Education special minority rights group international

State of theWorld’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Events of 2008 State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Acknowledgements Minority Rights Group International Minority Rights Group International (MRG) 54 Commercial Street, London, E1 6LT, United gratefully acknowledges the support of all organizations Kingdom. Tel +44 (0)20 7422 4200, Fax +44 (0)20 and individuals who gave financial and other assistance 7422 4201, Email [email protected] to this publication, including UNICEF and the Website www.minorityrights.org European Commission. Getting involved Minority Rights Group International MRG relies on the generous support of institutions Minority Rights Group International (MRG) is a and individuals to further our work. All donations non-governmental organization (NGO) working to received contribute directly to our projects with secure the rights of ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities and indigenous peoples. minorities and indigenous peoples worldwide, One valuable way to support us is to subscribe and to promote cooperation and understanding to our report series. Subscribers receive regular between communities. Our activities are focused MRG reports and our annual review. We also on international advocacy, training, publishing and have over 100 titles which can be purchased outreach. We are guided by the needs expressed by from our publications catalogue. In addition, our worldwide partner network of organizations MRG publications are available to minority and which represent minority and indigenous peoples. indigenous peoples’ organizations through our MRG works with over 150 organizations in library scheme. nearly 50 countries. Our governing Council, which MRG’s unique publications provide well- meets twice a year, has members from 10 different researched, accurate and impartial information on State of countries. MRG has consultative status with the minority and indigenous peoples’ rights worldwide. United Nations Economic and Social Council We offer critical analysis and new perspectives (ECOSOC), and observer status with the African on international issues. Our specialist training the World’s Commission on Human and People’s Rights. MRG materials include essential guides for NGOs and is registered as a charity and a company limited by others on international human rights instruments, guarantee under English law. Registered charity no. and on accessing international bodies. Many MRG 282305, limited company no. 1544957. publications have been translated into several Minorities and languages. © Minority Rights Group International, July 2009. If you would like to know more about MRG, All rights reserved. how to support us and how to work with us, please Indigenous visit our website www.minorityrights.org Material from this publication may be reproduced for teaching or for other non-commercial purposes. Select MRG publications: No part of it may be reproduced in any form for p Filling the Vacuum: Ensuring Protection and Legal Peoples commercial purposes without the prior express Remedies for Minorities in Kosovo permission of the copyright holders. p Forgotten or Assimilated? Minorities in the For further information please contact MRG. A Education System of Turkey CIP catalogue record of this publication is available p The Right to Learn: Batwa Education in the Great 2009 from the British Library. Lakes region of Africa Events of 2008

This document has been produced Education special ISBN 9781904584872 with the financial assistance of the Published July 2009 European Union and UNICEF. The Design by Texture +44(0)20 7739 7123 contents of this document are the sole responsibil- Edited by Preti Taneja Printed in the UK ity of Minority Rights Group International and can Education Adviser: Amina Osman under no circumstances be regarded as reflecting the Cover photo: A Roma girl in school in Skopje, position of the European Union or UNICEF. Macedonia. Mikkel Ostergaard/Panos. Minority Rights Group International Inside cover photo: A San boy at a community school in Botswana. Giacomo Pirozzi/Panos. in association with UNICEF 6 Foreword 82 A positively plurilingual world: Gay J. McDougall, UN Independent promoting mother tongue education Expert on Minority Issues Claire Thomas John B. Henriksen, Chairperson- Rapporteur, UN Expert Mechanism on Part 2: Regional overviews the rights of indigenous peoples 92 Africa Sophie Elmhirst Part 1: Protecting and promoting the 118 Americas right to education Maurice Bryan 12 A world of discrimination 146 Asia Mark Curtis Snježana Bokulić, Emma Eastwood and 24 Overcoming exclusion in education Farah Mihlar Yusuf Sayed 182 Europe 36 Case Study: Challenges in policy and Snježana Bokulić practice: pastoralists and nomadic peoples 200 Middle East Amina Osman Kate Washington

42 Fulfilling the right to education for Part 3: Reference minority and indigenous children: where are we in international legal 214 Peoples under threat 2009 standards? 222 Status of ratification of major Vanessa Sedletzki international and regional 54 The importance of ethnic data for instruments relevant to minority promoting the right to education and indigenous rights Zoë Gray Compiled by Marusca Perazzi 64 Case Study: using racial data to improve 234 Recommendations on education of the education for minority children in UN Forum on Minority Issues 2008 the USA 241 Who are minorities? Daniel J. Losen 242 Selected abbreviations 70 The gender dimension of minority and indigenous education 243 Contributors Kathryn Ramsay 247 Acknowledgements s the UN Independent Expert on for white children. There was little doubt that black Minority Issues, over the past three years children were always denied the best equipment, A I have travelled to countries in practically books and opportunities for advanced courses. We every region of the world. I have talked extensively had a bare skeleton of the full education experience to people who belong to disadvantaged minori- afforded to the children of the white community. ties on every continent. When I ask them to tell But we had caring teachers who laboured with lit- me their greatest problem, their most deeply felt tle support to overcome all of the educational defi- concern, the answer is always the same. They are cits that had been created by racial prejudice. The concerned that their children are not getting a qual- remarkable thing was that at times they were able to ity education because they are minorities. They see succeed. Most often, they could not. educating their children as the only way out of their Worldwide, minority children suffer dispropor- poverty; their under-dog status, their isolation. tionately from unequal access to quality educa- This is a plight that resonates with my own personal tion. Disadvantaged minorities are far more likely story. Slaves in the USA were denied the right to learn to receive an inferior education than a good one. to read and write: those in charge realized that knowl- Disadvantaged minority children are more likely edge inexorably leads to freedom. Slaves who learned to start school later than the prescribed age, if at in secret were subject to severe physical abuse. all; they are less likely to be ready or well prepared The public education system in the south of the for school; and more prone to drop out or fail to USA was created to address the education needs of achieve in school. That perpetuates the cycle of pov- recently emancipated slaves. That promise, however, erty, leaving them unable to later fulfil their human Foreword was short lived. For nearly a century after slavery potential, to gain meaningful employment and to ended, African Americans in the southern states become respected members of society. Gay J. McDougall of the USA were segregated into grossly inferior Minority girls are disadvantaged, both as a group schools. Even when the Supreme Court in the 1954 and as a sub-group of the disadvantaged. They are landmark decision of Brown v. Board of Education the most likely to be totally excluded from school- United Nations Independent Expert decided that racially segregated schools violated the ing. Girls may face particular barriers to education US Constitution, what followed were decades of based on traditional or religious customs or prac- on Minority Issues white resistance to integrating the schools that at tices, including those governing their freedom to times turned violent. leave the home without a male escort. Their exclu- The struggle to achieve equal education regardless sion from education has a profound impact on their John B. Henriksen of race or class, and the struggle of white communi- ability to later claim other rights and achieve status ties to avoid integrated schools has been a defining in society, such as economic independence and free- dynamic in the US since the end of slavery. dom from domestic violence. Educated mothers are Chairperson-Rapporteur I am a product of inferior, racially segregated more likely to send their girls to school, to look after schools – but not a typical product. I was born in the health of their families and have smaller families. UN Expert Mechanism on the rights the apartheid-like southern state of Georgia when Educated women are less likely to be exposed to every aspect of life there was segregated along exploitation and risks such as HIV and AIDs. racial lines – most particularly, public education. In many countries, a primary problem is poverty of indigenous peoples The Supreme Court decided Brown v. Board of and the under-development of the country as a whole. Education when I was in primary school, but eleven In societies where there is long-standing endemic years later, when I graduated from secondary school, discrimination against particular minority groups, complete segregation was still the reality. they tend to be the poorest of the poor. Even when In my secondary school – the first ever for resources are available, disadvantaged minorities rarely black students in the state – there were upwards get a fair share. In some countries where resources may of 4,000 students crammed into an ageing and not be a major problem, the larger society may have neglected building. Many of my close friends were racist attitudes about having their children sit next to a from homes struggling with poverty. Many in my minority child in school. In other countries the major- graduating class could barely write their names. The ity may not be willing to grapple with the extra cost of governing school boards were all white, so the lion’s redressing the legacy of discriminatory education suf- share of financial support went to schools reserved fered by minority children.

