directly following the Roman numeral, with subscript numbers used to

differentiate those primary chords that possess two substitutes. Parallel minor substitutes

are differentiated with the addition of the letter “m” after the Roman numeral and, if a

substitute, “sub” placed in parenthesis. He omits diminished triads to reflect their

infrequency in rock practice.

Bobbitt’s discussion of the substitutes on page ISO of his work results in some

incomplete relationships in Table S. By only allowing bVT as a subdominant minor

substitute and vi as a tonic major substitute, the completeness of Bobbitt’s system is

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. called into question. Bobbitt may have omitted bVI because it does not share two

common tones with I. It does, however, meet that criteria in its relationship with Im.

Nevertheless, Bobbitt fails to consider this parallel tonic relationship. Using his list of

possible substitutions, the deceptive cadence would be analyzed V-IVm(sub)i in minor,

but V- Isubi in major. Though the possibility of interpreting the deceptive cadence as

dominant-to-subdominant substitute, rather than the traditional dominant-to-tonic

substitute, is intriguing, what is apparent is the need to include the full range of

substitutes for I, IV and V in both major and minor.

By viewing the previous combined “modal” progression, informed through

Middleton’s reorientation of prolongation techniques, the benefits of Bobbitt’s approach

become clear.

D: I Vm(nib)

Vm(«ub)

Figure 2.34: Application of Bobbitt’s functional analysis to “modal” progression

His notation combines the clarity of functional analysis with a heightened attention to the

mixture of traditional and blues elements. The double Dominant approach to V and I is

clearly shown to contain both the traditional V/x and the blues bVII/x relationships. By

using the Vm(sub) notation he ensures the functional connection to the dominant is not

overlooked, while still clarifying its difference. 72

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Bobbitt’s reliance on substitute notation for secondary subdominants, but not

secondary dominants, is an unnecessary distinction in his system. The following example

in figure 2.35 highlights this problem.

Vm(iub)

Figure 2.35: Bobbitt’s contrasting systems for secondary function notation

When I-IV/IV-IV-I is so much clearer for the second progression, indicative of rock

function on the whole, and a similar notational scheme to secondary dominants, it is

unclear why Bobbitt intentionally chooses to avoid secondary subdominant notation in

favor of his substitute notation. Indicating the participation of IV in an extended series of

subdominant cadences helps to highlight a cadential reorientation that distinguishes rock

harmony from traditional harmony.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Combining the benefits of Middleton, Bobbitt, and Harrison results in a useful

analytic system of harmonic function that clearly addresses the difference of rock

harmonic practice. The basic relationships and analytic notation are presented in Table 6.

Roman numeral Thhd-below ' Hunt-above ■■ ■; Roman numeral

equivalent ' Substitutes %- T V' Substitutes L equivalent ■ . Vi * • ‘/■'V. i. : J : .. ' vi (T) T (T ) iii

bVl (t) t (t) b m

ii (S) S (S) vi

bfi (s) s (s) bVI

iii 0>) D

bin (d) d (d) bVH

Table 2.4: Combined analytic system of chord function

This system combines the major/minor sensitivity of Bobbitt’s system with the functional

notation and more complete list of equivalent relationships found in Harrison. The result

is a greater sensitivity to chord origin that helps reflect the distinct chord progressions

used in rock. Since altered chords—such as the “sus” and “added”—generally contain

non-fimctional dissonances, they are considered functionally equivalent to their unaltered

counterparts. The size of the letter indicates the mode the triad originates in (capital for

major, lowercase for minor); functional equivalents are placed inside parenthesis.

Following Bobbitt, diatonic diminished triads are not shown because they are rare in rock

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. harmonic practice. Their inclusion would only add additional substitutions for the

Dominant and Subdominant categories.

Considering the first two “modal” progressions again, applying the combined

system in figure 2.36 clearly indicates the function of each harmony in the larger

progression.

E8= $ 3 ! D: T D W)

Figure 2.36: Combined analysis of “modal” progressions

In figure 2.36 a, the double Dominant approach to the tonic is made clear. Each

Dominant represents a different approach to the tonic: one traditional, one blues. The

arrow (->) in example b represents a transferred functional relationship. This substitution

for the nested bracketing used in earlier figures (2.33 and 2.34, for example) streamlines

the notation of the secondary functions. The underline is used to illustrate an extended

functional progression. Rather than invent a new way of articulating traditional

progressions, this modified functional approach allows for the shifting blend of

traditional and blues syntaxes to be clearly notated.

In order to better illustrate the linear function of some chords, a few notational

details are borrowed from Felix Salzer’s Structural Hearing: P for passing and N for

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. neighbor.88 Where Bobbitt89 might label the progression A-B-C-D as a linear

prolongation I-IV, ignoring the presence of the intermediate harmonies, with Salzer’s

notation this event could be made clearer still by indicating B and C’s function as T-P-P-

S or T-P-(T)-S, based on context.

Since rock is a synthesis of traditional and blues syntaxes, it requires an analytic

approach that allows both systems to be addressed simultaneously. A modified system of

functional analysis was developed to fill this need. Instead of viewing rock as

functionally ambiguous, an informed functional approach enables a direct assessment of

chord relationships. Functional analysis clarifies the vagueness of a modal approach,

avoids the unnecessary restrictions of a contrapuntal approach, as well as the value

judgments of traditional Roman numeral analysis. This system is not intended to provide

a single right answer; functional equivalents and the application of an extended system of

secondary functions allow for the flexible consideration of harmonic relationships based

on a careful consideration of context. The adequacy of this analytic method will be

assessed through its application to Rush’s music in the following chapters.

88 Felix Salzer, Structural Hearine: Tonal Coherence in Music. Volume 2, (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1952), xiv.

89 For an example see Bobbitt, Harmonic Technique. 112-113. 76

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2.3 Process

Considering “how rock sounds” is an important topic in rock analysis

because, as many writers believe, the timbral and textural aspects of rock music

are central to its definition.90 Discussions of rock “sound” in the current literature

cover a wide range of topics: the classification of instrumental timbre, common

instrumental textures, and the elusive “meaning” of rock “sound.” Though

several writers have called for a greater focus on developing analytic techniques

for timbre,91 solutions to this key area of rock analysis have yet to receive due

analytic attention.92

Though a native terminology exists for describing rock “sound,"93 many writers

consider the simple approach of citing instrument names (electric guitar) and generalized

timbres (distorted, clean) to be inadequate.94 For the purpose of this study, however, this

insider terminology will provide a sufficient, analytically useful description of the

instrument timbres. Even if it were feasible to account for every variable that colors the

recorded “sound,” it is questionable whether the result would provide a better description

90 Gracyk, Rhythm and Noise. 65.

91 See Headlam, “Blues Transformations in the Music of Cream,” 86; and Covach, “We won’t get fooled again,” 133 as examples where writers call for a greater attention to sound in rock analysis.

92 Middleton sees the lack of analytic techniques for rock timbre as a parallel to the general lack of techniques for analyzing “sound” in twentieth-century art music. Studying Popular Music. 121.

93 An excellent resource for terminology and recording process is Gary Davis and Ralph Jones, Sound Reinforcement Handbook. 2d ed., Hal Leonard Publishing Co., 1990.

94 Moore states that “the simple descriptions electric guitar, or even Hammond organ are wholly inadequate as ways of conveying the sound to be heard.” Rock. 33. 77

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. than the phrase “distorted guitar.” A vehicle already exists for that type of

representation: the recording, Moore’s “primary text.”

When analysts investigate a piece of rock music, there are a variety of musical

dimensions they might consider, harmony, melody, form, rhythm, etc. Though these

traditional areas of analytic concern can reveal a wealth of information regarding

structure and motion, rock music also communicates a great deal of information through

texture and timbre—techniques that can complement, contrast, and even direct traditional

musical dimensions. One particular textural process, the stratification of parts, requires

special attention because it challenges traditional viewpoints on the relatedness of each

musical layer. Failure to address these techniques can result in the misanalysis of rock

music; it is precisely in the moments where traditional analytic concepts of melody and

harmony fail to yield meaningful results that other elements may appear as agents of

structure and growth.

Notation of these processes is an important consideration. While many writers

suggest avoiding notated examples of rock music,95 few writers abandon staff notation

altogether. Some modify it to better reflect the marginalized parameters. Middleton’s

suggestion of a gestural analysis in “Popular music analysis and musicology” is

intriguing, but it has the reverse effect of marginalizing traditional parameters.96 Since

staff notation can fail to adequately reflect timbral qualities, a variety of graphic

representations will be used to isolate the timbral and textural processes when necessary.

95 For representative arguments see Gracyk, Rhythm and Noise. I; Moore, Rock. 14,89- 90; Middleton, Studying Popular Music. 105; Headlam, “Blues Transformations in the Music of Cream,” 86.

96 Middleton, “Popular music analysis and musicology,” 180-186. 78

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2.3.1 Timhral and textural articulation of structure

The following discussion of rock “sound” explores the way in which rock

musicians use timbral and textural processes to shape their music. These processes are

often based on the simple juxtaposition of opposites at the various levels of formal

structure established in figure 2.2: clean-distorted timbres; acoustic-electric instruments;

sparse-dense textures; and left-right stereo panning. Some of these processes work at the

phrase level to add additional shape to a melody or increase the drive to the next phrase;

other processes serve to articulate thematic sections or create large-scale timbral

groupings. These processes are intimately connected to form, reinforcing the important

role of formal structure in rock music.

The most common way to articulate form in rock music is through the contrast of

textures and timbres across thematic sections. Juxtaposition of instrument type (acoustic

guitar, electric guitar, 12-String bass, fretless bass), vocal setting (solo, 3-part), and sound

processing (clean, distorted, echoed) are devices frequently used to emphasize structural

divisions. Contrast of timbres across formal sections (for example, a clean Verse and

distorted Chorus) and across repetitions of formal sections (for instance, a clean Verse I

and a distorted Verse II) are typical applications of this technique. These processes will

be discussed using insider terminology, often appended to a formal diagram as in figure

2.37.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. m m m AB c AB 4x4m 8m 8x2m 4x4m 8m Clean Distorted Clean

Figure 2.37: Formal diagram with added timbral descriptions

Manipulating the spatial placement of instruments—a recording studio

technique—can also be used to articulate formal dimensions. To describe this placement

of instruments in the studio mix, Moore devises the concept of a “sound box.” The

“sound box” represents a “three-dimensional space,” combining the left-right stereo

spectrum, the proximity of the sound to the listener (foreground, middleground,

background), and the musical dimension of register (high vs. low).97 This space is

represented in figure 2.38.

Stereo Spectrum

Figure 2.38: Diagram of Moore’s “sound box”

97 Moore, Rock. 106. 80

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. This scheme makes it possible to plot the location of an instrument, or combination of

instruments, in this spectrum. Unfortunately, Moore does not illustrate how this method

might be used analytically. In order for the “sound box” technique to be most useful in

rock analysis, discussions of these parameters must be connected to either a time or

structural axis; the most useful information is derived by plotting how these parameters

change over time. For example, the use of stereo panning in guitar Solos is a common

studio technique in 70s rock. By plotting the stereo panning against the phrase structure,

a more detailed process is revealed in figure 2.39.

Left Center Right Phrase 1

Phrase 2

Phrase 3

Phrase 4

Figure 2.39: Graphic representation of the panning process in a guitar Solo

Standard notation could not represent this spatial activity. A motion from the left to the

right is delayed by a phrase in the center. After this motion is completed, the panning 81

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. becomes more active; generating additional drive to the close of the Solo. In addition to

the notes and rhythms the guitarist is playing, forward motion is augmented by the studio

manipulation of stereo position.

An accumulating texture is a frequently cited example of rock textural process.98

A graphic representation of this process is shown in figure 2.40.99

Verse Verse Intro Verse I Verse II B Voice Synth Guitar 1 Guitar 2 Bass Drums

Figure 2.40: Representation of additive or accumulating texture

Here, each instrument appears in staggered entrances. This process adds variation to

each statement of the A theme and, at the large-scale, provides additional drive to the

Chorus. Though staff notation can demonstrate the same process, a graphic

representation provides the most succinct isolation of the accumulating texture. Such

98 For examples see Moore, Rock. 50,92,126,145; Moore, Set. Pepper’s. 34,53; Boone, “Dark Star," 191; Covach, “Close to the Edge" 14.

" For representative examples see Rush, “No One at the Bridge,” Caress Of Steel: “The Trees” and “La Villa Strangiato,” Hemispheres. (Compact Disc 822 547-2 M-l, Mercury, 1978); “Jacob’s Ladder,” Permanent Waves. (Compact Disc 822 548-2 M-l, Mercury, 1980). 82

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. representations provide an important analytic tool, one that aids in articulating alternative

processes that are either unclear or absent in traditional notation.

No area better represents the need for discussing timbral and textural processes

than rock percussion. The smallest details in the use of the “drum kit” can shape phrase

structure, forward motion, and large-scale contrast. For Bobbitt, the “drum kit” occupies

a key position in the definition of rock “sound.”100

In spite of its important function in ragtime, Dixieland, and jazz music, the beat always served as an accompaniment. In music of the rock idiom the beat came to the fore and dominated the entire ensemble texture (Harmonic Technique, i).

Unfortunately, rock percussion is rarely discussed in the literature. What is lacking is a

general understanding of percussion conventions, such as the function of each percussion

instrument in phrase construction and an explanation of how the “kit” relates to the

formal areas established in figure 2.2.

Each component of the drum kit exhibits specific functions in the construction of

patterns or grooves. Since the elements of the kit do not communicate conventional pitch

information, the rhythmic, timbral, and textural details hold the most useful information

for the analyst. Table 7 illustrates the drum kit legend and summarizes the functions of

each instrument. The most common function of each instrument is listed first, followed

by secondary functions.

100 Also see Grayck, Rhvthm and Noise. 15-16,133. 83

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Bass (B) Foundation, Accent I

Snare (S) Foundation, Accent

Tom Toms (Toms) Accent, Foundation

Cr. ■J- Crash Cymbal (Cr.) Accent, Foundation I

Foundation, Accent: High Hat Cymbals (H.H.) Closed (+) is crisp, open (o) for accent 1

Ride

Ride Cymbal (Ride) Foundation, Accent - 4-

Bell

- 4- Ride Cymbal Bell (Bell) Foundation, Accent i

Table 2.5: Percussion legend and associated functions

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Though “foundation” and “accent” are idealized terms, they do define a basic division of

function in the drum kit. Foundation instruments make up the basic groove, while the

other instruments are used for a variety of accents. A practical example of these different

functions is shown in figure 2.41.

Cr. KK/BeU/Ride

■4-JH X X X X j m Drum Kit rr ec/Crr r r eltIlt - t r

Figure 2.41: Common placement of percussion elements in a phrase

The combination of the bass, snare and any one of the cymbals (H.H., Ride, or Bell)

forms the foundation, or groove. For the analyst, the information provided by the

opening and closing accents provides the clearest indication of phrase structure. In

popular music, the crash cymbal is generally used to indicate the beginning of a phrase.

Motion to the following phrase is indicated through a break in the groove pattern, most

often in the final measure of a phrase. In figure 2.41, the bass, snare, tom toms, and crash

cymbal provide the accent, or “fill,” that pushes to the next phrase.

These percussion conventions are most useful in providing information on the

phrase structure that may not be communicated by the other instruments. Since tonally

rounded phrases (for example I-V-IV-I) are common in rock music, thereby m inim izing

the role harmonic function plays in driving the music from phrase to phrase, the

percussion often drives the sense of forward motion through the use of these techniques.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Another way the kit is used to generate forward motion is through the gradual

addition of each component Shown in figure 2.42, this technique illustrates a localized

use of the accumulating texture discussed in figure 2.40.101

Cr. R ide ^ ««« . i i i i ,i i npu i r.-.xj— “ . i . Ji; r

Figure 2.42: Increasing textural density in drum kit

By the third measure the groove is established by the full foundation of percussion

instruments, driving to the next phrase through the fill in measure four.102 Such

accumulating textures can span longer phrases, even whole thematic areas. This

technique provides another agent of forward motion to be considered by the analyst.

A familiar technique of timbral and textural process in rock song is the

juxtaposition of different drum kit combinations across thematic divisions. This

101 Everett remarks on this technique where a measured increase in bass/drum activity is used to drive toward a cadence. “Swallowed by a Song,” 130. For examples of this technique, see Weezer, “Only in Dreams,” Weezer. (Compact Disc D105943, Geffen, 1994); Rush, “No One at the Bridge,” Caress Of Steel.

102 See Rush, “The Trees,” Hemispheres: and “Jacob’s Ladder,” Permanent Waves for examples of this technique. 86

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. technique is often realized as a simple shift of cymbal type across the Verse-Chorus

pair,103 shown in figure 2.43.

Cr. Bell Cr. V tn e i j i j |j. j j 4..i-|j- rn^n Drum K it £ £

Cr. o &. C hcna | J J J J J J J ,J J J - i Drum K it [J r [/T " r

Figure 2.43: Changing cymbal types across the Verse-Chorus pair

Though the pattern in the bass and snare drums varies little between the Verse and

Chorus sections, the change from the ride bell to the high hat transforms the collective

timbre of the drum kit. Such simple contrasts aid in articulating the change of thematic

material across formal sections.

103 For examples see Goo Goo Dolls, “Bumin* Up,” A Bov Named Goo. (Compact Disc 9 45750-2, Warner BrosVMetal Blade, 1995); Wheatus, ‘Teenage Dirtbag,” Wheatus. (Compact Disc CK 62146, Columbia, 2000). 87

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Timbre is also used at the large-scale level to vary repetitions of the same

thematic material. Covach remarks “it is fairly typical for rock arrangements to add

something to each new statement of the Verse, usually building up the arrangement to

drive toward the ending” (“Close to the Edge," 14).104

V ersel > t V erseS ABA B High Hat Ride BeU Ride Snare Drum Bass Drum ►

Figure 2.44: Cymbal contrast across multiple Verse repetitions

Though the musical material might repeat exactly across each Verse presentation in

figure 2.44, changes in groove, cymbal choice, and fill style can add variety to each

repetition and forward motion to the larger song. This large-scale variation of the

percussion part is the type of “small detail” that is often overlooked in the analysis of

rock music. When rock music exhibits a great deal of repetition, it is frequently the drum

kit that provides the most important information about growth and structure.

104 For example see The Beatles, “Everybody’s Got Something to Hide Except Me and My Monkey,” The Beatles (The White AlbumV (Compact Disc CDP 7 464444 2 Disc 2, EMI, 1968); Queensrjfche, “Suite Sister Mary,” Operation: mindcrime. (Compact Disc CDP-7-48640-2, EMI-Manhattan, 1988)—Verse I-Verse II-Verse m-Chorus; Rush, “Natural Science: Hyperspace,” Permanent Waves. 88

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2.3.2 Stratification

Though musicians in a rock band generally work as a unit to achieve a common

goal—a riff, a chord progression, a song—there are times when each instrument moves

according to its own logic. This layering, or stratification, of simultaneous musical parts

is a central issue. In particular, traditional viewpoints on the relatedness of melody,

harmony, and bass are not always valid in rock music. Because rock music is often

composed by committee, generally through a process of improvising on a chord

progression or riff, the resulting music can demonstrate a combination of complementary

parts and areas of independence. The rock analyst must take care to consider each layer

independently and collectively.

For example, consider the harmonic relationship between the guitar and bass in

figure 2.45.

Figure 2.45: Stratification of bass and guitar harmonic function

Analyzing the bass and guitar together, on beat two, as a V11 chord would result in an

uncharacteristically complex chord that invokes the wrong harmonic process and style.

Essentially, each instrument approaches the tonic cadence from different functional

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. directions: the guitar completes a S-T cadence while the bass follows its own S-D-T

cadence. The analyst must be careful to see the related, yet separate, functional

progressions in each instrument.

This brief look at alternative processes established several areas of analytic

concern—areas that are often overlooked when rock music is discussed—and the general

need to consider musical dimensions outside the traditional parameters of melody,

harmony, rhythm, and form. In considering stereo panning, accumulating textures,

percussion techniques, and the possibility of simultaneous independent layers, the rock

analyst is able to inform their discussion of traditional musical dimensions. A wider

variety of alternative processes and graphic representations will be established through

the discussion of Rush’s music from 1974 to 1976.

2.4 Summary

Since rock music is best seen as a blend of traditional and contemporary

compositional techniques, the analyst must employ a similar mixture of analytic

techniques in order to effectively articulate formal structure, harmonic function, and

alternative techniques of growth and structure. This chapter presented a review of

relevant style conventions and associated analytic techniques, with the goal of clarifying

some of the current misconceptions about rock music. Analyzing rock music is often an

exercise in looking at the co-existence of multiple musical dimensions, each contributing

in their own way to the larger whole. As Middleton states:

Since music is a multi-parameter system, the strictly musical codes are several, organizing pitch, chord structure, rhythm, timbre, and so on; and these may not always reinforce each other but may be out of phase or contradictory (Studying Popular Music. 173).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Traditional dimensions do not always account for process in rock music, and it is

precisely in places where traditional methods fail to provide meaningful information that

the analyst must be able to switch perspectives and discuss timbre, texture, growth, and

instrument-specific techniques. The following discussion of Rush’s song cycles and

other extended songs will allow these analytic techniques to be tested, substantiated, and

expanded.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER 3

RUSH (1974): EARLY EXTENDED SONGS

Any consideration of Rush’s output will be incomplete if it lacks a clear

explanation of the formal structures, functional progressions, and alternative processes

that are found in the first album, Rush. The following discussion provides this necessary

foundation through a brief review of the history behind the recording, a summary of

general style traits in structure, function, and process, and a more detailed discussion of

the extended songs on the recording.105

Rush—Lee, Lifeson, and original drummer John Rutsey—debuted in 1969 as a

performing act,106 playing cover tunes at high school dances and local clubs in Canada.

Their passion was for the music of hard rock groups such as Cream, Jeff Beck, and

Led Zeppelin.107 As they received more exposure, the group gained a local following and

began to rely more on original material.108 After many false starts they released their

debut album, Rush, in 1974. During the recording Rush established an important

105 Chapters 4 and 5 will follow a similar organization.

106 Banasiewicz, 6.

107 Ibid., 7.

108 Ibid., 8. 92

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. collaborative relationship with producer Terry Brown that continued through their ninth

studio recording, Signak. The support of Donna Halper, a Cleveland Ohio disc jockey,

helped Rush gain popularity in the United States, and this led to opening gigs for major

touring acts as well as a major label contract with Mercury Records.109

3.1 General style traits on Rush

Most of the songs on Rush fall within the expected norms of the standard rock

formal model defined above in chapter one.110 The track listing is given in Table 8.

UrMlr- -. Title Duration 1. Finding My Way 5:05 2. Need Some Love 2:19 3. Take A Friend 4:24 4. Here Again 7:34 5. What You’re Doing 4:22 6. In The Mood 3:33 7. Before And After 5:34 8. Working Man 7:10

Table 3.1: Rush: Track listing and durations

Seven of the eight songs adopt the Verse-Chorus pair as the fundamental formal unit

The exception is “What You’re Doing,” the sole instance of the 12-bar blues form on the

recording. All but “Need Some Love” have Introductions, usually consisting of Verse

material without vocals, and all 8 songs have closing sections. Only ‘Take A Friend”

uses a studio or “board” fade. On the whole, the songs demonstrate a number of themes:

109 Banasiewicz, 13-14.

110 See page 21. 93

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. seven of the eight songs contain four or fewer, with three being the norm. When

additional thematic material appears, it is typically located in the instrumental sections of

rock song form; new thematic material is rarely introduced to support additional lyrics.

All of the song settings on Rush feature a guitar Solo at the traditional location—

after the Verse-Chorus pair is repeated at least once—but both “Before And After” and

“Working Man” contain an additional guitar Solo. The guitar Solo accompaniment often

serves to complete a presentation of the established Verse-Chorus pair, either internally

or in conjunction with a reprise of the Chorus. These two thematic relationships are

shown in figure 3.1.

Core Unit Core Unit Repetition

Verse Chorus Solo Chorus A BAB

Core Unit Core Unit Repetition

Verse Chorus Solo A BA&B

Figure 3.1: Diagram of common thematic relationships between guitar Solos and Verse- Chorus pairs

Only three tracks, “Working Man,” “Before And After,” and “Need Some Love,” contain

Solos accompanied by new themes. The concentration of new thematic material in the

instrumental sections of rock song form becomes increasingly important in Rush’s

output, especially in the second album set.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The text setting and the lyric content of the tracks on Rush are quite conventional.

Seven of the eight songs exhibit strophic Verse and refrain Chorus construction,111 and

six songs include the song title in the Chorus text “Here Again” and “Before And After”

are descriptive titles. The lyric content alludes to standard blues/rock topics: failing

personal relationships (Tracks 1 and 7), looking for love (Tracks 2 and 6), a commentary

on life’s repetitiveness (Track 4), an “ode” to the working class (Track 8), the importance

of friendship (Track 3), and the adolescent defiance of authority (Track 5).112

Though there are several instances of varying timbre and texture to create interest

during thematic repetitions, a fairly consistent “sound” characterizes the album.

Typically the songs maintain the same timbral content throughout: distorted guitars,

heavy bass and drums, and piercing high vocals. Only “Before And After” contrasts

clean and distorted guitar timbres.

111 “What You’re Doing” is the exception due to its blues structure.

112 These blues/rock lyric topics, along with the general style of the lyrics, will provide an important contrast to Rush’s lyric refinement and sophistication through the remaining recordings in the first album set 95

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The choice of keys and the phrase boundaries exhibit traditional rock syntax, as

summarized in Table 9.

Track Key Verse Chorus Finding My Way A C-0 0 -0 Need Some Love E 0-C O-CIO-O Take A Friend D C-0 o-cio-o Here Again b-D C-C C-0 What You’re Doing e 0-C NA Before And After A C-0 0-C In The Mood A C-0 0 -0 Working Man e C-0 C-0

Table 3.2: Rush: Key relationships and Verse-Chorus phrase boundaries

Five of the songs have major tonics, two have minor, and one modulates from minor to

its relative major. Only five keys and four tonal centers are used. Moore’s system of

labeling phrases/themes as closed (C-C: beginning and ending on the tonic), open (O-O:

beginning and ending on non-tonic harmony), or the combination of the two (C-0,0-C)

aids in illuminating harmonic trends in the phrase boundaries.113 In Table 9, Verses are

shown to establish the tonic chord more often than Choruses: all Verses either begin or

close with the tonic. Rush typically use traditional rock functions at the open section(s)

of the phrases, with S and D appearing most frequently. Choruses show a greater variety

of phrase boundaries, with several songs exhibiting completely open structures (0-0). A

dividing line (0-C|0-0) is used to indicate sections that contain a repeated progression

and an alternate closing.

113 Moore, Rock. 52-53. 96

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Selected themes reveal additional details of rock harmonic syntax.114 A mixture

of traditional and blues syntax is common, typically involving secondary Subdominants

and the modal borrowing of bin and bVTI in major mode songs. This blending of mode

extends to the tonic in many songs, where an analysis of T|t provides a more accurate

representation of the mixture present (see figure 3.7). Though modulation is rare, tonal

contrast is regularly achieved through the use of mode mixture between themes. The

simplified Verse-Chorus material in figure 3.2 illustrates this point.

Vcne EGtn t t i TTT *

EB. E D S - » D

Chorta 3x a g p t e ------EGtn f * = l # 3 = ------o n n_ ___ o n ____ n z

o EB. W" M s _» (d) T D

Figure 3.2: “Need Some Love:” Analysis of simplified Verse and Chorus progressions

114 For the illustrative necessity of harmonic function and thematic material, traditional notation is employed throughout the dissertation. The examples are meant to provide a middle ground between the notational precision of a transcription and the general nature of a jazz chart Themes are often simplified rhythmically and are indicated as such in the captions. All transcriptions are personal unless noted otherwise. In order to insure the truest representation of the sounds, each analysis is accompanied by the relevant compact disc timings. 97

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Both themes are based exclusively on major triads in root position. Tonal contrast is

achieved through the juxtaposition of the diatonic Verse theme with the “bluesy” Chorus.

Even in the diatonic Verse, the use of the tonic as a Subdominant neighbor to the

dominant and the progression D-S illustrate the influence of blues harmony. A functional

analysis of the Chorus shows that the bVII and bin harmonies are not just borrowed for

their “blues” coloring of the E major tonic, but as functional participants in S->x

relationships. Surrounding the tonic by both the Major and minor-mode dominants—(d)-

T-D—is a typical feature in Rush’s early music that illustrates the flexible blend of

parallel mode elements in rock harmony.

It is important to emphasize that the functional analyses do not provide absolute

interpretations. For example, the D-A-E progression that opens the Chorus in figure 3.2

may be analyzed (d)-S-T, emphasizing its relationship as a blues variant of the Verse

progression. Likewise, the Chorus close may be interpreted (t)-(d)-T-D. Where the

interpretation in figure 3.2 focuses on the Subdominant relationships that help define

rock’s “difference,” this alternate reading recognizes the correspondence between scale

degree and harmonic function: bin expresses (t) and bVII (d). It is encouraging that, in

both interpretations, the blues nature of the progressions becomes clear—both

interpretations reveal aspects of rock functional syntax that are not commonly found in

traditional tonal music.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 3.3 shows a functional analysis of the Verse and Chorus themes in ‘Take

A Friend.”

Vote

EGtt.

D: T S d

S (t) T (d) -» S D

Figure 3.3: ‘Take A Friend:” Analysis of simplified Verse and Chorus progressions

Both sections contain blues elements. The unison riff in the second measure of the Verse

communicates functional motion without explicit harmonies: a blues variant on the

traditional S-D progression. Though it is possible to label the Verse pitch content as D

Mixolydian, the A major half cadence at the end of the Chorus shows the limitations of a

strictly modal interpretation. In the Chorus, the bill harmony behaves differently because

of its context It participates in the conventional “falling third” cadence— (t)-T—in the

first half of the Chorus. In major mode pieces such as this, it is common to find bin

participating in the transfer of the (d)-T relationship to the subdominant This

relationship is shown in the second half of the Chorus: (d)->S-D. An alternative analysis 99

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. would emphasize a connection to the T-S-d progression in the Verse—reading the second

half of the Chorus as (t)-S-D.

3.2 Other Extended Songs

Though large-scale structure is not an overt feature of this album, several songs

do exhibit noteworthy extensions of rock song form, and these extensions clarify the

techniques Rush used. To interpret the value of the extension, it is necessary to

determine the techniques of extension—tempo, repetition, and structure. A combination

of all three processes are present in the four extended songs on Rush. Table 10 presents

the song title, duration, and approximate tempo for each of the four extended songs.

Track. Title Duration Tempo (Approx) 1. “Finding My Way” 5:06 J=136

4. “Here Again” 7:35 J.=98

7. “Before And After” 5:34 J=105,J=100

8. “Working Man” 7:10 J=77

Table 3.3: Rush: Tempo and duration relationships in “extended” songs

One of the primary reasons for extending these songs is their relatively slow tempo.

Another feature that accounts for the extended lengths in these four songs is the repetition

of extended Verse-Chorus pairs. Structural extensions are frequently located within the

traditional instrumental sections of rock song form because additional text/narrative is not

required in order to expand the formal boundaries. These instrumental extensions

100

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. provide the opportunity for the musicians to improvise on a given progression or riff, to

create local formal structures (A|B|A is quite common), and to juxtapose improvised and

composed material.

3.2.1.1 “Finding My Way”

“Finding My Way” illustrates Rush’s interpretation, and expansion, of rock song

form. A diagram of the form is given in figure 3.4.

Expanded Core Unit

Introduction Chorus A BC 3x7m 1x7m (4x2m)+2x2m 4m +(2x2m)

Verse H A B C 2x7m 1x7m (4x2m)+2x2m 4m +(2x2m)

Bridee Guitar Solo Solo Retransition DC B D2 C 4x2m+2x2m+ 2x4m (4x2m)+2x2m 8x2m 2x4m 2x2m +(2x2m)

O o a ta c AB 2x7m 1x7m 3x2m +lm

Figure 3.4: Formal diagram of “Finding My Way”

101

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Formal extension is largely achieved through repetition of an expanded core unit, new

Bridge material, and multi-theme guitar Solo and Closing. Each of the traditional

instrumental sections is expanded—the Introduction through repetition, and the Solo and

Closing through the use of multiple themes. The expanded core unit exhibits

unconventional proportions. The Introduction is much larger than the Verse, and the

Chorus is strikingly short.115 The omission of the Verse after the Solo is common in

rock. Here, however, Rush utilize the Verse accompaniment as part of the polythematic

Closing. On the whole, “Finding My Way” displays great flexibility in the realization of

rock song form.

The guitar Solo in “Finding My Way” illustrates another important process of

structural articulation in rock: the use of composed sections (themes B and D2) to signal

the impending return of opening material. This Solo-Retransition pairing plays an

important role in the structuring of Rush’s early extended songs.

The combination of textural and timbral processes enlivens the Introduction.

