Chapter 5 Discussion and Conclusion
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CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Piper sarmentosum Roxb. (Piperaceae) called Cha Plu in local name, is one of the interesting medical plants in Thai traditional medicine. This plant contains many biologically active compounds, for example, sarmentosine, sarmentine (Likhitwitayawuid et al ., 1987), asaricin, α-asarone (Masuda et al ., 1991), hydrocinnamic acid and β-sitosterol (Niamsa and Chantrapromma, 1983). Pharmacological activities has been reported to exhibit hypoglycemic activity (Pongmarutai, 1980), antibacterial activity (Matsuda et al ., 1991), neuromuscular blocking activity (Ridtitid et al ., 1998), antiplasmodial activity (Rahman et al ., 1999) and antiprotozoal activity (Sawangjaroen et al ., 2004). In Malay Peninsula, the boiled leaves and roots were used for the treatment of toothache, relieved fever and pain in influenza and rheumatism patient, respectively (Perry, 1981; Pongboonrod, 1976). Acute Toxicity Test In the present study, acute toxicity was carried out in mice to evaluate the toxicities of the methanol extract of Piper sarmentosum leaves (MEPS) in mice. The results revealed that the extract at the dose of 5 g/kg given orally as a single dose failed to produce any clinical signs of toxicity such as convulsion, hyperactivity, sedation, loss of righting reflex in the first 8 hours, and the mortality in mice was not found after 7 days of observation. Mokkhasmit and colleagues (1971) has reported that the methanol and water extract with ratio 1:1 of Piper sarmentosum leaves at the dose of 10 g/kg p.o. or s.c. did not produce any toxicities in mice. So, methanol extract of Piper sarmentosum leaves at dose of 5 g/kg found non-toxicity in mice. Therefore, MEPS at doses of 50, 100 and 200 mg/kg used in the present study are safe. Analgesic Activity In analgesic activity test for the methanol extract of Piper sarmentosum leaves, we designed different tests to measure different types of pain; thermal stimulus by hot plate and tail flick test; chemical stimulus by writhing and formalin test. These experiments revealed that MEPS had analgesic activity via central and peripheral mechanism. 76 Pain is an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage. Although pain is a natural warning and protection mechanism, patients often seek medical intervention to relieve pain. Pain is generated when mechanical, thermal, chemical or electrical stimuli exceed a certain threshold value. After tissue damage, many chemical mediators are released such as a substance P, histamine, bradykinin and prostaglandins. Bradykinin is an important substance to stimulate nociceptors, and prostaglandins sensitize nociceptor which causes impulses sending to spinal cord. This state is called peripheral sensitization. When spinal cord become hyperexcitable, excitatory amino acid or substance P from A delta fiber and/or C fiber were released and depolarized on its receptor. Signal transduction coming to postcentral gyrus in thalamus which is responsible for the conscious perception of pain. This state is called central sensitization (Gutyon, 1997; William, 2000; Mutscheler and Derendorf, 1995:b). In analgesic activity test, we designed different tests to measure different types of pain; thermal stimulus by hot plate and tail flick test; chemical stimulus by writhing and formalin test. Moreover, the different features involved in the process, such as intensity, location, quality and duration of noxious stimulus must be considered in the effect of the antinociceptive substance. The measurement of central and peripheral analgesia must be defined by the time to delay on hot plate and tail flick test, the number of abdominal writhes on writhing test and the time to licking the paw on formalin test. Nociception and drug-induced antinociception are experimentally estimated in animal models by monitoring behavioral motor response resulting from nociceptive stimuli (Le Bar, 2001). Therefore, before test of antinociceptive effect, it is necessary to make sure that neurological or motor deficits are not involved in the response. Only mice and rats that showed nociceptive responses in hot plate test such as jumping or licking the paw less than 15 seconds and withdraw the tail from light beam less than 3 seconds in tail flick test, respectively were used in the experiments. A cut-off time of 45 seconds and 10 seconds was used to avoid tissue damage in hot plate and tail flick tests, respectively. Agents which injected intraperitoneally and subcutaneously such as 0.6% acetic acid, 2.5% formalin, naloxone and morphine were diluted in isotonic solution (0.9% NSS) to prevent local irritation, pain and necrosis (Mutscheler and Derendorf, 1995:a). 