6 Foreword State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Foreword 7 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 The harm done by these realities goes far beyond p Education is a fundamental human right Right: An African-American student in Mississippi, the children and parents whose dreams of a better of every man, woman and child. Failure to United States of America. Mia Brandt/UNICEF. future are denied. The future of the entire society is ensure equal opportunities and equal access impacted negatively. Every year of quality education to education robs people of their full human access to education perpetuates the cycle of denied to members of the society robs the country potential and their ability to contribute fully poverty that is experienced most acutely by of future leaders and economic engines. Further, to their own communities and to the wider minority communities facing discrimination education in diverse classrooms is the best way to society. Equal access to education must be and exclusion. Conversely, education provides shape a socially cohesive society and prepare stu- understood in the holistic sense of the rights a vital key to sustainable poverty alleviation. dents to perform in a 21st-century globalized world. to non-discrimination and equality. Minorities p The right to effective and meaningful To achieve that outcome, education should be often face systematic discrimination which participation in decision making by minorities grounded in an intercultural approach which builds creates blockages to their full enjoyment of is clearly established in the UN Declaration on an anti-racism capacity at all levels of educational their rights, including their right to education. Minorities (UNDM). It requires that decisions institutions and which informs all policy decisions To fully protect the right to education for that affect minorities, including those regarding These were the issues and challenges that we those who have been subjected to historical education policy and practice, should include sought to consider in the inaugural session of the systematic discrimination, we must go beyond consultation with minority communities, UN Forum on Minority Issues (UN Forum), held in issues of physical or economic accessibility to as parents and civic leaders. The expertise Geneva in December 2008. Additionally we wanted focus on the ultimate goal of equal access to and knowledge of minorities themselves to identify and consider opportunities, good practices quality education and to equal achievement should be utilized in every facet of education and policy tools relating to minorities and the right outcomes. Disproportionate educational policy making, including when designing the employed that take into account the existence to education. The UN Forum was established to outcomes along racial, ethnic or religious lines curriculum and addressing education delivery. of structural factors that have impeded the full provide a platform for promoting dialogue and coop- must be considered evidence of discrimination p As one participant noted, ‘We know the least participation of minorities. eration on issues pertaining to national or ethnic, that implicates state responsibility for the about the minority children who are suffering p Lack of resources cannot be used as an excuse religious and linguistic minorities, as well as thematic promotion and protection of these rights. the most.’ There is no effective way to address for the denial of the rights of minorities contributions and expertise to the work of the man- p One way that minority children are robbed of a problem without assessing its magnitude to equality in education. The prohibition date of the Independent Expert on Minority Issues. equal access to quality education is through and particularities. There is a compelling need of discrimination is subject neither to the The UN Forum was a significant success. Over policies or practices which segregate them for data that permits an evaluation of the principle of progressive realization nor to 370 individuals were accredited to participate, into inferior institutions. A striking example relative situation of minority children and their the availability of resources in general. It including government representatives from UN is the situation faced by Roma children in education needs. Quantitative data must be applies fully and immediately to all aspects of member states and from Ministries of Education, many European countries, where Roma collected in a way that allows disaggregation education and encompasses all internationally UN bodies and specialized agencies. Approximately children are at times segregated into inferior by ethnicity, language, family income and recognized grounds of discrimination. 90 non-governmental organizations (NGOs) were facilities and are regularly diverted to schools sex. This data should be made public on a Guaranteeing equality in educational outcomes represented. The views of education experts and for the mentally disabled, simply because they regular basis to raise public awareness and to to minorities will have budgetary implications participants from minority communities were given are Roma. This situation continues despite enable educators and policy makers to generate that must be seen as an integral part of meeting a particularly high priority within the proceedings. European Court of Human Rights’ judgments effective remedies. Indicators and benchmarks the state’s international legal responsibilities. Valuable insights were provided by participants against some states (see Europe chapter). In must be set to measure improvement and to States should not give inadequate consideration with professional experience working in the field of other regions de facto segregation may be a monitor progress towards targets. to social components in their educational design and delivery of education solutions to address consequence of residential patterns or class p Affirmative action to address situations of services, which can leave minorities the needs of minorities. distinctions. long-standing and entrenched discrimination disadvantaged. Poor and marginalized The objective of the UN Forum was to use this p The educational environment cannot be seen and exclusion is mandatory under the minorities may require assistance including unique opportunity to frame a series of practical in isolation from the wider societal conditions International Convention on the Elimination with free or subsidized textbooks, meals and recommendations intended for a wide readership of experienced by minorities. Extreme poverty or of Racial Discrimination (ICERD). The transportation, essential to their access to governments, international organizations and agen- the denial of citizenship rights are among many principle of equality does not require uniform education. cies, civil society, educators and those who learn factors disproportionately affecting minorities treatment in the field of education regardless p ‘Getting past the door is simply not enough’, from them. The recommendations, which are repro- that also have important implications for the of circumstances, but rather that differential stated one expert participant. Examples were duced in this volume, are first and foremost built enjoyment of their right to education. treatment of individuals and groups is provided of gross disparities in the treatment on the existing international legal framework of the p Education is a vital gateway to the justified when circumstances warrant it. and consequently the educational performance right to education, minority rights and the rights to enjoyment of a wide range of other rights Standardized education policies overlook the and relative success of minority students. non-discrimination and to equality. and fundamental freedoms, without which unique problems faced by specific groups of In some countries, minority boys are facing It is worth noting a few of the recommendations individuals and societies remain economically, students. In order to create an even playing disproportionately harsh disciplinary actions as briefly here: socially and culturally impoverished. Lack of field, targeted, specialized programmes must be compared to non-minority boys who commit

8 Foreword State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Foreword 9 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 the same offences. In other countries minority earliest opportunity with the resources required and to the eradication of their cultures, languages Traditional education can be described as a life- children face unwelcoming environments, to enter the formal school environment on and ways of life. long pedagogical process and an intergeneration- racist attacks and hate speech. Teachers are a equal terms. More emphasis should be placed Indigenous peoples, through their communications al transfer of knowledge aimed at maintaining a key component in the learning experience. The on tertiary level education for minorities. with various United Nations bodies and officials, flourishing and harmonious society or community. actions of teachers can do much to overcome Additionally, there is an alarming rate of have identified a number of serious concerns related Children from a young age receive guidance on vari- discrimination; equally their practices may adult illiteracy in minority communities. The to the right to education, including discrimination; ous aspects of indigenous development from older have an adverse effect on the experiences vast majority of those who are unable to read lack of control over education initiatives directed members of the community to prepare them for of education by minorities. Teachers, or write are women. Yet adult education is at indigenous children; lack of consultation on the life and their responsibilities towards their commu- administrators and the student body as a whole consistently neglected. development and implementation of educational serv- nity. Intergenerational transfer of knowledge, includ- must be trained to actively work toward the ices; limited consideration given to autonomy and ing traditional knowledge, ensures that community elimination of prejudices and must be held It is the desire of all those who participated in the participation of indigenous peoples in the delivery of members enjoy adequate economic security in an accountable for conduct that conflicts with that UN Forum, that the recommendations that emerged educational services; limited opportunities to access environment of socio-cultural and political stability. overall objective. from it contribute concretely to the struggle to good-quality mother tongue-based bilingual educa- The exercise of indigenous peoples’ right to tradi- p The state must be held responsible for the achieve equality and non-discrimination for all in the tion; inadequate development of culturally appropriate tional education may be closely and in some instances disproportionate drop-out rates or low school field of education. The UN Forum demonstrated curricula; failure to develop educational opportunities inseparably associated with the use of their traditional achievement by minority children. The that the problems faced by minorities are widespread for indigenous peoples that demonstrate respect for lands, territories and natural resources. obligation of the state is to guarantee equal and affect communities in all regions. But it must be their history and cultures; lack of adequate supplies, Indigenous peoples have also invested tremen- educational outcomes. Proposals suggested the remembered that discrimination and inequality in funding and teachers; and poor-quality schools. dous efforts in integrating indigenous perspectives need to attract more teachers directly from education are not abstract issues, they have a human The UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous and languages into mainstream or formal education. minorities into the teaching profession, and impact and a human face. They affect individu- Peoples (UNDRIP), and International Labour Mainstream education systems usually involve a stand- to also attract teachers to work in areas where als from the very beginning of their lives when the Organization (ILO) Convention No. 169 concern- ard set of curricula provided by education ministries minorities are located and keep them there as principle of equality of opportunity is perhaps at its ing Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent based on government policy. Inclusion of indigenous they gain experience and skills. most meaningful, shaping young people as they grow Countries, contain specific provisions on indigenous ways of learning, instructing, teaching and training p For many children from minorities, the and realize their potential to contribute fully to their peoples’ right to education. Moreover, several treaties are important in ensuring that students/learners and language and culture of the classroom are communities and to wider society. Denial of the right between indigenous peoples and states acknowledge teachers/instructors in mainstream institutions are able unfamiliar. Curriculum materials may neglect to education is thus a very human tragedy which the right of indigenous peoples to education and to benefit from education in a culturally sensitive man- the cultures, histories and contributions to sentences whole communities to new generations of educational services as a treaty right. ner that draws upon, utilizes, promotes and enhances society of minorities. Classroom interaction poverty, hardship and further exclusion. The UNDRIP, interpreted in conjunction with awareness of indigenous knowledge, perspectives, val- and instruction may be in a language they do As aptly put in the slogan of a well-known other international instruments, provides an authori- ues, cultures and languages. not speak at home and teaching methods may American organization that helps minorities to get tative normative framework for the full and effec- For indigenous learners, and instructors, the inclu- be unrelated to cultural learning styles. Barriers university degrees: ‘A mind is a terrible thing to tive protection and implementation of the rights of sion of these methods often enhances educational to education caused by language remain among waste’.1 indigenous peoples. In the context of education, the effectiveness, success and learning outcomes by pro- the greatest obstacles to the right to education UNDRIP reaffirms and applies the universal right to viding education that adheres to indigenous peoples’ for minorities. Mother tongue education Gay J. McDougall education to the specific historical, cultural, econom- own inherent perspectives, experiences and world- and multilingual education programmes ic and social circumstances of indigenous peoples. views. For non-indigenous students and teachers, 1. The United Negro College Fund, founded 65 years ago, is an For instance, Article 14 of UNDRIP acknowledges were presented to the UN Forum that seek NGO headquartered in the United States; see www.uncf.org education using such methods has resulted in greater to enable children to learn and operate that indigenous peoples have the right to establish awareness, respect for and appreciation of other cul- successfully in their mother tongue as well and control their educational systems and institu- tural realities. as national languages. Such programmes, in ducation is recognized both as a human tions providing education in their own languages, in In order to improve the educational situation of conjunction with culturally inclusive curricula, right in itself and as an indispensable means a manner appropriate to their cultural methods of indigenous peoples, states should establish methods seek to provide learners with the opportunity E of realizing other human rights and fun- teaching and learning. This reaffirms existing inter- and systems for the collection of disaggregated data, to contribute to and benefit from national damental freedoms. However, the full enjoyment national human law, including Article 29 (2) of the and develop indicators conforming with internation- society without forcing them to sacrifice their of the right to education as recognized in interna- Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and al human rights standards in the field of education, linguistic and cultural heritage. tional human rights law is far from reality for most Article 27 (3) of ILO Convention No. 169. for the purpose of identifying barriers preventing p It was also emphasized that the principles indigenous peoples. Deprivation of access to quality Indigenous peoples’ education systems and institu- indigenous peoples from fully enjoying the right to under discussion should be applied to the education is a major factor contributing towards their tions can be understood in two main categories: (1) education and reforming education laws and poli- educational needs of minorities throughout the social marginalization, poverty and dispossession. traditional education or ways of learning and institu- cies to be more inclusive and sensitive to indigenous life cycle. Pre-school education is important The content and objective of education in some tions, and (2) the integration of indigenous perspec- values and perspectives. as a means of early promotion of the right to instances contributes towards the unwanted assimila- tives and language in mainstream education systems education. It equips minority children at the tion of indigenous peoples into mainstream society and institutions. John B. Henriksen