Figure 3.5 shows the different elements that shape the successive repetitions of the A

theme.

its Moore’s states that the Verse is generally two times the length of the Chorus. Rock. 47-48. 102

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Voice —► Guitar Bass/Drums/G2 * * * * * * * * m m mm Board Increase Stereo R * C ' * L Time 0:00 0:11 0:23 0:35 ,=Left C=Center R=Right

Figure 3.5: “Finding My Way:” Graphic representation of additive texture in Introduction

Each of the four columns in figure 3.5 represents one statement of the seven-measure A

theme. The graphic representation brings into focus the spatial manipulation and

accumulating texture that pushes the music forward. A single guitar presents the A

theme across the first two statements. This theme is based on a I-bVII-IV progression in

A major, or T-S->S. As the board brings the single guitar into the foreground of the mix,

its sound traverses the stereo spectrum through panning. When the guitar completes its

“sound box” journey, the accompaniment (bass, drums and guitar 2) and voice enter with

accents (represented by *). A full band presentation of the A theme leads to Lee’s “I’m

commin’ out to get you” caterwauling during the final statement. In figure 3.4, this

separation of instruments and voice is indicated by the 3x7m| 1x7m division at the phrase

level. This division shows that the instrumental repetitions of the A theme, not the voice,

are truncated in the subsequent presentations of the Introduction.

Thematic interrelationships unify the structure o f“Finding My Way.” For

example, a fundamental T-S relationship serves as a structural harmonic progression

throughout the song. This progression can be seen as the foundation of the T-S->S

103

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. progression in the Introduction and in the first part of the Verse. The Verse and Chorus

themes are shown in figure 3.6.

A: T D -» S S D (»)

Chorm 4 ® ------5j b j

. 5s 0 VL?

[ q n p — r ■ ■■■ LI “ tyo 1 - ...... ------J (S) (d) T

Figure 3.6: “Finding My Way:” Analysis of Verse and Chorus progressions

The Verse is made up of two distinct ideas: an elaboration of the T-S->S progression

from the Introduction, and a variant of the standard rock progression bVI-bVII-(I). In

both sections of the Verse, the fundamental progressions are elaborated through

secondary Dominants. The use of bin in the second section of the Verse presents a clear

illustration of how context informs a chord’s function. Though it is possible to interpret

bin as (t), recognizing its dominant relationship to the following harmony clarifies the

larger connection between the two Dominant elaborations.

104

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. On close inspection, the Verse displays the stratification and surface-level modal

mixture that are trademarks of rock style. A short excerpt is shown in figure 3.7.

Lee

IVt loat

EGte

EB.

Figure 3.7: “Finding My Way:” Ambiguity of tonic mode in Verse I. Track 1 (0:46-0:50)

Though melody is not a major focus in this study, it is important to show how melody can

influence, and even contradict, the information provided by the other instruments. In the

first measure the voice line clearly shows C natural associated with the tonic, indicating a

minor or t The guitar and the bass indicate a major tonic, or T, through the use of C#.116

Blending both thirds over a given harmony is one way to make the music sound “bluesy.”

On the other hand, it is possible to view the instruments and the voice as constituting

separate layers. In this interpretation the different layers interact at certain times, and

move according to their own logic at others. Interrelationships such as these are

necessary to consider if rock is to be addressed in its own terms.

116 The parentheses around the C# in the guitar indicate that Lifeson does not always play the third on every repetition. 105

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The D theme, introduced in the Bridge, illustrates the influence of characteristic

rock functional progressions—S->x and (d)—on linear themes or riffs, as shown in

figure 3.8.

EGtc ■ww

A: T S (d) «— S

2x EGtc 4 S H =

EB.

T S

Figure 3.8: “Finding My Way:” Analysis of D theme. Track 1 (2:30-2:57)

A large-scale T-(d)-T progression exists across the transpositions of the Bridge riff.

Closer to the surface, each harmony of the structural progression is prolonged through its

Subdominant.

106

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3.2.12 “Here Again”

Multiple Verses, an exceptionally long guitar Solo, and the slowest tempo on the

recording—all contribute to the formal expansion of “Here Again,” the longest song on

Rush. Figure 3.9 shows the formal details of “Here Again.”

V ase Intro Verse I Verse II A B (after B A) 2x8m 2x8m 2x8m

Chorus Intro Verse HI Verse IV A B (after B C A) 2x8m 2x8m 2x8m 2x8m

Chorus B CC (2x8m)x3 2x8m 7m

Figure 3.9: Formal diagram of “Here Again”

Though the Verse-Chorus pair underlies the larger structure, it is slightly obscured by the

repetitions of the expanded Verse unit at a slow tempo.

The overall unity of the expanded Verse section is reinforced by means of similar

Introduction and Verse themes. Except for their harmonic progressions, both sections are

identical—tonally closed in b minor (C-Q, a 2x8m phrase structure, shared rhythmic,

timbral, and textural elements. This similarity in “feel” leads to more than one

interpretation. While a thematic analysis shows that the expanded Verse consists of two

107

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. themes, the large-scale “feel” of the section might be better represented as variants of the

same theme: A and A2. It is possible that the elements of rhythm, timbre, and texture

may define a theme as decisively as its pitch content.

A major factor in the length of “Here Again” is the massive 48 measure guitar

Solo. This Solo is abnormally long, especially at this tempo. As figure 3.9 shows, the

Solo has the same dimensions and phrase structure as the expanded Verse unit. Taking

into account the similarity of the A and B themes, the Solo can be seen to participate in a

completion of an additional Verse-Chorus pair. This formal function provides a

structural rational for the solo’s extended length.

Several techniques are used to shape this immense Solo. In addition to the

improvisatory solo guitar (S. Guitar), the drums, bass, rhythm guitar (R. Guitar), and

studio mixing all contribute to the forward motion in subtle ways. Figure 3.10 is a

graphic representation of these musical processes.117

S. Guitar fore R. Guitar uacic Mid Mid Bass Biick Back-Mid Fore Drums Back Back-Mid Fore Push Push Push Push Cymbal Cr.HJl H.H. Cr. H.H Cr. Ride Cr. Ride Cr. Ride Theme 1i 4:37 5:16 5:36 5:51 5:55 6:10 6:14 6:29 8m 8m 8m I 8m 8m 8m

Figure 3.10: “Here Again:” Graphic representation of additional processes in the Solo

117 “Push” is defined on page 107. 108

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The times in figure 3.10 indicate the beginning of phrases and pertinent processes. One

of the most interesting revelations is the parsing of the three Verse theme repetitions into

two twenty-four measure segments through contrasting foundation cymbals in the

percussion. This new division is reinforced through the board increase of the

accompaniment instruments: the motion from the background to foreground commences

at the opening of the second 24 measure segment. Though perhaps a little nondescript,

“push”—an insider term—defines a general motion in the accompaniment instruments

that drives to the next phrase. In this Solo, the push is a steady eighth-note motion that

begins during the final two measures of each phrase.

“Here Again” is the only song on Rush that contains a modulation within the

Verse-Chorus pair. Not only does the song begin in b minor and modulate to the relative

major, but within the Chorus theme the song closes on the subdominant—the first

instance of progressive harmony in the group’s output. The simplified Verse and Chorus

themes are shown in figure 3.11.

109

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 3.11: “Here Again:” Analysis of Verse and Chorus progressions

The Verse progression could be regarded as “modal” because the major

subdominant indicates a Dorian pitch collection (b-c#-d-e-f#-g#-a-b) in the first five

measures. However, given the appearance of G major a measure later, a strict Dorian

interpretation is impractical. Since the A major chord follows E major, this major

subdominant in the otherwise diatonic b minor context can be seen to function as a

secondary dominant of the minor-mode dominant (d). Prolongations of idiomatic rock

progressions often generate these modal implications. To show this dual function of E

major—borrowed subdominant and secondary Dominant —a vertical line divides the two

functions under the single harmony. By attending to the functional implications of

110

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. inversion, the progression from measure six to seven can be clarified.118 In the guitar,

bin is (t) to the closing t: the characteristic “dropping third” cadence. With the majority

of bin’s scalar content tied to the minor-mode dominant, the placement of^-? in the bass

calls for a d-t functional discharge. It is necessary to consider both interpretations, and

weigh the possibility that separate instruments participate in different functional motions

to the same goal.

An interesting example of functional reinterpretation appears in the Chorus.

Since it is possible to interpret vi as either (T) or (S), figure 3.11 shows vi serving two

functions: completing the traditional T-D-(T) progression; and supplying a subdominant

substitute (S) to begin the closing subdominant prolongation. By focusing on the

subdominant function of vi it is possible to see an underlying T-D-S blues progression in

the Chorus.

3.2.1.3 “Before And After”

In Banasiewicz’s biography of the band, he singles out “Before And After” as

“the key song on the [first] album to understand where Rush would go next” (12). Most

likely Banasiewicz was referring to the Introduction in “Before and After;” this

Introduction is stylistically unlike any other song on Rush. Contained within this

Introduction are core style traits that appear throughout Rush’s later output: chordal

techniques that create a large sound in trio settings; prominent bass lines; and the

accumulating textures that articulate the form. Because the Introduction is purely

instrumental, it provides an excellent study of musical processes operating without the

118 Harrison, 60. I ll

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. directional aid of lyrics. “Before And After” illustrates an unusual solution to expanding

rock song form: joining a musically unrelated Introduction to the “song proper.”

Thematically independent Introductions appear elsewhere on Rush, in both ‘Take A

Friend” and “Finding My Way.” The Introduction to “Before And After” is simply given

a much larger scale in keeping with tendency for rock musicians to concentrate formal

expansions in instrumental passages. For the sake of clarity this structure of the

Introduction will be treated as an independent unit

The formal structure of the Introduction, shown in figure 3.12, is a simple ternary

structure A|B|A2.

Introduction A B A2+Link 4x8m 4x4m 4m+l2m

Figure 3.12: “Before And After:” Formal diagram of Introduction. Track 7 (0:00-2:16)

In the place of melody, elements of timbre and texture are used to shape repeated

“grooves” on standard chord progressions. Figure 3.13 illustrates the use of guitar timbre

and cymbal choice to articulate the large-scale contrast between the A add B themes.

112

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A B A2 Cymbal Hi-Hat Ride Ride Guitar Clean Distorted Distorted

Figure 3.13: “Before And After”—Introduction: Pairing of cymbals and guitar timbre to theme in the Introduction

These idiomatic timbral shifts complement the “traditional” changes in harmony and

rhythm that contrast the A and B themes. The return of the A theme (A2) contains the

timbral character of the B theme to make a convincing transition to the distorted timbre

of the song itself.

An accumulating texture creates continued surface interest and formal drive

across the four statements of the A theme. The systematic expansion of the texture is

shown in figure 3.14, using a modified version of Moore’s “sound box”.

Introduction A

8m 8m 00 B 00 3 High Drams - — •— ------—— ■' ". ►. ♦ Register * Bass I »

Low Drurns— —•— ------———. ► Time* 0:00 0:18 0:35 0:53

Figure 3.14: “Before And After”—Introduction: Modified sound box analysis

113

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The downward expansion of register keeps the music fresh on each repetition. Since the

“drum kit” contains a variety of instruments, gray is used to indicate the wide registrai

space.

As shown in figure 3.IS, the first presentation of the A theme establishes the

foundation on which the remaining instruments are layered in their staggered entrances.

ECtr 1

EGtc 2 ...... & j

EGtc 1 " p = P § p p n m m : .1

i - EGtc 2 S—*—— o - n ------o c r 5 1 1 - n . * * - r p 3 ? .

Figure 3.15: “Before And After”—Introduction: First statement of the A theme. Track 7 (0:00-0:16)

The overall mood is pastorale, showing an unusual dimension of Rush’s style. A strong

3+3+2 rhythm is used to create a unified groove throughout the larger Introduction.

The exclusive use of the major mode distinguishes the Introduction from the

blues-based mixture that is so prevalent on the rest of the album. What is most striking

about the A theme are the chord structures. At first glance, many of the chords seem 114

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. complex. Applying traditional Roman numeral analysis to the progression in figure 3.IS

leads to symbols, v addn, IVadd9, ii7add lI, and in*146, for example, suggesting an atypical

degree of complexity. Informing these judgments through an understanding of guitar

practice leads to a different conclusion. Consider, in figure 3.16, a simplified version of

the A theme in staff and tablature notations.

Figure 3.16: “Before and After”—Introduction: Analysis of simplified progression

As the tablature shows, the A theme material consists of the same open E major chord

shape moved in parallel motion on the low e string, with the high b and e strings left open

as pedals. Where the basic chord pattern deviates is precisely where the strict parallelism

would result in non-blues chromaticism. The harmonies on F# and G# merely pass

between I and IV. As shown in figure 3.16, the third of both of these chords is muted (x).

This muting allows for the continuation of the same hand shape, or fingering, throughout

the entire progression while avoiding the chromatic B# and A#.

Traditional perspectives dictate that these chords be analyzed as complex.

Instrument-specific practice shows that the realization of this progression is exceedingly

115

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. simple. Lifeson clarifies this issue through the following remark on his approach to

chord structure.

Suspended chords have always been my favorites. Your harmonic content becomes much greater. It comes from that same school of making more out of the music because we are only a three-piece band (Stix, “Alex Lifeson: Still in School, 50)

According to Lifeson, suspended chords serve harmonic and textural functions: in

essence, they “fatten up” the sound. A functional analysis clearly articulates the

underlying progression without miscommunicating the complexity of the chords. Since

none of the dissonances in the A theme resolve according to traditional rules of voice

leading, labels like V"1'111 only communicate the harmonic density of the chord, not how

it functions. The accompanying analysis in figure 3.16 illustrates the fundamental T-D-

S-T progression, unclouded by the surface complexity of the extended harmonies. By

analyzing the f# and g# as P, their passing function between I and IV is made clear.

Variety is created in the remaining statements of the A theme through added

timbres (the bass, acoustic guitar, and drums) and varied realizations of the underlying

harmonic progression in Guitar II and Guitar m . The bass solo, shown in figure 3.17, is

the main focus of the second statement

116

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. iA z tfh Acoustic

EB. i m F l Melodic

A EGtc 1 trl ¥, r t »-v = — m'~ ' m------y 1 Lf r = - K f - f - ■

EGtc 2 i * h g = $ 8 = n ------a XT * * ! w_ a

Acoustic a § £ = o 5 3 xz O * 4 X f

EE * A * ------> — r— *J ■> l> ■ ------•------L » r P t — F ' ‘H Harmonic Melodic

Figure 3.17: “Before And After”—Introduction: A theme bass solo. Track 7 (0:17-0:34)

Throughout the album, Lee’s bass provide a tasteful driving force in the ensemble. This

solo demonstrates his attention to the balance o f contrapuntal and harmonic

considerations.

117

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The third and fourth statements of the A theme are in the full band texture and

have the feel of “grooving” on a chord progression. Tension and motion are created

through repetition, by the slight differences between the realizations of the harmony, and

by the intensified rhythm achieved by arpeggiating, rather than strumming, each chord.

The B theme contains both the D-S motion and the 3+3+2 rhythm from the A

theme, presented in a new timbral setting with distorted guitar.

, i t p > , - i rrn>- ,i m

Acoustic -o-

Figure 3.18: “Before And After”—Introduction: B theme with simplified accompaniment. Track 7(1:11-1:19)

Here, tension is created through the isolation of the V-IV progression, in contrast to the

progression of the A theme. Despite the omission of Guitar I the sound is fuller as a

result of the distortion added to Guitar II and the complexity of the two harmonies.

Dissonances always seem sharper when played on a distorted electric guitar since the

118

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. partials of each note are quite pronounced.119 Figure 3.18 indicates that the Guitar II part

is varied throughout, usually through slight modifications of the established picking

pattern. Lifeson also juxtaposes strummed and arpeggiated passages in the realization of

the acoustic guitar part. The surface realization of the underlying progression becomes

highly active by the fourth presentation of the B theme. A portion of this variant is

shown in figure 3.19.

U r* — r w - r . . J ^ m m ------.=d=_fcs=t^_

J M w ------o Sow n K d » d PickedIfcro'itboat

t ______J V .f f . _ ^ 1— L r • - » 1 J~L f 1

Figure 3.19: “Before And After”—Introduction: B theme variant. Track 7 (1:38-1:41)

119 See Shelia Whiteley, “Progressive rock and psychedelic coding in the work of Jimi Hendrix,” Popular Music 9,1997:41-42 and Gracyk, 109-124. 119

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The truncated return of the A theme provides a harmonic close to Introduction

and a link to the song.

T r

-rr- i r

Acouitic XT

&Gtc 2

Acouitic

EB.

Figure 3.20: “Before And After”—Introduction: Link to the song. Track 7 (1:47-2:16)

120

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The texture combines elements from both the A and B themes in anticipation of the

distorted timbre of the song. The repeated IV**19 chord is used as a common chord,

linking the opening key of E major to the following A major through a functional

reinterpretation and a composed accelerando.

121

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Sheer repetition of an extended Verse-Chorus pair and two guitar Solos account

for the formal expansion in the song structure of “Before And After.”

Verse : i m n Intro Verse I CCD 2x2m (4x2m)+2x2m+(2x2m) 4m

1. Verse Intro Verse II CC D 2x2m (4x2m)+2x2m+(2x2m) 4m

S o le l Introduction Solo E 2x4m 4x4m + 4m

Verse Intro Verse III CCD 2x2m (4x2m)+2x2m+(2x2m) 4m Solo n c D (4x2m)+2x2m+(2x2m) 4m

Verse Intro Verse IV Chorus+Intro Chorus+Intro C C D+C D+C 2x2m (4x2m)+2x2m+(2x2m) 4m+(2x2m) 4m+(2x2m)

d o sin g C 4x2m+lm

Figure 3.21: Formal diagram of the song structure of “Before And After.” Track 7 (2:16- 5:34)

122

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. As in “Finding My Way,” the Chorus is uncharacteristically short in comparison to the

Verse. After the second Solo, the Chorus is expanded by appending the closing phrase of

the C theme.

Each Solo demonstrates a different thematic approach. One is based on new

material, the other is based on the familiar Verse-Chorus pair. The first Solo introduces a

new riff, shown in figure 3.22, used in a call and response between soloist and

accompaniment.

Chcrui

EGtr

EB.

Cr. Cr. 0 00 Or- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 iii i J J 4 i Drums

* (•) ff<0

a Soto Riff EGtc --FTTH— |—

EB. — •

Cr. 0 0 0 0 0 0 * 0**0 * * * * J J 1 i 1 i i ,J - i J J J J ■ Drums r rrLf^ 'r rrL n r r rflfrfr rrLrr g: (<•) t

Figure 3.22: “Before And After” Chorus and Solo I. Track 7 (3:10-3:19)

123

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Harmonic motion in and out of the first Solo illustrates the typical (d) and (t)

relationships in rock modulations. The modulation to the remote key of g minor is

facilitated through the use of bH in A major, reinterpreted as bin to the new tonic, (t)-t

Given the ascending F-F#-G line that begins the riff, it is also possible to view the Bb as

S->(d) in g minor. The outgoing shift from g minor to A major uses the idiomatic (d)-T

cadendal relationship, here realized as bvii-I.

x4 Verse Introduction

E.Gtt

Cr. Ride

Drums

g: t

A: (d) T

Figure 3.23: “Before And After.” Modulation from Solo I Retransition to Verse Introduction. Track 7 (3:44-3:39)

124

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The blues-based progressions of the Verse theme clearly contrast the song from

the strictly diatonic Introduction.

A: T (<0tS -* S D « - (t)|(d) -*

Figure 3.24: “Before and After.” Analysis of Verse progression

As figure 3.24 shows, Lifeson’s chord progression involves the stylistic mixture of major

and minor mode dominants. The first two measures show the dual function of bVII—(d)

(to the opening tonic) and S->S. The second two measures are firmly on V. Each two

measure phrase shows a mixture of the third in the tonic and dominant, divided between

the bass line and the guitar part. Lee’s bass line adds the bluesy mixture of C natural

over A major and G natural over E major.120 In the first two-measure segment, Lee’s C

natural participates in a (t)-T progression to the following repetition. A parallel

relationship exists in his use of G natural at the close of the E major segment. This

division of function reinforces the stylistic independence, or stratification, of layers that is

a hallmark of rock harmonic practice.

120 A close inspection reveals that Lee limits his pitch selection to two pentatonic collections: A-C-D-E-G over the tonic and E-G-A-B-D over the dominant This concept o f superimposing scales over particular chords is a common topic in Jazz studies. Further study is required to establish die functional implications of these layered collections. 125

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3.2.1.4 “Working Man”

A slow tempo (quarter=77) and a large second guitar Solo contribute to the

extended length of “Working Man.” The formal design, illustrated in figure 3.24, is quite

conventional before the second Solo.

Expanded Core Unit

■... " V e rse G B 9 I Introduction Verse I A A B 2x4m 4x4m 6m Verse-Chorus Pair

1 V erse n a s a l " & * > i 1r e t a i l Introduction Verse II A A BAB 2x4m 4x4m 6m 4x4m 6m

S b te lE 1 Bass Section I False Section II Retransition Intro Retransition C D D2 D E 4m 10x4m 8x2m 18x2m 8x2m 8m+4m

C horus 1 Introduction Verse HI A BA 1 A I 3m+4m 4x4m 6m 4x4m + Free Close

Figure 3.25: Formal diagram of “Working Man”

“Working Man” shares many structural traits with the other extended songs on Rush:

multiple repetitions of an expanded Verse-Chorus pair, a Solo (Solo I) that participates in

a repetition of the Verse-Chorus unit, and a relatively short Chorus.

126

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. As with the other extended songs, Solo II illustrates the typical placement of

structural expansions in the instrumental sections of rock song form.121 Several

techniques are used to articulate structure in Solo n. In addition to the thematic contrasts,

a large-scale juxtaposition of improvised and composed sections indicates shifts in formal

function, as shown in figure 3.25.

S o la n : Section I False Retransition Guitar Improvisation Repeated Composed Improv pattern Bass Improvisation Composed Bass 2:11 3:00 3:13

Section II Retransition Guitar Improvisation Repeated Composed Guitar pattern Bass Improvisation Composed Bass 3:38 4:27 4:33

Figure 3.26: “Working Man”—Solo II: Juxtaposed improvised and composed elements

The established Solo-Retransition pairing in Solo II—a pairing previously seen in

“Finding My Way,” “What You’re Doing,” and “Before And After”—is given an

expanded treatment. Repeated patterns at the close of each improvisatory section smooth

the juxtaposed improvised and composed sections. These repeated patterns foreshadow

the impending change in formal function, and create expectation in a potentially limitless

121 Since Solo II shifts to cut time, the relative widths for this section required an adjustment in figure 3.24. For example, notice that the 16-measure A theme is not much smaller than the 40-measure C theme in Section I of Solo II. 127

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. improvisation.122 Just as the repeated patterns help to indicate the close of an

improvisatory section, the improvised material at the close of a composed section helps to

set up another improvisatory section.

Several elements separate Solo Q from the rest of the song: a shift to cut time, an

underlying 3+3+3+3+4 eighths “groove,” and the first break in the “power trio” texture.

Lee presents all of these elements in an unaccompanied bass line, shown in figure 3.26.

E.GIC

Figure 3.27: “Working Man”—Solo II: Bass Introduction. Track 8 (2:05-2:10)

Since the Solo accompaniment in section I consists of a four-measure tonic pedal with blues embellishments (based on Lee’s bass Introduction shown in figure 327), not an existing theme with an established number of repetitions, the number of repetitions is undefined, and therefore the improvisation is potentially limitless. 128

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Lee’s opening bass pattern establishes a four-measure phrase unit that is then

articulated by various instrument-specific gestures. These gestures for section I are

illustrated in figure 3.27.

4 + 4 4 + 4 4 4 + 4 4 4 + 4 Guitar Repeating Guitar pattern Bass Fill 8va Cr. Cr. Cr. Cr. Cr. Drums Fill Fill Fill Fill Fill Fill H.H. Ride Time 2:11 2:23 2:35 2:41 2:54 3:00

Figure 3.28: “Working Man”—Solo II: Phrase articulation through instrument-specific gestures. Section I (2:11-3:12)

Several gestures combine to shape this section and push toward its climax. Rutsey

creates a large-scale division through his choice of foundation cymbal: H.H for the first

sixteen measures, ride cymbal for the final twenty-four measures. This division is

reinforced by the compound fills at the close of the opening sixteen measures. The

second part of this section is characterized by an accumulating number of gestures that

climax in the final eight measures. Gestures such as these are particularly important in

areas where the harmony and melody are not the major forces of forward motion.

129

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The forceful pentatonic riff in the first Retransition clearly indicates the shift from

improvised to composed material. This riff is shown in figure 3.28.

-j— j—— j— j—— J--j-J-2—2------n (t) t (d) u m u m NTTT-H e: t d t d (OIW) -* *

Figure 3.29: “Working Man”—Solo II: D theme. Track 8 (3:13-3:22)

Such unison gestures provide an alternate means for formal closure in improvised

sections. They unite the group in a combined effort to return to the “composed” Verse or

Chorus. Unison gestures may also signal the end of a song. In this context, unison

simply means doubling, usually at the octave. The unison close appears throughout the

album with a great deal of consistency, as in “Before And After (Solo II),” “In The

Mood,”123 and ‘Take A Friend.”124

It is possible to view the pitch content of the D theme in several ways. The most

practical explanation is a pentatonic riff (e-g-a-b-d) that establishes an emin7 pedal.

While this explanation could be considered adequate, it does not account for the

functional implications of this pentatonic riff. For example, the first measure of the riff

123 See the Closing. Track 6 (3:25-end).

124 See Track3, Introduction (0:00-0:26) and Closing (4:06-end). 130

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. shows a repeated t-d cadence. The second measure begins with a repetition of the t-d

progression, followed by a leap to the tonic substitute (t). Viewing G as (t) helps to

clarify the stratification that exists between the bass and guitar cadences at the close of

measure two. Lee creates an s-t cadence to the repetition of the riff, demonstrating the

common reinterpretation of bin as (d)->s. Lifeson uses G in a dropping third cadence to

the tonic, (t)-t. His subsequent motion to (d) creates a (d)-t cadence to the following

repetition.

The addition of a new guitar improvisation over the unison figure contradicts the

implied close of the Solo in section I. Figure 3.29 illustrates the close of the false

Retransition and the beginning of section II.

131

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Retmntien Solo Interjection

EGtt

EB.

EGO: j/f 'f -r>F t. r i

H.R m

Indeciiion Start Section Q accompaniment o ------EGte | y ° — - ^ = t

P p—p— J—p— J— rr— f — ER j - - v ~—■- d r------»-■# " f - ir.r ? r r 7

Section H Solo EGtc

Figure 3.30: “Woridng Man”—Solo II: False Retransition and opening of section II. Track 8 (3:13-3:44)

While the bass, guitar, and drums complete the final repetition of the four-measure riff, a

second guitar enters as if to begin a new Solo. This interjection creates in a wonderful

132

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. moment of apparent indecision when the guitar literally stops in mid sentence as the

rhythm guitar, bass, and drums begin a variation of the Retransition riff. This interjection

at the close of the unison gesture signals that the improvisatory Solo is not complete.

As shown in figure 3.30, phrase groupings are articulated through similar

instrumental gestures in section II.

4 x 2 m 4 x 2 m 2x2m 4 x 2 m 4 x 2 m Guitar Repeating pattern 00 00 (j Bass 8va > cO > Cr. Cr. Cr. Drums Fill Fill Fill Fill H.H. Ride Bell and Ride Time 3:38 3:50 4:02 4:09 4:21

Figure 3.31: “Working Man”—Solo II: Phrase articulation through instrument-specific gestures. Section II. Track 8 (3:38-4:33)

Rutsey creates three subdivisions by shifting foundation cymbals. Within these

subdivisions a combination of accents (Cr. and fills), register, and a repeating guitar

pattern generate further subdivisions. The push to the Retransition is made through a

similar accumulation of gestures in the final eight measures.

133

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The uninterrupted Retransition is followed by new “composed” material, shown

in figure 3.31, to indicate the close of Solo n.

EGtc * * r *

E Theme

EGtc n 2 :

EGtc

EE J=J ion V ne EGtc

'0000000

Figure 3.32: “Working Man”—Solo II: Final Retransition to Verse recapitulation. Track 8 (5:00-5:23)

134

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Because Rush had previously added an improvisation at the close of the unison riff,

essentially changing the riffs function in the Solo-Retransition pair, the new “composed”

E theme helps to confirm the close of the Solo. Its T-D->S-T progression and reduction

in surface activity separate the E theme from the extended Solo themes. Lee

accompanies this progression with a firm tonic pedal, stressing the 3+3+3+3+4

syncopation that began Solo n. A final push begins with the steady eighth-note motion

shown at the bottom of figure 3.31, where the last measure of the Retransition provides

the first half (tonic) of the Verse Introduction theme, in the original tempo.

3.3 Summary

From functional relationships to formal structures, Rush is a conventional hard

rock recording. Understanding the conventional approach to rock song form on Rush,

and the techniques used to extend that form, are most essential to gauging Rush’s

evolving approach to song form. Slow tempos, the repetition of expanded Verse-Chorus

pairs, and structural expansions located in the instrumental sections of rock song form

were their common means of extension. The juxtaposition of improvised and composed

material, unison gestures, instrument-specific gestures, and accumulating textures often

articulated the formal structure in these instrumental sections. Themes—built from chord

progressions and riffs—demonstrated typical functional progressions and instances of

stratification. Having considered Rush’s approach to structure, function, and process, it

is now possible to provide an informed discussion of the other extended works in Rush’s

first set of albums.

135

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER 4

FLY BY NIGHT (1975): RUSH’S “FIRST’ SONG CYCLE “BY-TOR & THE SNOW DOG”

Just as Rush’s career was gaining momentum, drummer John Rutsey decided to

leave the group. His departure was influenced by the rigors of touring, health problems,

and the desire of Lee and Lifeson to move in a more progressive musical direction.123

Neil Peart joined as Rutsey’s replacement during a promotional tour for the album Rush.

In Peart, Lee and Lifeson found a kindred spirit who also wanted to follow a more

adventuresome musical direction. As Peart remembers, “we were pooling our creative

resources and exploring each other’s aptitudes and personalities. A real unity of purpose

was beginning to develop” (Banasiewicz, 18). On tour for Rush, the new group

composed the material for their next studio recording —Fly By Night. This album proved

to be a “second” debut for Rush; because it announced the first steps in their merging of a

hard rock vocabulary with new stylistic traits, particularly elements of progressive rock.

The album contained “By-Tor & The Snow Dog,” generally considered Rush’s first song

cycle, clearly demonstrates this progressive influence. Fly By Night brought even greater

commercial and critical success to the group, achieving gold status in Canada and earning

125 Banasiewicz, 15. 136

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rush the Juno Award for “Best New Band” in 1975.126 The following tour found them in

the United States opening for Kiss and Aerosmith, both major stadium acts.127

Discussion of Fly By Night and the remaining recordings in Set I requires an

overview of the style elements of progressive rock. The Progressive rock movement,

begun in the late 1960s, sought to elaborate rock through a fusion of many styles,

primarily through the adoption of art music techniques. The work of Yes, Jethro Tull,

Genesis, ELP, and King Crimson is representative of the style on the whole. Edward

Macan’s book, Rocking the Classics, offers an excellent summarization of the

philosophical and musical traits of the style.128 Table 11 presents a brief summary of the

major musical traits in Macan’s discussion.129

126 Banasiewicz, 20. The Canadian equivalent of the Grammy Award.

127 Ibid., 19.

128 Edward Macan, Rocking the Classics: English progressive rock and the counterculture. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997). This overview is necessarily brief. For additional resources, see Bill Martin, Listening to the Future: The time of progressive rock. 1968-1978. (Illinois: Open Court, 1998); Paul Stump, The Music's all that Matters: A History of Progressive Rock. (London: Quartet Books, 1997); Jerry Lucky, The Progressive Rock Files. Ontario: Collector’s Guide Publishing Inc., 1998).

129 This summary is drawn from Macan’s sections on “Instrumentation and Tone color” (31-40), “Classical Forms” (40-46), “Virtuosity” (46-51), and “Modal Harmony” (51-56). 137

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. SSBBMBBMIB'rgS Juxtaposition of acoustic and electric instruments, use of synthesizers Instrumentation and other keyboard instruments, influence of classical instrumentation, expanded set of percussion instruments. “An attempt to harness classical forms into a rock framework, to combine the classical tradition’s sense of space and monumental Form scope with rock’s raw power and energy” (Macan, 40). Most clearly expressed in song cycles, programmatic multimovement suites, and pieces inspired by symphonic poems. Traditional virtuosity in all instruments. Asymmetrical and shifting Virtuosity meters, expanded formal designs, and the embrace of new technology seen as other virtuosic elements. Church modes and other exotic modes, non-functional triad based harmonic progressions, avoidance of blues, major and minor Harmony sevenths as well as sus chords all reinforce harmonic ambiguity. Some musicians embrace contemporary techniques of quartal harmony and bitonality.

Table 4.1: Summary of Macan’s progressive rock musical traits

With the exception of his questionable linking of chord types to harmonic ambiguity,

Macan’s Rocking the Classics provides a relevant foundation for the study of progressive

rock. Fly By Night, Rush’s first recording showing the influence of the progressive rock,

establishes style traits that continued throughout the first album set.

