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From Sangley to Tsinoy: Changing Identities Among Ethnic Chinese In Paterno How Do We Finance Universal Health Care in the Philippines? Philippine National Health Accounts (PNHA 2012) 2011 – 2012. Philippine Statististical Authority. National Statistical Coordination Board. August 11, 2014. Retrieved from http://www.nscb.gov.ph/stats/pnha/. Quality Improvement Demonstration Studies. 2006. PhilHealth support in QIDS From Sangley to Tsinoy: sites. Research Bulletin No. 3 (March). http://qids.ph/wp-content/uploads/ Policy_Brief_3_April_2006_SupportValues.pdf. Changing Identities Quek, D. 2009. The Malaysian health care system: A review. Presented at the Malaysian Medical Association. among Ethnic Chinese Racelis, Rachel M., Fe V. N. Dy-Liaco, Raquel V. Sabenano, Mylene M. Beltran, 1 and Thiel B. Manaog. 2006. The national health accounts of the Philippines: in the Philippines Continuing development and new findings. http://dirp3.pids.gov.ph/ris/pjd/ pidspjd06-healthacct.pdf . MICHAEL L. TAN Romualdez, Alberto G. Jr., Jennifer Frances E. de la Rosa, Jonathan David A. Flavier, Stella Luz A. Quimbo, Kenneth Y. Hartigan-Go, Liezel P. Lagrada, Lilibeth C. David. 2011. The Philippines health system review. Health Systems in Transition 1(2). Geneva: The World Health Organization. So, Robert. 2012. PhilHealth Insurance Corporation. Presented at the National Introduction Academy of Science and Technology roundtable, Manila, February 21. Tangcharoensathien, Viroj, Phusit Prakongsai, Supon Limwattanon, Walaiporn Hua qiao (pronounced hua chiao) is the Chinese term used to refer to Patcharanarumol, Pongpisut Jongudomsuk. 2007 Achieving universal coverage in overseas Chinese. Dispersed throughout the world, across all continents, these Thailand: What lessons did we learn? A case study commissioned by the Health overseas Chinese inevitably leave their mark on the local host society, as well Systems Knowledge Network. March. http://www.who.int/social_determinants/ as on China itself. resources/csdh_media/universal_cov erage_thailand_ 2007_en.pdf. The ethnic Chinese in the Philippines comprise a small minority, estimated Tangcharoensathien, Viroj, Walaiporn Patcharanarumol, Syed Mohamed Aljunid, 2 at 2 percent of the population, but they have had strong economic, political Ali Ghufron Mukti, Kongsap Akkhavong, Eduardo Banzon, Dang Boi Huong, Hasbullah Thabrany, Anne Mills. 2011. Health-financing reforms in Southeast and cultural impact on the country. Relationships between the ethnic Chinese Asia: Challenges in achieving universal coverage. The Lancet 377(9768): 863- and the majority population of the Philippines have not always been easy, and 73. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61890-9. include sporadic conflicts, from raids and massacres of the Parian Chinese Wagstaff, Adam. 2007. Social health insurance reexamined. World Bank Policy community in Manila during the Spanish colonial period to the banning of Research Working Paper No. 4111, January 1. http://www- wds.worldbank.org/ Chinese signs in the city of Manila during the term of Mayor Arsenio Lacson servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2007/01/09/000016406_20070109 in the 1950s. 161148/Rendered/PDF/wps4111.pdf. This study presents an overview of the Chinese communities in the World Health Organization. 2009. Health financing strategy for the Asia Pacific Philippines, with a focus on ethnicities and ethnic relationships. In recent years, region (2010-2015). Geneva: World Health Organization. http://www.wpro. who.int/publications/PUB_9789290614586.htm. 82 PUBLIC POLICY VOLUME X I (2007 - 2013) 83 83 Tan From Sangley to Tsinoy: Changing Identities among Ethnic Chinese in the Philippines as has been shown in numerous examples throughout the world – Bosnia, They also warned me to be very circumspect in the choice of words, warnings which Rwanda, and close to home, Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia – ethnic made me realize that there are still very real tensions, many historically-based, relations have been shown to be major social fault lines, with concerns that the between ethnic Chinese and the host population. tensions could erupt into violence. This has not happened in the Philippines in My paper attempts to identify the gaps, the missing voices and views that need the last century, but violence directed against the ethnic Chinese is not to be articulated in future studies. uncommon, reflecting the continuing, smoldering emotions. This paper will focus on the evolving identities among the ethnic Chinese Some Definition of Terms themselves, brought about by changing circumstances within the communities as well as from outside, and will show how integration is not only possible but desirable, I will be using the term ethnic Chinese generically, referring to several waves of even as that integration