10 Foreword State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Foreword 11 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 ducation is a basic human right, but in all with the changing needs of society). Ensuring access regions of the world minority and indig- to such schooling for minorities is the greatest chal- E enous children are being deprived of a lenge facing policy makers in the field of education. quality education or access to schools at all. Of the Furthermore, in a world where inter-ethnic and 101 million children out of school and the 776 mil- inter-religious violence is present, and in some cases lion adults who cannot read and write, the majority rising, improvement in the education of minority are from ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities groups to help create more tolerant, multicultural or indigenous peoples. Numerous states are violat- societies is surely one of the very greatest challenges ing international laws and standards by failing to the world faces. provide adequate education for minorities. The costs of failing to provide education for all are mas- The most marginalized sive, holding back economic growth and potentially It is clear that the major global education targets set sowing the seeds for conflicts. Yet the international by the international community will not be met on community – governments and aid donors alike – time. The Millennium Development Goal (MDG) has still not fully woken up to the need to address on education, set in 2000, is to ensure that by 2015 inequities in education, and specifically the needs of all boys and girls will be able to complete a full minorities and indigenous peoples. course of primary schooling. In the same year, states At the UN Forum on Minority Issues (UN meeting at the ‘Education for All’ conference in Forum), held for the first time in December 2008, Dakar, Senegal, committed themselves to ensuring speaker after speaker gave evidence about educa- that all ‘those belonging to ethnic minorities’ would A world of tional discrimination and exclusion in their country. have ‘access to complete, free and compulsory pri- Often, national laws bar or reduce minorities’ access mary education of good quality’. At that time 113 to school, or teaching passes over the history or cul- million children were out of school. Since then there discrimination: ture of minority groups; further, schooling is often has been progress in reducing the numbers, but not only available in the dominant, official language enough to meet the target: the latest estimate by rather than in mother tongues spoken by minori- UNICEF is that 101 million children remain out ties, or else personal abuse is heaped on people from of school, 53 million of whom are girls and most of minorities, minorities by other pupils and even teachers. In whom live in sub-Saharan Africa or South and West most developing countries – but especially in those Asia. Projections by UNESCO for 134 states are schools attended by minorities, which tend to be that at least 29 million children in those countries indigenous peoples in poorer, more remote areas – overcrowded class- alone will still be out of school in 2015. rooms, dilapidated buildings, few textbooks, few The world will fail to meet the MDG on educa- sanitary facilities and poor teaching are all too com- tion until policies are properly targeted on the needs and education mon, and are holding back the educational and life of minorities and indigenous peoples, to ensure opportunities of millions of children. they receive an education consistent with the ‘four According to the UN Committee on Economic, As’. There are several reasons why states are failing Mark Curtis Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR), ‘as an empow- to educate all children, but a major one is simply erment right, education is the primary vehicle by that many governments do not properly recognize which economically and socially marginalized adults who those out of school actually are. UN agencies and children can lift themselves out of poverty’. Yet working on education do not provide statistics on educational discrimination against, and exclusion of, exactly how many of the 101 million children are minorities is perpetuating poverty, depriving people from minority and indigenous populations, but the of fulfilling their potential and of playing a mean- evidence suggests it is between 50 and 70 per cent. ingful role in society. As articulated by the former The developing countries with the largest number UN Special Rapporteur on the right to education, of children out of school – Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Katarina Tomaševski, education must meet the India, Kenya, Nigeria and Pakistan – all have large ‘four As’: it must be available (free and government- minority populations who enjoy far less access to funded), accessible (non-discriminatory and acces- schooling than majority groups. In Nigeria, for sible to all), acceptable (culturally appropriate and example, estimates are that 54 per cent of all out-of- with good quality teaching) and adaptable (evolving school children are Hausas from the predominantly

State of the World’s Minorities A world of 13 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 discrimination Muslim north of the country. In India, around many of these are from minorities, but the available around one-third of illiterate adults are believed Cultural Rights (ICESCR), which reaffirmed the 41 per cent of those out of school are from the evidence is instructive: to live in the western regions, which have the right to education for all and the principle of free ‘scheduled castes’ (or ‘Dalits’, previously known as highest proportions of ethnic minorities in primary education. ‘untouchables’) or from the ‘scheduled tribes’ (or p India’s latest national census, in 2001, found China, including Tibetans, Mongolians and The Convention on the Rights of the Child ‘Adivasis’). that around 300 million Indians were illiter- Uyghurs. National statistics in 2000 reported (CRC), adopted in 1989, has become the most A 2006 analysis noted that of the 60 million girls ate (slightly higher than the figure cited by 87 million adults as illiterate, of whom around widely ratified human rights treaty (of 194 states not in primary school (based on 2002 figures show- UNESCO). Of these, extrapolation from other 33 million lived in the 10 provinces (out of 31) in the world only the United States and Somalia ing 115 million children then out of school), a full statistics shows that around 120 million come where minorities account for the highest pro- have not ratified) and provides the most detailed 70 per cent came from ethnic minorities and other from scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, portion of the population. It is in these regions, guidelines on rights-based education, spelling out excluded groups, as shown in Table 1. while a further 57 million were Muslims (41 the mainly rural, western areas, where the the right of children not to be discriminated against. When it comes to adults around the world unable per cent of the Muslim population in India illiteracy rate (i.e. as a proportion of the whole Article 30 provides specific protection for children to read and write, minorities also account for a large being illiterate). Thus around 60 per cent of population) is the highest in the country: the from minority and indigenous groups who ‘shall not proportion of the total. Around 776 million people India’s illiterate adults belong to minorities or five regions with the highest proportion of illit- be denied the right, in community with other mem- – 16 per cent of the world’s adult population – lack indigenous peoples. erate people are all among the 10 regions with bers of his or her group, to enjoy his or her own basic literacy skills, two-thirds of whom are women. p UNESCO states that 73 million adults are the largest minorities. Overall, the illiteracy rate culture, to profess and practise his or her own reli- Of these, 270 million are in India and 73 million in illiterate in China. Although it is, again, not of national minorities in China is 25 per cent gion, or to use his or her own language’. In 2000, China. Again, there are no official figures citing how known exactly how many belong to minorities, higher than the national average. states also agreed in the Education for All (EFA) framework of action that ‘education must neither Table 1 Girls from excluded groups out of school These figures suggest that the number of illiter- exclude nor discriminate’ and that ‘every govern- ate adults from minorities and indigenous peoples ment has the responsibility to provide free, quality Total number Excluded Excluded girls as Excluded is around 162 million in India and 24 million in basic education’. It committed governments to of girls out of girls out of percentage of all groups China; this amounts to a quarter of all the illiterate ‘actively seeking out children who are not enrolled’ school (million) school (million) girls out of school adults in the world. If those from other countries and to make the inclusion of minorities integral to were included, it is very likely that minorities would education policy. Sub-Saharan Africa 23.8 17.9 75 Members of account for the majority. By 2015, the UN projects Years on from these commitments, the reality for non-dominant that there will still be around 700 million adults minorities across the world is different. Access to tribes worldwide unable to read or write. As with children good quality education is much more likely if you South Asia 23.6 15.8 67 Rural people in out of school, strategies to address illiteracy will are a boy, living in an urban area and coming from Afghanistan, have to focus – overwhelmingly – on the education a relatively wealthy household; being a girl is often scheduled castes of minorities specifically. the first obstacle to a quality education, living in a and tribes in rural area the second, coming from a poor family India, lower castes Educational obstacles faced by minorities the third. But then there is a fourth – belonging to a in Nepal, rural Providing adequate education for minority groups minority. The most discriminated against of all tend tribes in Pakistan is not a choice but a legal obligation on the part of to be poor girls, living in poor families in rural areas Middle East/North Africa 5.1 1.7 33 Berbers, rural states. Various international conventions outline who belong to a minority community. The obstacles populations the duty to respect the right to education and to preventing people from minorities receiving a good East Asia/Pacific 4.9 4.4 90 Hill tribes, avoid measures preventing it. UNESCO’s 1960 education are numerous, and it is useful to draw Muslim Convention against Discrimination in Education a distinction between problems that prevent them minorities, defined discrimination as ‘depriving any person or getting access to school at all and those that hinder other ethnic group of persons of access to education of any type their receiving an education of sufficient quality – minorities or at any level’ and ‘limiting any person or group of that is, one that meets the ‘four As’ – once they are Eastern Europe/Central Asia 1.6 1.4 90 Roma, rural persons to education of an inferior standard’. States in school. populations in party to the agreement agreed ‘to abrogate any Turkey statutory provisions and any administrative instruc- Problems getting to school Latin America/Caribbean 1.5 1.5 99 Indigenous and tions and to discontinue any administrative practices Official discrimination by states is one reason why Afro-Latino which involve discrimination in education’, and ‘not minorities are often unable to attend school. Some populations to allow any differences of treatment by the public states do not even formally recognize the existence Total 60.4 42.6 71 authorities between nationals, except on the basis of minorities, meaning that their commitment to of merit or need’. This was followed by the 1966 establish schools in areas populated by minorities is Source: Maureen Lewis and Marlaine Lockheed, Inexcusable Absence: Why 60 Million Girls Still Aren’t in School and What to Do about It, Centre for Global Development, December 2006, p. 8. International Covenant on Economic, Social and low or non-existent. Turkey, for example,