4.1 Fly By Night's general style traits

Although a great deal of stylistic continuity exists between Rush and Fly By Night

because Lee and Lifeson continued to write the music, on first listen it is obvious that this

music is not the same “Rush.” For the purpose of the following discussion, the track

listing and durations on Fly By Night are given in Table 12.

138

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Track ir,/ H Ue ^ s v ,' Duratfoir 1. Anthem 4:21 2. Best I Can 3:25 3. Beneath, Between And 3:01 Behind 4. By-Tor & The Snow Dog 8:37 5. Fly By Night 3:21 6. Making Memories 2:57 7. Rivendell 4:57 8. In The End 6:46

Table 4.2: Track listing and durations on Fly By Night

Fly By Night's most noticeable style change on is its increased palate of timbres

and textures. In contrast to Rush, where the majority of songs employed the same timbre

throughout, Fly By Night demonstrates a greater mixture of guitar timbres within

individual songs, and a wider variety of timbres across the whole recording. For

example, six tracks include acoustic/clean guitar(s) for part, or all, of the song.130 Even

though the recording maintains a hard rock “sound” throughout, several tracks

(“Rivendell” and “By-Tor & The Snow Dog,” for example) demonstrate timbral/textural

combinations unlike anything found on Rush.

Verse-Chorus pairs remain the dominant structural unit. Even though the group

still chooses guitar Solo accompaniments to complete Verse-Chorus pairs,131 a growing

130 See “Anthem,” “By-Tor & The Snow Dog,” “Fly By Night,” “Making Memories,” “Rivendell,” “In The End.”

131 For examples of these techniques, see “Beneath, Between And Behind” (1:37-2:01) for a full Verse-Chorus presentation during the Solo; “Fly By Night” (1:24-2:05) and “In The End” (4:01-4:56) for Solos that complete a Verse-Chorus pairing with the following Chorus. 139

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. flexibility can be seen in accompaniment variants,132 composed solos,133 extensive

structural expansions,134 and the omission of the Solo altogether in “Rivendell.'’ Unison

gestures frequently articulate formal closes,135 and conventional four and eight-measure

groupings structure the Verse-Chorus phrases, though Choruses often demonstrate

cadential extensions in the form of measured fermatas136 or repeated cadences.137

Fly By Night continues to display a blend of blues and traditional harmonic

syntax, but there is a noticeable increase in contrapuntal voice leading and colorful

harmonic progressions. Familiar rock functional relationships— S->x, (d)->x, (t)->x,

and the cornerstone bVI-bVll-i progression—continue to provide both structure and

methods of prolongation.

132 See “Best I Can” (1:40-2:47) for a Solo accompanied by Verse and Bridge themes, creating a complete Verse-Bridge-Chorus grouping with the following Chorus; and “Making Memories” (1:30-2:00) for a Chorus-Verse pairing within the Solo.

133 “Beneath, Between And Behind” (1:37-1:59).

134 See “By-Tor & The Snow Dog.”

135 See “Best I Can” (3:13-end) and “Beneath, Between And Behind” (2:43-end) for examples of unison closings. This topic will be discussed further in “By-Tor & The Snow Dog.”

136 See “Best I Can” (1:30-1:46) and “Beneath, Between And Behind” (0:34-0:53).

137 See the following discussions of “Anthem” and “Rivendell.” 140

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4.1.1 “Anthem”

“Anthem,” the first song on Fly By Night, serves as a powerful herald of the

“new” Rush. Moreover, it provides a representative example of Rush’s general approach

to rock song form. The group combines existing techniques—Verse-Chorus driven

formal structure and traditional rock harmony—with new elements of asymmetrical

meter, thematic variation, and provocative lyrics. The formal structure is summarized in

figure 4.1.

Introduction

lm+5x4m+3m 2x4m+lm

2x4m+lm

Solo C A3 4m+(4x4m) 2x4m+lm

VerseHI A2 B A3 2x4m 2x4m 2x4m+lm

Closing

4x4m+lm

Figure 4.1: Formal diagram of “Anthem”

141

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The opening A theme supplies much of the thematic material for the song, with each

variant fulfilling a different formal function. Instrumental sections—Introduction,

Interlude, and Solo—remain the principal locations of structural expansion.

The use of 7/8 in the opening riff is striking, especially at the tempo quarter=284.

Peart commented that this opening, shown in figure 4.2, was one of the first ideas Rush

“jammed” on during his audition for the band.138

EGtc W

EB.

e (d)_,j («) (d) t

Figure 4.2: “Anthem:” Introduction theme A. Track 1 (0:00-0:32)

Much of “Anthem” is built on the underlying (s)-(d)-t progression in the A theme.

Figure 4.2 shows this progression elaborated through a prolongation of the subdominant.

Though the harmonic language in the A theme exhibits conventional rock syntax, Rush’s

use of asymmetrical meter signifies the influence of progressive rock.

A variation of the opening progression in 12/8 introduces rhythmic variety while

retaining the same phrase and harmonic structures. This second part of the Introduction

is shown in figure 4.3.

138 Banasiewicz, 16. 142

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. e: t (d) ->« (•) (d)

Figure 4.3: “Anthem:” Analysis of simplified A2 theme. Track I (0:33-0:53)

Elements of the fundamental progression appear in new progressions for the

Verse and Chorus (see figure 4.4).

Vene

EGtt :8; =| ------t r ------v f li ------XX' 0* « (d) XX'

-o=------EB. w « t (d)

H EGte rrJU»_- ■J: ^ ------O'& XX XX

EE L— - r (d) (») (d)

Figure 4.4: “Anthem:” Analysis of simplified Verse and Chorus progressions

143

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Here, the Verse-Chorus pair is distinguished from the remaining thematic material

through a shift to lightly distorted guitar timbres and an arpeggiated guitar texture. The

Chorus is built on a reordering of the A theme harmonic progression; it begins with the

closing measure, now stretched out to fill three measures, followed by the tonic in the

fourth measure. Lee’s bass line adds interest to the otherwise conventional t-(s)-(d)-t

Verse progression through unconventional inversions. It is possible to see Lee following

a separate and complementary cadence structure, drawing a (d)->s cadence out of the

bVI and bVII harmonies in Lifeson’s guitar part. It is interesting to consider the

flexibility of bVII to express two of the fundamental functional relationships in rock

tonality—(d)->x in root position and s->x in second inversion. This matter of functional

plurality, combined with the expanded cadences of rock, can contribute to the

misjudgment of rock harmony as being ambiguous.

A final variant of the opening progression, A4 (figure 4.S), is used for both the

Interlude and the Closing o f the song.

Figure 4.5: “Anthem:” Analysis of A4 theme. Track 1 (1:36-1:49)

144

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. In this variant, Rush maintains the phrase structure and the opening syncopation of A2.

They simplify the harmonic progression even further, creating a new cadence horn the

outer elements (G and D) of the final cadence of the A theme (see figure 4.2).

145

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. In contrast to the blues-derived topics of Rush, an immediate change in lyric focus

and quality is evident in “Anthem.” Figure 4.6 presents the lyrics from “Anthem.”139

Verse I Know that your place in life Is where you want to be Don’t let them tell you that You owe it all to me Keep on looking forward There’s no use in looking 'round Hold your head above the crowd And they won’t bring you down

Chorus Anthem of the heart and anthem of the mind A funeral dirge for eyes gone blind We marvel after those who sought New wonders in the world they wrought

Verse II Live for yourself-there’s no one else More worth living for Begging hands and bleeding hearts Will only cry out for more

Chorus repeat

Verse III Well I know they’ve always Told you selfishness was wrong Yet it was for me, not you I came to write this song

Chorus repeat

Figure 4.6: Lyrics to “Anthem”

139 From the inner sleeve o f Fly Bv Night. 146

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The title of the song is taken from Ayn Rand’s book Anthem, but the lyrics are only

representative of her broader philosophy.140 Peart had become the primary lyricist on Fly

By Night and introduced Rand’s thought to Lee and Lifeson. Her philosophy—

Objectivism—“urged men to hold themselves and their lives as their highest values, and

to live by the code of the free individual: self-reliance, integrity, rationality, productive

effort.”141 Rush’s “Anthem” clearly espouses these values, including Rand’s belief that

selfishness is a virtue. As Banasiewicz remarked, “To the band, [Rand’s]

uncompromising position was a model for many years, for it seemed to mirror their

determination to do things their own way.”142 Even though there is little affective

correlation between the music and the lyrics, it is important to recognize “Anthem” both

for its appearance as Rush’s first literary-influenced work and for its role of introducing

the group’s new credo. Rand’s philosophy becomes increasingly important during the

first album set as the group saw parallels between their conflict with their record label

and Rand’s main character in Anthem.

4.2 Other Extended Songs: “Fly By Night,” “In The End,” and “Rivendell”

As shown in Table 12, there are only two “long” songs on Fly By Night that are

not song cycles: “Rivendell” and “In The End.” These songs provide an excellent

opportunity to consider Rush’s approach to formal extension and, where appropriate, the

details of function and process.

140 Ayn Rand, Anthem. (New York: Signet, 1961).

141 The Objectivist Center, “About Objectivism,” retrieved 4/2002 from http://www.objectivistcenter.org/objectivism/.

142 Banasiewicz, 18. 147

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4.2.1 “Flv Bv Nieht”

“Fly By Night”—not an overtly long song—contains a new technique of

structural extension in Rush’s vocabulary, one that is essential to the discussion of the

later song cycles on the albums Caress O f Steel and 2112. Consideration of the lyric

insert143 (figure 4.7) and the formal diagram (figure 4.8) helps to clarify the function of

this new technique.

143 From the inner sleeve o fFly By Night The ellipses are superimposed over the lyrics to draw attention to Peart’s labeling of the formal sections. 148

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fl y B y N i q b t

FRGtOfcuE, ■I BUnv-flvcTy (•««» • f peopfe ***? pUc«» *'* k <• «r j»»t « nj^ "•■'rsl»4'k*» •*»•*»!, C** * l «*40W *tr%1 Tn.S «ICU«ft ItfSiOf KCSATS if* TtMt I WA»Qotff Cl CM H£Ad.tf£«rt.tF t o « r a o a c pawn £%t 6> ** 9 h t 4w*r »'«»on HC4 £ C a A**&£ MY 11*2 AoAIM F it iv MKinr COO^fttCHT OCA* f i t s h .p iju r cortiri» A io « w a » t c v i t P t f r t i t t Hww H»tt . Trto ITU S -rA am i $ ac * * r r«C Fftort r#«f w*%tao« Bis.D * N't j * h *m0 5 « ;m t lg*V>MQ SCmMO t h a t gM »nt PECUNb l*SiPC S~A *t ANCW ChA^C* I r-KO w/MAT i*r*Affr£rf i5 C« OAiFr AtwAt t& tV IM C A t KOACi A*© PLAtMQ A l e n t M AM * *< L « r£ M £ G * * S r o p A T T » * gWr >

Figure 4.7: “Fly By Night:” lyric sheet

149

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Introduction Verse I A A B with A closing 3x4m 2x4m 2x4m

V V e n e Intro Verse II A A B with A closing 4m 2x4m 2x4m

Sofo rilK19S^Hfli A B with A closing 4x4m 2x4m

. "T h eO therfar^ (B Verse> Ghorns - C B with A closing 2x8m (2x4m+2m)x2

Figure 4.8: Formal diagram of “Fly By Night”

The form of “Fly By Night” is quite conventional except for the Prologue (figure

4.7) and “The Other Part” (figures 4.7 and 4.8); it is characterized by expanded Verse-

Chorus pairs, the omission of the Verse after the Solo, and the repetition of the Verse-

Chorus pair through the Solo-Chorus pairing. Peart’s labeling of the Chorus in figure

4.7, a labeling found throughout the other songs on the lyric sheet, demonstrates Rush’s

understanding of rock song convention. Where the lyric sheet for “Fly By Night”

becomes most informative is in the labeling of “Prologue” for first stanza and “The Other

Part” for the final two stanzas. This unconventional labeling demonstrates that the group

was equally aware that they were departing from formal conventions. The Prologue is

not used as lyric content for the song (see figure 4.8), although it clearly sets up the

feelings portrayed in the song. This “scene setting” (akin to stage notes) is uncommon in

150

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rush’s larger output, but is central in the later, dramatically conceived “2112.” Figure

4.8 illustrates that Rush set “The Other Part” to new music (theme C), outside the Verse-

Chorus pair. Though it possible to view this section as a Bridge between two Chorus

statements, its extended length and single presentation do not reflect traditional practice.

As much as it would be respectful to label these sections “other parts” in analytic

discussion, the label does not clearly distinguish the formal functions (Bridge=transition,

Verse=narrative, Chorus=reflection). Since these sections normally provide additional

narrative content, set to new music, the labeling convention of “x Verses” is adopted

here. A letter designation is given to each “x Verse,” beginning with the standard Verse

as “A Verse” or simply Verse. This concept of “x Verses” will also be essential for

understanding formal expansion in the song cycles on Caress O fSteel and 2112.

The Introduction/Verse theme of “Fly By Night,” shown in figure 4.9, is a good

illustration of Rush’s adoption of a more contrapuntal style.

Figure 4.9: “Fly By Night:” Introduction/Verse theme. Track 5 (Begins at 0:00)

In contrast to the parallelism seen in “Before And After,” the opening theme of

“Fly By Night” exhibits a greater focus on voice-leading. This progression shows the

typical blending of blues and traditional syntaxes in rock: S->x and (d)->x relationships

151

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. are combined with a traditional 6-b6-5 motion to the half cadence. Like the extended

chord types in “Before And After,” both the A?**111 in measure 2 and the in

measure 3 are easy to play on the instrument and produce the large sound Lifeson was

striving for in his selection of chords. Variants of the above progression, with its

arpeggiated texture, were typical of Lifeson for several albums.

4.2.2 “In The End”

“In The End” is a simple example of extension through repetition, but one that

demonstrates sophistication in the shaping of the form through large scale

timbral/textural contrasts, flexible presentation of the Verse-Chorus pair, and refrain

Verse repetitions. A formal diagram of “In The End” is presented in figure 4.10.

152

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Clean i-mBSHBFF-r. ■VI CTosfor ' j Introduction Verse I A A BA 2x8m 2x8m 8m 2x8m+lm

Distorted Bridge Introduction Verse II A A 2x8m 2x8m 2x8m

Bridge Intro Verse HI A A 8m 2x8m 2x8m

B 4x8m 8m

Intro Verse IV Closing AAA 8m 2x8m 8m

Clean Y c h e : - Intro Verse I Closing A AA 8m 2x8m 8m+lm

Figure 4.10: Formal diagram of “In the End”

This extended song is shaped through an A|B|A timbral juxtaposition of

clean acoustic (0:00-1:41)|distorted electric (l:42-5:4l)|clean acoustic (5:41-close). This

timbral grouping is further emphasized through the repetition of Verse I at the acoustic

close of the song, and through the general omission of percussion during the acoustic

153

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. sections. In addition, “In The End” demonstrates a flexible approach to the repetition of

the Verse-Chorus pair. The opening clean segment is the only section of the song where

the Verse-Chorus pair is presented in succession. A Bridge takes the place of the Chorus

for two Verse-Bridge statements in the distorted segment, and it is only through the

conventional Solo-Chorus presentation of the Verse-Chorus thematic material that the

Chorus appears after the Verse in the center section.

4.2.3 “Rivendell”

“Rivendell” marks an important turning point in Rush’s musical vocabulary. Just

as Banasiewicz saw “Before And After” as indicative of things to come, “Rivendell”

demonstrates important textural, structural, and tonal changes that greatly influenced

Rush’s next album, Caress O fSteel. Throughout “Rivendell,” the omission of

characteristic rock elements is as significant as the addition of new ones.

The subject matter of “Rivendell,” like “Anthem,” is drawn from a literary

source—the fantasy writings of J.R.R. Tolkien. The title of the song comes from his

Lord of the Rinas trilogy and other related works.144 Rivendell is a serene and beautiful

sanctuary of elves, and it is this atmosphere that is captured in the lyrics. References to

“sunlight dancing through the leaves,” “the golden light of coming dawn,” and “peace of

mind and sanctuary by loud water’s flow” recall Tolkien’s intimate attention to vivid

scenic settings. Overt character references, such as “the dark lord,” create an explicit

144 See Tolkien’s The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rinas Boxed Set (Mass market paperback edition). The Hobbit New York: Ballantine Books, Inc., 1965; reprint, New York: Ballantine Books, Inc. (page references are to reprint edition), 45-54; and The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings Boxed Set (Mass market paperback edition!. The Fellowship of the Ring. 265-325 for sample descriptions of Rivendell. 154

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. connection to the Ring. Since fantasy topics were typical in progressive rock in the

70s,145 “Rivendell” provides further evidence that the band was consciously adopting

progressive rock style traits. Tolkien’s works continued to supply both direct and indirect

sources for Rush’s lyrics across their first few albums, specifically in the song cycles

“By-Tor & The Snow Dog” and “The Necromancer.”

“Rivendell” exhibited a striking departure from conventional rock

instrumentation—a clear sign that the band was, at minimum, testing textural and timbral

boundaries. A single acoustic guitar and an “ethereal” electric guitar are the only

instruments used.146 Lee’s vocal style is likewise subdued. By omitting the bass and

percussion—both essential components in rock “sound”—the group demonstrated a

willingness to modify rock convention to serve the song. Moreover, this selection of

instruments and timbres shows a greater sensitivity to text setting given the general

pastoral imagery of the lyrics.

145 Macan, Rocking the Classics. 80.

146 The unique sound of the electric guitar is achieved through effect processing (reverb and delay) and a performance technique of “swelling” the volume on each note, much like a niente attack on the clarinet or pedal techniques on a lap steel. This technique results in a softening of the second guitar by removing the attack of the pitch. 155

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The narrative focus of the lyrics impacts the overall form of “Rivendell,” as

shown in figure 4.11.

Introduction Verse H A B B 2m 8m+lm 8m+lm

V erseD I Chorus A B B C 2m 8m+lm 8m+lm (2x2m)+4m

i - VerseHE Chorus A B B C 2m 8m+Im 8m+lm (2x2m)+4m

Figure 4.11: Formal diagram of “Rivendell”

As seen earlier in “Here Again,” repetition and tempo (quarter=80-90) play significant

roles in formal expansion. Here, the sheer repetition of the Verse is atypical, and it

almost stretches the Verse-Chorus pair past the point of recognition. Moreover, the

omission of a guitar Solo is particularly demonstrative of Rush’s willingness to adjust

rock song form to serve the larger narrative.

In contrast to earlier arguments that Rush’s material represents a blending of

traditional and rock syntaxes, and exhibits recurring functional relationships, “Rivendell”

truly demonstrates an unusual degree of functional ambiguity. Ambiguous chord

structures, extended prolongations of the dominant, and unresolved half cadences

156

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. contribute to a lack of tonic focus in both the Verse and Chorus themes. Figure 4.12

shows the short Introduction and Verse I.

Lee ir 1 ir=N i* r e-t mi Sun light i ■1 CCS through the team

► EGtc [jilpf *f =F* — m ,r * | e? s i m i l e s i m i l e

► Ac.Gtr. ^ J 4■rjr inr r,r r>r s m i l e l i t . ^ s i m i l e

Lee

Soft itir the ugh mg ar- sr-

EGtc

A c.G tr

lit

Lee mm m— s— —H i K r J 1 r p * -J i j i grass fed the iud up « your h i £ ^ EGtc r i M r f = i r f |P r f ------P i S r lit rit

■ p Ac.Gtr. —^ R •-=— - F r=j-#— n p r T f f rfrff ♦ 4- 1 L i i l 5 1 L i t f ®

Figure 4.12: “Rivendell:” Introduction and Verse I. Track 7 (0:00-0:41)

157

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The Introduction presents the only clear G major tonic to be found before the final

cadence. Figure 4.13 shows a simplification of this progression.

£ ft 1* « ! _ .... re! ----- ^ ---- r* ------1s ------& 1 & 6 G: T (P) (S) D —

Figure 4.13: “Rivendell:” Analysis of simplified A Theme

Simple parallel thirds result in the passing simultaneity in measure one that functions to

prolong the strong T-(S)-D progression.

It is the Verse progression that raises the most difficult functional questions. The

tonally prepared half cadence in measure eight provides relative tonic stability at the

phrase closing, but the opening few measure do little to clarify the tonic. Figure 4.14

shows a functional analysis of the B theme.

Figure 4.14: “Rivendell:” Analysis of B theme

158

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The two initial chords in the A theme are the most ambiguous. Even though it is possible

to determine roots for each chord, they are incomplete and therefore less conclusive

communicators o f harmonic function. Above the strong dominant pedal, it is possible to

interpret the first chord (B-D-A) as a tonic substitute—a reasonable assumption given the

context of the preceding half cadence—and the second chord (C-G-B) as the

subdominant. In measure five these two elements—the dominant pedal and the (T)-S

progression—resolve to the first clear triad in the Verse: an e minor chord. It is this

motion from d to e that indicates the clearest change of harmony in the first five

measures. In the context of the preceding dominant pedal, the e minor chord can be seen

as (T) in the quintessential deceptive cadence. Viewed from the perspective of the

harmonies above the pedal, e minor can be seen to prolong the previous subdominant.

Both progressions, and both resolutions, exist simultaneously. The second four measures

provide a clearer indication of the tonic through a traditional vi-IV-V progression. This

progression is prolonged through the insertion of the FM7sus2 in measure six. The use of

bVn as S->S is embellished through the addition of the b at the close of the measure,

which creates a simultaneous Dominant push toward the subdominant. In analyzing this

progression, it is better to recognize the stratification of harmonic function between

different voices in Lifeson’s guitar part than to see each measure to as rigidly expressing

a single function.

The Chorus continues the focus on half cadences in both the tonic and dominant

keys. Though the tonic appears in root position several times, it lacks the metric strength

to unambiguously affirm its “tonicness.” hi fact, the clear half cadences on A create the

159

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. impression that the tonal center has moved to D major, or at least to a dominant

prolongation. The final Chorus and Closing are shown in figure 4.IS.

Final Gurus s j _ „ - | ^ — a| — ,||..l|g f| |t 8 ------r-j

d } " I " § T 4 ...... G: S -> S d (d) -► S T D

dating ------£ —— ^ .Ij fri iVj— i . . g = = n #*=f #=4!= r 3 1 • » I d s -* s _ S D T (P) fS) D T D

Figure 4.15: “Rivendell:” Analysis of simplified C theme and final cadence. Track 7 (4:05-End)

The two half cadences on A remain unresolved, each providing a temporary pause before

the music begins a different path to the dominant. It is only through the return of the

Introduction theme, and the final D-T discharge on a root-position G major chord, that G

major is firmly established as tonic.

160

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4.3 The Song Cycle: “By-Tor & The Snow Dog”

“By-Tor & The Snow Dog,” Rush’s first foray into the song cycle, demonstrates

an interesting combination of song-cycle trappings and the familiar expansion of rock

song form through extended instrumental sections. The back cover of the recording,

shown in figure 4.16, reveals that “By-Tor” consists of four “songs” joined together.

ANTHEM i ■ BEST I CAN ■ BENEATH BETWEEN 4 BEHIND . BY-TOR 4 THE SNOW DOG -

FLY BY NIGHT MAKING MEMORIES ' ■ RIVENDELL : - IN THE END

AL£X UFE50N KELPfiAJJT GEBCYltE FSectx suura. s i ana r t fco Pprmnrn Bass gains, riassntf > - in - 9Liian "Srem Dog" o* Uy-To*

Figure 4.16: Back cover of Fly By Night

161

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Additional structural details are revealed on the lyric insert to the recording, shown

figure 4.17.147

0 Y * T © f c £ t f a

r*c tom * o» n «m i wf t» rrr-i>r«.«T tmC MTn(t*Mvo « -J r*I • < »«>» <■*»!» ««• * • m s r<*l (•«« arim »r o »«« iw w A it ■v ro t * kutftHV or D A hitu C r^ ru ti« « o* Ctfih. DCVK.*» f U K l jj *cr«t»/4« S y. ActoVt fit ai*t* lt« o+t o* »•« iM AilNi Hit HtflUit It •fAiVIMOAT N l Mv« I r * t 0 0 4 'C I" * 1*! OAOWiOt *•* n t BM fttdir c o tv I U U l« tt. ttfirtflCtMO HAT* m If foa - **D TmC IMV M6 SA4AM r o t Mffvt.vCr r a t M 6 M ...... -UZ i U 8 * H 4 • ”Ti ChauIN^I amo M»HWU ii) */«• WAR futoft • UQ Afrit «tr* itfi HltN 0* T«IUrt#M - a E p i h g u t Tnc (A^ftr ortt aao n«a o**r *% cttati*iA 0*>(ittct ot t « i i ^ o r t o o o o h h o t m C v ftW tfJQ ttiM t tCH O lt A t THA o m m »* «ltA t«t •v rut M fcat ttfltA fft To t u U e o M c »%oi«rotiou% I »»A tiu:a o* o tu u M v i»* Stoco Aettai

S f c t t t * « a« 4 t4

Figure 4.17: “By-Tor & The Snow Dog:” Lyric insert

147 Lyric insert form the recording Flv Bv Night. 162

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The lyrics of three of the four “songs” are quite brief, much shorter than is typical of rock

songs. By comparison, the third extended section—“the Battle”—is entirely

instrumental. Rush’s division of this section into four labeled subsections is the most

fascinating detail revealed on the lyric sheet.

In reality, “By-Tor” is not a song cycle at all: it is a conventional rock song in

which the traditional guitar Solo is replaced with a massive, programmatic, multi-theme,

instrumental interlude. The trappings of a song cycle are laid on top of this form by the

labeling of each Verse-Chorus pair as a section, or “song.” This revelation in no way

minimizes the significance of “By-Tor” in understanding Rush’s song cycles during their

first album set. It does reveal that their first foray in to the genre was tentative in some

respects—the continued reliance on Verse-Chorus structures—and adventuresome in

others—the programmatic guitar Solo.

The function of these various levels of formal structure is clarified in figure 4.18.

163

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. AB AB 2x8m 2x4m 2x8m 2x4m

I .1 ' :T: vnv . . mOTflirBatifc

i) Challenge And Defiance

c DE 2x4m 2x4m 8m

i) Challenge And Defiance cont. ■ :soe »; 2x2m 22x2m+2m

i) Challenge And Defiance cont. ii) 7/4 War Furor

8m + 8m + 16m

11 1 ) Aftermath

H I Drum Fill Sm 2x8m+8m 6:16-6:27

iv) Hvmn O f Triumnh

J 5x4m+3m

AB B2 2x8m 2x4m 3x2m + 4m

Figure 4.18: Formal diagram of “By-Tor & The Snow Dog”

164

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. “By-Tor” is structured according to the standard repetition of Verse-Chorus pairs,

separated by an extended guitar Solo in the traditional position. This structure helps

explain the relatively small amount of text in each “song;” sections I, II, and IV are

strophically set Verse-Chorus pairings. Rush’s use of strophic Choruses illustrates their

willingness to modify formal convention in service of the larger narrative. Each Verse-

Chorus pair presents a third-person account of the mythic battle between By-Tor

(antagonist) and the Snow Dog (protagonist).148

In By-Tor,” the relative proportions of music and text strongly indicate Rush’s

musical approach to expanding rock song form. Less than two minutes of the song is set

aside for the lyric presentation of the circumstances surrounding the battle. The

remainder of the 8 Vz minute suite is dedicated to an instrumental interlude, similar to a

tone poem, which depicts events from the actual battle. This substitution for the

traditional guitar Solo stems from the earlier expansion of instrumental sections on Rush.

The fact that titles are given to the subsections in “Of the Battle” lends further evidence

of Rush’s programmatic intentions and anticipates a similar procedure for structuring

their first instrumental composition, “La Villa Strangiato.”149 In many ways, the battle in

“By-Tor” is an exercise in establishing moods linked to a programmatic narrative.

Large-scale tonal motion is quite basic in “By-Tor & The Snow Dog.” The

Verse-Chorus pairs establish the D major tonic, with a great deal of emphasis on the

148 The inspiration for the song came from the nicknames of booking agent Ray Daniel’s dogs. Howard Ungerleider, Rush’s road manager, came up with the nicknames because the German shepherd was prone to biting people (hence a “bi-ter”) and the “tiny white nervous dog” was a snow dog. Banasiewicz, 18.

149 Found on Hemispheres. 165

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. subdominant. With the exception of a few local prolongations, e minor dominates the

entire “Of The Battle” section. This lack of tonal contrast provides a point of comparison

for Rush’s approach to large-scale tonal motion in the other song cycles to be discussed.

4.3.1 I. At The Tobes Of Hades and II. Across The Stvx.

The titles of the first two sections are drawn from the first line of each respective

Verse (figure 4.17). The main characters are not differentiated through contrasting

musical material. Rather, each character is introduced through his own statement of the

Verse-Chorus pair. Figure 4.19 shows a functional analysis of the Verse and Chorus

themes.

166

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Veise (2x8m)

A - i h i «------3------3. § \ 3 1 4 - ......

■J"| T]------i ^ i r> »-r .ii I t ? 1 4 r of r c/1 * * * J — D: S T D T T D

EGtt lift

EE f D? or

T D .

D: D- (d) - s (d) -* S T

Figure 4.19: “By-Tor & The Snow Dog:” Functional analysis of Verse and Chorus progressions

Both the Verse and the Chorus illustrate the prevalence of Subdominant relationships in

rock. The 3+3+2 and 3+5 divisions of a 4/4 measure provide a unifying rhythmic gesture

across both themes. As seen earlier on Rush, the Chorus is differentiated from the Verse

through the increased presence of blues relationships: in particular, the idiomatic use of

bin as (d)->S.

167

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Identifying the function of the E major chord at the close of the Verse raises

interesting tonal issues. In the most simplistic terms, E major is the logical result of a

series of S->x relationships—three conventional open chords following the order of the

three lowest open strings on the guitar (D-A-E). Beyond this practical explanation, its

function in D major is more evasive. E major, according to traditional harmonic

function, would most likely serve as D->D. Yet, its subsequent resolution to IV during

the Verse repetitions would appear to negate this interpretation. The resolution to bVII,

or (d), at the beginning of the Chorus offers a more acceptable explanation of E major

resolving to a Dominant substitute. Taking into consideration the wealth of unresolved

half cadences in “Rivendell,” it is likely that E major serves as part of an unresolved half

cadence on the dominant. Though not as evasive as the harmonic materials in

“Rivendell,” this progression likely illustrates an instance of functional ambiguity in rock

harmonic practice.

168

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4.3.2 m. Of The Battle.

Traditional and alternative processes of formal articulation are used to shape the

massive “Of The Battle” section (1:11-7:33). Figure 4.20 summarizes the various

divisions and processes.

m o f sr s I Section i) Challenge And ii) 7/4 iii) Aftermath iv) Hymn Defiance War O f Triumph Furor Theme C-E F G Hand I JandK Time 1:11-3:54 3:54- 4:31-6:28 6:29-7:33 4:31 Timbre Distorted Less Distorted Distorted Texture Full Reduced Full C I C I C I C (C-Composed) (I-Improvised)

Figure 4.20: “By-Tor & The Snow Dog”—“Of The Battle:” Diagram of sectional divisions and processes

The four sections indicated in the liner notes divide into three distinct timbral/textural

areas. At one level, these timbral/textural combinations serve a basic function of

bridging “Of The Battle” to the Verse-Chorus pairs that surround it. Both “Challenge

and Defiance” and “7/4 War Furor” continue the distorted timbre and full band texture

from the opening Verse-Chorus pair. “Aftermath” displays contrasting guitar timbres, a

generous use of studio effects, and a reduction in texture. The distorted timbre of the

opening returns to help link “Hymn of Triumph” to the final Verse-Chorus pair.

Furthermore, these textural and timbral juxtapositions aid in establishing the various

moods throughout 169

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. This three-part structure in “Of The Battle” is reinforced through several

improvised-composed pairings. Each of the three sections in figure 4.20 displays this

sequence. Much like the Solo in “Working Man,” these pairings provide forward motion

within each section and, additionally, these pairings allow the guitar to fulfill its

traditional improvisatory function in this programmatic section that substitutes for the

Solo. The use of unison gestures to close each distorted section (themes G and K)

illustrates the continuation of alternative processes of formal articulation seen earlier on

Rush.

4.3.2.1 i. Challenge And Defiance and ii. 7/4 War Furor

At the close of the Snow Dog’s Verse-Chorus pair (see figure 4.18, n. “Across

The Styx”), the battle between the two mythic forces is played out musically. This shift

between the third person account of the opening events and the actual battle is made

explicit in the last line of the Snow Dog Chorus, “Let the fray begin.” As shown in figure

4.18, the various themes within “Challenge And Defiance” and “7/4 War Furor” function

as a larger composed-improvised-composed grouping. An initial Transition (themes C,

D, and E) from the Verse-Chorus pair leads to an extended guitar Solo (theme F).

Various composed variants of the F theme (F2, F3, F4) provide a gradual transition from

complete improvisation to the composed Closing (‘7/4 War Furor or theme G).