needs to be better defined by the ethnic Chinese themselves Chinese migrants and their descendants. Ethnic here includes self-ascription, for and the Filipino host population. as long as a sense of Chinese-ness remains present and which is usually associated The practical implications of this study go beyond ethnic identities but with the ability to speak one of the Chinese languages. into very practical realities: in an age when China has re-emerged as a global As I will be explaining in the paper, distinctions have emerged through the power, the loyalties of the ethnic Chinese in the Philippines become all the years with the labels, some etic (an anthropological term referring to an outsider more important. How will this emergence of China shape ethnic Chinese perspective) as in the Sangley and the Intsik, others emic (used by insiders or natives) identities and, by extension, their activities around economic investments, such as the lan nang (our people). politics, even culture? Will there be conflicts of interests and loyalties, and if The local Chinese will sometimes refer to themselves as Hokkien, referring to they do emerge, how can these be resolved? the southern Chinese province of Fujian from which most of the Chinese in the In this paper, I will first present a historical review of the various migration Philippines are descended. However, in terms of ethnolinguistic affiliation, Hokkien waves and the types of ethnic evolution that took place in each wave. The historical is not accurate. Fujian province has several languages (or dialects, depending on review is necessary to highlight the fact that China was a regional power for many which linguists are consulted) and the bulk of Chinese in the Philippines come centuries. I will then describe three main trends around ethnic identities, and then from areas that speak Minnan, the name itself meaning “south of Min” (river). I name and discuss ten factors which I believe to be important in shaping these evolving will use Minnan to refer to the language spoken by the majority of local Chinese. ethnic identities. In the last part of the paper I will present the implications of all The term Filipino host population is admittedly awkward since many, if not these trends for public policy. most, of the ethnic Chinese in the Philippines consider themselves Filipino. But I The study is necessarily limited given the scope of the project and its timeline, make the distinction here to emphasize that there is still a kind of host and guest but I draw strongly on recent published materials as well as informal conversations relationship that exists, with even the ethnic Chinese sometimes talking about non- with ethnic Chinese from different generations. I deliberately avoided formal Chinese as hosts, a discourse that can include a strong sense of gratitude and interviews to elicit spontaneous reflection and reactions. It is striking that my indebtedness. informants, all older people, have asked to remain anonymous because they feel Finally, I have to explain that the one time I use pure-blooded in this article is that relations between local ethnic Chinese and the host population remain a sensitive a very reluctant concession to popular culture. The need to determine one’s racial issue, and were worried that some of their comments could be misinterpreted. mix, a kind of racial accounting, is particularly strong in the Philippines and is 84 PUBLIC POLICY VOLUME X I (2007 - 2013) 85 Tan From Sangley to Tsinoy: Changing Identities among Ethnic Chinese in the Philippines as has been shown in numerous examples throughout the world – Bosnia, They also warned me to be very circumspect in the choice of words, warnings which Rwanda, and close to home, Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia – ethnic made me realize that there are still very real tensions, many historically-based, relations have been shown to be major social fault lines, with concerns that the between ethnic Chinese and the host population. tensions could erupt into violence. This has not happened in the Philippines in My paper attempts to identify the gaps, the missing voices and views that need the last century, but violence directed against the ethnic Chinese is not to be articulated in future studies. uncommon, reflecting the continuing, smoldering emotions. This paper will focus on the evolving identities among the ethnic Chinese Some Definition of Terms themselves, brought about by changing circumstances within the communities as well as from outside, and will show how integration is not only possible but desirable, I will be using the term ethnic Chinese generically, referring to several waves of even as that integration needs to be better defined by the ethnic Chinese themselves Chinese migrants and their descendants. Ethnic here includes self-ascription, for and the
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