14 A world of State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities A world of 15 discrimination and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 discrimination continues to refuse to formally recognize the Left: Children from the Xavante people play schooling in some countries, as with the Roma Kurdish minority, even though it amounts to 10–23 within the Xavante protected area, Mato Grosso, in Europe (see below). Dalit children in India are per cent of the population (estimates vary widely), Brazil. Eduardo Martino/Panos. often segregated in classrooms and during school while the Constitution prohibits public education meals, and disproportionately subjected to corporal in any language other than Turkish. The result is reason for not sending their daughters to school. punishment by teachers; likewise, Dalit teachers that education provision is extremely poor in the Parents’ low educational attainment can be passed are often discriminated against, frequently being Kurdish areas, with most villages lacking a school or on to the next generation; in Nepal, for example, segregated when eating or drinking. Although the else having class numbers averaging around 50. In children whose parents had some formal education Indian government operates a system of ‘reserva- Japan, the government also does not recognize what are more than twice as likely to send their children tion’ or quotas for Dalits in education as well as in it terms ‘non-national’ communities, which include to school compared to parents lacking formal educa- government jobs, the policy is poorly implemented. Korean communities, whose schools receive no tion. Cultural attitudes among some communities, The European Union’s (EU) Fundamental Rights government subsidies and where diplomas do not such as those attaching more importance to boys’ Agency (FRA) has noted that educational segrega- qualify them to enter Japanese universities. education while promoting early marriages for tion produces and reproduces inequalities, as do Despite official discrimination in some states, daughters, can also keep girls out of school. For highly differentiated education systems which lead more than 90 per cent of countries have laws requir- others, education may promise little for the future to a high concentration of discriminated pupils in ing all children to attend school; thus the bigger due to broader prejudice or labour discrimination the lowest educational tracks. A recent UN report problem, across the globe, is the failure to imple- in society, when even completing school means that states that ‘desegregation strategies in the field of ment existing legislation. Many governments simply people from minorities are less able to secure well- education should be actively pursued’. lack the will to establish schools in all the areas that paid jobs than people from majority groups. Equally destructive of minority and indigenous need them, especially in more remote, rural areas. rights is some states’ policy of trying to assimilate Yet proximity to a school is by some estimates the Problems in school smaller groups and assert the dominance of the biggest determinant of primary school enrolment Once in school, many children in developing coun- majority group; indeed, for some governments it is and children are much more likely to attend schools tries, especially in rural areas, receive an extremely precisely education policy that is seen as a key tool in their own village. A longer distance to school poor-quality education; for minority groups, this is to achieve this. In Asia, some countries put minor- means attendance is less likely, especially for girls. widespread. The biggest single result is high drop- ity or indigenous children from remote areas into Many governments do not spend enough to fulfil such as farming is a major factor explaining why out rates – in sub-Saharan Africa, less than two- boarding hostels far from home, a strategy taking their national and international commitment to many rural families, dependent on agriculture for thirds of all enrolled pupils reach the last grade in place under the banner of expanding access to edu- ensure education for all. In 40 out of 105 countries their survival, do not send their children to school. the majority of countries. The quality of schools and cation under the MDGs. with available data, the share of national income In this situation, the poorer the family, the less like- teachers tends to be lower in more remote, disad- But the classic way of pursuing assimilation is devoted to education decreased between 1999 ly the children will attend school. In Guatemala, for vantaged areas, where minorities often live. Teachers to offer schooling only (or predominantly) in the and 2006. Many countries in sub-Saharan Africa example, only 4 per cent of ‘extremely poor’ indig- are often less qualified, come to work infrequently majority language, in the face of different mother and South Asia now spend only 3–4 per cent of enous girls attend school by the age of 16, compared or promote repetitive, rote learning rather than pass- tongues being spoken by minorities. Although Syria, their GNP on education, signifying a low political to 20 per cent of ‘poor’ indigenous girls and 45 per ing on skills to promote creative thinking. In many for example, has around 1.5 million Kurds, the law commitment. Little data is available on education cent of ‘non-poor’ indigenous girls. The high costs countries, few teachers are recruited from minorities, requires teaching to be undertaken in Arabic and expenditure on minorities or on schools in areas of school are a further prohibitive factor, especially sometimes because there are few of them, sometimes forbids children from being taught in the Kurdish populated by minorities, but it is generally likely to for poorer people. Various international standards, because the state has failed to develop a proactive language. In Kurdish areas, teachers tend to be be lower than spending on majority communities. including the Universal Declaration of Human strategy. There is a general lack of trained teach- poorly trained and there is no public university, In Israel, government figures show that state invest- Rights (UDHR), all state that primary education ers, especially in sub-Saharan Africa and South and while less than 5 per cent of children attend second- ment per Arab student is three times less than for ‘shall be free’, but around 100 countries still do not West Asia – more than 18 million extra teachers ary school, meaning that child labour rather than Jewish students; Arab schools have more students provide free primary education to all their children. will be needed over the next decade to provide every education has become the norm. The absence of per class (30 compared to 26 in Jewish schools) and Since 2000, however, more than a dozen countries child with a quality primary education. In addition, early-years schooling in their mother tongue is often fewer teaching hours per class (48 compared to 60). have abolished school fees which, in Kenya, Malawi, the more remote the school, the more chance that, a massive obstacle to children’s educational devel- In Macedonia, the authorities also spend less on Tanzania and Uganda, has helped more than a mil- in countries where corruption is rife, central govern- opment: they may not know the official language minorities than on the majority group – in 2005, lion extra children enrol in primary school in each ment funding will not reach it. A study in 2004 in at all, in which case they may be put off attending the government devoted $548 per pupil in schools country. Yet even where there are no school fees, four African countries (Ghana, Tanzania, Uganda school, may simply not be offered a place at school primarily attended by Macedonians, compared to there will tend to be some indirect costs for families and Zambia) found that only around half of non- or, if they do attend, may make slow progress. $404 for those attended by Albanians. such as uniforms, textbooks and transport, which, wage budgets ever reaches the intended schools. Children are often disadvantaged in school if the Poverty is, however, probably the biggest single for marginalized, poorer groups, can be insurmount- Segregation of minority from majority groups language they speak at home is different from the reason why so many children remain out of school. able. A survey in Tajikistan found that 68 per cent – either in separate schools or in separate classes dominant, official language used in school. In Latin The need for children to work on household tasks of parents consulted reported that cost was the main – continues to be an all-too-common feature of America, children from homes where indigenous