Three initial themes, presented in fast succession, provide a Transition to the

“battle” portion of “Of the Battle.” These themes are presented in figure 4.21.

170

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Thane C

EGtt

EE m e: t s d (t) (d) t

Theme D

4 i ft EG* m T

EE r ¥ ~ r *?

s (d)

Theme E Jx fUl EGIC ¥ * r m r

EE * (d) T D - (s) D - (t)

Figure 4.21: “By-Tor & The Snow Dog:” Three transition themes. Track 4 (1:11-1:46)

The tonal center quickly shifts from the closing D major tonic of the Chorus to e minor.

All three themes exhibit the three eighth-note-grouping from the Verse-Chorus pair,

Lee’s contrapuntal bass line, and an ascending root motion by minor third (theme C: e-G,

theme D: A-C, theme E: E-G).

171

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A large-scale t-S-t progression is established across the three themes. Theme C

establishes the e minor tonic through conventional rock functions. Representative of his

contrapuntal style, Lee’s bass line implies both s-t and (d)-t motion under the closing

progression bVII-i. A local prolongation of the major subdominant occurs in the D

theme, clearly established through the idiomatic T-(d) progression. Lee’s bass line

provides a functional elaboration of Lifeson’s chord progression, establishing a S->(d)

progression beneath the final Gno3rd harmony. Though an e Dorian pitch collection is one

possible interpretation for this appearance of A major in e minor, the following

appearance of C natural in the bass line contradicts a strict modal interpretation. The

closing E theme further confounds a strict modal approach through the mixture of F

natural and F#. This theme consists of a localized spinning out of the closing measure

from theme D. Each repeated one-measure segment is based on a nested D-T or (d)-T

progression that elaborates an underlying linearT-b^-b?progression. Tension is

generated in this final section through the traditional techniques of rapid transposition and

faster harmonic rhythm. The repeated (t) goal allows for a powerful (t)-t blues cadence

to the following “battle proper”—the variations of the F theme and the G theme.

The shape of the first improvisation in “Of The Battle” is much like the Solo in

“Working Man:” repeated guitar figures provide a gradual transition from improvised to

composed structures. Table 13 illustrates the themes, durations, and descriptions of this

improvisation.

172

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. WWtiemeg'i W^Srjatfcm 1:47-1:52 Bass ostinato F 1:08 Improvisation and battle 1:53-2:55 representation Introduction of an overdubbed t-(d) progression, adds stability and F2 2:55-3:06 0:11 expectation to the otherwise chaotic battle through repetition Stability is strengthened with the addition of a repeated guitar pattern, F3 3:06-3:30 0:24 transposition provides forward motion New repeated pattern with added F4 3:30-3:54 0:24 unison figure breaks

Table 4.3: “By-Tor & The Snow Dog:” Themes, durations, and descriptions of “Challenge and Defiance.”

The Solo is announced through a bass introduction or “break”—the same

technique used to announce the extended Solo in “Working Man.” Here, Lee presents the

two-measure ostinato (theme F) that is used to accompany the Solo. Figure 4.22 shows

this break.

EGtr

Efi.

Figure 4.22: “By-Tor & The Snow Dog:” Theme F. Track 4(1:47-l :52)

173

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Lee’s repetition of the theme demonstrates his approach to repetition throughout the

larger Solo. The opening measure presents a strong sense of e minor through the

alternation of t and (d) over a tonic pedal, continuing the three eighth note grouping from

the Verse-Chorus pair and Transition. At the close of each statement, Lee varies the

cadence to the following statement through a variety of fills. This approach to the

repetition of riffs and grooves is absolutely idiomatic in rock practice; a set amount of

composed material is constantly varied through improvised closings or fills.

Lee’s repeated bass line is the only conventional aspect of this Solo section. In

order to present a musical representation of a battle, Lifeson plays “screams” and other

sound effects rather than traditional blues-based soloing. He is accompanied by

synthesized growls—the first use of such sound effects in Rush’s output—and by a

second guitar playing sustained high notes and feedback. In contrast to Rutsey’s

approach during these improvisatory sections, Peart does little to parse the music into

standard four and eight measure phrases. Instead, he breaks with convention by using the

crash cymbal to confuse the phrase structure, by emphasizing every beat except the

downbeat until the addition of the i-bVH progression at theme F2. The larger affect is

chaos superimposed over a conventional Solo foundation.

As with the three short transitional themes that led to the “battle proper,” themes

F2, F3, and F4 function as transitions to the next section. The transition from improvised

to composed material begins by adding a repeating t-(d) progression on top of the

ongoing battle. This new element, shown in figure 4.23, adds stability and expectation to

the chaotic improvisation.

174

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. EGfc

ER rmi'ir ^ e t

Figure 4.23: “By-Tor & The Snow Dog:” Theme F2. Track 4 (2:55-3:00)

Lee and Lifeson’s parts provide a perfect example of the independent-yet-reiated layering

that is so prevalent in rock. Both layers establish the tonic, but through different thematic

material and different repetition schemes.

175

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Elements from the parallel major key appear in the common blues mixture of the

third and seventh scale degrees in theme F3, the first of two composed guitar patterns.

Variety is maintained through the transposition of F3 at 3:18, adding to the forward

motion through a higher tessitura. Both versions of F3 are shown in figure 4.24.IS0

A* . Pf ib »r t i*r* ".Aft Tk------fY h t r ' * 7£ U

Transposed _(____ S--0 h f r rr.|, - ^ 1 fYfl .[ > 1 « ill w . U u lr * " y u=l=

Figure 4.24: “By-Tor & The Snow Dog:” Theme F3. Track 4 (3:06-3:12,3:18-3:24)

The final composed solo (F4), shown in figure 4.25, displays a significant

relaxation of the constant motion of the bass and drums. This figure is distinguished

from the previous composed material by the removal of the synthesized growls and

“screaming” guitar.

150 The grace notes attached with the angled slur represent abending o f the first note to the second. 176

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. EGtc

EB.

Figure 4.25: “By-Tor & The Snow Dog:” Theme F4. Track 4 (3:30-3:36)

“7/4 War Furor” functions as a closing unison gesture to “Challenge and

Defiance.” The overt reference to asymmetrical meter in the title further illustrates the

burgeoning influence of progressive rock on Fly By Night. However, a strict 7/4 meter is

not maintained throughout To better illustrate the shifting meters, the section is

transcribed in 7/8,6/8,5/8, and 4/8 in Figure 4.26.

177

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3s 3s

E.Gtc

DnsnKl

3 s r - > > , J , % = ± - .... ' m m _ # »_ »LL D ranR I 1 % i i

j 3 __ :3 I J J

E.GIC w

EB.

EGtc

Figure 4.26: “By-Tor & The Snow Dog”— '7/4 War Furor:” Theme G. Track 4 (3:54- 4:31)

Theme G demonstrates a further simplification of the surface patterns, based on the

pervasive three eighth-note-syncopation. As shown in figure 4.26, drive and direction are

178

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. obtained through an interesting subtractive process. The players systematically subtract

one eighth note from both the pattern and the meter until they arrive at a single attack. In

the absence of functional motion, this subtractive process creates a clear expectation of

when the section will “arrive,” or cadence. This arrival provides the link to “Aftermath,”

the second major section of “Of the Battle.”

4.3.2.2 iii. Aftermath

Like “Rivendell,” the “Aftermath” section of “Of The Battle” presents one of

Rush’s most diverse combinations of texture and timbre at this time. Every element

serves to contrast to the previous sections: less-distorted guitar, a minimized rhythm-

sec tion presence, and a generous use of studio effects. This section further demonstrates

Rush’s willingness to eschew rock convention in the service of the narrative. The

primary purpose of “Aftermath” is the establishment of a musical mood—one that depicts

the atmosphere after a battle.

Formally, “Aftermath” consists of two themes in an improvised-composed pairing

(figure 4.20). It begins without strict meter and initially lacks the typical rhythm section

propulsion.

179

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 4.27: “By-Tor & The Snow Dog”—“Aftermath:” Theme H. Track 4 (4:31-5:26)

The tempo is markedly slower. Phrasing and meter are quite free; figure 4.27 normalizes

these elements for illustrative purposes only. “Aftermath” continues the e minor tonality

of the previous battle, with Lifeson exploring melodic fragments on D major and e minor,

or (d) and t. Unfortunately, figure 4.27 cannot adequately represent the “sound” of this

passage. The combination of wind chimes, Lee’s deep tolling E, the heavy reverb in the

guitar processing, and the aforementioned131 technique of removing the attack of each

note through “swelling” a volume pedal—all of these sound elements combine to create a

wonderfully eerie atmosphere that is best represented by the recording (Moore’s Primary

Text).

151 As seen in “Rivendell.” 180

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The return to repeating, composed material helps to contrast Theme I with the

improvisatory opening of “Aftermath.” Theme I, shown in figure 4.28, is a celestial

sounding chord progression, performed with the same effect processing and swelling

technique.

EGtc

EB.

e: t s -» (

EGtr ■O’

t S - * S - » S S -» S _ (d) t

Figure 4.28: “By-Tor & The Snow Dog”—“Aftermath:” Theme I. Track 4 (5:26-6:28)

Standard rock functional progressions appear throughout the section, with extended

Subdominant sequences emphasizing S and (d) within a tonally closed (C-C) phrase.

Forward motion is increased through the addition of idiomatic functional progressions, a

quicker tempo, and militaristic drum rolls. This new combination of sounds changes the

atmosphere from the opening solemnity to a march. An extended drum roll and closing

fill provide a transition to “Hymn of Triumph,” the final section of “O f The Battle.”

181

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4.3.2.3 iv. Hymn Of Triumph

“Hymn of Triumph” constitutes the most traditional guitar Solo in “Of The

Battle.” The opening of this Solo is presented in figure 4.29.

-w o

EGtt 1

EGtr 2 XJT

EB.

e: t d (d)

Figure 4.29: “By-Tor & The Snow Dog”—“Hymn Of Triumph:” Theme J. Track 4 (6:29-6:38)

There is little in the music that sounds “hymn-like.” Instead, Lifeson’s Solo, over the

oppressive minor mode progression, presents a melancholy mood. The persistent three

eighth-note grouping now evolves into 12/8; to reinforce the blues style of Lifeson’s

Solo. The underlying progression, with its deceptive cadence—albeit with the minor

mode dominant—and (s)-(d)-t close, shows a division between traditional and rock

syntax. A unison gesture, shown in figure 430, completes this final improvised-

composed pair and drives to the return of Verse-Chorus material.

182

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Beamnintt of metric modultion EGtr m m m

E& m © (d) D: T

Figure 4.30: “By-Tor & The Snow Dog”—“Hymn of Triumph:” Theme K. Track 4 (7:25-7:34)

Theme K provides the most substantial tonal contrast since the subdominant prolongation

back at theme D. Syncopation facilitates a metric modulation between the compound

meter of the Retransition and the simple meter of the “Epilogue:” the syncopated accent

of the quarter note at the end of the Retransition sets up the relative tempo of the Verse-

Chorus material. A quick reinterpretation of the minor mode dominant as T in D major

completes the return.

183

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4.3.3 IV. Epilogue

Rush’s first attempt at large-scale musical unity is achieved through the simple

repetition of the opening Verse-Chorus pair. This rounding section serves to complete

the narration of the story, telling of the Snow Dog’s victory over the evil Prince By-Tor.

A definitive close to the cycle is achieved by transforming a fragment of the Chorus into

a new unison closing gesture, shown in figure 4.31.

E G te

> EB.

D: S T

I__ O

E G te <4—i8

Figure 4.31: “By-Tor & The Snow Dog:” Closing. Track 4 (8:07-end)

184

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4.4 Summary

Fly By Night represents an important second debut for Rush. Although they

remain within the rock conventions of their first recording, several new features

demonstrate a burgeoning acquisition of progressive rock practice. In particular,

“Rivendell” shows their willingness to work outside rock convention. Witness the lyrics

inspired by a literary work, the uncharacteristic timbre and texture, and a few instances of

harmonic ambiguity—all to achieve a better correlation between the musical setting and

the lyric affect. Even though Fly By Night contains only a few extended songs, it

demonstrates several important additions to Rush’s approach to form. The introduction

of “x Verses” in “Fly By Night” allowed them to expand the narrative content by adding

texted material outside the form of the standard Verse-Chorus pair. “By-Tor & The

Snow Dog” is Rush’s first attempt at a song cycle. Even though it relies heavily in

conventional rock song form, it represents the most overt progressive rock gesture on Fly

By Night.

185

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER 5

CARESS OF STEEL (1975): “THE NECROMANCER” AND “THE FOUNTAIN OF LAMNETH”

As with Fly By Night, most of the new material for Caress O f Steel was composed

on the road.152 Peart remarked that Rush’s success at the time “helped to reinforce our

belief in what we were trying to accomplish, and we became dedicated to achieving

success without compromising our music, for we felt that it would be worthless on any

other terms” (Banasiewicz, 21).

Both the recording and subsequent tour were not well-received. Problems

occurred in every area, from lack of radio airplay and problems with the printing of the

album cover to disappointing album sales and failing audience attendance.133 For Rush,

this setback was particularly difficult because Caress O f Steel was the first recording

“where [they] were conscious of developing an original style.”154 Clearly, the acquisition

of progressive rock style traits began to overshadow Rush's hard rock foundation. In

particular, they made a daring compositional statement on Caress O f Steel by dedicating

the majority of the recording (72%) to song-cycle material—three times more than on Fly

132 Banasiewicz, 21.

153 Ibid., 23-25.

154 Ibid. 186

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. By Night. Banasiewicz believes that such a “complex undertaking was not possible with

less that two weeks in the studio” (21). He writes,

Although there were warning signs from the reactions of those around them, the band were convinced that they had not only pleased themselves, but had also gone another big step toward establishing themselves as a definite entity. They were in for an upsetting surprise (23).

In retrospect, everyone was aware of the experimental nature of the album.

Like Caress O f Steel and Hemispheres before it, Signals would be a very experimental, transitional, and somewhat strange sort of record (Peart, Rush: Complete Vol.l. 3).

I guess the band didn’t have quite the pull airplay-wise. We never have. It’s always been a problem. If you make a record that’s on the other side of it, then you can forget the airplay. Caress O f Steel was a prime example. It wasn’t accessible enough for radio to get into it (Producer Terry Brown, Banasiewicz, 23)

Looking back on it maybe the album was a little self-indulgent, but I thought the material was extremely good and couldn’t understand why it wasn’t being accepted. Maybe it wasn’t commercial enough for the audience (Guitar technician Liam Birt, Ibid., 24).

By the end of the tour Rush’s manager was $325,000 in debt; both the band and

crew were not paid their regular salaries.155 Dubbed “The “Down the Tubes Tour,” Rush

found themselves playing small clubs as the headlining act instead of opening for major

tours in large stadiums. As Peart recalled, “[it] was a pretty depressing string of small

towns and small clubs” (Ibid., 24).

155 Banasiewicz, 24. 187

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5.1 Caress O f Steel’s general style traits

Although Caress O fSteel might have surprised Rush’s growing hard rock fan

base, it was a logical outgrowth of their earlier extensions of rock vocabulary and their

isolated experiments with progressive rock. What makes the recording so distinct is the

amount and kind of progressive style traits Rush adopted in such a short amount of time:

a more sophisticated lyric focus, a greater variety of tone colors and studio effects, a

more colorful harmonic language, and important extensions of their formal processes. In

contrast to Fly By Night, the progressive elements dominate the recording. Table 14

presents the track listing and durations on Caress O f Steel.

Track Title Duration I. Bastille Day 4:37 2. I Think I’m Going Bald 3:28 3. Lakeside Park 4:07 4. The Necromancer 12:29 I. Into The Darkness 4:12 n. Under The Shadow 4:25 HI. Return O f The Prince 3:51 5. The Fountain of Lamneth 19:58 I. In The Valley 4:13 II. Didacts And Narpets 1:02 HI. No One At The Bridge 4:18 IV. Panacea 3:14 V. Bacchus Plateau 3:14 VI. The Fountain 3:50

Table 5.1: Track listing and durations on Caress O fSteel

Only three songs are not part of extended song cycles on Caress O f Steel:

“Bastille Day,” “I Think I’m Going Bald,” and “Lakeside Park.” Their placement at the

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. outset of the recording is significant. Together they represent a relatively traditional

approach to rock song and a more conventional opening to the recording in sharp contrast

to the experimental nature of the remaining tracks.

The lyrics on Caress O f Steel are strikingly introspective, especially in the two

song cycles that dominate the recording. This new lyric focus is matched with an

increased use of acoustic and clean electric guitars, as well as textures that avoid the use

of Rush’s characteristic “power trio” sound. For instance, only three of the nine tracks

that make up “The Necromancer” and “The Fountain Of Lamneth” contain distorted

guitar as the primary accompaniment. The tone of the subject matter, combined with the

associated shift away from traditional hard rock textures and timbres, present a viable

reason for the poor reception of the recording—Rush’s fan base was faced with a

recording far different from what they had grown to expect and enjoy.

5.2 Other extended songs: “Lakeside Park” and “Bastille Day”

Of the three songs that begin the recording, two, “Lakeside Park" and “Bastille

Day,” show the continuation of expansion techniques from Rush’s first two recordings:

structural extensions located in instrumental sections, expanded Verse-Chorus pairs,

multi-theme Solos, and x Verses.

189

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5.2.1 “Lakeside Park”

The formal structure of “Lakeside Park,” shown in figure 5.1, provides a clear

illustration of several of the techniques mentioned above.

AVferseT - Transition Intro Verse I AA BC Im + 2x4m 4x4m 4x4m 2x4m + 3m

Soin Transition Intro Verse I A AAB C 2x4m 4x4m 4x4m 4x4m 2x4m + 3m

Introduction Verse I D (B elements) D 2x8m 2x8m

Closing/Solo D 4x8m+2x4m

Figure 5.1: Formal diagram of “Lakeside Park”

Overall, “Lakeside Park” shows some subtle variants of existing formal techniques. The

central Solo is a prime example. The traditional completion of the Verse-Chorus pair is

presented through the Solo-Chorus pairing, but here the Solo also participates in a

localized repetition of the Verse A theme. Different from its use in “Fly By Night,” the B

Verse in “Lakeside Park” appears toward the end of the song, well after the Verse-Chorus

pairing has been established, and does not return to any Verse-Chorus material. This

small change in the application of the x Verse technique shows the growing 190

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. independence of these sections from the Verse-Chorus pair. The closing guitar Solo

offers a new variant on the common limitation of structural expansion to instrumental

sections—a variant that becomes an intra-album norm throughout Caress O fSteel.

191

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5.2.2 “Bastille Dav”

“Bastille Day” offers an excellent example of Rush’s general approach to

structure, function, and process on Caress O fSteel. The formal structure is summarized

in figure 5.2.156

fntrofhwtfcm Chorus Introduction Verse A B BC 2x4m + 2x4m 4x4m 2x4m 2x8m

■ m m m Chorus ESHB Intro Verse B BCD 2x4m 2x4m 2x8m 2x4m

Solo E A A i 2x8m 2x4m + 4 +4 +4m 2x4m

Chorus m e s s m Intro Verse BB CD 4m 2x4m 2x8m 2x4m

C fo sia e A2 A4 C2 2x4m + 2x4m 4 + 4 + 2x8m 4m

Figure 5.2: Formal Diagram of “Bastille Day”

156 The C2 theme in the Closing moves to a half-time feel, requiring the added width of those measures in the formal diagram. 192

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. “Bastille Day” shares many structural features with “Anthem” from Fly By Night. It

demonstrates a similar flexibility in Verse-Chorus repetitions—the Verse Introduction is

truncated by half in each repetition of the extended Verse-Chorus pair—and the majority

of structural expansion occurs in the instrumental sections of rock song form. An

important trend toward composed thematic material appears within these instrumental

expansions, shown in figure S.3.

Sbk>' E A2 AJ 2x8m 2x4m + 4+4+4m 2x4m Composed Improvised Composed

Closing

" "A 1 """ A4 C2 2x4m + 4+4+4m 2x8m 2x4m Composed

Figure 5.3: “Bastille Day:” Use of improvised and composed elements in Solo and Closing

Composed material dominates the form in both sections: the multi-theme Solo illustrates

the traditional juxtaposition of improvised and composed elements; the Closing consists

solely of composed material.

Another shared feature between “Bastille Day” and “Anthem” is the use of

thematic variation to generate new themes. The A theme from the Introduction (figure

5.4) provides the foundation for these variations.

193

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. c . (d) t (d)

EGte

EB.

(d) t (d) P d d

Figure 5.4: “Bastille Day:” Analysis of simplified A theme. Track 1 (0:00-0:17)

It is important to note the consistent use of rock cadential gestures at multiple levels of

the theme. The large-scale s-d motion, prolonged in figure 5.4 through internal t-(d)-d

progressions, serves as the foundation for further elaborations of the A theme during the

Solo and Closing. The lower neighbors in each local prolongation demonstrate the

application of (d)->x relationships at the surface level.

The first variant of the A theme, A2, appears as the accompaniment to Lifeson’s

improvisation. This variant is presented in figure 5.5.

194

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. EGte 2 f r a ------1w~mI 4 ------4 1 “ 'Ir~ w i t 1 i 4

h r ~ i ------=------1 EGte 2 N» =. f3 f -2 l h r L-J M ------m m ;------Hti-rn ► i {= ^ H ^ K i S -* d

Figure 5.5: “Bastille Day:” Analysis of A2 theme. Track I (2:14-2:33)

The A2 theme retains the phrase structure, s-d prolongation, and closing (d)-P-d figure

from the A theme and substitutes S->x for the original (d)->x prolongation in a “power

chord” variant of A.

195

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. This chordal variant is modified further at the close of the Solo. Theme A3 is

shown in figure 5.6.

EGte 2

EGte 2 $ $

EGte 2

e: S -* (t)

Figure 5.6: “Bastille Day:” Analysis of A3 theme. Track I (2:34-2:48)

The A3 theme lacks both the repetition of each four-measure phrase and the closing (d)-

P-d figure. By extending the transposition process down to G, Rush adds variety while

enabling the conventional (t)-t resolution to the following Verse Introduction. In

combination with repeating guitar figurations in Lifeson’s Solo, these changes create

extra momentum to the Verse-Chorus return.

The final variation (A4) illustrates the addition of a strict unison texture and blues-

based embellishments. Figure 5.7 shows this final variation.

196

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. EB. r v S D-*D *»c2 EGte rr£ * - .: » h J1 Va ------

EB. L o ------S D-^0 G: S

Figure 5.7: “Bastille Day:” Analysis of unison close (A4 theme). Track 1 (3:50-4:04)

Theme A4 shows an ingenious combination of deep structure with a bluesy “rifif’ surface.

Elements from all the previous versions of the A theme are combined with some new

elements in this final variation. The Subdominant prolongation from A2 is combined

with the Dominant prolongation from A to form a composite S-D->x prolongation. This

composite prolongation is applied to a major mode S-D progression, and extended

197

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. through a deceptive cadence to (t). The use of this C major chord, rather than the earlier

G major extension in A3, creates a S-T cadence to the closing key of G major.

“Bastille Day” is a prime example of how Rush continued to elaborate on the

standard rock formal model. As with many of their prior extended songs, expansion is

located in the three conventional instrumental sections of rock song. Juxtaposition of

improvised and composed elements occurs during the guitar Solo, but on the whole

“Bastille Day” illustrates the increasing focus on composed material. The subtle

elaboration of deep harmonic structure in the guitar Solo and the Closing are

representative of the high degree of compositional sophistication found on

Caress O f Steel.

5.3 Song Cycles

5.3.1 ‘The Necromancer”

“The Necromancer,” Rush’s first true song cycle, shows the group expanding

their boundaries in the key areas of structure and sound, while maintaining a strict rock

harmonic foundation. By using the same underlying formal structure for each song, and

focusing on a limited amount of thematic material, they create a controlled environment

where they can focus on improving the correlation of lyric and musical affect

Rush first envisioned “The Necromancer” as a continuation of “By-Tor & The

Snow Dog.”157 Although both songs do contain a character named Prince By-Tor, the

two stories share little else in common. “The Necromancer” is an introspective tale, not

an action narrative, with a strong indebtedness to Tolkien’s Ring in both plot and

157 Banasiewicz, 21. 198

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. imagery. The end result is a continuation of the “sword and sorcery” topic matter and the

further extension of rock song form.

All three songs in “The Necromancer” share the same underlying formal

structure: Narration-Verse-Solo. Figure S.8 shows this shared structure, as well as some

of the details of each song.

, E>Enfe2fife ^IJhifeirTBie Shadow IILRetantOf Darkne^ The Prince Narration A Theme N arr a t io n w/e fleets E Theme N a r r a t io n (A ) Drum Introduction N a r r a t io n (E) Interlude (A) Introduction B Theme Interlude (E) Verse A theme B Theme E Theme Solo A Theme C Theme E Theme C2 Unison Closing D Theme D2 Unison Closing

8:39-12:29 Time 0:00-3:44 3:45-8:38 (fade) Duration 3:44 4:48 3:40 Tempo = 92 J = 75 J J. = 87-Solo n J= 111

Figure 5.8: Shared formal structure in "The Necromancer”

By abandoning Choruses altogether, Rush made their first significant move away from

rock song form. This change brought with it the freedom to present a larger narrative

without the requisite “distillation” of the song’s “message” into a Chorus. The precedent

for these opening narrations is found in the “omitted” Prologue in “Fly By Night.” Much

like a play or opera, the narrations set the context for what follows. Solos, once a central

feature of most Rush songs, are now transferred to the close of each song in the cycle. 199

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. This deviation from standard practice permits an unbroken narrative, while retaining the

conventional rock guitar Solo.

To reinforce the division of “The Necromancer” into three scenes, each song is set

to an individual theme—with the notable exception of “Under The Shadow.”

Furthermore, each song introduces only one of the three major characters—the band of

travelers, the evil Necromancer, and Prince By-Tor. Thus, for first time, Rush associates

each character with an individual theme.

As shown in figure 5.8, the Solo in “Under The Shadow” is separated from the

remaining material through solo-specific thematic material, two closing unison gestures,

and a change in tempo. Moreover, the D theme contains the only contrasting tonic in the

whole cycle. Taken together, these elements raise the possibility that this Solo serves a

different formal function. Figure 5.9 illustrates a possible explanation for these thematic

differences.

A Verse B Verse C Verse C&D Predominantly Clean Distorted Predominantly Clean

Figure 5.9: “The Necromancer:” Diagram of large-scale thematic and timbral relationships

Because the outer songs are monothematic, it is possible to view the extended Solo at the

close of “Under The Shadow” as fulfilling a rather traditional Solo function. This

interpretation reveals some vestiges of rock song form at the large-scale level. On the

200

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. other hand, “The Necromancer” divides into three separate songs through the

juxtaposition of clean and distorted timbres. Both of these structural parsings—

Narration-Verse-Solo and A Verse-B Verse-Solo-C Verse—provide complementary

insights into the large-scale structure of “The Necromancer.”

5.3.1.1 I. Into The Darkness

“Into The Darkness” presents the tale of three adventurers attempting to travel

through the land of the Necromancer—a mystical evil who drains the wills of men—in

order to achieve their freedom through some unspecified vengeful act. The lyrics to “Into

The Darkness” are shown in figure 5.10.

Narration As grey traces of dawn tinge the eastern sky, the three travelers, men of Willowdale, emerge from the forest shadow. Fording the River Dawn, they turn south, journeying into the dark and forbidding lands of the Necromancer. Even now the intensity of his dread power can be felt, weakening the body and saddening the heart. Ultimately they will become empty, mindless spectres; stripped of will and soul, only their thirst for freedom gives them hunger for vengeance...

Verse Silence shrouds the forest As the birds announce the dawn Three travelers ford the river And southward journey on The road is lined with peril The air is charged with fear The shadow of his nearness Weighs like iron tears

Figure 5.10: Lyrics of “Into The Darkness”

201

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Similar to the text in “By-Tor,” both the Narration and Verse are delivered from a third

person perspective, resulting in a slight detachment from the characters. This choice of

perspective contrasts noticeably to the first person perspective in the final two song

cycles in album set I. Images of the river, the band of travelers with shared purpose, the

shadow of the Necromancer, and the scope of his power are all drawn directly from the

first book of Tolkien’s Ring—“The Fellowship of the Ring.” References to a trio of

travelers and to Willowdale—the city where Lifeson spent his youth—place Rush in the

story. As with “Rivendell,” the lyrics of “Into The Darkness” reflect Tolkien’s vivid

scenic detail in the Ring.

Timbre plays an essential part in generating this eerie, dread-filled atmosphere.

As was often said of The Beatles or Pink Floyd, Rush used the recording studio as

“another instrument” to create these atmospheric effects. A greater use of stereo space

and proximity, backwards tape segments, studio effects on the various guitars and the

narrator’s voice—all point to Rush’s desire to establish a musical mood that corresponds

to the lyric content. The layering of these various techniques made “Into The Darkness”

essentially a studio composition rather than a live performance piece.

202

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. At the core of this atmosphere is the repetition of the slow, minor mode A theme

(figure 5.11).

EG*

e: t (d) t S - S - (d)

Figure 5.11: “Into The Darkness:” Analysis of A theme. Track 4 (0.22-0:31)

Lifeson adds variety to the repeated tonic through an internal (d)-t cadence above the

tonic pedal, and the use of the more colorful em7. The contrapuntal descent at the close

of the theme—a chain of S->x relationships elaborating the final (d)—is a variant on the

progression that Lifeson favored on Fly By Night}5*

One of the most interesting aspects of “Into The Darkness” is the shaping of the

twenty statements of the A theme.

NairaliiHi - . Sola Introduction Narration Interlude Intro Verse G#-D-E A A AAA 0:00-0:21 5x4m 6x4m 1x4m 4x4m 4x4m+lm

Clean ► More Distorted Gean ► More Distorted

Figure 5.12: Formal diagram of “Into The Darkness”

158 Seepage 151. 203

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The primary structure is articulated through the simple juxtaposition of instrumental and

texted sections. As shown in figure 5.12, the song divides into two larger sections

through two gradual shifts from cleaner to “dirtier,” distorted timbres. This timbral

change distinguishes the Interlude that closes the first part of the song from the Verse

Introduction that begins the second. Moreover, a greater sense of forward motion in each

of the two timbral divisions is gained through the use of accumulating textures. Figure

5.13 illustrates this accumulating texture up through the Interlude.

Intro interlude Guitar I ► ► Guitar 2 * *• Guitar 3 Narrator Bass Guitar Ride Cymbal Crash ------► Tom Toms ------> Snare & Bass ------► 0:00 0:21 1:11

Figure 5.13: “Into The Darkness:” Diagram of accumulating texture in the opening crescendo

This additive process is very similar to the opening of “Before And After” on Rush. The

initial cascading guitars—each playing a single pitch in a mixture of clean, distorted,

forwards, and backwards tracks—are followed by the introduction of the A theme at

0:21. Guitar 1 enters sporadically over the A theme, represented by the dashed line in

figure 5.12. Both the bass guitar and the ride cymbal are added to the texture as the

Narration comes to a close, generating forward motion to the Interlude. The Interlude is

204

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. clearly separated from the previous statements of the A theme through the obvious

absence of the narrator, but more importantly through the addition of the remaining drum

kit elements. Peart generates greater motion in the following Verse through the

introduction of the tom toms and crash cymbal—the accent members of the kit—at the

end of the section.

What figure 5.13 fails to convey is the spatial and timbral complexity of this first

section. In cases such as this, listening to the recording is absolutely necessary in order to

truly understand the interplay of sounds and space. The following diagram, in figure

5.14, presents a coarse approximation of the staggered entrances and stereo panning from

the opening of the Narration through the Interlude.

205

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Time

•f 0:21 Guitar 3

0:27 Narrator

0:30 Guitap 0:53 Bass M 3*

1:10 Ride Cymbal

1:11 Stop Narrator 1:14 Bass Drum and Snare Guitar 1 1:21

a 1:34 Crash and Kide n Cymbals <----- 3* Guitar 1 Aa 1:50 Tom Toms 1:54 Guitar 3-Distorted

Figure 5.14: “Into The Darkness:” Sound box diagram of opening accumulating texture

The staggered entrances of each instrument are layered by a particular stereo location.

The most important detail revealed by this diagram is the additional shape and

206

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. momentum created by the stereo manipulation of Guitar 1 towards the close of the

Interlude. These backward tape snippets are first isolated to the center and right areas of

the stereo spectrum. As the section continues, the scope is expanded to allow broad

motions across the entire spectrum. This attention to the stereo dimension in the opening

of “Into The Darkness” provides further evidence that Rush was attempting to immerse

the listener in a soundscape.

5.3.1.2 n. Under The Shadow

“Under The Shadow” is the Necromancer’s section of cycle. The lyrics refer to

the second book of Tolkien’s Ring—“The Two Towers”—in the images of the

Necromancer’s tower and his all-seeing “prism eyes.” The fate of the three travelers

foreshadowed in “Into The Darkness” is realized: they have become prisoners of the evil

Necromancer. The lyrics are given in figure 5.15.

Narration Shreds of black cloud loom in overcast skies. The Necromancer keeps watch with his magic prism eyes. He views all his lands and is already aware of the three helpless invaders trapped in his lair...