77 In hot plate, tail flick and formalin test, morphine and naloxone were injected subcutaneously and intraperitoneally, respectively to animals. These routes make an absorption of drug more rapidly than oral administration (i.v. > i.p. > i.m. > s.c. > p.o.) (Rang et al ., 1999:a). The analgesic onset, therefore, was designed to observe 30 min post oral administration for aspirin, 15-60 min after morphine, s.c., and 2-5 min after naloxone, i.m.. These were the reasons why the latency of nociceptive response was initially measured after 30 min for aspirin (p.o.), 15 min for morphine (s.c.) and 10 min for naloxone (i.p.). In analgesic activity test for the methanol extract of Piper sarmentosum leaves, we designed different tests to measure different types of pain; thermal stimulus by hot plate and tail flick test; chemical stimulus by writhing and formalin test to evaluate analgesic activity. Firstly, the potential analgesic effects of methanol extract of Piper sarmentosum leaves (MEPS) were investigated by the hot plate test. The results revealed that MEPS at doses of 50 and 100 mg/kg did not significantly alter in reaction time at 30, 45, 60, 75 and 90 minutes after administration when compared with control, whereas MEPS at dose of 200 mg/kg significantly delayed the response of animal to hot plate thermal stimulation at 60, 75 and 90 minutes ( p<0.05) after administration compared with control. Morphine, a reference analgesic drug, at dose of 5 mg/kg (s.c.) significantly decreased the reaction time to hot plate test at all time intervals measured (30, 45, 60, 75 and 90 minutes) after administration ( p<0.01). The results indicated that only MEPS at dose of 200 mg/kg decreased the latency of nociceptive response for the thermal stimulation by hot plate test in mice. The antagonistic action of naloxone on effects of morphine or MEPS on the latentcy of nociceptive response in hot plate test was studied to examine the possible analgesic mechanisms of MEPS. The results showed that naloxone at dose of 2 mg/kg, i.p. given before morphine at dose of 5 mg/kg, s.c. completely antagonized the effect of morphine at all time intervals measured ( p<0.01). Furthermore, naloxone at dose of 2 mg/kg, i.p. given before MEPS at dose of 200 mg/kg significantly delayed the latency of nociceptive response of the extract in hot plate test at 60 ( p<0.05) and 75 minutes ( p<0.01) when compared with MEPS at dose of 200 mg/kg alone. The drugs that reduced the nociceptive response induced by cutaneous thermic stimuli in hot plate test may exhibited central analgesic properties or supraspinal analgesia (Matheus et al. , 2005). The hot plate test is widely used to assess analgesic activity of drugs. This test does not directly measure the intensity of the noxious stimulus perceived by the animal, but only 78 the animalDs response to it, and so may be affected by non-analgesic drugs. Sedative and muscle relaxants may impair the ability to response and hence be wrongly considered to have analgesic activity (false positives) (Woolfe and MacDonald, 1944). The test examined response of mice in the hot plate at 55 ºC and cut off at 15 second. Morphine like drugs all impaired motor performance. The analgesic property was also studied using sensitive model that thermal stimulus on noxious stimuli on C fibers. In present study the thermal test was selected because of several advantage including sensitivity to strong analgesics and limited tissue damage (Prado et al. , 1990). This test is suitable for identifying centrally, but not peripherally acting analgesics drugs (Chau, 1989). The validity of this test has been shown even in the presence of substantial impairment of motor performance (Plummer et al. , 1996). The effectiveness of MEPS at the dose of 200 mg/kg in reducing the nociceptive response in hot plate test indicated that MEPS possesses the analgesic activity via central mechanism, and might acts primarily in the spinal medulla, higher central nervous system levels or by an indirect mechanism (Yaksh and Rudy, 1977). Furthermore, in tail flick test, MEPS at dose of 200 mg/kg, orally significantly produced an antinociceptive effect at the time 45 (p<0.05), 60 ( p<0.01), 75 ( p<0.05) and 90 ( p <0.05) minutes after administration compared with control. Morphine, a reference analgesic drug, at dose of 5 mg/kg, s.c. significantly delayed the reaction time in all time interval measured in tail flick test in rats. The result also showed that naloxone at dose of 2 mg/kg, i.p. completely antagonized the antinociceptive effect of morphine at dose of 5 mg/kg, s.c. at all time intervals measured ( p<0.01). In addition, naloxone at dose of 2 mg/kg, i.p. given before MEPS at dose of 200 mg/kg significantly delayed the latency of nociceptive response produced by the extract in tail flick test at 45 ( p<0.05), 60 ( p<0.05), 75 ( p<0.01) and 90 ( p<0.01) minutes when compared with MEPS at dose of 200 mg/kg. The tail flick test which uses a thermal stimulus is widely used for the evaluation of analgesia, especially the central analgesic response or spinal analgesia (Matheus et al , 2005).