16 A world of State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities A world of 17 discrimination and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 discrimination languages are spoken perform less well in reading Right: The fourth grade class from the Afro- and mathematics than those from non-indigenous Honduran community of Bajamar Garífuna study- households. When home language and official ing at the Francisco Marozan school, San Pedro national languages differ, the chances of completing Sula, Honduras. Giacomo Pirozzi/Panos. at least one grade of secondary school are reduced: in Bolivia, 68 per cent of Spanish speakers aged remote from their context’. 16–49 have completed some secondary educa- Also of concern is the direct personal abuse in tion compared to one-third of Aymara, Quechua school often heaped on children from minorities, and Guarani speakers. Mathura Tripura of the which can harm their ability to learn and reduce Bangladeshi NGO, Zabarang Kalyan Samity, told their achievement. Such discrimination, by other the UN Forum in December 2008 that indigenous children and even teachers, is an all-too-common children in the Chittagong Hill Tracts ‘are turning experience for many children – a factor that is away for not speaking Bangla and they are experi- sometimes identified by parents as a reason for encing education in a totally unfamiliar language’; keeping their children out of school altogether. these children drop out from school at a rate double Teachers can sit minority children or girls at the the national average. back of the class, not call on them in class or give As UNESCO points out, children taught in their them fewer textbooks. Meghna Guhathakurta, of mother tongue in the initial years of school have a the NGO Research Initiatives in Bangladesh, notes better chance of becoming literate in other languages that Dalit groups ‘are made to sit at the back, given and tend to stay in school longer; if schools teach in punishments that are considered befitting for them a home language, attendance rises by around 10 per like cleaning the toilets, and generally discouraged cent. A number of UN standards affirm the respon- to envisage a future that is free from the fetters of sibility of states to teach children in their mother their immediate surroundings or social position’. schools in rural areas than non-indigenous children, and selective school systems have on widening tongue. Some countries educate children in their Vimal Thorat, of the National Platform for Dalit while in Bolivia the primary school completion rate the education gap between more privileged and mother tongue in their early years before offering Women’s Rights in India, told the UN Forum that of indigenous children is 55 per cent compared to 81 less privileged population groups’. Although some schooling in the dominant language, with positive ‘by and large teachers reflect the same attitudes and per cent for non-indigenous children. Overall litera- EU member states report a narrowing of the gap effect. Bilingual teaching is critical, as it is equally practices against minority students as what is preva- cy rates among indigenous communities also tend to in educational attainment between the majority vital that minorities educated in their own language lent in the larger society’. be lower: in Ecuador, the literacy rate for indigenous and minority communities, the FRA notes that are also able to speak the dominant language, oth- groups is 72 per cent, compared to the average of 91 in general that attainment gap ‘has remained at a erwise their exclusion will be reinforced. But even Indigenous communities per cent; in Vietnam the rate is a staggering 17 per significant level’. Furthermore, most member states where a bilingual policy is implemented, minori- Indigenous peoples have to confront particular cent for minorities compared to a national average of do not know how well minorities are performing ties in particular can suffer from lack of specialized obstacles to education and tend to face discrimina- 87 per cent. at school compared to the majority – there is a lack teaching training or appropriate school materials. tion that excludes them from access to schools or of official reporting of discriminatory practices in A particular problem for minorities and indig- else attempts to assimilate them into mainstream A world of discrimination and exclusion the field of education in most member states and in enous peoples is the school curriculum in many culture. In Guatemala, for example, only 54 per cent All these educational obstacles for minorities and some countries there are no official statistics at all. countries. Pupils are often taught lessons of little of indigenous girls aged 7 are in school compared indigenous peoples have different effects in differ- Only two of the EU’s 27 member states (the UK relevance to their culture, where their history is to 75 per cent of non-indigenous girls. In Laos, 46 ent countries, but common outcomes are lower and Netherlands) have comprehensive monitoring excluded, and over which their parents have had per cent of poor, rural non-Lao-Tai girls aged 6–12 attendance at school and lower achievement, includ- systems registering performance differences among little or no say. Karamojong pastoralists in north- attend school compared to 70 per cent of poor, ing literacy rates, as highlighted in the selection of minorities in education. east Uganda, for example, have a literacy rate four rural Lao-Tai girls. Indigenous children are often examples in Table 2 (p. 20). The situation is starkest in the treatment of the times less than the national average. One local deprived of schooling in their mother tongue while Although the majority of children out of school Roma community. In several EU countries, such as human rights group giving evidence to the UN teaching downplays or ignores their community’s are in developing countries, there are also alarming Hungary, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia, Roma Forum on Minorities notes that a key reason for history or traditional knowledge, meaning the school disparities in educational provision and attainment children are subject to segregated, Roma-only class- this is the curriculum, which ‘stereotypes pastoralists curriculum is often far removed from their cultural in the developed world. In the EU, for example, es or units within schools. The FRA’s latest annual and their livelihood system as outdated, disorgan- practice. The overall quality of schools in the areas in damning analysis is now regularly produced by the report notes that in one school in Slovakia, in the ized, environmentally destructive and economically which indigenous children live – often more remote, FRA, established in March 2007. Its latest annual town of Medzev, Roma and non-Roma children unproductive’; school children are ‘trained to loathe poorer areas – is also usually lower. The result is that report notes that ‘partial or even total segregation were not only separated in classes but also during pastoralism’, while those from pastoralist families indigenous children tend to drop out of school more is still a common phenomenon in large parts of breaks, which were scheduled at different times for ‘become alienated from the reality facing them and frequently. In Ecuador, for example, indigenous the EU’ and that ‘some member states persist- each group; non-Roma children received hot meals become dependent on an imaginary way of life children are 30 per cent more likely to drop out of ently ignore the effects that highly differentiated in a school canteen while Roma children were only

18 A world of State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities A world of 19 discrimination and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 discrimination for a population lifts annual GDP growth by 0.37 7 per cent in 1960 to 50 per cent, the country’s Table 2 Examples of the effects of educational obstacles for minority and indigenous peoples per cent. Research by the International Food Policy per capita growth rate from 1960 to 1985 might Research Institute found that spending on education have increased by 1.3 per cent per year. UNESCO Bangladesh In the Chittagong Hill Tracts in eastern Bangladesh, home to 1.3 million people of in rural areas, along with agricultural research (into notes that several cost-effective measures to promote different indigenous groups, only 57 per cent of indigenous children aged 6–10 are farming techniques or seed varieties, for example) inclusive quality education have been developed in enrolled in primary schools while 60 per cent of those attending school drop out – and rural infrastructure (principally roads), are the countries with scarce resources. These include train- double the national drop-out rate (see Asia chapter). three most effective types of investment for reduc- ing-of-trainer models, linking student teachers with Brazil Only 6 per cent of black people attend university, compared to 19 per cent of ing rural poverty; in China, India, Uganda and schools and converting special needs schools into whites. Vietnam, for example, investments in these areas resource centres providing support and expertise to China One in twelve young people from minority communities have not attended formal had the biggest impacts. clusters of regular schools. schooling, compared to only one in 50 Han Chinese. Fewer than one in 10 Han Education, especially of mothers, also improves Failing to provide education to all can have even Chinese are illiterate, compared to nearly one in two Tibetans. public health, tending to lead to better nutrition, greater consequences. In countries such as Burundi, Colombia Around one-third of the indigenous and Afro-Colombian population is illiterate, a lower fertility, better uptake of childhood immuni- Rwanda and Sudan, exclusion from school and the rate nearly three times that of the rest of the population. Around 36 per cent of the zation and improved knowledge of HIV prevention. lack of educational opportunities for young people indigenous population have never received any formal education. In many countries, having a mother with secondary have been critical factors in fuelling conflict over past Ethiopia The majority of pastoralists have received no formal education at all. In the Somali or higher education more than halves the risk of decades. In Sierra Leone, a similar lack of educational region of Ethiopia, the literacy rate for male pastoralists is 23 per cent and for child mortality compared to having a mother with opportunities, along with other social inequities, is women just 4 per cent. no education. In Bangladesh, having a mother who widely seen as explaining why many young people India While 65 per cent of the general population can read and write, only 55 per cent has completed primary education cuts the risk of took to supporting the Revolutionary United Front, of Dalits and 47 per cent of Adivasis can do so. For women it is worse: only 35 per children being stunted by 20 per cent. UNESCO the brutal rebel organization that terrorized the cent of Adivasi women are literate, while in some states the rate is even lower – only also argues that education helps to build people’s country for a decade. Studies in developed countries 16 per cent of Adivasi women in Bihar are literate, for example. Around 37 per cent support for multi-party democracy and to equip also suggest that inequality in education contributes of Dalit and Adivasi girls aged 7–14 do not attend school, compared to 26 per cent populations with more skills to challenge autocracy, to wider income inequalities and social polarization, from the majority population. and also that it can provide children with the learn- which can contribute to increasing social tensions. Nepal The literacy rate for the ‘upper’ castes is 67 per cent, compared to 34 per cent for ing needed to better understand complex environ- The relatively poor access of the Catholic commu- Dalits and 54 per cent for Janajati (indigenous groups). mental challenges, such as climate change. nity to education in Northern Ireland, for example, Pakistan Less than 10 per cent of girls from the Balochi and Pathan ethnic minorities in rural As for the costs of failing to deliver education, helped fuel the conflict with Protestants; whereas the areas complete primary school, compared to over 20 per cent of Punjabi girls (the some policy makers argue (or else may privately increasing access of Catholics to higher education largest ethnic group) in rural areas and 55 per cent of Punjabi girls in urban areas. believe) that it will simply be too expensive to edu- was one of the factors contributing to reconciliation Serbia Fewer than one in 10 Roma have completed primary school, while 63 per cent have cate everyone, especially minorities. It is certainly between the communities. had no education at all; this compares to the majority population, 100 per cent of true that a large proportion of children currently out whom begin school and 90 per cent of whom complete primary school. of school, and illiterate adults, are ‘harder to reach’; International policies – not much better? United Kingdom Children of Afro-Caribbean origin are the lowest achievers on average at key exam they can live in geographically remote areas, require Unfortunately, it is not only governments’ domes- stages (though a greater proportion of white children fail than those of Indian ‘special’ teaching, such as in minority languages, tic policies that are failing to provide adequate origin). A study for the Joseph Rowntree Foundation found that 8 per cent of or may belong to nomadic or traveller groups (See education for minorities; the international com- children of African origin and 6.3 per cent of children of Caribbean origin Care Study, p. 36). It will certainly cost more to munity is contributing too. For example, World achieved no GCSEs (school leaving certificate) in 2003, compared to 5.3 per cent educate these people, but much evidence suggests Bank-sponsored Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers of white children. that it will cost a lot more not to. For example, one (PRSPs) are meant to be the developing countries’ United States While three out of four white students graduate from public high school, only just study for the Inter-American Development Bank flagship strategies for promoting economic growth over one out of two African-American or Hispanic students do. In some large public notes that if Bolivia, Brazil, Guatemala and Peru and poverty reduction, approved and backed by school districts with high ethnic minority populations, the graduation rates are even ended their discrimination against Afro-descendant aid donors. They can take years to produce and go worse – in Detroit, for example, it is 25 per cent and in Baltimore 35 per cent. and indigenous groups, their economies would grow through numerous drafts and political bargains; by 36.7, 12.8, 13.6 and 4.2 per cent respectively once delivered, countries can receive tens, some- given food packages. In Macedonia, an EU candi- Benefits and costs – very large numbers that are likely to dwarf the times, hundreds of millions of dollars worth of aid. date country, the OSCE’s High Commissioner on Education provides enormous economic benefits for initial costs of education. Especially when a minor- However, in most cases, minority groups generally National Minorities, Knut Vollebaek, warned in countries, while the failure to educate often imposes ity group is relatively large compared to the broader – and the education of minorities in particular – are January 2009 of the ‘creeping separation’ in edu- enormous costs. There is, for example, strong evi- population, discrimination against it hurts the wider ignored in the PRSPs. UNESCO’s analysis of 18 cation and that ‘segregation undermines the very dence linking education to higher economic growth economy. For example, it is estimated that had countries’ most recent PRSPs concludes that none basis on which your children learn to build a shared and productivity. As UNESCO has noted, some Guatemala increased secondary school attendance of them mentions education of religious minor- society’. studies suggest that an additional year of schooling among its indigenous population from the existing ity groups; only two mention strategies to address