Verse Brooding in the tower Watching o'er his land Holding ev'ry creature Helplessly they stand Gaze into his prisms Knowing they are near Lead them to the dungeons Spectres numb with fear They bow defeated

Figure 5.15: Lyrics of “Under the Shadow”

207

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The formal design of “Under The Shadow,” shown in figure 5.16, illustrates a

more elaborate surface realization of the fundamental Narration-Verse-Solo structure.

Once again, the greatest formal extension occurs in an instrumental section—the two-part

Solo.

N u i i i i o f c Drum Intro Verse Interlude Intro Sound FX B BB B Rhythm 3:45-4:12 8m 4x4m 4x4m 2x4m

Solo Unison Closing C C C2 10x4m 3x4m 4m

Solo Unison Sound FX D D2 7:02-7:06 29x1 m 4xlm

Figure 5.16: Formal diagram of “Under the Shadow’’

The opening narration is similarly processed and accompanied by a soundscape of

studio effects, comprised of oscillating and pulsating pitches varied by the manipulation

of the tape speed and stereo position. All these elements combine to accentuate the

narrator’s description of the Necromancer, continuing the use of studio effects in “Into

The Darkness” to present “otherness.”

208

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Peart’s short drum Solo, which bridges the Narration and the Verse, concludes

with the rhythmic motive or “groove” that forms the basis of the B theme. This closing is

shown in figure S. 17.

D.S.

Figure 5.17: “Under the Shadow:” Drums with B theme rhythmic motive. Track 4 (4:17- 4:23)

The musical setting for the description of Necromancer presents a stark contrast to

that of the three travelers; it is also the most overt, hard rock setting in the cycle.

Distorted Guitar, bass, drums, and voice are presented in the Verse with no apparent

overdubs and a noticeable absence of studio effects. In “Under The Shadow,” the dread

of “Into The Darkness” is recalled by continuing the e minor tonic and the underlying t-

(d) progression. The B theme is illustrated in figure 5.18.

209

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 5.18: “Under the Shadow:” Analysis of B theme. Track 4 (4:23-4:30)

Lee’s shift to a harsh and growling tone during the Verse reinforces the change in

character. The first line in the Verse, “Brooding in the tower,” nicely illustrates this

associative shift (Track 4,4:49).

The B theme is varied at the third statement during the Verse Introduction. This

variant, shown in figure 5.19, also appears during the Interlude that connects the Verse to

Solo I.

Bluet Scale

EGtc

e: t (t) t (d)

Figure 5.19: “Under the Shadow:” Analysis of B theme variant Track 4 (4:36-4:46)

210

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Several idiomatic functional elaborations enhance this B theme variant The D-G dyad

added in the second measure exhibits two functional implications. As bmno3rd it

elaborates the tonic through the idiomatic (t)-t cadence; due to its inversion the dyad also

exhibits a strong (d)-t discharge to the following tonic. The concluding blues scale

motion from G-E illustrates both a larger dropping third cadence—now a rising sixth—

and surface Dominant to Tonic motion through the D-D#-E close.

As in “Working Man” and “By-Tor & The Snow Dog,” the closing Solo section is

shaped through the same juxtaposition of improvised and composed elements. Unlike

“By-Tor,” the Solos here serve no obvious narrative purpose. The two Solos contain bass

accompaniment “riffs”—set to different tempos, meters, and tonics—that serve as closing

unison gestures (see figure S. 16). Solo I continues e minor tonality from the opening

section as well as the underlying harmonic focus on t, (d) and (t). The accompaniment

“riff’ is illustrated in figure 5.20.

k (t) t (<•) D t P

Figure 5.20: “Under the Shadow:” Analysis of C theme. Track 4 (5:28-5:32)

This riff exhibits conventional rock function, from the opening (t)-t cadence to the

surface-level “double dominant” approach to the tonic: (d)-D-t. Bass and guitar join in a

variant of the C theme to close Solo I (figure 5.21).

211

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. r p jM , j q

- V

—:— m— m ■— r F j j n z p :z z 3 ESE ------i i ------(Jb «- t ■ ------•- e: t (d) -» t (I)

EGtc n

Figure 5.21: “Under the Shadow:” Analysis of unison close (C2 theme). Track 4 (6:32- 7:01)

The addition of pauses and additional functional relationships aid in separating the unison

gesture from the preceding forty measures of improvisation.

A short Interlude of studio “growling,” similar to the effect used during the battle

in “By-Tor,” connects the close of Solo I to the beginning of Solo II (figure 5.16). A new

“riff’ in the bass, shown in figure 5.22, establishes the only large-scale tonal contrast in

the cycle—a minor.

212

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. K t i (d) EB. £ R.C. Cr.

X X D.S.

Figure 5.22: “Under the Shadow:” Analysis of D theme. Track 4 (7:06-7:09)

Solo II continues the underlying t-(d) motion from the B theme. Lifeson structures his

Solo across the twenty-nine repetitions of the D theme through the association of stereo

position with the juxtaposition of improvised and composed passages.

Time Left H IH : Right Repetitions

7:06 (32 sec) Guitar 1 12 Improvised

7:39 (10 sec) Guitar I Guitar 2 4 Composed 7:50 (23 sec) Guitar 1 9 Improvised 8:14 (10 sec) 4 Guitar I Guitar 2 Composed Unison-8:25 (10 sec) 4

Figure 5.23: “Under The Shadow:” Association of stereo position to improvised/composed pairs in Solo II

Figure 5.23 illustrates the importance of considering alternative processes in the analysis

of rock music. The internal divisions of Solo H are most clearly articulated by these

means. Lifeson begins with an improvisatory passage directly at the center of the stereo

213

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. spectrum, and answers it with a composed response played by two guitars, panned hard

left and right This process is repeated and leads to the unison close on the D theme

(figure 524).

Figure 5.24: “Under the Shadow:” D2 theme unison close. Track 4 (8:25-8:36)

The process used to shape Solo II would likely be missed if the analyst’s perspective

were restricted to traditional elements of rhythm, harmony, and melody. Often,

alternative processes, such as timbre, texture, stereo position, improvised/composed

juxtapositions, and instrument specific techniques, establish structure within the larger

sections of repeated progressions or “riffs.”

214

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5.3.1.3 HI. Return Of The Prince

The cycle concludes with the rescue of the three travelers by a “new character” of

sorts, Prince By-Tor. This song was the only single released from Caress O f Steel and

failed miserably on the charts.159 The lyrics of “Return Of The Prince” are shown in

figure 525.

Narration Enter the Champion. Prince By-Tor appears to battle for freedom from chains of long years. The spell has been broken; the Dark Lands are bright. The Wraith of the Necromancer soars away in the night.

Verse Stealthily attacking By-Tor slays his foe The men are free to run now From labyrinths below The Wraith of Necromancer Shadows through the sky Another land to darken With evil prism eye.

Figure 5.25: Lyrics of “Return Of The Prince”

Rush most likely derived the title from the third part of Tolkien’s Rine. “The Return of

the King.” In the manner of a Hollywood blockbuster, they left open the possibility of a

sequel with the escape of the Necromancer’s wraith.

The form of “Return Of The Prince,” shown in figure 5.26, demonstrates another

surface variant of the Introduction-Verse-Solo structure.

159 Banasiewicz, 23. 215

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Introduction Narration Interlude I Interlude E E E E E Fade-5x2m 4x2m 8x2m 8x2m 4x2m

S o la E 29x2m-Fade

Figure 5.26: Formal diagram of “Return Of The Prince”

As with the previous two songs, a new character requires new music. The simple

but effective shift from e minor to its parallel major articulates Prince By-Tor’s triumph

over the Necromancer. This shift in mode, combined with the return to cleaner guitar

timbres, shows a greater concern for the affect of the text than was previously seen in

“By-Tor.” The I-V-IV-V progression that accompanies each section (see figure 5.27) is a

variant of the Introduction progression from “Before And After.”160

160 See pg. 115. 216

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. i r m u l -

E: T D <5 D ------0-----:------0-----:----- = = 5 = != s = ------6:------0 8------0 ------14------9 ------7------9------

i M i ! ! . « < if------J J ----y - *g ------v 1 r l h - ’ ------t _ j 7 p r 11

■ &=fc=&- 1 ^ = = f = f = = H ^

Figure 5.27: “Return Of The Prince:” Analysis of E theme and chordal variant. Track 4 (8:39-8:43,9:19-9:23)

The same chord shape, first arpeggiated and later strummed, is shifted up and down the

neck underneath the open B and E strings. This shape results in the fuller, more colorful

chords that Lifeson used to thicken the overall sound of the trio.

217

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. As in “Into The Darkness,” this sheer repetition is structured through an

accumulating texture. This process is illustrated in figure 5.28.

Introdiictfbii iBtiriudeE'

Solo Guitar. (Distoned) Nairator- Lee

Guitar HI (Distoned)* * Guitar I Guitar II Bass Drums 10;27 j 10;44-end

Figure 5.28: “Return Of The Prince:” Diagram of accumulating texture

At each Interlude a major textural/timbral grouping is established: the full band statement

at Interlude I, and the full band with distorted guitar at Interlude Q. The addition of the

distorted guitar creates a link from the predominantly clean Narration and Verse to the

closing distorted Solo. Unlike most of Rush’s previous songs, there is no definite Close.

Instead, the band continues the celebration of the Necromancer’s defeat through the

board fade.

218

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5.3.2 “The Fountain Of Lamneth”

“The Fountain Of Lamneth,” Rush’s most ambitious and experimental work at the

time, illustrates a very different approach to the song cycle. In previous song cycles, they

made sure to balance their various experiments with traditional hard rock conventions.

Here, rock convention plays a supporting role to the acquisition of progressive rock style

traits. Each song functions as an experiment in combining distinct timbres, textures,

harmonies, and structures. The experimental focus of the cycle is mirrored in the

extended length of the narration. At almost twenty minutes in length, “Lamneth” takes

up the entire second side of Caress O fSteel.

Each song in the cycle, shown in Table 15, presents one stage in the life of a man,

centering around his quest to reach the fabled “Fountain Of Lamneth.”

I. In the Valley 4:18 Birth II. Didacts And Narpets 1:00 Indecision IE. No One At The Bridge 4:14 Travel/Solitude IV. Panacea 3:15 Relationships V. Bacchus Plateau 3:15 Older/Failure VI. The Fountain 3:50 Rebirth

Table 5.2: “The Fountain Of Lamneth:” Song titles, durations, and lyric themes

219

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. As Lifeson recalled, Peart’s initial concept for the lyrics was rather diffuse:

Neil wrote the lyrics for “The Fountain Of Lamneth” and he thought it would be kind of nice to try and incorporate a very loose concept in it, by having a starting point, and an ending point, which would cover a whole album side. It would be a complete story but broken up so that they could be taken as individual songs, that unless you looked closely wouldn’t necessarily relate to each other. That was how we approached it (Banasiewicz, 21).

Despite the loose origins of “Lamneth,” the end result is a personal, moving exploration

of the universal topics of desire, life goals, and the how these concepts play out in “real

life.” For the first time, Rush adopt a first person perspective to reinforce the personal

nature of the narrative.

“Lamneth” illustrates Rush’s first use of recurring thematic material in a song

cycle. The outer movements are constructed from the same musical material, presented

in an arch pattern, to emphasize the narrative return to the beginning (the rebirth).

A Verse B Verse Chorus B Verse Chorus A Verse

x Verse Verse-Chorus Pair Verse-Chorus Pair x Verse

Figure 5.29: Reversed formal relations in “In The Valley” and “The Fountain”

This arch structure, shown in figure 5.29, is important because it verifies that the group

was conceiving this song cycle as a musical whole, not just as separate songs.

Rush’s careful attention to the correlation between the shifting emotional state of

the protagonist and the musical setting represents another major step in their evolving

song cycle technique. One clear representation of this focus is the sheer variety in

220

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. “Lamneth”—in each song as well as across the larger cycle. The calculated theme-

character pairings used in “The Necromancer” are now applied more freely and

frequently, with the goal of reflecting the varying emotional states in the lyrics. Since

many of the songs contain introspective lyrics, these themes are set to cleaner timbres,

thinner textures, and demonstrate an overall departure from conventional rock syntax.

Rush’s approach to song structure shows a similar variety and freedom—no two songs

share the same formal structure. Moreover, “Lamneth” illustrates an important shift from

the improvisational expansion of earlier recordings to predominantly composed

structures. This prevalence of uncharacteristic style elements provides a viable reason for

the poor reception accorded the recording by Rush’s hard rock fans.

The approach to harmony on “Lamneth” shows a distinct intersection of rock and

progressive syntaxes. In keeping with the progressive style focus of the recording, there

is a greater use of exotic harmonies alongside conventional rock progressions. Whereas

previous songs demonstrated the characteristic blend of blues and traditional syntaxes, in

“Lamneth” these syntaxes are often separated into different thematic areas and even

different songs. As with texture and timbre, rock harmonic convention is less dominant

in the larger “sound” of “Lamneth.”

221

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5.32.1 I. In The Valley

The earliest stages of the main character’s life divide into two sections—birth,

and first impressions. This narrative division is represented musically through A and B

Verse structures, shown in figure 5.30.

A :V erity# •; Introduction A Verse A A B 8m 2x8m 17m (5x3m+2m)

v‘ BVerse ^ Introduction B Verse I Intro Chorus CCD D2 2x4m 2x4m+lm 2x2m 2x2m + 2x2m + 2m

BVerse ■ H R Closing Introduction II B Verse II Intro Chorus C C D D2 C2 2x4m 2x4m+lm 2x2m 2x2m + 2x2m + 4m+2m 2m

Figure 5.30: Formal diagram of “In The Valley”

A new flexibility in organization appears in the placing of the “other part” at the

beginning of the structure. Up to this point, x Verses were placed well after the Verse-

Chorus pair had been established. Here, simple formal expansion is achieved through the

use of Introductions for both the Verse and Chorus sections, as well as the use of an

instrumental transition to link the A Verse to the B Verse-Chorus pair. The lack of a Solo

or improvisatory break is notable because all the other songs on Caress O f Steel , outside

this cycle, contain solos. This omission is the logical outcome of Rush's growing 222

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. attention to the clarity of the narrative. Solos were not just inserted because it was

conventional to do so.

“In The Valley” provides an excellent example of the section-level diversity

found throughout “Lamneth.” Figure 5.31 illustrates the shifting combinations of style

elements across the main sections, and the corresponding focus of the lyrics.

A.Verse , ^ h- BVerse i Tempo J=93 J=99 J=110 J=96 Harmony Traditional Traditional Extended Rock Extended Rock Timbre/Texture Acoustic Solo Power Trio Power Trio Clean Trio Vocal Style Sweet NA Screaming Calm

Lyric Focus Simplicity at NA Influx of new Desire for the birth sensations Fountain of Lamneth

Figure 5.31: “In The Valley :” Diagram of shifting style elements

Established techniques for contrasting formal sections—timbre, texture, and harmonic

style—are augmented with shifts in tempo and vocal style. This section-level contrast is

a logical “next step” from the song-level contrasts found in “The Necromancer.” Here

the desire is to reflect the greater, and more rapid, change in emotion.

223

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Lifeson begins “In The Valley” with an overt reference to classical guitar music,

shown in figure 5.32.

r p . f- m. p pfrfr .r i p - L i f V 1™ £ > D: T D (D) (S) (S)

__ -* __ __ -M 1 1 JT3H ■m-4 ¥ « i S S D -» D

Figure 5.32: “In The Valley:” Analysis of A theme. Track 5 (0:00-0:19)

Overall, this setting is quite pastoral, an effect that is heightened by the absence of the

bass guitar and percussion. Lee enters above this progression with the idealized thoughts

of a newborn. His delivery—sweet, simple, child-like lines—mirrors the emotional state

of the main character (figure 5.33).

224

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Lee

Lee

I an

12 String

Lee

Sighl in • tta c lift u a a s= Q 12 String I H e

Figure 5.33: “In The Valley:” A Verse with simplified guitar. Track 5 (0:20-1:01)

The A verse contains several important threads that weave throughout the story—the

most important is the concept of a “life unsung.”

The influence of Lifeson’s classical guitar studies is obvious;'61 the square eight-

measure phrase, the secondary-dominant prepared half cadence, and the idiomatic

passing motion from I-vi, vi-IV, and IV-V/V—all demonstrate Rush’s most overt

presentation of traditional style elements up to that time. Then again, there are some

anomalies that do not fit in with the traditional harmonic syntax. Though the non-chord

161 Schwartz, “Rush’s Kinetic Lead Guitarist,” 55. 225

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. tone e3 (measure four of figure S.32) can be seen to function as (S)->S, subsequent

presentations (measures four and twelve of figure 5.33) maintain the repeated a3. It is

possible, however simplistic it may sound, that Lifeson simply missed the open a3 and

played the adjacent e3 instead.

Further exceptions to traditional practice appear in measures two and six of figure

5.33. In measure two there is an apparent shift from the conventional passing V6 to a less

traditional second-inversion iii. The iii chord could be seen to imply a greater Dominant

function, rather than Tonic, due to the presence of the Dominant agent in the lowest

voice, but this interpretation relies on iii resolving to I. Since iii continues to vi, the two

harmonizations of the passing c# can be seen as P in function—the passing seventh

between I and vi. Lee’s vocal melody in figure 5.33 adds additional clarity to this

argument due to his emphasis on f# at “Look at me” in measures nine through ten. In this

instance, the second measure of the A theme can be seen as a single iii7 harmony that

functions as (T). This substitution for the tonic establishes the passing seventh motion

that appears throughout the phrase, while providing an interesting harmonic color.

The instrumental Transition (1:01-1:41) acts as a textural/timbral bridge between

the solo-acoustic opening and the power-trio setting of the B Verse-Chorus section. To

ease the transition, the first statement of the B theme is scored for the solo 12-string

guitar. The B theme continues the D major tonic and the T-D boundaries from the A

theme, presented in an uncharacteristic 5x3m repetition scheme. An accumulating

texture—realized through greater and greater surface activity in each statement—

generates the drive to the following section.

226

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The next stages of the main character’s life appear in the B Verse and Chorus text

(figure 5.34).

B Verse I My eyes have just been opened And they're open very wide Images around me Don't identify inside Just one blur I recognize The one that soothes and feeds My way of life is easy And as simple are my needs

Chorus Yet my eyes are drawn toward The mountain in the east Fascinates and captivates Gives my heart no peace The mountain holds the sunrise In the prison of the night Til bursting forth from rocky chains The valley floods with light

B Verse II Living one long sunrise For to me all things are new I've never watched the sky grow pale Or strolled through fields of dew I do not know of dust to dust I live from breath to breath I live to climb that mountain To the Fountain of Lamneth

Chorus Repeat

Figure 5.34: B Verse and Chorus lyrics for “In The Valley”

227

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The protagonist’s development progresses through the two B Verses. In B Verse I, the

newborn experiences everything for the first time; the only constant in this influx of new

sensations is his mother. In B Verse II he is still a child, but slightly older. In contrast to

the “unknown images” in B Verse I, there are specific things he desires to do and see in B

Verse II. In all of this sensory chaos, an object appears in the Chorus that gives focus to

his attention—the mountain, where the Fountain of Lamneth awaits. The protagonist’s

desire to reach Lamneth serves as the embodiment of desire, drive, and purpose

throughout the rest of the cycle.

The musical setting of the B Verse, shown in figure 5.35, reinforces this change in

lyric affect.

C Theme

EGte

D: D (S) D (S) D T N N

Figure 5.35: “In The Valley:” C theme. Track 5(1:37-l :50)

228

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The C theme is an excellent example of how harmonic elements from both rock and

progressive rock can be combined. It presents a powerful contrast to the pastoral A

theme through distorted and dissonant chords, unison textures, and a syncopated surface

rhythm. Furthermore, the functional relationships contrast the opening traditional syntax

by means of a blending of rock convention with mediant mixture. The larger progression

shows a prolongation of the dominant in D major. Even though the tonic is established

through conventional D-T and (d)-T cadences, it is undermined through its placement in

weak metric positions. The C theme divides into two stylistic halves: the opening two

measures demonstrate colorful harmonies—B^^/A and Aadd9—that destabilize the D

major tonic; the final two measures contain a Subdominant prolongation of a (d)-T

cadence. One possible function for the B7add4, shown in figure S.3S, is N to the dominant.

This neighbor motion is reinforced through the parallel third resolution of B-D# to A-C#

over the held A in the bass voice. Another possibility is that B7add4 functions as an

elaborated Subdominant substitute. In fact, this progression is a fragment of the A theme

from “The Necromancer-Retum Of The Prince,”162 tom from the original E major

tonic—where the chords fulfilled a more conventional D-S function—and placed into a D

major context This borrowing results in a distant chromatic mediant relationship that

conflicts directly with the tonic (d# vs. d)—a relationship that cannot be explained

through modal borrowing. Viewed in the context of the original progression in “Before

And After,” the colorful motion from Badd4 to A8**9 is the result of parallelism—the /\/\ harmonization of a 6-5 motion in the bass voice.

162 See page 217, above. 229

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The Chorus, illustrated in figure 5.36, shows a similar mixture of conventional

and unconventional harmony elements.

rf Jth »iH** ------:------m-\ ■Jt H a ■Jj iCTi XX •• * __

—n ------m---- 0- ■ f m ■ SI L r r -F1 F ft--- — — a e t S _> (d)

rpM ------1di k l ------J- J. ,1 , a------M 1 # = ■9 f e f " !RF A/

3** = S4 = h 4__ —u =* 4 qo g -J;------i / G: D S T (d) T v e: (s) t

Figure 5.36: “In The Valley:” Analysis of simplified D theme. Track 5 (2:27-2:52)

Modulation to e minor is achieved through a reinterpretation of the closing A major

chord, shown in figure 5.35, as S of e minor. Similar to the Verse theme, the D theme is

broken into several segments: a Subdominant prolongation of a t-(d) progression in the

first repeated segment; a local prolongation of G major in the second repeated segment;

and a colorful final cadence that functions in both the larger e minor tonic and the local

prolongation of G major. This final cadence illustrates an interesting stratification of

harmonic function. Whether the final harmony is read as G****16 or as a first inversion em7

is not an essential distinction: in fact, it is both. What is interesting is how Rush

230

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. establishes the blues-based (d)-T progression within the more distant (s)-t progression by

placing the tonic in first inversion. This F-E cadence is used as a recurring cadential

motif throughout the remainder of the song cycle.

S.3.2.2 n. Didacts And Narpets

“Didacts And Narpets” demonstrates a complete breakdown of rock formal

conventions: there are no Verses, no Choruses. In fact, it is not a rock song by any

modification of the conventional form. Rush represents the next stage in the

protagonist’s life as an argument between the Didacts and Narpets, or teachers and

parents (an anagram), who offer opposing viewpoints on what he should do with his life.

In the lyric sheet for the recording, only the last line of text—“Listen”—is written. The

full argument between the two sides is shown in figure S.37.

Stay! Go! Work! No! Leam! Live! Earn! Give! Left! Right! What's right? Listen!

Figure 5.37: Lyrics to “Didacts And Narpets”

231

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. This section of the cycle is shaped by the juxtaposition of improvised and

composed elements, as well as the juxtaposition of full band and drums-only textures

(figure 5.38).

Drums OnlyDrums OnlyFull Band Drums OnlyDrums Full Band 4:18-4:38 4:39-4:58 4:58-5:10 5:11-5:16 Im provised Composed

Figure 5.38: Formal diagram of “Didacts And Narpets"

“Didacts And Narpets” opens with a traditional drum solo of long fills, variable

tempo, and cymbal play. Peart separates the argument section from the preceding

improvisation through a steady and fast-paced accompaniment pattern at 4:39. The

argument text is presented by a multitude of overdubbed voices, processed with a variety

of studio effects. These voices shout rather than sing, portraying the cacophony of the

argument.

The musical accompaniment to the argument, shown in figure 5.39, is an

important display of established harmonic relationships. This transcription is intended as

a representation of the chord motions and repetition patterns, not the rhythmic details of

the surface.

232

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Argument x3

EGtc **■ Z' e: t (d)|D (t) «OI(s) Climax EGte hi j r j f j r r Interlude/Drum Break t (d) (s) S -»(t) S _* s (s)

Figure 5.39: “Didacts And Narpets:” Analysis of simplified guitar progression. Track 5 (4:44-5:14)

T-(d) relationships appear at the tonic and mediant level in the repeated pattern used to

accompany the argument—a repetition of the larger tonal motion from the Chorus in “In

The Valley.” Furthermore, the F chord displays the same functional relationships as in

the “In The Valley” Chorus: it functions as (d) to the preceding Gno3rd and (s) to the

following eno3rd. The Climax follows an underlying linear ascent—E-F-G-A—to push to

the (s) at the final cadence. This unresolved bO sets up a (s)-t cadence to the following

song, “No One At The Bridge.”

233

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5.3.2.3 in. No One At The Bridge

“No One At The Bridge” presents the next stage in the main character’s life as a

literal, and figurative, journey at sea. The literal aspect of this journey is made quite clear

through the use of natural sea sounds at the opening of the song—the first instance of

natural sounds used to set the scene in a Rush song.163 The lyrics, shown in figure S.40,

express both aspects of the journey.

163 This use of concrete sounds is a trend that would continue over the next several recordings. For some examples see “2112: Discovery” on 2112 (page 291), “A Farewell To Kings” on A Farewell To Kings , “The Trees” on Hemispheres, ‘Tidal Pools” in “Natural Science,” “The Spirit O f The Radio” on Permanent Waves and “The Camera Eye” on Moving Pictures. 234

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Verse I Crying back to consciousness The coldness grips my skin The sky is pitching violently Drawn by shrieking winds

Bridge I Seaspray blurs my vision Waves roll by so fast Save my ship of freedom I'm lashed helpless to the mast

Verse II Remembering when first I held The wheel in my own hands I took the helm so eagerly And sailed for distant lands

Bridge D But now the sea's too heavy And I just don't understand Why must my crew desert me? When I need guiding hand

Chorus Call out for direction And there's no one there to steer Shout out for salvation But there's no one there to hear Cry out supplication For the maelstrom is near Scream out desperation But no one cares to hear

Figure 5.40: Lyrics for “No One At The Bridge”

Unlike the hardships endured by the travelers in “The Necromancer,” the protagonist’s

feelings are made immediate and personal by Rush’s use of a first-person perspective.

The most dramatic moment of the song appears in the Chorus, where the main character

235

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. realizes that he is desperately alone. Of the various musical elements used to represent

this climax in the journey, the solitary presentation of the Chorus in the larger formal

structure is the most effective. Figure 5.41 illustrates the formal structure of “No One At

The Bridge.”

i • .Terse ■: - Introduction Verse I A A B 2x4m + 2m 2x4m 3x2m + 3m

■ m n i B & H H i Introduction Verse II A AB 2x4m + 2m 2x4m 3 x2m + 3m

bfra ■■■B N K B H H i A C I 2m 3x4m + 3m |

Introduction CIosbuE AB A 1 A I 2x4m + 2m 2x4m 3x2m + 3m 3m

Figure 5.41: Formal diagram of “No One At The Bridge”

The two statements of the Introduction-Verse-Bridge unit make the sudden motion from

the Verse Introduction to the Chorus all the more jarring. The guitar Solo—the first in

the cycle—stands well outside the narrative, following the general trend established in

‘The Necromancer.” In addition to its improvisatory function, it serves to complete a

final presentation of the Introduction-Verse-Bridge unit

236

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The accumulating texture, shown in figure 5.42, articulates the formal structure

and generates forward motion.

Verse ■ Introduction Verse I Voice Guitar Bass C r.------► HU. H.H. Kide w Drums Sii

Figure 5.42: “No One At The Bridge:” Diagram of accumulating texture across Verse and Bridge

Typical of Rush’s use of accumulating textures, each formal section introduces a distinct

timbral/textural grouping across the larger accumulating texture.

The most overt progressive feature in “No One At The Bridge” is its harmonic

language. Chromatic mediant relationships form the foundation of both the A theme and

the B theme—a clear illustration of the differences in harmonic syntax that distinguish

“Lamneth” from its predecessors. In the A theme, shown in figure 5.43, the conventional

dropping third cadence appears in the guise of the dissonant and distant biii-i relationship.

237

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. e: t (t) \:l ,y 4 mm V 1

— ■. E P r ^ «■ = J* J

EGtt

Figure 5.43: “No One At The Bridge:” Analysis of A theme. Track 5 (5:21-5:45)

This type of secondary mixture is new in Rush’s output. It represents their furthest

motion away from rock harmonic conventions in album set I. As seen earlier in the B

Verse and Chorus themes in “In The Valley,” the A theme from “No One At The Bridge”

shows a mixture of exotic and rock harmonic progressions. The main difference between

the two songs is in the relative proportions used. Where the earlier progressions

demonstrated a “greater rock-less exotic” mixture, the A theme is almost entirely exotic.

The dissonant relationship between the e minor and g minor chords is made all the

more dissonant by the inversion of the mediant—creating an ascending tritone motion in

the guitar part—and the complexity of each chord. Lifeson makes this motion less

238

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. jarring by moving to the 3"1 of the tonic just before moving to the mediant, but the same

cannot be said of the return to the tonic in measure five. Therefore, it is necessary to test A / the validity of assigning a substitute tonic function (t) to the g minor chord given the bS-1

bass motion in Lifeson’s guitar part Fortunately, the shared chord types and Lee’s bass

line add supporting evidence for this functional interpretation. Despite the differences in

inversion and chord spacing, both the e minor and g minor chords are full triads with

added ninths—Lifeson simply chooses to emphasize this dissonant relationship through

the most functionally ambiguous inversion of the g***9 chord possible. Unfortunately,

this interpretation uses the definition of parallel motion in a purely abstract sense; on the

surface, the two chords do not move in parallel motion at all. The addition of Lee’s bass

line in measures five through nine of figure 5.43 provides stronger evidence for g minor

as a tonic substitute. Lee accompanies Lifeson’s arpeggiadon of the g ^ 9 with his own

arpeggiation of the g minor triad. This arpeggiadon both clarifies the root of Lifeson’s

chord as g minor—it is possible to see a BbM7 with a neighbor G—and establishes d as

the true bass of the g1^9 chord. Looking back at Lifeson’s arpeggiadon of the g**19 chord

in measure four of figure 5.43, it is perhaps no small coincidence that his pattern

concludes on D, not Bb. However, this new bass carries a (d) relationship to the tonic,

not (t). As was the case with the final cadence in figure 5.36, Rush uses inversion to

establish a traditional rock cadence in the otherwise novel (t)-t setting.

239

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The Bridge, shown in figure 5.44, demonstrates a local prolongation of the major

subdominant through chromatic mediant relationships.

Verse Introduction

Figure 5.44: “No One At The Bridge:” Analysis of simplified B Theme. Track 5 (6:05- 6:29)

In many ways, the opening of the B theme is a simple transposition of the A theme to the

major subdominant. The group retains both the minor third relationship, now ivadd9-

bYTdd9 or S^-(t), and the parallel add9 chord types. The introduction of F major at the

close of the progression serves two functions. Locally, it functions as bVI of IV, or

S<-(s)—the other chromatic mediant to IV. In the larger context of e minor, it

reintroduces the recurring bll-i cadence.

Rush distinguishes the climactic Chorus from the preceding material through the

first appearance of the power trio texture/timbre and unambiguous rock harmonic syntax

in “No One At The Bridge.” The Chorus is illustrated in figure 5.45.

240

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Lee f p s call oat for baa and fbtnft oo ow then to Hcor

Jj. h ------J. I 1 J. EGtr i* m9 m’ 1 ’ , y ^ ■ j i : l ' * 1 s i

y u b f f = EE —— r ‘ r r 1 e: S -*(d) S -*(d) t (d) t

Lee Jpi p r r r i H— — ' * ^ 9 tout out for n l-v o tioa h o there'* oo oao t e i to I w Ciy

h EGtt j i ...... j ■ | ... ¥ = K i 1 j: ; 1 t f W -

EE -J—V r -kprjjr -I

Lee | g r ^ r r 1 I r r r H + i out ap - pti - co • hoo for da mod ttrom it DMT

EGtr [ i * i - i ■ , j I i' j ; j ; jj) f - f r - f - } : F

EE J ' - r i s W t j r l r r ' f r ^ b *133

Figure 5.45: “No One At The Bridge:” Analysis of C theme. Track 5 (7:40-8:15)

241

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 5.45 (continued)

Lee

out dts-p«r-a bat

EGtt

EB.

(d) (t)

Lee’s performance is exemplary; he imparts an immediacy to the protagonist’s cries

through his raw vocal tone, high tessitura, and passionate delivery. His “cries” are

accented through short bursts and extended silences in the accompaniment. Conventional

rock relationships appear throughout the repeated e minor chord progression, with Lee

elaborating the idiomatic S->(d) and (d)-t progressions through contrapuntal motion in

the bass. The setting for the dramatic climax of this song is a testament to Rush’s

growing sophistication in matching musical and lyric affect.

5.3.2.4 IV. Panacea

Marriage is proposed as a “cure-all” for the protagonist’s wanderlust in

“Panacea.” The lyrics are shown in figure 5.46.