20 A world of State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities A world of 21 discrimination and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 discrimination inequities for ethnic minorities in primary education tries seriously committed to education for all will be ing and developed country governments, as well as can help. Cash transfers to poor families to help (one noting the provision of stipends, another the thwarted in their achievement of this goal by a lack development donors and the international financial with some school costs, and targeted scholarships language of instruction) and only one does so for of resources’. institutions, now need to move into a new phase and stipends for girls can help to create incentives secondary education (mentioning the importance of Third, the broader macro-economic policies being of re-targeting education policies on those most for families to send their daughters to school. curriculum relevance). A study of 15 country PRSPs promoted by the international financial institu- marginalized. The recommendations on the right Finally, some key principles need to underpin by the Chronic Poverty Research Centre at the tions have had some major impacts on education to education made by the UN Forum state that improved access to education. Human rights, University of Manchester found that ethnic minori- policy. For example, the International Monetary ‘authorities should remove direct institutional barri- including minority and indigenous rights, should ties were not mentioned at all in six and only men- Fund (IMF) has been pursuing a policy of placing ers to educational access for minorities and address pervade all aspects of school activity, and not just tioned once in a further three. Another academic ceilings on the public sector wage bill in several cultural and linguistic barriers that may have equiva- consist of a booklet with guidelines. Training for study found that of 37 PRSPs, 16 did not mention countries as a criterion for providing loans. A report lent access-denying effects’. These policies should be teachers, administrators and support staff is needed minority groups at all; only in a small number of by the international NGO ActionAid on three such accompanied by other social programmes to reduce so that they understand and implement these values. countries is there a focus on the education of eth- countries – Malawi, Mozambique and Sierra Leone minorities’ marginalization and promote broader Intercultural education should be a part of state nic minorities, such as Cambodia, Sri Lanka and – noted that by insisting on overly restrictive macro- social inclusion. education strategy, so that cultural differences are Vietnam, which stress the importance of reducing economic policies that constrain government spend- There is no blueprint and countries clearly need understood and respected. inequities and enhancing access to education. ing on wages, the IMF was in part responsible for to promote policies not only according to national Increased cooperation and the development of The UN Forum notes that ‘minorities have a right the persisting teacher shortage in those countries. In circumstances but also the particular needs of joint initiatives between governmental bodies, edu- to participate in the life of the state and in decisions Sierra Leone, for example, the IMF determined the minorities and indigenous peoples. But common cational institutions and NGOs is needed. Women affecting them’, and that in the field of education level of the ceiling and the government duly placed education policies are likely to involve: removing and men from minority and indigenous communi- ‘this right implies minority input into the design and a cap on the number of teachers it could hire as a school fees, building more and better schools in ties should be fully involved in educational reform. implementation of education programmes’. There is result. In all three countries, the ceiling was too low rural communities and recruiting more local, bilin- Regular and intensive consultation of policy makers little evidence that this is happening in most of the for the government to hire the teachers needed to gual and minority-language teachers. Segregation with local stakeholders is needed to identify the best PRSPs being drawn up with the help of the world’s achieve the pupil–teacher ratio of 40:1 recommend- that discriminates against minority groups should methods and policies to address communities’ edu- major aid donors. Clearly, Southern governments, ed by the Education for All – Fast-Track Initiative, be abolished, and other discriminatory laws and cational needs. Minority and indigenous organiza- with the support of donors, must revise their nation- a partnership between donors and developing coun- policies removed. Curricula need to be revised to tions, parents and community representatives should al policy strategies to address the needs of minority tries to ensure progress towards the MDG on educa- take account of minority and indigenous cultures be enabled to take a more proactive role and fully groups, especially in education. Until they do, the tion. Following the ActionAid report, the IMF said (which means the participation of those groups in participate in formulating the education philosophy MDG on education will not be met. that it would in future restrict the use of wage bill education policy). Overall, states need to provide on the local level. p A second concern is with development coopera- ceilings and deploy them more selectively. Although appropriate budgetary allocations in recognition tion assistance itself. There are simply no figures it has done this, it continues to maintain budget of the special needs of minorities. Developed and showing how much aid donors devote to supporting caps, low inflation or deficit targets in developing developing countries need seriously to improve their the education of minorities. Given that they are countries that limit government spending flexibility, collection of data to assess how education policy likely to constitute the majority of children out of meaning that some governments still face con- is benefiting particular communities. Developing school and of illiterate adults, this is a fundamen- straints in recruiting a sufficient number of teachers. country governments, the World Bank and other tal failing. It can, however, be presumed that the donors must ensure that PRSPs include strategies to amount of aid targeting minorities is very low. For Future policies and recommendations focus explicitly on the educational needs of minori- example, donors provide only a fifth of their educa- Given political will, sustained commitment and ties and indigenous peoples. Donors must also tion aid to basic education – $2.1 billion out of $9.8 adequate resources, massive progress in education report how much of their spending on education is billion, according to the most recent Organisation can and has been made. Globally, the number of devoted to minorities and ensure that aid is better for Economic Co-operation and Development children out of school has come down over the targeted on them. (OECD) statistics. Indeed, donors spend more than past decade. UNESCO notes that Ethiopia and There are particular challenges in ensuring twice as much on the administrative costs of their Tanzania, for example, have made remarkable that good-quality education reaches marginalized own aid programmes ($4.7 billion) as they do on progress in increasing school enrolment, thanks to minority and indigenous girls. Both improving the basic education. Some bilateral donors devote an policies such as abolishing school fees, construct- opportunities for attending and completing school, even smaller proportion of their education aid to ing schools in unserved areas and increasing teacher and boosting the demand for education are criti- basic education – France devotes 12 per cent, for recruitment; Tanzania has cut the number of chil- cal. Improvements in the quality of schooling are example, at the same time as devoting two-thirds to dren out of school by 3 million since 1999. important in light of evidence that girls are more funding students studying at French tertiary institu- But governments are not giving sufficient atten- likely than boys not to enrol in poor-quality schools, tions. Donors generally are not living up to their tion to reducing inequities in education and to or drop out. Policies such as ensuring the physical commitments: in the Dakar framework of action, focusing explicitly on the educational needs of safety of girls on their way to school and establish- for example, rich countries affirmed ‘that no coun- minorities and indigenous peoples. Both develop- ing special in-school programmes targeted at girls

22 A world of State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities A world of 23 discrimination and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 discrimination he statistics on global illiteracy and chil- tools and school management are seen as not being dren out of school are a stark reminder responsive to indigenous peoples’ needs. T that Education for All (EFA) is clearly The marginalization of minorities is never the not for all . Those who are out of school are in most product of just a single factor. It is often the prod- societies the most marginalized and disadvantaged, uct of complex forces which affect individuals at the hard and hardest to reach. With 101 million particular points in their lives. While factors relat- children out of school worldwide, if Education for ing to income and livelihoods have been identified All is to be achieved by 2015, then the education as the important economic causes of exclusion, the rights and needs of those excluded must become cultural and social factors that lead different groups paramount. This chapter reviews the challenges that to experience and value education differently are minorities and indigenous peoples face in education important explanatory factors. Table 1 draws from and strategies to overcome them. available research and provides a brief summary of some of the structural conditions which drive The marginalization of minorities and children into marginalization and its adverse effects. indigenous peoples: causes and effects It is important to recognize that while the table While the education needs of minorities and indig- presents these factors as analytically separate, they enous peoples are evident, it is clear, as this book are often interrelated in reality. notes, that the reality is one of discrimination, stig- Educational exclusion and marginalization of ma and poor-quality education. Overcoming such minorities and indigenous peoples are experienced factors is complex. and manifested in a number of ways, creating three Overcoming In the Philippines, for example, the Constitution sets of hurdles to be overcome. The first hurdle is provides that the state shall recognize, respect and ensuring physical access to education. Second, even protect the rights of indigenous cultural communi- when the excluded do have access to schools, they exclusion ties to preserve and develop their cultures, tradi- generally only have access to poorer-quality educa- tions and institutions, and that their rights shall be tion. (see Care Study, p. 36). The quality of the edu- considered in the formulation of national plans and cational experience has a crucial effect on the demand policies (Constitution, Section 17, Article IV). To for and completion of primary education. Retention in education give effect to this, the government has created vari- in primary schooling and progression to upper prima- ous structures, one of which includes the National ry and secondary education will continue to decrease Commission on Indigenous Peoples (NCIP). In as it becomes clear that, for many, the school services Yusuf Sayed consultation with civil society groups, an Indigenous that are provided do not meet their needs and are Peoples Core Curriculum based on an Alternative alienating and exclusionary. Jansen, writing about Learning System (ALS) was created. The curriculum education change in South Africa after the ending of uses the same competencies as the general cur- Apartheid notes how black students are excluded from riculum but focuses on what is considered essential entry to ‘white’ schools in the new South African to indigenous peoples, and each indigenous group dispensation. He found a hostile and cultural envi- may decide either to adapt or modify it as they find ronment in which assumptions are fixed about what the need to do so. However, while this may be a constitutes good schooling and appropriate language positive development, the lack of certification and policy. Delpit writes about curricula for poor and equivalency has made it difficult for those in the black students in the USA and notes that in schools ALS to be mainstreamed into formal education, the worldviews of those with a privileged position are as Caoli-Rodriguez notes in a background paper taken as the only reality, while most of the marginal- for the UNESCO EFA global monitoring report. ized are ignored. These studies show that schools can Additionally, the danger is that the ALS is seen as a be alienating and their ethos and institutional culture second-best separate education track for indigenous effectively exclude the marginalized. peoples. While some students have completed for- The third hurdle comes once students leave edu- mal basic education and some have earned college cation. It is crucial to focus on the outcomes for degrees, most indigenous peoples are unserved and marginalized minorities and indigenous peoples. minimally reached by the ALS. Moreover, teaching A focus on outcomes considers the labour market approaches and methods, the curriculum, evaluation opportunities that the marginalized enjoy upon

State of the World’s Minorities Overcoming exclusion 25 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 in education completing education and their social status. In ing this. Management believed that accepting large Table 1 Structural conditions that marginalize children, and some of their effects many cases minorities are under-represented in numbers of low-income learners from many differ- key positions in society. For example, the UK civil ent areas had contributed to the high attrition rate Structural Adverse effect service still struggles to recruit sufficient numbers of of learners. The majority of educators favoured the conditions minority ethnic staff into senior positions – they are admission of learners from the local area only. In often clustered at the lower grades of employment. effect this meant a greater intake of ‘Indian’ learn- Conflict Children often become mentally and physically disabled, orphans, refugees or inter- Universities in the UK are still not wholly represent- ers. The reason given was that this would alleviate nally displaced people as a consequence of wars or conflicts. In Uganda, 613,000 ative of minority ethnic members in society. some of the problems experienced in the classroom children, many of them from ethnic minorities, became orphans during the 1990s in terms of the continuity of standards. due to conflict. In Sierra Leone, it is estimated that during the eleven years of civil Exclusion and inclusion in education: The charging and payment of school fees had a war there were nearly 48,000 child soldiers, a quarter of whom were girls. In Jordan examples from South Africa and India profound effect on the exclusion of the previously and Syria, some 72,000 Iraqi children in refugee camps attend school with the help In a detailed study, we examined education inclu- marginalized black majority. At Lagaan School, of UNHCR. sion and exclusion of race- and caste-based groups where school fees had increased from R120 in 2001 Disability Disabled children have limited access to educational facilities, learning equipment, in India and South Africa, looking at the extent to R450 in 2002, parents reported feeling embar- and teachers who are trained to teach them. This is particularly so in rural areas or to which the government’s policy commitment to rassed about the fact that they did not pay school urban slums in developing countries. There are an estimated 150 million children overcoming discrimination and marginalization was fees as they did not have the means. While they with disabilities in the world. In India, it is estimated that 4.3 per cent of children translated into practice at the school level, focus- were not excluded, the fact that they did not pay aged 6 to 13 out of school in 2005 were disabled. ing on governance, curricula and teaching (Sayed, led them to hold back in certain activities at the Discrimination Children from a marginalized ethnicity, religion, tribe or class often experience Y., Subrahmanian, R., Carrim, N. and Soudien, school. In the case of Eastdale School, parents had educational exclusion due to negative social attitudes, sometimes over a long period C., Education Exclusion and Inclusion: Policy and to ‘be able to afford it’ in order for their children to of history. In sub-Saharan Africa, only 13 per cent of children who receive primary Implementation in India and South Africa, DfID, be part of the school. Many ‘African’ parents chose education use their mother tongues. Lack of access to primary education in their London, 2008). Eastdale based on the view that such schools offered mother tongues often makes it difficult for children to follow instructions. Batwa a better quality education. In some ways, they children in the Great Lakes Region of Africa continue to face widespread discrimina- Inhibiting access: governance processes wanted the school to remain an exclusive school. It tion. Even when they have access to primary education, they suffer from verbal and and procedures was very much a school for the middle class and, sexual abuse and school curricula do not meet their needs. In South Africa it was clear that access and inclusion moreover, a school for boys. Disease Children who are affected or infected by HIV/AIDS and other diseases often were regulated at all schools in the study, despite the What this reveals is that while no schools were become marginalized due to social stigma, poor health or increased costs for treat- welter of prescriptions by central government and overtly discriminating on the basis of ‘race’, class or ment. Those children are also more likely to become orphans with little or no in the South African Schools Act (SASA) about the gender, in practice all of these factors were in use as protection from violence. In sub-Saharan Africa, it is estimated that the number of state operating an open access system. Under the schools introduced language tests through interviews orphans whose parents died from AIDS increased from 6.5 million in 2001 to 11.6 SASA, all children have the right to be admitted to and entrance examinations, consistently pushed up million in 2007. school. However, even though schools were follow- their fees to maintain what they thought were ‘good’ Family breakdown Children often leave home due to family problems. These include: family crisis, ing the SASA, the study showed that the schools standards and presented themselves as bastions of unemployment, divorce, alcoholism and substance abuse weakening family ties. In had very specific interpretations of the policy and one or other culture. Central and Eastern Europe, the Commonwealth of Independent States, and the used various strategies to exclude learners. Baltics, about 1.5 million children are in public care, an increase of 150,000 since Language at schools was used as a consistent way Curricula: language and exclusion 1989, due to problems relating to their families. of excluding parents and their children or limiting Formally, all the schools in South Africa taught Location Indigenous, rural or nomadic people often live in marginalized areas where access to their rights. For example, at Ruby Primêr in South the new mandated Curriculum 2005, which is a basic facilities such as health care and education is limited. They are also less likely Africa one parent reported that her son had been skills-based curriculum as opposed to a content- to be registered at birth and are more prone to poor health and low participation in demoted to a lower grade because he did not have based one. While all the schools expressed and education. Evidence from DfID-funded projects shows that 1 million Peruvians and an Afrikaans background: ‘There is nothing we manifested a commitment to Curriculum 2005, 87 per cent of Bolivians living in indigenous and rural areas do not hold identity could do because they said he could not understand language became a key way in which previously cards. This means that they have limited access to public health care and education, Afrikaans.’ disadvantaged black learners experienced exclusion. and are barred from political participation. In this group of former House of Representatives Clear examples of the problem occurred at former Poverty Children work on the streets, in hazardous places, or as sex workers due to house- (HOR) schools (for people classified ‘coloured’) ‘white’ schools such as Eastdale, Oasis and North hold poverty. Such children are at risk of mental, psychological, physical and sexual and former House of Delegates (HOD) schools (for City High, the former Department of Education abuse. Worldwide, as many as 100 million children are estimated to be street chil- people classified ‘Indian’), the least open school was and Training (DET) schools such as Basildon, and dren. Some estimates suggest that about 11,172 children live and work on the streets Amazon Secondary. The school had made a con- the former HOR and HOD schools such as Ruby in Mexico City. scious decision to improve its matriculation results and Lagaan. At Eastdale, the school adopted the and so used learner admissions as a means of achiev- attitude that parents wanted their children to learn