242

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Verse I The whiteness of confusion Is unfolding from my mind I stare around in wonder Have I left my life behind?

Bridge I I catch the scent of ambergris And turn my head, surprised My gaze is caught and held and I Am helpless, mesmerized

Chorus I Panacea, liquid grace Oh let me touch your fragile face Enchantment falls around me And I know I cannot leave

Verse I Here's a meaning for my life A shelter from the storm Pacify my troubles with Her body, soft and warm

Verse HI Naked in our unity A smile for every tear Gentle hands that promise me Comfort through the years

Bridge n Yet I know I must be gone Before the light of dawn

Chorus H Panacea, passion pure I can't resist your gentle lure

Closing My heart will lie beside you And my wandering body grieves

Figure 5.46: Lyrics for “Panacea”

243

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. “Panacea” is a resting point in the larger story where the main character finds temporary

happiness in the companionship of a woman—a “meaning for [their] life.” This marriage

quells his wanderlust for only a short time, and he leaves—albeit regretfully—to continue

his journey.

The formal structure of “Panacea” is an excellent example of the flexibility

possible within Verse-Chorus pair repetitions (figure 5.47).

t IntrodoctioB Bridtef ■ /- Intro Verse I A B frag B CD 4m 2m 8m 4+5m 2x4m+4m

Introduction ■ M i Intro Verse II Verse in A B frag B B C D 4m 2m 8m 8m Sm 2x4m Expanded Truncated Truncated

Closing A-like 4m

Figure 5.47: Formal diagram of “Panacea”

In overall design, “Panacea” consists of two statements of an extended Verse-Chorus pair

and a short Closing. The second statement is modified through the internal expansion of

the Verse and the truncation of both Bridge II and Chorus n. Unlike the previous songs

in the cycle, and most of Rush’s output in general, the Chorus and Bridge are strophic.

Very little of the formal expansion is instrumental; in fact, even the Closing has text.

Once again, the guitar Solo is omitted. This formal setting, without the reflective

244

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. function of the Chorus or the improvisatory break provided by the Solo, illustrates Rush’s

willingness to modify rock song form to serve the larger narrative.

The accumulating texture, shown in figure 5.48, articulates the formal structure

and generates forward motion.

t HatradiKtfott r Brfcltel • tr. *_ Clean Electric Guitar—------► Nylon Guitar Bass------► Drums ------»

: Introduction BcMios toilW ulM hiiM Voice ------►

Nylon Guitar Nylon Acoustic ►

Drums — ►

Figure 5.48: “Panacea:” Diagram of accumulating texture

As is typical of Rush’s use of accumulating textures, the addition of new instruments

coincides with the beginnings of new formal sections—each section is set to a distinct

timbral/textural combination. Moreover, the pattern of the accumulating texture is

modified in the second statement of the Verse-Chorus pair to add interest to the internal

repetition of the Verse. Figure 5.48 also illustrates the lighter setting for this “love” song.

As with “No One At The Bridge” and the opening of “In The Valley,” a lighter musical

texture—far removed from Rush’s signature power trio sound—is used to accompany the

introspective lyrics.

245

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The thematic material in “Panacea” reflects the familiar mixture of rock,

traditional, and more colorful harmonic relationships found in the previous songs. Theme

A, like the opening of “In The Valley” (see figure 5.32), demonstrates the influence of

Lifeson’s classical guitar studies. His choices of solo nylon string guitar, arpeggiated

texture, and a modally flavored progression all reinforce this art-music association. The

A theme is shown in Figure 5.49.

Ac.Gtr. iJ. j .j FET1 ' ILU

a: t (t> D -*(d) (d)

Figure 5.49: “Panacea:” Analysis of A theme. Track 5 (9:38-9:48)

Lifeson’s Dominant elaboration of (d) creates a strong A Dorian mode association (a-b-c-

d-e-f#-g), but the collection of pitches is more the byproduct of functional prolongation

than of a strict modal origin. A substitute half cadence on (d) closes the short theme

firmly in a minor.

The B theme begins with a shift in key and style, resembling the harmonic

juxtaposition between the A Verse and B Verse in “In The Valley.” Figure 5.50

illustrates the first two measure of the B theme.

246

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 5.50: “Panacea:” Analysis of B theme fragment. Track 5 (9:49-9:53)

Lifeson’s break in harmonic style separates the two themes, leaving the closing (d) o f the

A theme unresolved. Initially, the key of this new theme is unclear, and it is only through

the full presentation of the B theme, shown in figure 5.51, that the G major tonic is

established.

Rock Traditional

Ac.Gtr.

G: D ST T D -* D

Figure 5.51: “Panacea:” Analysis of simplified B theme. Track 5 (9:49-10:14)

The B theme displays the familiar juxtaposition of different harmonic styles found in

many of the themes in “Lamneth.” In the opening six measures, the parallel add9

chords—D**19 to Cadd9—color the underlying D-S-T rock progression, while the final T-

D->D progression demonstrates traditional syntax.

247

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The Bridge, shown in figure 5.52, shows an analogous mixture of rock and

traditional syntaxes.

Rock ■ Traditional F-E Motive A EGtc -H ------bH ------^ - L J 8 — $ — U L -o ------1^ 8 — ^ 1

(s) (d)

Figure 5.52: “Panacea:” Analysis of simplified C theme. Track 5 (10:15-10:37)

As with the shift from the Introduction to the Verse, the previous half cadence in G major

is left unresolved before the start of the new tonic—A major. The first four measures

feature an elaboration of the fundamental T-(sHd) progression, commencing with

Amajor-Cmajor chromatic mediant from the B Theme in “No One At The Bridge.” In

this context, the progression does not dwell on the mediant relationship. Instead, the C

major chord serves the additional function of D->(s). The second four measures display

a traditional bVF to V half cadence gesture, concluding the Bridge with the recurring F-E

harmonic motive, now in A.

Several harmonic elements from the Bridge are continued in the Chorus, as

illustrated in figure 5.53

248

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 EGtr * m

EB.

A: T (t)

Rock Traditional n e EGtc fi^in -- =i n ------& a t~i8n ...... — XT z o

EB. = \ O •i------ij*»------t = 4 o- (*) (d) s -> i D

Figure 5.53: “Panacea:” Analysis of simplified D theme. Track 5 (10:37-11:08)

The Chorus begins with the same A major-C major mediant progression found in the

Bridge, stretched out to fill the repeated four-measure phrase. The addition of the ninth

to the tonic recalls the Aadd9-Cadd9 progression from the B theme in “No One At The

Bridge.” After the second statement of the A-C progression, two different approaches

lead to the following a minor tonic of the Introduction: the incomplete (s)-(d), followed

by the more traditional S-D half cadence.

5.3.2.5 V. Bacchus Plateau

“Bacchus Plateau” stands out as the only overt “rock song” in the entire cycle,

represented by an uninterrupted power trio texture/timbre and a basic Verse-Chorus

structure. This setting is a suitable accompaniment to the protagonist's new diversion in

life—drink, hi the larger cycle, “Bacchus Plateau” is more important as a continuation of 249

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the theme of lost desire from “Panacea” than for its musical elements. The lyrics are

given in figure 5.S4.

Verse I Another endless day Silhouettes of grey Another glass of wine Drink with eyes that shine To days without that chill at morning Nights time out of mind

Chorus Draw another goblet From the cask o f'43 Crimson misty memory Hazy glimpse of me Give me back my wonder I've something more to give I guess it doesn't matter There’s not much more to live

Verse II Another foggy dawn The mountain almost gone Another doubtful fear The road is not so clear My soul grows ever weary And the end is ever near

Chorus Repeat

Figure 5.54: Lyrics for “Bacchus Plateau”

The lyrics establish the advanced age of the protagonist through the lines “and the end

ever near” and “I guess it doesn’t matter, there's not much more to live.” The

250

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. protagonist’s reference to the “mountain almost gone” in Verse II indicates an almost

complete abandonment of the desires that inspired his journey.

In contrast to the “Panacea,” the formal structure of “Bacchus Plateau” (figure

5.55) is the simplest of the cycle. The only departure from conventional rock song form

is the now well-established closing guitar Solo.

- - Verse Intro Verse AA B 2x4m 3x4m + 2m 4x4m + 2m

Verse AB 3x4m + 2m 4x4m + 2m

Closing Solo A 5x4m-fade

Figure 5.55: Formal diagram of “Bacchus Plateau”

Unconventional repetition schemes (3x4m for the verse) and cadential extensions add

minimal variety to the core Verse-Chorus structures.

There are only two themes in “Bacchus Plateau,” and both are in D major. In

contrast to the previous songs in “Lamneth,” a single harmonic style prevails throughout

the song. The A theme, shown in figure 5.56, contains a ii7-V-I progression elaborated

through non-chord tones in the guitar and a superimposed D-T cadence in the bass.

251

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ij- J S i — ^ f J ^ J i hi J 3 - 3 j: 3-3 3 3 i i 4 . T 2nd time with bass -----ft '9— n J n D: (S) D D T

Figure 5.56: “Bacchus Plateau:” Analysis of A theme. Track 5 (12:54-13:11)

The Chorus (figure 5.57) is a joyous D major theme, centered around Lee’s contrapuntal

bass line.

EGtc a: w

D: T S D TS (S) T D

Figure 5.57: “Bacchus Plateau:” Analysis of B theme opening. Track 5 (13:41-13:49)

252

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5.3.2.6 VI. The Fountain

“The Fountain” presents the climax of the lyric threads woven throughout

“Lamneth,” and illustrates Rush’s most sophisticated marriage of music and text up to

that point In fact, music and text are difficult to separate in analytic discussion. In “this

song, Rush uses the musical material from the first song of the cycle, “In The Valley,”

with only a minor alteration. The original sequence of the themes is manipulated in order

to show the protagonist coming fiill-circle, back to his birth, in a sense.

On the surface, the formal structure of “The Fountain” (figure 5.58) appears to be

a simple reordering of the thematic material from “In The Valley.”

BVerse Introduction B Verse in Intro Chorus CCD D2 2x4m 2x4m+lm 4m 4m+5m

B Verse Closing Introduction B Verse IV C C D C 2x4m 2x4m+lm 4m 4m+5m 4m+5m

A Verse II A 2x8m+lm

Figure 5.58: Formal diagram of “The Fountain”

This reordering, on its own, is unremarkable; the two main formal divisions from “In The

Valley”—the A Verse and the B Verse-Chorus pair—unfold in reverse order. Since the

sections are set to new lyrics, they are numbered as a continuation from “hi The Valley.” 253

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The substitution of a guitar Solo for the Chorus in the second B Verse-Chorus pair is

typical rock practice.

It is the combination of this formal reordering with a masterful lyric that achieves

in the profound conclusion to the song cycle. The protagonist finally arrives at the

Fountain of Lamneth—the goal of his unfulfilled childhood desires—only to be surprised

at what he finds there. Rush emphasizes this return by setting the text, shown in figure

5.58, to the B Verse-Chorus pair from “In The Valley.”

254

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. B Verse III Look! The mist is rising And the sun is peaking through See the steps grow lighter As I reach their final few Hear the dancing waters I must be drawing near Feel, my heart is pounding With embattled hope and fear

Chorus II Now, at last I fall before The Fountain of Lamneth 1 thought I would be singing But I'm tired...out of breath Many journeys end here But, the secret's told the same: Life is just a candle, and a dream Must give it flame

B Verse IV The key, the end, the answer Stripped of their disguise Still it's all confusion And tears spring to my eyes Though I've reached a signpost It's really not the end Like Old Sol behind the mountain I'll be coming up again.

Figure 5.59: B Verse and Chorus lyrics for “The Fountain”

When the protagonist finally reaches the Fountain, his reaction is not one of elation but of

weariness. At this moment, the Fountain reveals the moral of the song cycle: desire, not

the goal, gives life meaning. Where the mastery of Rush’s setting is most apparent is in

the marriage of lyric and musical affect The original association of the B Verse with the

influx of new sensations and desires in “In The Valley” is maintained in “The Fountain.”

255

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Here, the aggressive C Theme (figure 5.35) complements the protagonist’s growing

anticipation of reaching the Fountain (B Verse III) and the influx of new sensations upon

realizing that his goal is only one of many “signposts” in life (B Verse IV). The more

relaxed D Theme (figure 5.36) accompanies the protagonist’s unexpected weariness, and

the telling of moral of the story in Chorus Q. Seemingly unimportant formal details, like

the replacement of the Chorus by a guitar Solo, become dramatically significant in the

context of the lyrics. The substitution allows Rush to maintain the relative structure of

the B Verse-Chorus section of “In The Valley” without including an unnecessary

restatement of the narrative climax.

Rush’s sophisticated recontextualization of the music and the affect borrowed

from “In The Valley” concludes with a return to the pastoral A theme, mirroring the

“rebirth” presented in the lyrics (figure 5.60).

A Verse n I'm in motion I am still I am crying I am still.

I'm together I'm apart I’m forever At the start Still... I am.

Figure 5.60: A Verse II lyrics for “The Fountain”

256

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. This return to the beginning of the cycle is a poignant setting for the protagonist’s

understanding that, even though he is “forever at the start,” he exists and will be able to

experience many more journeys on the way to new goals. The conclusion of the A theme

is followed by a transcendent and haunting presentation of the tonic D major in first

inversion accompanied by a crash cymbal, achieved through a backwards tape segment

(figure 5.61).

IL .. 8 E G tr *

Cc Drum Set

Figure 5.61: “The Fountain:” Final chord. Track 5 (19:41-19:58)

“The Fountain” provides a very satisfying and poignant close to the cycle, and illustrates

Rush’s growing command of the song cycle and its dramatic possibilities.

257

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5.4 Summary

Though Caress O f Steel opens with three more-or-less “conventional” rock songs,

it is unquestionably the experimentation with, and dedication to, the song cycle that

epitomizes the experimental focus of the recording. Where “By-Tor” was shown to be a

conventional rock song in song-cycle guise, playing on the idiomatic expansion of

instrumental sections in the manner of a tone poem, both “The Necromancer” and

“The Fountain Of Lamneth” demonstrated Rush’s willingness to stretch beyond the

confines of rock convention to accommodate larger narratives. “The Fountain Of

Lamneth” represents the height of Rush’s experimentation with progressive rock style

traits on Caress O fSteel . Every element of Rush’s hard rock foundation was tested,

abandoned, or modified to the point that there was often little explicit rock syntax present

in many of the songs—the very reasons that may have caused Caress O f Steel to be a

commercial failure.

258

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER 6

2112 (1976): THE GRAND SONG CYCLE, “2112”

Based on the poor reception of Caress O fSteel , Rush’s record company urged

them to return to the style of their first recording. Due to the nature of their contract, the

band faced a difficult decision because they maintained complete control over the

music.164 Lifeson provides an excellent account of this turning point in Rush’s careen

There was one time, just after Caress O fSteel and before 2112. There was a lot of pressure on us from the record company, from management, because Caress O fSteel wasn’t a very commercial album. And yet, for us, it was a very successful album in terms of our own sense of creativity. We tried doing a number of things differently on the LP—longer songs, different melodic things—and it was a stepping-stone for us. Without Caress O fSteel , we couldn't have done 2112. And the latter, for us, was like coming back with a vengeance. It was at the time we said, “Okay, everybody wants us to do nice short songs like we did on the first album. Do we do that, or do we pack it in, or do we say Screw you! We’ll do whatever we want!” The last is what we decided to do, and we came back punching with 2112: That album still feels like that to me when I listen to it today—I can still feel the hostility hanging out (Jim Schwartz, “Alex Lifeson: Rush's Kinetic Lead Guitarist,” Guitar Plaver. June 1980,76).

Rush spent the better part of six months on the road writing the new material for 2112

(pronounced twenty-one twelve) and dedicated a full month to recording it—twice the

amount of time allotted to the recording of Caress O f Steel}65 When 2112 was delivered,

the record company was furious. As Banasiewicz states “here was a hard rock act that

164 Banasiewicz, 24.

165 Ibid., 26. 259

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. had gone ‘arty’ on their last album. The record had flopped, and what did they do, but go

in and make and even artier disc. To top things off, Rush wanted a 20 minute cut

[“2112”] to lead off the album” (27).

“2112” was a particularly bold statement for a group in Rush’s position. Not only

did they dedicate the whole first side of the record to the song cycle, they also named the

recording after the cycle and developed all the artwork around it. Indeed, the story of

“2112” was a clear rejection of the recording company’s efforts to control Rush’s music.

As Peart put it:

We came back with a vengeance with 2112, certainly our most powerful and passionate album yet. We were talking about freedom from tyranny, and we meant it. This was the first real blend of our diverse and schizophrenic influences, and it was also our first really successful album. We felt at the time that we had achieved something that was really our own sound, and hopefully established ourselves as a definite entity. The side-long piece itself became a featured part of our live shows, as much fun for us as for our audiences, and the trend was all upwards from that point on (Rush: Complete -Vol. 1. 1986 Core Music Publishing, 6)

To the company’s surprise, the album sold 100,000 copies within the first week of its

release, and the group performed over 300 shows in the following year.166

6.1 “ 2112”

Although “2112” was certainly Rush’s most sophisticated work to that point,

neither the song cycle nor the rest of the album was more progressive—or, as

Banasiewicz put it, “artier”—than Caress O f Steel. Instead, Rush balanced the increasing

complexity of their narrative, formal structures, and text settings with a return to their

core hard rock sound. The result was a complete artistic statement, an operatic work that

demonstrated a synthesis ofhard rock and progressive rock style traits.

166 Banasiewicz, 27-28. 260

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. One of the most compelling aspects of “2112” is the narrative. The story is not

only complex and dramatic, it is also personally relevant to the band. Banasiewicz

comments on its origin:

Their determination was bolstered by an idea Neil [Peart] was working on. His continuing fascination with Ayn Rand was to provide him with a concept that would push the trio to come up with a finished product that matched their promise. Rand’s depictions of heroic men and women fighting for their creative freedom against a hostile society took on an even more personal meaning for the group. Neil saw a parallel between Rand’s character’s and Rush’s struggles (24).

Their indebtedness to Rand is made explicit in the lyric insert for the recording—an

“acknowledgement to the genius of Ayn Rand.”167 Specifically, they drew a direct

parallel between their struggle with the company and the personal struggle of “Equality

7-2521”—Rand’s main character in Anthem—to maintain individuality in a collective

society. To reflect this parallel, Peart fashioned the narrative of “2112” after the basic

plot of Rand’s Anthem.

“2112” depicts a future time when the “Solar Federation” has established a

collective society whose art, music, and life are dictated by the Priests of the ‘Temples of

Syrinx.” On one of the planets in the Federation, Rush’s nameless protagonist discovers

an acoustic guitar hidden in a cave under a waterfall. In learning to play the instrument,

he realizes his own individuality and creativity. Afterwards, his greatest desire is to share

this beautiful discovery with everyone. He presents this discovery to the Priests, only to

be told that the guitar is a “toy” of a bygone era—one that led to the downfall of the

“Elder Race.” When the Priests destroy the guitar, the protagonist falls into a deep

despair. He is visited by an oracle who shows him the way things once were, the wonder

167 Rush, 2112. album insert 261

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. of a world where individuality reigned supreme—the world of the Elder Race. Aware

that the Priests were lying, and believing there is no hope for individuality in a collective

society, the protagonist commits suicide rather than remain under the Priests’ control.

The narrative parallels between “2112” and Anthem center around the discovery

of an artifact, the presentation and subsequent rejection of the artifact by a governing

body (“The World Council” in Anthem and “The Priests” in “2112”), and the larger

theme of individuality in a collective society. Beyond those parallels the stories are quite

different, perhaps intentionally so. Rand’s world is techno-phobic and Rush’s “Solar

Federation” is ruled by technology. These contrasts are reflected in the contrary locations

and the nature of the artifacts discovered: Rand’s “Equality 7-2521” discovers the

materials to create light in an abandoned subway; the protagonist in “2112” discovers an

acoustic guitar in a nature setting. The conclusions of the two stories are diametrically

opposed as well: Rand’s hero escapes the collective and forms his own refuge where

other individuals can live free; the hero in “2112” is overcome with grief at the rejection

of the Priests and kills himself. Where Rand’s Anthem celebrates the freedom of the

individual, Rush’s “2112” seems to take a more pessimistic stance.

The packaging of the album 2112 is almost entirely dedicated to the song cycle

“2112.” For example, the inner jacket contains the lyrics and additional text that sets the

scene for the larger drama (figure 6.1). This reference to the libretto of a staged drama—

be it opera or a play—is an essential element of the dramatic presentation in “2112.”168

168 Rush, 2112. album insert. 262

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. I lie awake, staring out at the bleakness of Megadon. City and sky become one, merging into a single plane, a vast sea of unbroken grey. The Twin Moons, just two pale orbs as they trace their way across the steely sky. I used to think I had a pretty good life here, just plugging into my machine for the day, then watching Templevision or reading a Temple Paper in the evening. My friend Jon always said it was nicer here than under the atmospheric domes of the Outer Planets. We have had peace since 2062, when the surviving planets were banded together under the Red Star of the Solar Federation. The less fortunate gave us a few new moons. I believed what I was told, I thought it was a good life, I thought I was happy. Then I found something that changed it all.... Anonymous, 2112

Figure 6 .1.2112 Additional text from album insert

This manner of prologue has its precedents in the spoken narrations in “The

Necromancer” and the unsung Prologue to “Fly By Night.” Here, Rush establishes the

backdrop to the story through this text, juxtaposing the everyday life of the protagonist

with his life-altering discovery, and introducing the governing body of the Solar

Federation.

263

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The image of the Red Star of the Solar Federation is placed throughout the

packaging. The cover shows a red star projected on/through water (figure 6.2)

Figure 6.2:2112: Cover art

264

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Both the back cover (figure 6.3) and album insert art (figure 6.4) contain the

image of a nude man holding his hands up in defiance, or perhaps fear, of the Solar

Federation. The various references to technology in the insert text (figure 6.1) are

reinforced through the circuit board imagery,

p i m i l ” 14-53*626-2

Figure 6.3:2112: Back cover art

265

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 6.4:2112: Album insert art

Without even listening to the song or reading the lyrics, the packaging establishes the

Solar Federation as an oppositional force through the imagery and additional text in the

liner notes. Hugh Syme, the artist who created the album art, remarked that “this man is

the hero of the story. That he is nude is just a classical tradition the pureness of his

person and creativity without the trappings of other elements such as clothing. The red

star is the evil red star of the federation, which is one of Neil’s symbols” (Banasiewicz,

26).

266

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rush’s desire to make “2112” a complete dramatic work is most clear in their

masterful setting of the narrative. As Lee put it, “when Neil came up with the lyrics, we

worked out the music over an extended period of time (Banasiewicz, 25).” They utilize

several techniques that they experimented with in previous works—the theme-character

pairings developed in “The Necromancer” and the large-scale dramatic recall of thematic

material from “The Fountain Of Lamneth”—to create a network of thematic relationships

similar to an opera. They even summarize the major themes in an instrumental

“Overture,” and close the cycle with the instrumental “Grand Finale.” Figure 6.5

illustrates the large-scale thematic interrelationships and theme-character pairings. The

figure does not show the complete formal structure of each song.

267

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. I. Overture

••'Aflleine 'v B icn ig Priests Elder Race Priests & Protagonist Protagonist Priests & NA Elder Race Elder Race

D r a m • ■ Introduction C Verse Introduction Introduction Introduction Trans N After D After III After III F Part II Verse A Verse A Verse A Verse F Theme A2/C Close D2 After III After III F Part II mod Chorus Bridge/Chorus B Verse Bridge C with close M BE Transition B Verse C Verse B Verse F N After D C2 E Solo Solo C with close E Priests Protagonist Priests & Protagonist & Protagonist Protagonist Elder Race

Figure 6.5: Diagram of thematic interrelationships and theme-character pairings in “2112’ As in “The Necromancer” and “The Fountain Of Lamneth,” each song in “2112” (E-VI)

presents a scene of the larger narrative. The major difference with “2112” is the local

and large-scale integration of the thematic material. Themes are used in the manner of

leitmotifs: they accompany the three main characters—the Priests, the Elder Race, and the

protagonist—as they appear in the cycle.169 A major component of the theme-character

pairings is the associated contrasts in timbre and texture. Table 16 presents a summary of

these opposites.

MainGfcaracter Prfests/EIder Race Clean Distorted Solo/Thin “Power Trio’TFull Quiet Loud Speaking/Singing Screaming

Table 6.1: Textural/Timbral character associations in ‘*2112”

Rush’s juxtaposition of opposing timbres and textures plays a crucial role in shaping the

musical affect in the cycle, especially in “Presentation” and “Soliloquy.”

The themes from the “Overture” appear at least once across the subsequent

sections of “2112”—the only exception is the short Close that is used to link the

“Overture” to “The Temples Of Syrinx.” Very little new material is generated outside

the “Overture,” and in those few instances the new themes generally highlight the

narrative. For example, the themes Rush uses to accompany the protagonist in

169 Although large-scale tonal motion is not an important feature of “2112,” the association of particular keys and, more importantly, particular modes (Major and minor) through the theme-character pairings play an important role in the dramatic climax in “Soliloquy” and the ambiguous conclusion o f the cycle in “Grand Finale.” 269

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ‘Discovery” do not appear in the “Overture.” As the protagonist appears in subsequent

songs, Rush uses the M theme and other harmonic gestures from ‘Discovery” to

accompany him. In figure 6.5, these general gestures are labeled “After HL” This

integration of theme-character pairings into the large-scale structure of “2112” is one of

the clearest illustrations of how much Rush had progressed in their song-cycle technique.

It also shows their use of some of the more overt art music features of progressive rock.

The songs in “2112” demonstrate a great diversity in formal structure and a

greater reliance of composed material. Table 17 provides a general description of the

formal structures and the corresponding time for each song.

-V'.U.-*: Sou* ^ Format Description Time I. Overture Sectional 0:00-4:32 n. The Temples Of Syrinx Verse-Chorus Pairs 4:33-6:45 m. Discovery A-B-C Verses 6:46-10:14 IV. Presentation A-B Verses with Verse- 10:15-13:56 Chorus Implications V. The Oracle A-B Verses with Verse- 13:57-15:58 Chorus Implications VI. Soliloquy A-B Verses 15:59-18:17 VII. Grand Finale Sectional 18:18-20:33

Table 6.2: “2112:” Song titles, structures, and CD times

Of the texted songs, only “The Temples of Syrinx” falls into the conventional Verse-

Chorus structure. All other texted songs demonstrate various x-Verse structures. This

freedom in local formal structure is the logical outgrowth of the formal experiments in

“The Necromancer” and “The Fountain O f Lamneth.”

270

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rush’s growing tendency to downplay the improvisatory component of rock—

first seen on Caress O f Steel, both in the placement of Solos at the close of each song in

“The Necromancer” and the overall lack of improvisatory material in “The Fountain Of

Lamneth”—continues here. Of all the formal sections in “2112,” only 2:34 minutes (or

12.5%) of the total 20:33 minutes is used for improvisatory Solos. Rush’s earlier

approach of juxtaposing improvised elements with composed—often unison—themes in

order to structure extended improvisations is entirely absent in “2112.” As with “The

Necromancer” and “The Fountain Of Lamneth” before it, “2112” demonstrates Solo

placement that serves, or at least does not interfere with, the narrative flow.

One of the most profound changes in overall sound in “2112” is the return to

conventional rock harmony and timbre/texture. The more colorful and elaborate

harmonic progressions that appeared on Caress O f Steel are entirely absent from “2112,”

displaying instead a return to the rock-based language of the first two albums. This

distinction is most important to the concept of 2112's function as a synthesis album

because it shows Rush striking a balance between a greater degree of formal

sophistication and rock tonality.

271

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 6.1.1 I. Overture

“2112” begins with the most overt, progressive gesture yet—an operatic “Overture.” The “Overture” is characterized by themes that are mainly rhythmicized rock progressions rather than melodic lines. This use of “chord progression as theme” lends support to arguments in Chapters 1 and 2 concerning the compositional process of rock musicians and the expanded definition of theme. The return of the “power trio” sound is evident in the persistent use of distorted guitar, bass, and drums throughout—a clear contrast to the more introspective, quiet, and clean openings of “The Necromancer” and “The Fountain Of Lamneth.” The formal diagram of the “Overture,” shown in figure 6.6, gives an overview of the basic formal sections and their relative proportions.

272

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Section I

Sound FX B Unmeasured (0:46) 5m+4m+4m+5m 2x3m

Section n 'v. -v1*-*!? c D C2 I C last close2 4x4m 4x4m+2m 2x4m 1 2x4m

Section m

Intro Solo E E 4m 4x4m

Section IV

4x2m-K2x4m+2m)+2x2m

Figure 6.6: Formal diagram of “Overture”

The four sections are distinguished by thematic material, formal function, and shifting

tonal centers.

Section one consists of themes A and B, which function as a Theme-Transition

pair. The Introduction consists of studio sound effects (“sound FX” in figure 6.6) to

portray “otherness.” These effects dissolve into the opening of the A theme, shown in

figure 6.7.

273

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Motive 1 - Motive 2

EGte 1 ir ii8 f- - i ^ o i ’ i n

» > . EB. r > ■ - j ------*— f t f i —*— ------1L f i------0 * d t S -* S -* s

Motive 1 ------Motive 2 Fngnitnt- Motive t —

EGte t ■: i: w w

EB. <0 S _ /d )

• Moave 2 repealed ' Motive I ...... -■ = | EGte 1 if Jilt 4 - ... - H y 3 ! ■ 3 win aaiy ttpuu ------W etc. ------

L » r _ EE • " n Id r ..- n S d t

Figure 6.7: “Overture:” Analysis of A theme opening. Track 1 (0:46-1:04)

Instead of a conventional phrase structure, theme A is comprised of two motives (Motive

1 and Motive 2) that are combined and repeated in various groupings. These motives,

based on conventional rock chord progressions, are set in a mixed meter style that

becomes a fixture in Rush’s second album set

274

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Theme B is one of the few themes in the “Overture” that contains explicit melodic

material. It functions as a Transition (see figure 6.8).

E .G tt 2

EB. (d) S-*(d) T

Figure 6.8: “Overture:” Analysis ofB theme. Track 1 (1:18-1:30)

The final two measures provide a typical example of functional stratification. Both the

bass (E.B.) and the second guitar (E.Gtr. 2) prolong D in the outer voices while the other

guitar (E.Gtr. 1) presents its own Subdominant neighboring of the dominant, S->D. The

final D of the B theme is reinterpreted as (d) to facilitate the modulation to b minor.

275

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The second section of the Overture consists of the important C theme and the

contrasting D theme. As shown in figure 6.6, this section has a ternary structure that ends

with two 2x4m variants (C2 and Dev of C) of the C theme. Figure 6.9 shows a functional

analysis o f the C theme.170

EGtc 1 4 44 " J I I # w iH S s U l -m

E.B. ■ i-1 I y 8 ^ ------> — 4 44 4 444~4-44 4 4 ' b: (d) t (*) a

D.S.

— ------i— 'r r r r rr r f*—r—r—r p—r—*

EGtc 1 m mm

EE m

D.S. i m J r n - j m m i j ~ n n r . T

Figure 6.9: “Overture:” Analysis of C theme. Track 1 (1:3 l-l :37)

t70 The drum transcription is fiom Bill Wheeler, More Rush. Drum Superstar Series, (New Jersey: Warner Bros. Publications, Inc., 1989), 26. 276

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. As shown in figure 6.10, Rush shapes the four repetitions of the C theme through

an accumulating texture.

Voice II Voice I ------Acoustic Guitar ------Guitar I ------Bass ------Drums — -......

Figure 6.10: “Overture:” Sound box analysis of C theme

The first statement establishes the core trio of guitar, bass and drums, elaborated by

adding acoustic guitar and textless voices on the subsequent repetitions. Peart’s

percussion part, shown in figure 6.11, reinforces this accumulating texture through the

addition of extra snare hits (shown in parenthesis) during the final statement.171

171 Drum transcription from Wheeler, More Rush. 27. 277

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. High \foice 2nd Time Only Lce fe-l-n-o-

- r * M . S . a -.4 —M —0 __ 1 - 4 - 4 ----4 M EGtc 2 1.1 188 tit 114=14 ' 1 — j —f —i—i —g - g — —FF

n KBUFUI 5 855 585 555 IS

EGtc 1 = # = ¥ ? i : j i ■■ 5 — i - r = f = i p

EE p S p E —E==11-j j J j J j . J J -i-J— ■---- #—■---- J

Ct 0 Ct Ct j Ct

-4------>1 - 4- - 4- -4------4. 4 D.S.

Notes in 0 second time only 1. r_ a Lee

^ jjjj I 7 ...... 1 EGtc 2 j ¥ Clast close

ifc..,...... »...... J. -,pT- I I ■ I... |L—(...... I, EGtc 1 TV

i * & 4 j J * * ' 1 * 1

EE ...... n .... =1 = y

i CL ? Ct

- 4,_- 4—- 4 ...-- 4- D.S. # » # »

Figure 6.11: “Overture:” Third and fourth statements of the C theme. Track 1 (1:45-1:58)

278

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. In the closing measure of the final statement of the C theme (ending 2), the “C last close”

motive provides a link to the D theme. This motive forms the basis of the final variant (C

last close2) of the C theme.

Figure 6.12 shows a functional analysis of the D theme, the second section in this

local ternary structure.

i. eO Q— ■ - -- O ------1 m w — - M p r r a T I j | J 3 I H; (S) s cr> t ms A: (d)d T

EGtc 2 w

EGtc I

EB.

C last dose motive-

Figure 6.12: “Overture:” Analysis o f D theme. Track 1 (1:57-2:06)

The initial statement of this theme brings a relaxation to the forward motion built up thus

far, through a simpler surface rhythm and the extended tonic pedal in the bass and guitar. 279

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. An increasing use of accents in the bass and drums, however, adds intensity to each

successive statement, propelling the music forward once again. In the shift to B major at

the close of the D theme, shown in figure 6.13, Rush isolates the syncopated guitar

rhythm and the^-3-^melodic motion developed in the bass accents.

A a a . EOtc 1 c f a

Figure 6.13: “Overture:” D theme close. Track I (2:27-2:30)

This shift from A major to B major facilitates the return of the C theme, shown in

figure 6.14.

EGte 1 TT

EB.

b: t (*) S -» (d) t

Figure 6.14: “Overture:” Analysis of C theme. Track 1 (2:31-2:38)

280

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rush substitutes the C2 variant for the return of the C theme in the local ternary structure.

In this variant, the group maintains the original harmonic rhythm for the first three

measures, but modifies the final (t)-t cadence (see figure 6.11) by inserting the dominant

(d) into the penultimate position, allowing for a reinterpretation of (t) as S->(d).

Otherwise, the C2 theme shares little else in common with the original C theme. These

differences in “feel” between the two themes are used to establish different theme-

character pairings later in the cycle.

The second statement of the C2 theme is interrupted by a variant of the C last

close motive, as shown in figure 6.1S.

EGte 1

EB. b: c

EB.

S S -* s

Figure 6.15: “Overture:” Analysis of C last close2. Track 1 (2:43-2:51)

A close look at the guitar “riff’ in the motive reveals an internal s-t cadence in b minor as

well as linear motion (e-f#-g-a-g-f#-e) that implies a prolongation of the subdominant (e) 281

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. through its own Subdominant (A). This subdominant neighboring is echoed in the

secondary Subdominant chain in the final measure of figure 6.15.

Section three of the “Overture” is a guitar Solo, prefaced by an introductory

statement of the E theme (figure 6.16).

-4-4-J _ r m . §11111111m m Mill

V f V n r a; t D -» (s)|S -» S -/d ) (t)

Figure 6.16: “Overture:” Analysis of E theme. Track 1 (2:58-3:04)

Rush elaborates the underlying t-(s)-(d) progression through a Dominant prolongation of

(s) and a Subdominant prolongation of (d). This final Subdominant prolongation causes

bVI to serve two functions: (s) in the larger t-(s)-(d) progression and S->S->(d).

The final section of “Overture” consists of the F theme and the Closing.

Although the F theme is new, it shares many features of the C theme—the b minor tonic,

the t-(t) relationship, an agitated surface rhythm, and the acoustic-electric doubling. The

F theme divides into two parts, indicated by the 4x2m+(2x4m+2m)+2x2m grouping in

figure 6.6. Figure 6.17 shows a functional analysis of both parts of the F theme.

282

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Parti 4x Doubled with acoustic EGtc i $

EE C T ? f ? r l b: t (t) t (s)

Part II a. 2 t EGlr I $ m

EE * 3 5 m m (S) or (t)

Figure 6.17: “Overture:” Analysis of F theme. Track I (3:49-3:55)

Part II of the F theme is the only material in the “Overture” that features an extensive use

of colorful harmonies, and the only material that contains a distant (bll) functional

relationship. The parallel add9 chords in the first two measures of figure 6.17 serve a

linear function, prolonging the larger subdominant motion—s and (s)—to the tonic.

The return of part I of the F theme is varied by new melodic material. Lifeson

makes an overt, somewhat playful reference to art music by adding a fragment from

Tchaikovsky’s “1812 Overture” over the easting progression. This reference also

provides a play on the title of the cycle and this song. For the sake of continuity, figure

6.18 shows this variant of the F theme and the elision to the Closing.

283

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Quote from *1812 Overture”

EGtc 2 ¥ ¥r P t t f l ' C j ¥ w m Doubled with acousti:

EGtc I •J wwww w m u u if

E& - j j g 5B e ¥ ¥

EGtc 2

EGtc 1

EB. m b: (Sr (d) d ' a: (d)

Lee i g

And the n n k it the Acoustic GuiUr EGtc L ^Spy=53 * ± = 3 = m m f & EB. P f 0) S - (d ) t

Figure 6.18: “Overture:” Analysis of final F theme statement and Closing. Track 1 (4:06- 4:32)

The “Overture” concludes with a return to the opening A theme (figure 6.18,

measure 5), thus rounding the larger structure. Two statements of Motive 2 lead to an

284

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. extended half cadence on d, accompanied by recorded explosions—perhaps another

reference to the “1812 Overture.” This chaos gives way to the pastorale G theme, the

only theme in the “Overture” that is not set in a power trio texture/timbre. This dramatic

shift in sound accompanies the first sung text in the cycle—a poignant recitation of the

traditional catholic doctrine “and the meek shall inherit the earth.” Since the text is not

associated with any character—either through the lyric insert or any later theme-character

pairings—its initial meaning is ambiguous. In the context of Rush’s stand for the

individual against a collective society, the meaning is quite the opposite.

6.1.2 II. The Temples Of Svrinx

In “The Temples Of Syrinx,” Rush foreshadows the true nature of the Priests

through a contradiction between the message expressed in the text and the character of

the music. The short unsung narrative from the lyric insert reveals the protagonist’s

regard for the Priests.172

The massive grey walls of the Temples rise from the heart of every Federation city. I have always been awed by them, to think that every single facet of every life is regulated and directed from within! Our books, our music, our work and play are all looked after by the benevolent wisdom of the priests ___

This sense of awe and perceived benevolence is reflected in the Priests’ own words,

shown in figure 6.19.

172 Rush, 2112. lyric insert 285

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Verse I We’ve taken care of everything The words you hear The songs you sing The pictures that give pleasure To your eye One for all and all for one Work together Common sons Never need to wonder How or why

Chorus We are the priests Of the Temples of Syrinx Our great computers Fill the hallowed halls We are the priests Of the Temples of Syrinx All the gifts of life Are held within our walls.

Verse II Look around at this world we’ve made Equality Our stock in trade Come and join the Brotherhood O f Man What a nice, contented world Let the banners Be unfurled Hold the Red Star proudly High in hand.

Chorus Repeat

Figure 6.19: Lyrics for “The Temples Of Syrinx”

286

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. In both instances, the world of the Solar Federation is presented as a carefree place where

there is equality for everyone, where the Priests supply what is “best” for you—the best

books, the best music, the best job.

The musical setting of “The Temples O f Syrinx,” shown in figure 6.20, tells a

different story.

Introduction Verse I A2 A2 with C last close C with last close 2x4m 2x4m 4x4m

Transition ' Chorus F (Parti) A2 with C last close C with last close 2x2m+2m 2x4m 4x4m

Closing F (Parti) H (G like in style) 2x2m 2m

Figure 6.20: Formal diagram of “The Temples Of Syrinx”

By focusing on three of the aggressive, distorted, minor-mode themes from the

“Overture,” the music presents a commentary on the lyrics. Lee’s delivery of the text—a

harsh, screaming tone at the top of his register—supports the musical portrayal of the

Priests as malevolent This simple and effective contrast to the Priests’ message

establishes the fact that the Priests are not what they appear to be, and the point is

underscored by important key, thematic, timbral, and textural associations that are

referenced throughout the remainder of the cycle. 287

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. One of the most interesting compositional aspects of “Syrinx” is how Rush

connects the three non-consecutive themes—A, C, and F—from the “Overture.” In each

case, these connections are made through traditional rock functional relationships.

Shown in figure 6.21, “Syrinx” begins with a variant of the A theme (A2) from the

“Overture.”

Motive 1 Motive 2 Motive 1 Motive 2

E .G tr 1 '

EB.

S -*(d) S-*S-*s d t

Figure 6.21: “The Temples Of Syrinx:” Analysis of A2. Track 1 (4:32-4:40)

To facilitate the modulation from the Verse to the Chorus, the final statement of A2

substitutes the C last close motive for its final measure. Figure 6.22 shows a functional

analysis of this substitution and the following C theme.

288

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Chons C close motive iff EGtc m S “ 1 ‘ $

EB. t a: (<0 b: (s) s t (s) (d)

1,2,3

EG tc

EB.

t (t)

Figure 6.22: “The Temples Of Syrinx:” Analysis of C last close and C theme. Track I (5:00-5:29)

The C last close motive provides a smooth link between the keys of a minor and b minor

because the riff is able to express both a prolongation of minor-mode Dominant function

(d)-d in a minor, and a prolongation of minor mode subdominant function (s)-s in b

minor. Specifically, the G major chord is used to pivot between the two keys.

As with the A2 theme, Rush modifies the final measure of the C theme to connect

to the following Transition. Figure 6.23 shows a functional analysis of this link and the

Transition (theme F).

289

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4. Transition EGtc m m

EB. m P b: (t)

EGtc m

EB. it JTO » J flJ 1 #■ (S) K (d)

Figure 6.23: “The Temples Of Syrinx:” Analysis of link and F theme. Track I (5:31- 5:41)

Even though the C and F themes share the same tonic, Rush smoothes this link by

returning to the original C theme harmonic progression (see figure 6.9), emphasizing the

shared (t)-t cadence between the two themes. It is important to note that Part I of the F

theme, not Part II, is associated with the Priests in the larger scheme of theme-character

pairings across the cycle.

Due to the two appearances of the Transition in the larger formal structure (see

figure 6.20), we must consider the dovetailing both from the F theme back to the A2

theme, and the F theme to the closing H theme. As shown in figure 6.23 above, Rush

uses the same truncation—the same pause on G major that they used to modulate from

the F theme to the A theme at the close of the “Overture” (see figure 6.18)—to link back 290

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. to the A2 theme. This reinterpretation reverses the functional relationships used in the

original modulation from a minor to b minor (see figure 6.22). The link to the Closing H

theme is shown in figure 6.24.

Slowly /Tv

n J-4—5 ------— 4 a a J o ■ * ri\. /Tv _Nyion Acoustic — o b: t (S) D t

Figure 6.24: “The Temples O f Syrinx:” Analysis of link and H theme. Track 1 (6:30- 6:39)

In the context of the preceding link between F and A2, the resolution of the extended

fermata on G major to the H theme arrives unexpectedly. As with the G theme at the

close of the “Overture,” the change to solo acoustic guitar and the traditional (s)-D-t

cadence in the H theme is brief and stylistically detached from the preceding music.

6.1.3 in. Discovery

“Discovery” is a well-constructed scene that demonstrates Rush’s most

accomplished integration of text and music in their first album set—a clear advance in

compositional technique. It is an extraordinary song whose form, lyrics, and music

appear as the result of the narrative, not simply as a setting for it, allowing the listener to

experience the protagonist’s discovery as it unfolds.

291

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The short prologue that accompanies the lyrics provides a detailed description of

the scenery and events, reminiscent of the scenic narrations in “The Necromancer.”173

Behind my beloved waterfall, in the little room that was hidden beneath the cave, I found it. I brushed away the dust of the years, and picked it up, holding it reverently in my hands. I had no idea what it might be, but it was beautiful ___ 1 learned to lay my fingers across the wires, and to turn the keys to make them sound differently. As I struck the wires with my other hand, I produced my first harmonious sounds, and soon my own music! How different it could be from the music of the Temples! I can’t wait to tell the priests about it!

This discovery of the artifact guitar is a central part of the larger narrative because it

represents the protagonist’s first taste of freedom and individuality. Additionally, the

larger message of individuality through music is the most overt reference to Rush’s

personal conflict with their record company.

The form, lyrics, and music for “Discovery” articulate the three stages in the

protagonist’s discovery of the guitar—the initial tentative exploration, the excitement at

its potential for emotional expression, and the desire to share the discovery with

everyone. As shown in figure 6.25, Rush uses the well-established technique of x Verses

to present these stages. This pairing of an emotional state to an x Verse is a continuation

of the process first used at the song level in “The Necromancer” and at the theme level in

“The Fountain Of Lamneth.”

173 Rush, 2112. lyric insert 292

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Initial Exploration

Water sounds, tuning, and learning the Introduction A Verse instrument I I 6:46-8:00 2x4m 2x4m

a a .* - a #_ _. n a * a n •

Introduction B Verse J K K w/A Close 4x2m 2x2m 3x2m+4m

Desire to Share Transitionl! Introduction L 7m 4x2m

Figure 6.25: Formal diagram of “Discovery”

Even though the result is quite free, each section displays a similar underlying structure.

Every Verse is prefaced by an Introduction before the main character, in essence, “adds

words” to each theme—singing over the music he just created. Furthermore, all of the

Verse Introduction-Verse pairs are preceded by instrumental sections.

Rush uses entirely new thematic material in “Discovery” to convey the idea that

the protagonist is actually creating the music in the song, as it happens. Because the main

character is learning to play, Rush uses it as an opportunity to generate, as part of the

narrative, the main character’s music. As with the theme-character pairings in “Syrinx,”

these new themes have relevance beyond the confines of this song, establishing important

key, thematic, timbral, and textural associations that are referenced throughout the

293

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. remainder of the cycle. Moreover, these various themes are connected at a deeper level

through recurring functional progressions and relationships.

The Introduction is quite picturesque, setting the scene through the imagery and

events from the Prologue text. It provides the clearest indication in the song that the

discovery is happening at that moment, made explicit through the continued sound of the

waterfall bubbling as the main character explores the guitar for the first time.

Throughout the Introduction, Lifeson skillfully captures the mood and style of what it

might be like to explore the strange instrument. For example, he begins the protagonist’s

tentative exploration with a logical first step—an arpeggiation of the open strings from

lowest to highest, shown in figure 6.26.

Figure 6.26: “Discovery:” Opening of Introduction. Track I (6:49-6:54)

After tuning the guitar, the protagonist begins to teach himself how to play.

Whether intentional or not, Lifeson’s choice of simple chord shapes and natural

harmonics, shown in figure 6.27, lends an authenticity to the protagonist’s first efforts.

294

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Freely EGtc $ D:

EGtc - i AC- r —^-.j

(d)

EGtc A

EGtc

T (d) T

Figure 6.27: “Discovery :” Development of protagonist’s music in the Introduction. Track 1 (7:23-7:50)

Within this section Lifeson establishes D major through some of the basic chord shapes

and harmonic progressions— T-S-T and T-(d)-T—that become part of the multiple Verse

themes, as well as the protagonist’s “new” themes in the remaining songs of the cycle.

This exploration leads to the A Verse Introduction (theme I), shown in figure 6.28.

295

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Theme I

Figure 6.28: “Discovery:” Analysis of simplified I Theme. Track 1 (7:51-8:11)

Every detail of the I Theme provides a direct contrast to the music of the Priests: a

major tonic, a clean processed guitar, the absence of bass and percussion, and a slow

tempo (quarter=84). Lifeson links this theme to the preceding Introduction through the

shared D major tonic, the tonic pedal, an emphasis on the subdominant, and simple chord

shapes. The chord shapes used in the opening S-T progression are particularly important

in connecting later themes back to the protagonist.

The protagonist enters after two statements of the I theme, conveying his initial

wonder through words in the A Verse, shown in figure 6.29.

AVerse What can this strange device be? When I touch it, it gives forth a sound It's got wires that vibrate, and give music What can this thing be that I found?

Figure 6.29: Lyrics for “Discovery: A Verse”

296

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A clear contrast to the music of the Priests is established through the combination of

Lee's uncharacteristically sweet vocal tone and the solo guitar. The continuation of this

timbral/textural pairing through the remainder of “Discovery” reinforces the intentional

realism of the scene.

A short transition, shown in figure 6.30, links the initial wonder of the A Verse

with the frantic passion of the B Verse.

aceel. Ml__ E.QIC * $ D: S (d)

Figure 6.30: “Discovery:” Analysis of J Theme. Track 1 (8:49-8:54)

The four-measure phrase begins with the same G major chord shape that began the I

theme, demonstrating the shared materials of the main character’s music. In contrast to

the I theme, the phrase is centered on the subdominant, reinforcing the motion away from

the A Verse material. Lifeson builds tension through an ascending chromatic melody and

accelerando, emphasizing the protagonist’s growing excitement.

The B Verse Introduction (Theme K) arrives with a quicker (quarter=l34),

steadier tempo. As shown in figure 6.31, theme K contains the two fundamental

progressions of the Introduction, now elaborated through a series of neighbor tones. The

more colorful add9 and addl 1 chords—indicated with asterisks—are the result of

neighbor motion around the root and thirds o f the three underlying triads.

297

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. D: T (d) T S T

Figure 6.31: “Discovery:” Analysis of K theme. Track 1 (9:07-9:10)

The accompanying B Verse lyrics, shown in figure 6.32, emphasize the

protagonist’s increasing excitement, and the realization of the instrument’s potential for

emotional expression.

B Verse See how it sings like a sad heart And joyously screams out its pain Sounds that build high like a mountain Or notes that fall gently, like rain

Figure 6.32: Lyrics for “Discovery: B Verse”

Rush takes the opportunity presented by the final two lines of the B Verse to show

this potential for emotional expression in practice. The text painting is vivid here, with a

rising vocal melody on “sounds that build high like a mountain” and a descending vocal

melody and ritard on “or notes that fall gently, like rain.” Additional emphasis to the

final line of text is obtained by switching from the K theme to the cadential gesture from

the close of the A Verse theme (theme I), shown in figure 6.33. This return to the

opening A Verse thematic material initiates a smooth Transition (II) between the

passionate B Verse and the calmer C Verse. 298

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ft.

Lee notes Ml /*.

EGtc a 8 D: T s

Transition U Lee

EGtc

-» S

EGte ^ ^ ^ g LJ.1J.IJL X i l J J I FP 5 ; i: * ? ? ? ar n r f f f i

rit

EGtc = # % = 9 9 i i i A: (d)

Figure 6.33: “Discovery:” Text painting at the close of the B Verse, and Transition II. Track 1 (9:23-9:44)

The C Verse Introduction begins with a functional reinterpretation of D in D

major as T in A major and a return to a slower tempo. Even though this change in

function might seem sudden, the closing D-G dyad above the A pedal (in figure 6.33)

may be heard as (d) in A major, providing a (d)-T discharge to the following A major

tonic.

299

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The M theme, shown in a simplified form in figure 6.34, illustrates the elaboration

of an underlying T-S-D progression through the T-S-T progression from the

Introduction.

EG*

A: T s s-*s

Figure 6.34: “Discovery:” Analysis of simplified M theme. Track I (9:45-9:49)

In this final section of “Discovery,” the protagonist returns to reality, and the realization

that he needs to share this new discovery with everyone. The lyrics of the C Verse are

given in figure 6.35.

C Verse I can’t wait to share this new wonder The people will all see its light Let them all make their own music The priests praise my name on this night

Figure 6.35: Lyrics for “Discovery: C Verse”

From this point forward, Rush connects all the remaining songs in the cycle to

create a greater sense of forward motion. Thus, the final line of the C Verse—where the

protagonist first indicates his intent to share his discovery with the Priests—moves

300

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. directly to the next song in the cycle, “Presentation.” The shared A major tonic between

the closing M theme in “Discovery” and the N theme in “Presentation” aids in this direct

connection, allowing for the final D (see figure 6.34) to resolve D-T to the following

song.

301

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 6.1.4 IV. Presentation

“Presentation” is the dramatic turning point in the story: the meeting between the

main character and the Priests. The unsung libretto text recounts the meeting.174

“ In the sudden silence as I finished playing, I looked up to a circle of grim, expressionless faces. Father Brown rose to his feet, and his somnolent voice echoed throughout the silent Temple Hall ” “ Instead of the gratefiil joy that I expected, they were words of quiet rejection! Instead of praise, sullen dismissal. I watched in shock and horror as Father Brown ground my precious instrument to splinters beneath his feet ”

What has remained implicit is now made explicit—the Priests are the enemies of

individuality, the enemies of change. The libretto text is essential to an understanding of

the larger story because it presents the essential plot point of Fr. Brown destroying the

guitar, a vital detail not included in the sung text.

The formal relationship between the lyrics and the music is particularly

interesting in “Presentation.” At the large-scale level, Rush underscores the dialogue

structure of the lyrics through timbre-character pairings. Within each character’s section,

new themes, established theme-character pairings, and elements of Verse-Chorus pairs

are combined. Furthermore, this treatment of the lyric-formal structure in “Presentation”

serves as the basic model for the remaining texted songs in the cycle.

The large-scale dialogue structure is clearly articulated in the lyrics, shown in

figure 6.36, and in the formal structure, shown in figure 6.37.

174 Rush, 2112. lyric insert 302

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Protagonist: A Verse I I know it’s most unusual To come before you so But I’ve found an ancient miracle I thought that you should know

A Chorus Listen to my music And hear what it can do There’s something here as strong as life I know that it will reach you

The Priests: B Verse I Yes we know It’s nothing new It’s just a waste of time We have no need for ancient ways The world is doing fine

B Chorus Another toy That helped destroy The elder race of man Forget about your silly whim It doesn’t fit the plan

Protagonist: A Verse II I can’t believe you're saying These things just can't be true Our world could use this beauty Just think what we might do

A Chorus Repeat

The Priests: B Verse D Don’t annoy us further! We have our work to do Just think about the average What use have they for you?

B Chorus Repeat

Figure 6.36: Lyrics for “Presentation”

303

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Protagonist Priests m m a m m i N after D D MN 2x4m 2x4m 4x2m 4x4m Distorted Clean Clean Distorted

Protagonist Priests

M e n t i s e v -' B V e n e H D M N with last C close 2x4m 4x2m 4x4m Clean Clean Distorted

C with last close ______8x4m+lm ______Distorted

Figure 6.37: Formal diagram of “Presentation”

If we consider only the lyrics, we see that Rush places a Verse-Chorus pair in each

character’s section. This structure allows each character to react to the other’s statements

in the Verse, and to reinforce their distilled messages in the repeated Choruses.

Timbre plays the most important role in articulating the formal structure at this

level. As shown in the clean and distorted labels in figure 6.37, Rush uses the timbre-

character associations that were established in “Syrinx” and “Discovery” to distinguish

the characters and their opposing viewpoints on the discovery of the guitar. It is

necessary, however, to consider the details of each section in order to explore the

differences between the setting for the protagonist and the Priests. In particular, the

discrepancy between the structure of the Priest’s lyrics in figure 6.36 and the formal

diagram in figure 6.37 requires further consideration.

304

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The opening Introduction, shown in figure 6.38, presents a new theme built from

existing materials: the rhythm and bass arpeggiation $-^-$) from the latter half of the

“Overture” D Theme175 and an embellished T-S relationship. Even though the theme is

new, the distorted timbre and power trio texture indicate a shift from the protagonist’s

material in “Discovery” to the antagonistic world of the Priests.

Distorted

EGte

Figure 6.38: “Presentation:” Analysis of simplified N theme. Track 1 (10:15-10:24)

Lee’s bass prolongs the fundamental T-S progression by reinterpreted the opening T as

D~>S through the addition of G natural in measure two. The final measure illustrates the

stratification of guitar and bass function, with the bass following a d-T cadence pattern to

the following repetition against the larger S-T progression in the guitar.

The protagonist’s section is set as a Verse-Chorus pair, reflecting the structure of

the lyrics shown in figure 6.36. The D theme (D2), which has not been heard since the

“Overture” (see figure 6.12), serves as the Verse accompaniment. To insure that the

theme follows the timbre-character associations established in “Discovery,” the guitar

175 See page 280. 305

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. changes the original distorted timbre to a clean timbre and Lee delivers his text in the

previous sweet vocal tone. As shown in figure 6.39, the original D theme is modified

here by the addition of a new bass line and a different closing measure.

E.Gtr.

EB. m A: T (S) S D D (S) T

Figure 6.39: “Presentation:” Analysis of D2 theme. Track I (10:33-10:42)

Lee’s bass line strengthens the original progression because the roots of each chord are

added below the tonic pedal in the guitar part. In the second measure, the inherent D

function in the iii chord is emphasized by placing^in the bass.

The use of the M theme as the accompaniment for the protagonist’s Chorus is

dramatically and musically significant. It is no coincidence that this theme sets the line

“Listen to my music.” Rush emphasizes the protagonist’s message about the power of

music, their music, by recalling the music from “Discovery” that accompanied the

protagonist’s decision to share his discovery with everyone. As in ’Discovery,” the

protagonist is actually performing his music here. The fact that Rush recalls the

accompaniment theme, and not the vocal melody, reminds us of the importance of

viewing rhythmicized chord progressions as thematic material in rock analysis.

306

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rush’s musical setting for the Priest’s lyrics does not follow the Verse-Chorus

pairing shown in figure 6.36. Instead, they set both the strophic and refrain text with the

same theme—the N theme from the Introduction. This setting of a conventional lyric

structure in an unconventional way illustrates their flexible approach to rock song form.

Clearly they wished to characterize the single-mindedness of the Priests through the

distorted timbre, the screaming vocal tone, and the use of a single theme as the

accompaniment

“Presentation” concludes with a rapid guitar Solo over the transformed C theme

from the Chorus of “The Temples Of Syrinx” (see page 289). The sudden change to a

fast tempo (quarter=148) and the shift to the key of b minor adds a sense of urgency to

the Closing. This is only the second guitar solo in the cycle and, following the formal

techniques developed on Caress O f Steel, Rush places the Solo well outside the narrative.

The Solo concludes with a sudden shift to D major, as shown in figure 6.40.

EGtt

EB.

tr. t (s) t (0 D: T

Figure 6.40: “Presentation”—Closing: Analysis of final cadence. Track 1 (13:44-13:53)

307

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. This sudden change in key allows Rush to link to the tonic at the opening of the next

song, “Oracle: The Dream,'’ continuing the song-to-song linking begun in “Discovery.”

The larger effect is an unresolved question that helps to maintain the forward motion in

the cycle.

6.1.5 V. Oracle: The Dream

After the rejection of the Priests and the destruction of the guitar, Rush’s main

character takes quite a different path from Rand’s “Equality 7-2521” in “Oracle: The

Dream.” In Anthem. “Equality 7-2521” takes the rejection as a sign to leave, to run to

the wilderness and escape. He overcomes his fears and finds sanctuary with “Liberty 5-

3000”—the female love interest—in an abandoned house where he discovers books to

further his knowledge of the way the world once was (idealized by the discovery of the

word “I”). He turns this house into a safe haven for all individuals. In “2112,” despite

the protagonist’s similar vision of the Elder Race, of “how things use to be,” the vision

has the opposite effect.

“----- 1 guess it was a dream, but even now it all seems so vivid to me. Clearly yet I see the beckoning hand of the oracle as he stood at the summit of the staircase ” “ I see still the incredible beauty of the sculptured cities and the pure spirit of man revealed in the lives and works of this world. I was overwhelmed by both wonder and understanding as I saw a completely different way to life, a way that had been crushed by the Federation long ago. I saw now how meaningless life had become with the loss of all these things ”

Once again, Rush reveals important details in the unsung libretto that are not made

explicit in the lyrics.176 Instead of being inspired by his vision, the protagonist sees “how

176 Rush, 2112. lyric insert 308

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. meaningless life had become with the loss of all these things”—a foreshadowing of his

fate in “Soliloquy.”

Rush organizes the lyrics, shown in figure 6.41, to separate the waking world of

the protagonist and the dream world of the Elder Race. In contrast to the lyrics for

“Presentation,” the protagonist is present in both sections.

Waking world of the A Verse protagonist: I wandered home though the silent streets And fell into a fitful sleep Escape to realms beyond the night Dream—can’t you show me the light?

Dream world of the B Verse I Elder Race: I stand atop a spiral stair An oracle confronts me there He leads me on light years away Through astral nights, galactic days

C Verse I I see the works of gifted hands Grace this strange and wondrous land I see the hand of man arise With hungry mind and open eyes

B Verse II They left the planet long ago The elder race still leam and grow Their power grows with purpose strong To claim the home where they belong

C Verse D Home to tear the Temples down... Home to change—

Figure 6.41: Lyrics for “Oracle: The Dream”

309

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The lyrics focus on the wonders of the Elder Race, and give no hint to the protagonist’s

negative reaction to this dream. In fact, the lyrics conclude with the optimistic revelation

that the Elder Race may come back to the planet to free its people from the Solar

Federation.

The formal structure of “Oracle” demonstrates the same large-scale, timbral-

driven segmentation found in “Presentation,” but here it is applied to distinguish the real

world of the protagonist from the dream world of the Elder Race. Figure 6.42 illustrates

the formal structure of “Oracle.”

Real World Dream - AVerse ! B Verse I Introduction AVerse 0 after m 0 After III Sound FX B C2 2x4m 2x4m 14:45-14:50 2x4m 2x4m Clean Distorted

Dream B W n i S

Intro B Verse B B C2 l+4m 2x4m 3m Distorted

Figure 6.42: Formal diagram of “Oracle: The Dream”

Moreover, “Oracle” follows the model established in “Presentation” in the ordering of the

contrasting formal structures and themes used within these real world and dream sections.

310

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The real world is presented in a Verse Introduction-Verse structure. This

common expansion of the Verse allows Rush to establish the new theme for the

protagonist, shown in figure 6.43, through several statements

“ Clean _ If H ^ If fr.-tf . r yf ^ ' r* yY t' til D: S T ( (d) D

Figure 6.43: “Oracle: The Dream”—Introduction: Analysis of simplified O theme. Track 1 (13:57-14:09)

Though not an explicit repetition of any established theme, the Introduction contains

several elements taken directly from the main character’s music in “Discovery.” The two

opening chords of the M theme (figure 6.28) and the O theme (figure 6.43) are identical,

the texture is solo guitar throughout, both the M and O themes open on S and close on D,

and both the tonic pedal and T-(d)-T progression stem from the improvisatory

Introduction (see figure 6.27). The heavy chorus and reverb on the otherwise clean guitar

creates a dreamy effect that falls somewhere between the studio effects of the opening

“Overture” and the immediacy of the guitar in “Discovery.” This A Verse material

appears only once in the song. Its purpose is to return the music to the more restful

nature of the main character’s setting now that their conflict with the Priests is past

Rush uses a sound effect link to move from the waking world to the dream world,

beginning after the line “Dream—can’t you show me the light?” This aural marker is

311

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. reminiscent of the studio effects that served as a sign of otherworldliness in “The

Necromancer7’ and in the opening of “2112.” As shown in figure 6.42, Rush sets the

repeated B Verse-C Verse pair to the B and C2 themes—themes that have not been heard

since the “Overture.” The D major tonic of the B theme creates a tonal connection

between the world of the protagonist—all the themes in “Discovery,” except M, were in

D major—and the world of the Elder Race. Rush’s use of the C2 theme for the Elder

Race is interesting for several reasons. Even though this theme has not been heard since

the “Overture,” the C theme it is based on has been used twice. In both cases, the C

theme was used to accompany the Priests: first in “Syrinx,” and then at the close of

“Presentation.” Combined with the distorted timbre and power trio texture that

accompanies the Elder Race, the use of the C2 theme could be seen to imply some

connection between the Elder Race and the Priests. This theory, however, is not

supported by the lyrics. With the exception of the direct reference to the Temples in C

Verse Q, there is little evidence that Rush is trying to make some deep-level connection

between the Elder Race and the Priests in the C Verse. Additionally, since there is little

change in affect between the B and C Verse lyrics (see figure 6.41), it would appear that

they did not choose the b minor C2 theme in order to reflect a change in the lyric affect.

Rush varies the second statement of the B Verse-C Verse pair by adding a Verse

Introduction to the B Verse and truncating the final statement of the C Verse. As with the

close of “Presentation,” “Oracle” concludes with an unexpected cadence in the C2 theme,

accompanying the final lines of text “Home to tear the Temples down, home to change.”

312

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Distorted

EGtc n

EB.

b: t (*) (d) i

Figure 6.44: “Oracle: The Dream”—Closing: Analysis of final cadence. Track 1 (15:46- 15:55)

The cadence on s in b minor is unexpected, because iv is not part of the C2 theme. As in

the unexpected close of “Presentation,” the greater effect is one of an open question.

6.1.6 VI. Soliloquy

“Soliloquy,” the final texted song, presents the dramatic climax of the cycle: the

protagonist’s decision to commit suicide rather than live under the control of the Solar

Federation. His drastic decision is quite confusing given Rush’s adamant statements

about fighting back against the pressures from their recording company. It would appear

that Rush was not trying to depict defeat as much as their philosophy of remaining true to

yourself in the face of oppressive and collective forces, be they the Priests of Syrinx or

the recording industry.

313

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rush presents two very different accounts of the protagonist’s suicide through the

libretto text and the song lyrics. In the libretto text, his decision appears calculated and

ultimately hopeful.177

“— I have not left this cave for days now, it has become my last refuge in my total despair. I have only the music of the waterfall to comfort me now. I can no longer live under the control of the Federation, but there is no other place to go. My last hope is that with my death I may pass into the world of my dream, and know peace at last.”

In the lyrics, shown in figure 6.45, his decision appears as a sudden reaction to his

despair.

Awakening: A Verse The sleep is still in my eyes The dream is still in my head I heave a sigh, and sadly smile And lie a while in bed

Bridge? I wish that it might come to pass Not fade like all my dreams

Despair: B Verse I Just think of what my life might be In a world like I have seen I don't think I can carry on This cold and empty life

B Verse D My spirits are low in the depths of despair My lifeblood Spills over...

Figure 6.45: Lyrics for “Soliloquy”

177 Rush, 2112. lyric insert. 314

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Both the lyrics and the formal structure demonstrate the same large-scale, timbral-

driven segmentation found in “Presentation” and “Oracle,” but here it is applied to

distinguish the protagonist’s two contrasting mental states: the calm awakening from the

dream and the sudden despair that leads to suicide.

Awakening ^Bridge? Ini[reduction AVerse P after III P after QI ESFX 15:58- 2x4m 2x4m 4m 16:02 Clean Despair R V erse! ■ Sold E E *E 2x4m 5x4m 4+lm Distorted ♦(variation from Overture)

Figure 6.46: Formal diagram of “Soliloquy”

The awakening section of the song begins with bubbling water, the same bubbling

water effect heard at the beginning of “Discovery.” As indicated in the libretto text, the

protagonist has returned to the cave where he originally discovered the guitar. Even

though the guitar is destroyed, the water sounds convey the same real-time urgency as in

“Soliloquy,” making the protagonist’s despair in the B Verse appear all the more sudden.

The P theme that begins the A Verse (figure 6.47) is new, but based on elements from the

main character’s music in “Discovery.”

315

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 6.47: “Soliloquy:” Introduction and analysis. Track I (16:03-16:12)

A clean timbre, solo texture, and the S->S progression—all derived from the

protagonist’s music in “Discovery.” The music is in the protagonist’s primary key of D

major and, combined with the lyrics, expresses a calmness—a relaxation from the

distorted timbre and power trio texture of the preceding song.

As shown in figure 6.46, the function of the Bridge at the close of the awakening

section is open to question. Rush accompanies the final two lines of this section—“I

wish that it might come to pass, not fade like all my dreams”—with the E theme from the

“Overture,” shown in figure 6.48.

d ean Distorted ir.ja.iL.la— . i - I ["I E .G tr Hfcm------^ - 9 ------i 8 ...... i § * o _ 4 ■ mI 4 •O- o i : W

EB. H

D : T

a: S t D -* (*) S -»(<0

Figure 6.48: “Soliloquy:” Analysis of simplified E theme. Track 1 (16:42-16:54) 316

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The return of the E theme is a major event because it has not been heard since the

“Overture,” some thirteen minutes earlier. Because the following despair section is also

set to the E theme, it is unclear whether this segment functions as part of the first B Verse

in the despair section due to the shared thematic material, or as a Bridge in the awakening

section due to the shared textural/timbral setting, or as a section unto itself. Even though

Rush uses the same theme for both sections, the precedent set by “Presentation” and

“Oracle” dictates that the first statement of the E theme belongs to the awakening section

due to its timbral/textural setting. Additional support for determining the function of the

first statement of the E theme in the awakening section is provided by the distinct

melodies used in the Bridge and the B Verse I.

Several important threads converge in the despair section in “Soliloquy,”

highlighting the protagonist’s decision to commit suicide in much the same was the song

“The Fountain” in “The Fountain Of Lamneth” highlighted the traveler’s rebirth. The

forceful entrance of the distorted, power trio texture at the final cadence of the E theme

(figure 6.48) announces the beginning of this section. Up to this point in the cycle, three

traits have characterized the main character’s music: major keys, thin textures, and clean

timbres. Rush makes a dramatic statement by placing the protagonist’s final words in the

setting most commonly associated with the Priests. Despair is distortion, “power trio”

textures, minor keys, and screaming vocals. Even Lifeson’s Solo expresses the

screaming, mournful tone of Lee's voice. The use of these associative elements makes

the main character’s psychological change more apparent than the lyrics alone could

possibly convey. This section represents the climax of the story, where the hope of the

317

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. protagonist is lost for good, providing the greatest testament to the level of compositional

sophistication Rush had achieved in “2112.”

As with “Oracle,” here the protagonist’s final lines are set to an unresolved half

cadence, shown in figure 6.49.

Distorted

Figure 6.49: “Soliloquy”—B Verse H: Analysis of final cadence. Track 1 (18:04-18:18)

Following a pattern that has concluded each song since “Presentation,” the slight change

in the E theme allows for continuing the forward momentum to the final song—the

instrumental “Grand Finale.”

318

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 6.1.7 VII. Grand Finale

“2112” concludes with an instrumental “Grand Finale.” The unexpected entrance

of a voice at the final cadence, repeating the text “Attention all planets of the solar

Federation: We have assumed control,” raises questions that remain unresolved as the

final chord fades. Even though the original title of this song178—“Denouement”—

implies a final outcome to the narrative, based on the established theme-character and

timbral/textural-character pairings used throughout the cycle, the music of “Grand

Finale” does not support any one interpretation of this final line of text

As shown in figure 6.50,179 the formal structure of “Grand Finale” is sectional,

rather like the “Overture.” Each theme is structured through various juxtapositions of

composed (C) and improvised (I) sections.

QTheme F Theme Intro Solo Introduction Solo Q F Part F Part IT5 n 2 4x2m 8x2m 4m 2m+3x4m 4x4m+lm C I C C I

R 4m+2m+ 2m+4m+free C I

Figure 6.50: Formal diagram of “Grand Finale”

178 Telleria, Rush: Tribute. 149.

179 The tempo change from the Q theme and Transition (quarter=150) to the F theme and R theme (dotted quarter=80) is reflected in the widths of the formal sections. 319

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Comprised of entirely new material, with the exception of part II of the F theme, the

“Grand Finale” follows the thematic style of the “Overture”—rhythmicized chord

progressions presented in a distorted, power-trio texture. This timbral/textural pairing

has been associated with all the major characters in the cycle—for the most part with the

Priests and the Elder Race—and, as such, does little to clarify any character associations.

As shown in figure 6.51, forward motion in the Q theme section is driven by an

accumulating texture.

Introduction Solo Guitar HI (Solo) ------»

Drums------► 4x2m 8x2m

Figure 6.51: “Grand Finale”—Q Theme: Diagram o f accumulating texture

Lifeson begins the “Overture” with new material in an unaccompanied, distorted guitar,

introducing the new key of E major into the cycle. Figure 6.51 presents a functional

analysis of the Q theme.

320

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Ban enlen 3nl time E.B.

E: T

Figure 6.52: “Grand Finale:” Analysis of the Q theme Introduction. Track I (18:18- 18:28)

Similar to the transition between the B and C Verses in “Discovery,” the dominant horn

the close of “Soliloquy” is reinterpreted as tonic at the opening of “Grand Finale.” The

underlying progression maintains the cycle-wide rock syntax through a T-(d)-T

progression, here with a local prolongation of (d). Lee and Peart enter for the third and

fourth statements of the Q theme, again pushing the music forward through an

accumulating texture.

321

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rush continues this accumulating texture in the Q theme Solo. First, Lifeson adds

a slightly embellished version of the Q theme in a second guitar, shown in figure 6.53.

EGtr I

Figure 6.53: “Grand Finale:” Q theme variant. Track 1 (18:32-18:34)

Although Lifeson’s Solo, shown in figure 6.54, is improvisatory, its larger purpose is to

add to the timbral and textural density, not to virtuosic display.

EG tr. 3

Figure 6.54: “Grand Finale”—Q theme Solo. Track 1 (18:32-18:57) 322

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rush uses a variant of part H of the F theme (F part n 2), shown in figure 6.55, to

act both as the Transition from the opening Q theme and as the foundation of the

transformed F theme section (F part II3) that follows. As with the “push” gesture in

“Here Again” (see figure 3.10), the steady eighths of the Transition help to drive the

music forward, away from the Q theme.

EGtc 1 * f c ■0—m w m m m (d) (d) r(»> b: (.)

Figure 6.55: “Grand Finale”—Transition: Analysis of F part II2. Track I (18:58-19:04)

The harmonic progression, drawn from the first two measures of the original F theme part

II (see figure 6.17), provides a link between the E major of the opening and the b minor

of the following section because it functions in both keys. In the original presentation of

the F theme, the progression was in the context of b minor s-P-(s). Following the E

major tonic of the Q theme, the same progression results in the idiomatic T-(s)-(d)

progression. The parallel add9 chords in the final two measure of figure 6.55 provide the

strongest link to the F theme. Rush reinterprets the final (d) as (s) in b minor, resulting in

a Neapolitan cadence (s)-t to the following section.

323

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The second major section of the “Grand Finale” is based on a more substantial

variant of part II of the F theme (F part Q3). This variant, shown in figure 6.56, uses the

complete four-measure F theme part II.180

EGtr I y^rrru jj t (d) t

E.B.

b: t

L" .&• pi------j S , ! EGfc 1 * p* m m m s P (S) t ...... p- . j ^ n _ n -> P M J II EB. 4 m 4 w w d I d Jpl J # Zt R_C. Cc Ct

-4—a—r- * < K A D.S.

f L r L r L r ' t r c n ~ - r r r r r

Figure 6.56: “Grand Finale:” Analysis of F part n3 theme. Track I (19:04-19:11)

The shift to a 6/8 meter and eighth=240 tempo provides a clear and dramatic contrast to

the preceding Transition. Rush modifies the tonic portion of the theme by removing the

original bin and b VI harmonies and replaces them with the syncopated t-(d)-t motion.

Hemiola patterns in both the bass and drums (D.S.) emphasize the Neapolitan chord. As

180 Drum transcription from Wheeler, More Rush. 38. 324

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. in the opening Q theme section, the opening of the F theme section functions as an

Introduction to the following guitar Solo.

Because part II of the F theme is the only theme in “Grand Finale” that has

appeared elsewhere in “2112,” its associative value, if any, requires further exploration.

The fact that this portion of the F theme has not been reprised until this point could be

significant, especially in light of Rush’s dramatic reprise of the E theme in “Soliloquy.”

It is possible to see a connection between this variant and the Priests because the first part

of the F theme was associated with the Priests when it appeared as Transition material in

“The Temples of Syrinx” (see figure 6.23). This connection is, at best, tenuous.

Moreover, the modification of part n of the F theme is substantial. By modifying the

tonic section, which served as part I of the F theme in its original presentation, Rush

weakens the connection to the larger F theme even more—it is only the parallel add9

chords that clearly connect the two themes. Even elements of timbre, texture, and tonal

center fail to make any convincing character associations. Throughout “2112,” both the

Priests and the Elder Race were characterized by distorted, power-trio textures.

Additionally, each group was associated with the b minor tonic of F part II3: the Priests in

the Chorus (C theme) and Transition (F theme part I) of “Syrinx,” and the Elder Race in

the C Verse (C2 theme) in “Oracle.” It is therefore impossible to establish, with any

certainty, a theme-character association in the F part II3 theme.

325

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The final section of “Grand Finale,” shown in figure 6.57, builds a climax to the

unexpected entrance of a voice over a public announcement speaker at the final cadence.

EGtn 1 IN U U IWIJ Ji Ji i i

EB. 3 - ~ - 1 - : »•

R theme EG tr 1 »

EB.

EG tr 1

E G tt I

Attention all planed of the »olr fed nation, we have aawmed control

Figure 6.57: “Grand Finale”—Closing: R theme. Track 1 (19:44-20:33)

Rush uses traditional techniques—an unresolved dominant prolongation, ascending scalar

motion, theme fragmentation, and diminution of the rhythm—to heighten the tension. 326

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Over the final f# chord, Lee, Lifeson, and Peart begin to improvise simultaneously,

resulting in a chaotic, noisy surface. It is precisely at this point that a voice, made to

sound like it is speaking over a public address system, repeats the text “Attention all

planets of the solar Federation: We have assumed control.” Gradually the music

subsides, leaving a long held f# that decays into feedback.

This final line is left open to interpretation in the context of what has come before

it. The unresolved f# continues the series of unexpected closes begun in “Presentation,”

perhaps reflecting the intentional ambiguity of the final line of text—exactly who has

assumed control is left unanswered. Since the protagonist is dead, there are only two

remaining characters who could assume control: the Priests and the Elder Race. It is

doubtful that the meeting between the protagonist and the Priests in “Presentation” led to

any circumstances where the Priests lost control. If anything, the Priests crushed this

uncommon instance of individuality rather quickly. It is more likely, given the revelation

in “Oracle,” that the Elder Race has returned to reclaim their home world and restore a

free society. Without the supporting evidence of any unequivocal theme-character

pairings, listeners must draw their own conclusions. Peart’s own summary of “Grand

Finale” supports this reading: “as he [the protagonist] dies another planetary battle

begins—with the outcome to be determined in the mind of the listener (Banasiewicz,

25).”

327

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 6.2 Summary

“2112” is Rush’s most complete artistic statement in their first album set, a

personal work that represents “the first real blend of [their] diverse and schizophrenic

influences.” As such, it demonstrates a careful balance of hard rock and progressive rock

style traits. Specifically, Rush balanced their continued refinement of formal structure

with a return to conventional rock harmonic syntax and a less experimental approach to

timbre and texture. Where “2112” truly surpasses its predecessors is in the complete

integration of the work: music, lyrics, philosophy, and packaging are seamless, making it

difficult to discuss any one element of the cycle in isolation. This integration is most

clearly seen in the operatic structure of the work: a large-scale network of theme-

character pairings and timbre/texture-character pairings that recur throughout the cycle in

order to underscore the unfolding narrative. Most of these pairings are summarized in an

operatic overture. The relevance of the work to Rush’s professional situation added an

additional passion and urgency to the cycle that was absent in their earlier song cycles—a

profound statement for individuality. Regardless of how 2112 was eventually received

by the public, Rush triumphed by choosing their own path.

328

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSIONS

This study of the early song cycles and extended songs of Rush has demonstrated

the necessity and benefit of engaging the music in the areas of structure, function, and

process. By reorienting the focus of popular music analytic discourse from social

commentaries to the musical object, i.e. the recording (Moore’s “primary text”), it was

possible to document Rush’s evolving approach to the song cycle during this formative

period, and to support their statement that 2112 was their first successful blend of diverse

influences. In doing so, this study explored the wealth of information available within

the traditional parameters of formal structure and harmonic function. Further, it

demonstrated the need to consider alternative processes in order to gain the larger benefit

of approaching popular music through multiple analytic techniques.

Although the style norms and analytic techniques discussed in Chapter 2 were

developed to address a specific repertory, the three focal areas—formal structure,

harmonic function, and alternative processes—were also chosen for their overall

relevance to rock music. Most importantly, Chapter 2 addressed some of the distinct

analytic challenges posed by rock music and responded with practical analytic techniques

informed by performance practice. The analysis of Rush’s music—a focal point of this

329

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. study in its own right—provided an interesting opportunity, much like a case study, to

validate the usefulness of the aforementioned analytic techniques.

Since many rock musicians plan the formal structure of a song early in the

compositional process—often before the melody or lyrics—formal structure formed an

important basis for the style norms and analytic techniques developed in Chapter 2. A

foundation of rock formal practice was established through the discussion of a core rock

song form, the function and style attributes of conventional formal sections (Verse,

Chorus, Solo), repetition schemes, and thematic relationships. To that end, the definition

of the term “theme” had to be broadened to include the rhythmicized chord progressions

that are the foundation of many rock songs. The diagramming system provided a simple

means to illustrate the various levels of formal structure, allowing for the informed

comparison of song structures and thematic relationships both within a group’s output

and across different groups and styles.

This discussion of formal structure provided the impetus for considering

alternative processes of formal articulation and growth. Since issues pertaining to the

“sound” of rock music permeate the literature, and few writers actually propose

meaningful techniques for discussing aspects of timbre and texture, a clarification of

these alternative processes was timely. Although the “sound color” of individual

instruments and the endless number of studio techniques for sound manipulation affect

our perception of a song, it is the charting of how these elements of timbre and texture

change over time that illuminates a fundamental component of rock style. By using an

eclectic mixture of style norms and some direct analytic techniques—often in the form of

graphic representations—it was possible to highlight how rock musicians use sound as a

330

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. compositional element. For example, the clarification of the structural and articulative

impact of the drum kit on phrases, themes, and whole sections of songs proved to be

essential to the understanding of the musical object. The simple charting of accumulating

textures was also useful. Moreover, the careful consideration of the sound spectrum

(Moore’s “sound box”), and how it changes over time, was shown to provide meaningful

information about structural articulation and growth in rock songs, especially in sections

where the traditional parameters of melody and harmony were not the primary agents of

structure or growth. In sum, it was argued that through expanding our understanding of

the timbral/textural techniques rock musicians use to shape a song that we can arrive at a

more complete, and informed, understanding of rock music.

By investigating the influence of guitar technique on rock composition, it was

possible to clarify rock harmonic practice. For example, key choices, idiomatic chord

shapes, and extended cadence types were all shown to be influenced by guitar technique.

Chords that appear complex in notation are often quite simple to play on the instrument.

The realization of this fact calls into question traditional notions that associate chord

complexity with “meaning.” Moreover, the discussion of “sus” and “add” chords

emphasized the lack of contrapuntal forces and traditional dissonance treatment in rock.

Together, these observations revealed that chord types in rock are often chosen purely for

their color and their ease of realization, and not for any associative “meaning.”

The adoption of a functional analytic method provided an important reorientation

of analytic technique. Rather than continue to treat rock harmony as vague, modal, or

non-functional, a simple expansion of cadence types and the adoption of a functional

rather than contrapuntal system of prolongation allowed for an informed

331

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. contextualization of chord function. The benefit of such a functional approach,

emphasized in Chapter 2, is that it permits the simultaneous analysis of traditional and

blues-based harmonic progressions, and thereby clearly articulates how the two styles

differ.

Through the analysis of Rush’s music, it was shown that the various musical

layers generally relate to each other, often establishing, for example, the same harmonic

progression. Moreover, each layer could follow its own cadence—its own functional

logic—to the next phrase or chord. This stratification or layering in rock is likewise

based in rock performance practice, because themes and songs are often generated by

group improvisation or “jamming.” This realization of the potential independence of

each layer raises new and important issues in the analysis of tonal music. Fortunately,

the functional analytic method provided a clear means of articulating such instances of

functional layering in practice.

Because the main compositional focus of Rush’s first four recordings was the

expansion of rock song form, the style norms and analytic techniques developed in

Chapter 2 played a central role in illuminating the steps the group took to move from the

conventional formal structures on Rush to the elaborate multi-leveled structure of the

song cycle “2112.” This change was characterized by two structural trends: 1) the shift

from conventional rock song form to a freer, more dramatically inspired song structure,

2) the relocation of song-form expansions from instrumental, often improvisatory

sections of rock song form to texted/composed sections.

In Rush’s early extended songs, structural expansion was primarily limited to the

instrumental sections of rock song form—Introduction, Solo, and Closing. These

332

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. locations were practical choices because they could be expanded through alternate

processes—improvisation and accumulating textures—rather than by means of additional

lyrics. Even “By-Tor & The Snow Dog,” with its song-cycle trappings, belongs to this

earlier approach. As Rush gained more experience in composing extended works, song

expansion became less dependent on improvisation and increasingly crafted in composed,

narrative structures. One clear indication of this change was shown in the size,

placement, and frequency of the traditional guitar Solo across the first album set. On

Rush, every song had at least one guitar Solo, located in the traditional position as shown

in the rock song form model. Some had two solos. As Rush moved away from the

improvisational and instrumental expansion of rock song form and toward more narrative

works, the guitar Solo was either omitted altogether or moved to the end of the song

form—well outside the narrative.

A detailed understanding of Rush’s harmonic foundation was essential to support

the claim that 2112 represented a balance of style traits. This foundation made it possible

to evaluate Rush’s experimentation with progressive rock harmonic syntax on Caress O f

Steel, and to verify their return to rock syntax on 2112. The modified functional analytic

method developed in Chapter 2 provided a single tool that was flexible enough to

represent these different styles.

Even though alternative processes did not constitute the largest portion of this

study, the style norms and analytic techniques established in Chapter 2 made it possible

to compare and contrast the hard rock style of Rush with the rem aining albums in their

first album set Specifically, these “sound” conventions supported the arguments of

Rush’s experimentation on Caress O f Steel and their return to more conventional

333

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. “sounds” on 2112. Certain processes, such as accumulating textures, were shown to

continue throughout the first album set, while other techniques, such as the juxtaposition

of composed and improvised sections, appeared less frequently as Rush moved towards a

more composed style.

This study of Rush’s first four albums establishes a much-needed foundation for

the further study of Rush’s music, providing the context and model for their later style

acquisitions. The work in this study suggests additional studies on Rush’s other album

sets in order to assess claims concerning the compositional focus of each set and the

cycle of Introduction-Experimentation-Synthesis presented in Chapter I. Because Rush

acquired a variety of styles over the nineteen years between 2112 and Test For Echo , the

style norms and analytic techniques required for these studies will need to be expanded.

In addition to the logical continuation of this study, Rush’s extensive catalog of studio

recordings contains a wealth of other topics worthy of analysis. Such studies might focus

on: Rush’s compositional approach to instrumental compositions; a comparison of Rush’s

song cycles in their first two album sets; the impact of technology on the music of Rush;

and Rush’s evolving approach to meter.

In addition to the further refinement of the style norms and analytic techniques

presented in this study, there are numerous topics in popular music analysis that need

study. Because popular music analysis is a relatively new field, the need for studies

oriented toward exploring and explaining the music itself is paramount. Without an

informed understanding of the compositional process and musical materials of popular

musicians, attempts to address issues pertaining to sociology, gender, or “meaning” are in

334

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. danger of misrepresenting the music. Hopefully, this study has illustrated some benefits

of applying analytic techniques informed by actual rock practice.

An area of research that I plan to undertake concerns the application of the

functional analysis method developed in Chapter 2 to a larger selection of music. This

type of study is necessary in order to establish harmonic foundations for a wider variety

of styles, to enable the discussion of style differences, and to test the method’s broader

applicability. One possible refinement of the technique would be the inclusion of the

chord type with the functional symbol—S*^9, T511*2.

Another area that requires a great deal of additional study concerns the use of the

alternative processes introduced in Chapter 2. Although each of the textural and timbral

processes discussed in that chapter illustrate rock practice on the whole, the content was,

for the most part, developed to address issues specific to this study. Therefore, a more

complete study of these and other alternative processes, taken from a broader selection of

music, will be useful. Moreover, it is necessary to question, refine, and systematize the

type of graphic notations used to illustrate these processes. The goal in this study was to

present the simplest possible notation of the process. In future studies, it will be

necessary to balance the desire to include more detail with the clarity of the illustration.

The role and importance of melody was not investigated in this study, and yet the

stratification of parts poses the most significant challenge to rock analysis and any all-

encompassing analytic method. There is the possibility that melody follows linear

prolongation rules that are not dissimilar to those in levels analysis. These rules will have

to be informed, however, by rock practice. It is possible that melody may need to be

considered separately, and then in conjunction with the other musical layers. For

335

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. example, the common use of 5,3, and 8 lines in the middleground will need to be

adjusted to allow characteristic gaps due to pentatonicism. Likewise, as a result of

common blending of major and minor in rock, the modal content of the lines will have to

be treated more flexibly and the techniques available to elaborate these lines will have to

include many of the same cadential motions—(d)->x, S->x, (t)->x—that were required

in the discussion of rock harmonic function. Establishing style-specific melodic-

harmonic layers, and a method for analyzing the related and separate processes also

requires further attention.

In 2002, nearly thirty years since the release of their first studio recording, Rush

released their seventeenth studio recording — Vapor Trails —on May 14th. Following the

precedent set in their previous output, this album marks the beginning of a new album

set, and a new set of compositional challenges and style acquisitions. The music is raw,

aggressive, and very different from their previous output. In certain songs, like the first

single “One Little Victory,” there is a noticeable emphasis on dissonant progressions and

blues riffs. In other songs, there is a return to the metrical complexities of their second

album set and a new focus on dense vocal harmonies. Additionally, a new and more

complete history of the group, Robert Telleria’s Rush: Merely Plavers. was recently

released. In a time when critics decry an industry of disposable music and musicians,

both of these releases attest to Rush’s continued popularity and relevance. More

importantly, Vapor Trails is a clear sign of Rush's continued dedication to change, to

challenge, and to sophisticate their personal brand of rock music.

336

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aldwell, Edward and Carl Schachter. Harmony and Voice Leading. Orlando, Florida: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1989.

Aledort, Andy. “Grace Under Pressure.” Guitar School. October 1996,62.

Amos, Tori. Little Earthquakes. Compact Disc 7 82358-2. Atlantic 1991.

Banasiewicz, Bill. Rush Visions: The Official Biography. Omnibus Press, 1988.

The Beatles. The Beatles (The White Album). Compact Disc CDP 7 464444 2 Disc 2. EMI, 1968.

Bobbitt, Richard. Harmonic Technique in the Rock Idiom: The Theory and Practice of Rock Harmony. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Pub. Co., 1976.

Bowman, Durell. “Let Them All Make Their Own Music: Individualism, Rush, and the Progressive/Hard Rock Alloy, 1976-77.” Progressive Rock Reconsidered. Routledge, 2001.

______. Permanent Change: Individualism. Risk Sub-Genres, and the Music of Rush. forthcoming dissertation from UCLA.

Brackett, David. Review of Rock: The Primary Text, by Alan Moore, In Music Theory Spectrum 13/1 (1994): 121-123.

Cheap Trick. Cheap Trick. Compact Disc EK 34400. Epic, 1977.

______. In Color. Compact Disc EK 65573. Epic/LEGACY, 1977.

Covach, John. “We Won't Get Fooled Again: Rock Music and Musical Analysis.” In Theory Only 13/1-4(1997): 119-141.

Covach, John and Graeme M. Boone, ed. Understanding rock: essays in musical analysis. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.

337

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Davis, Gary and Ralph Jones. Sound Reinforcement Handbook. 2d ed. Hal Leonard Publishing Co., 1990.

Dokken. Back for the Attack. Compact Disc 9 60735-2. Elektra, 1987.

Everett, Walter. ‘Text-painting in the foreground and middleground of Paul McCartney’s Beatle song She's leaving home: a musical study of psychological conflict.” In Theory Only 9 (May 1985): 5-13.

Fates Warning. No Exit. Compact Disc 3984-14047-2. Metal Blade, 1988.

Forte, Allen. The American Popular Ballad of the Golden Era. 1924-1950 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995).

Gett, Steve. Success Under Pressure. Cherry Lane Books, 1984.

Goo Goo Dolls. A Bov Named Goo. Compact Disc 9 45750-2. Warner BrosVMetal Blade, 1995

Gracyk, Theodore. Rhythm and Noise: An Aesthetic of Rock. Duke University Press, 1996.

Harrigan, Brian. Rush. Omnibus Press, 1982.

Harrison, Daniel. Harmonic Function in Chromatic Music: A Renewed Dualist Theory and an Account of its Precedents. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994.

Hughes, Tim. “Review of John Covach and Graeme Boone, eds. Understanding Rock: Essays in Musical Analysis .” Indiana Theory Review 21 (2000): 197-222.

Journey. Departure. Compact Disc CK67727. Sony/Columbia,1980.

Katz, Zev. “Singing Bass.” Guitar for the Practicing Musician. Winter 1989, 11.

Kramarz, Volkmar. Harmonieanalvse der Rockmusik: Von Folk und Blues zu Rock und New Wave. Schott’s Sohne: Mainz, 1983.

Lucky, Jerry. The Progressive Rock Files. Ontario: Collector’s Guide Publishing Inc., 1998.

Macan, Edward. Rocking the Classics: Enelish progressive rock and the counterculture. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.

Martin, Bill. Listening to the Future: The time of progressive rock. 1968-1978. Illinois: Open Court, 1998.

338

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. McDonald, Chris. “Exploring modal subversions in alternative music,” Popular Music 19/3 (2000): 355-363.

Middleton, Richard. Studying Popular Music. Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1990.

______. “Popular Music Analysis and Musicology: bridging the gap.” Popular Music 12/2, (1993): 177-190.

Moore, Alan. The Beatles: Sat. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997.

______. “Patterns of Harmony.” Popular Music 11/1 (1992): 73-106.

______. Rock. The Primary Text: Developing a Musicology of Rock. Buckingham: Open University Press, 1993.

______. “The So-Called Flattened Seventh in Rock.” Popular Music 14/2 (1995): 185- 201.

The Objectivist Center. “About Objectivism.” Retrieved 4/2002 from http://www.objectivistcenter.org/objectivism/

Ostransky, Leroy. The Anatomy of Jara. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1960.

Osbourne, Ozzy. The Blizzard of Oz. Compact Disc 85247. Epic, 1980.

Peart, Neil. “Fireworks: The making of Hold Your Fire.” in Rush’s Hold Your Fire tour book. (1987).

Queensryche. Operation: mindcrime. Compact Disc CDP-7-48640-2. EMI-Manhattan, 1988.

Quill, Greg. “Rush.” Canadian Composer. May 1981,34-35,44-48.

Robinson, J. Bradford. “Riff’ in The New Grove Dictionary of la tt Ed. Barry Kemfeld. Second edition. Vol. 2,375-376

Charles Rosen: The Classical Style. (New York and London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1972).

Rush, Rush. Compact Disc 314 534 623-2. Mercury, 1974.

. FlvBv Night Compact Disc 314 534 624-2. Mercury, 1975.

339

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rush. Caress Of Steel. Compact Disc 314 534 625-2. Mercury, 1975.

______. 2112. Compact Disc 314 534 626-2. Mercury, 1976.

______. All The World’s a Stage. Compact Disc 822 552-2 M-l. Mercury, 1976.

______. Hemispheres. Compact Disc 822 547-2 M-l. Mercury, 1978.

______. Permanent Waves. Compact Disc 822 548-2 M -l. Mercury, 1980.

______. Signals. Compact Disc 314 534 633-2. Mercury. 1982.

______. Vapor Trails. Compact Disc 83531-2. Anthem/Atlantic. 2002.

______. Rush: Complete Vol. 1. With a Forward by Neil Peart. New Jersey: Warner Bros. Publications, 1995.

Salzer, Felix. Structural Hearing: Tonal Coherence in Music. Volume 2. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1952.

Schwartz, Jim. “Alex Lifeson: Rush’s Kinetic Lead Guitarist.” Guitar Plaver. June 1980, 55.

Selby-Price, Carol. Mystic Rhythms: the philosophical vision of Rush. San Bernardino, California: Borgo Press, 1998.

Steedman, Mark. “A generative grammar for jazz chord sequences.” Popular Music 2 (1984): 37-67.

Stix, John. “Modem Master.” Guitar for the Practicing Musician. April 1986,61-64.

Stump, Paul. The Music’s all that Matters: A History of Progressive Rock. London: Quartet Books, 1997.

Swenson, John and Matt Resnicoff. ‘Together Again in Rush.” Guitar World. April 1988, 73.

Telleria, Robert. Rush: Tribute (Merely Plaversl. Kingston Canada: Quarry Press, 2002.

that dog. Retreat from the Sun. Compact Disc dgcd-25115. dgc, 1997.

Tolkien, JJLR. 1981. The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings Boxed Set (Mass market paperback edition). The Fellowship of the Ring. New York: Ballantine Books, Inc., 1965; reprint, New York: Ballantine Books, Inc. (page references are to reprint edition).

340

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Tolkien, JiLR. 1981. The Hobbit and The Lord o f the Rings Boxed Set (Mass market paperback edition). The Two Towers. New York: Ballantine Books, Inc., 1965; reprint, New York: Ballantine Books, Inc. (page references are to reprint edition).

______. 1981. The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings Boxed Set (Mass market paperback edition). The Return of the King. New York: Ballantine Books, Inc., 1965; reprint, New York: Ballantine Books, Inc. (page references are to reprint edition).

______. 1981. The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings Boxed Set (Mass market paperback edition). The Hobbit. New York: Ballantine Books, Inc., 1965; reprint, New York: Ballantine Books, Inc. (page references are to reprint edition).

Van der Merwe, Peter. Orieins of the Popular Style. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.

Weezer. Weezer. Compact Disc D105943. Geffen, 1994.

Weinstein, Deena. Serious Rock. Culture Texts, 1985.

Wheatus. Wheatus. Compact Disc CK 62146. Columbia, 2000.

Wheeler, Bill. More Rush. Drum Superstar Series. New Jersey: Warner Bros. Publications, Inc., 1989.

Whiteley, Shelia. “Progressive rock, psychedelic coding in the work of Jimi Hendrix.” Popular Music 9 (1990): 37-60.

The Who. Tommy. Compact Disc MCAD2-10005 DIDX-158. MCA Records, 1969/1984.

Winkler, Peter. “Toward a Theory of Popular Harmony.” In Theory Only 4 (1978): 3-26.

Zollo, Paul. Sonewriters on Songwriting. Da Capo Press, Inc., 1997.

341

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.