26 Overcoming exclusion State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Overcoming exclusion 27 in education and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 in education Left: On 4 February 2009, a girl sits alone at a desk ties are available. Thus, a progressive education during a lesson at Omar Ben al-Khattab School in the framework is one in which access to good-quality town of Beit Lahia, in the northern Gaza Strip. Behind higher education, as well as primary and second- her is a hole in the classroom’s wall, made during Israel’s ary education, is available to marginalized groups. recent military incursion. Iyad El Baba/UNICEF. Moreover, higher education is crucial to facilitate economic growth, to enhance innovative capacity, they came from homes where education was not and to utilize and diffuse new technologies. More valued. These views were expressed by almost all the importantly, inequities between the rich and the teachers who were from upper-caste backgrounds. poor are exacerbated at higher levels of education. The effect was that they taught in ways which did Thus, effective strategies to overcome the marginali- not challenge or enrich the learning experiences zation of minorities and indigenous peoples in and of the marginalized and produced a view among through education require investment in all levels Dalit and Adivasi students that they were not good of education and not merely a narrow focus on pri- learners, thus creating a vicious cycle of their exclu- mary and basic education. sion from learning. In many cases the research found that in the classrooms teachers operated a Strategies to overcome marginalization direct prejudicial and discriminatory pedagogy. For While there are no blueprints that can be trans- example, in both the primary and middle schools planted from one context to another, there are a in Harda, Korku students were asked to sweep the number of strategies which are worth considering school and fetch registers, while the task of serving in tackling marginalization. In general, most of the the teacher water was done by Muslim and Kahar strategies are what could be classified as affirma- (other lower-caste) children. tive action or positive discrimination as they are To overcome discrimination and alienation in the interventions targeted for the benefit of particular school and classroom settings, attention has to be groups. They are and should be, in theory, short- paid to ensuring that: term strategies designed to leading to greater equal- ity in society – a means to an end and not an end in p  there are adequate financial and other incen- themselves. English, consequently, while it offered Xhosa as the that speaking English properly was the major moti- tives put in place to attract teachers to work in While there are many interventions which can second language, English was privileged throughout vation for sending their children to these schools. It areas where minorities and indigenous peoples be identified, there is not, as yet, sufficient rigorous the school. At Oasis the approach taken was that was often ‘African’ educators who were the subject are located; and systematic research which documents the cost- English represented a commitment to ‘standards’. At of their complaints and ‘African’ educators whose p  there are incentives to attract more teachers effectiveness of these programmes and their impact Basildon, as explained above, learners who were not teaching competence they doubted. Learners were from minorities into the teaching profession, on student learning. The major evaluations of English-proficient were either excluded or enrolled themselves not innocent bystanders in these process- overcoming current obstacles and barriers; voucher schemes, for example, show mixed evidence in lower classes. es. ‘African’ educators complained about the ridicule p  there is better initial (and ongoing) teacher regarding their impact on learning, their cost in The most extreme example of structured lan- to which ‘African’ learners subjected them because training and adequate support in order to pre- relation to benefits compared to other programmes, guage exclusion happened at Ruby. Here Afrikaans of the way in which they spoke English. pare teachers for working with minorities in a and the transaction cost. ruled the roost in ways that were considered fairly positive and affirming manner; For affirmative action interventions to be effec- unproblematic by the school. While some of the Teachers and teaching p  attention is paid to instruction in the home tive, they need to be well targeted, sustainable and educators were ambiguous about the introduction Teachers are crucial to ensuring inclusion of mar- language and teachers are competent to do so; cost effective. Tables 2–4 show a number of poten- of Xhosa, the school as a whole was inflexible in its ginalized learners at the classroom level. Policies p  there are incentive programmes for teachers tial interventions, pointing out not only their ben- privileging of Afrikaans. The case was the same with need to address the professionalism and develop- that acknowledge good practice in fostering efits but also some of the adverse unintended out- respect to English at Eastdale and Oasis. ment of all staff, especially teaching staff. Most inclusion; comes. Moreover, it is important to recognize that The fact that most of the learners were not importantly, staff should demonstrate their commit- p  teachers’ appraisals explicitly focus on efforts the strategies should be interrelated. For example, English mother tongue speakers made very little ment to a culture of inclusivity by ensuring that all to promote inclusion; strategies to overcome barriers to accessing school difference in each of the schools. Few of the schools students feel included in the classroom. p  the teaching body reflects to some degree the should also ensure that the school curriculum and made any efforts to use the learners’ first languages In the study of India we found that teachers had composition of the student body. procedures are made relevant and cater to the needs in a formative and affirming way. Interestingly, this a deficit notion of the educational potential of mar- of the marginalized. structured exclusion was a process in which ‘African’ ginalized minorities and indigenous peoples. They To ensure an adequate supply of suitably qualified One set of strategies to overcome exclusion can parents, educators and learners were often complicit. stated that Dalit and Adivasi children were ‘not able teachers from minority and indigenous communi- be classified as demand-side interventions. These At most of the schools, the parents made it clear to be educated’, ‘were not good at learning’ and that ties, it is essential that higher education opportuni- include, as Table 2 shows, incentives to include the

28 Overcoming exclusion State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Overcoming exclusion 29 in education and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 in education Table 2 Examples of incentives to include the marginalized Table 3 Examples of alternative forms of education provision

Special admissions policies Lower admission requirements to educational institutions. A preferential Second-chance Providing bridging education for youth people and adults. The national university admission requirement for indigenous Fijians in Fiji increased education programmes governments in Indonesia and Thailand made legal provision for the right access for the indigenous population. However, quality and performance to education for all citizens. This enabled young people and adults to obtain were found to remain of great concern if indigenous students are to succeed basic education. A UNESCO study found that specific identification of in university. targeted groups rather than the ‘rural poor’ is important for the success of Reservation schemes Providing quotas for socially discriminated populations. In India, reserved the programme. seats for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes are provided in proportion Provide relevant education Offering programmes to meet the social and education needs of children and to their population. The national average of reserved seats for such children for children in conflict young people in post-conflict situations. Through a guidance and training is 22.5 per cent and some districts provide 50 per cent, according to or post-conflict programme called the Healing Classrooms Initiative (HCI) in northern government figures. Ethiopia, prospective teachers who had not completed secondary education Scholarship, bursaries, Providing scholarships, bursaries, or stipends. In Sierra Leone and Djibouti, gained confidence to become alternatively qualified teachers for children in or stipends researchers found that girls’ scholarship programmes improved attendance camps. The HCI programme also offered the opportunity to complete and and retention but created tension between the recipients and non-recipients to continue further education. This programme demonstrated that there is who were equally qualified. More careful selection of recipients is necessary in potential to provide quality education in camps. order to reduce drop-outs and increase retention. Provide appropriate Offering education opportunities that respond to the needs of disabled people. Reduce or eliminate Abolishing school fees or providing school fee waivers. The government of education opportunities The Inclusive Education Fund supported children with visual, hearing or direct costs of schooling Kenya abolished primary school fees in 2003. This led enrolments to increase for disabled people mobility disabilities to access regular schools. The Uruguay experience by 1.3 million. However, a UNESCO study found that lack of facilities to demonstrated that, by supporting architectural improvements and training accommodate children, overcrowded classrooms, a shortage of teachers, a teachers to acquire knowledge and skills for the academic needs of all children lack of clear guidelines on admission, delay in disbursement of funds and in regular schools, the benefit of inclusive education went beyond those expanded roles of head teachers were commonly observed. disabled children, promoting development of social, cognitive and emotional Grants (conditional and Providing cash grants and supporting community-based efforts. The Bolsa skills for all children and teachers in the programme school and contributing unconditional, cash and Escola programme (merged in 2004 with other income-transfer programmes) to the quality of education. in-kind) in Brazil provided income support to poor families to encourage school Private schooling Allow communities to establish schools to empower and include attendance. A World Bank assessment found that although the programme was marginalized communities in decision making. In recent years, India considered to be successful in general, questions remained over the way received a large influx of children previously denied access to education. in which beneficiaries were identified and targeted, and its Given financial constraints, the government of India allowed the private long-term sustainability. education sector to flourish and encouraged communities to participate, also addressing the ‘upper-caste’ hegemony of teaching positions by lowering educational qualifications to become a teacher. However, Sarada Balagopalan and Ramya Subrahmanian, writing for the Institute of marginalized by offering special admission policies ing school curricula, language policy and teacher Development Studies, cautioned that more low-fee private schools for Dalit or reservation schemes, or providing financial incen- training, which have the potential to enhance the and Adivasi children offer a low-quality education with fewer teaching tives such as scholarships, bursaries, stipends and relevance and quality of education that minorities materials and more unqualified teachers. If the reform intends to bring grants. and indigenous peoples receive. about inclusive education for all children, the government has to improve Other possible interventions create alternative the quality of education, which is thus undermined. forms of education provision that cater to the specific Financing of education Mobile schools Offer mobile schools to those who are unable to reach conventional schools. needs of particular groups for whom conventional Adequate domestic and international financing Most people in North Eastern province in Kenya are pastoralist nomads. schooling models are inappropriate. Table 3 lists remains key to ensuring that there are effective Girls in the area have very low school enrolments because they are often some supply-side interventions which focus on creat- policies and interventions to increase access to assigned to take livestock to a water point with their family, staying a few ing forms of schooling that are more relevant and good-quality education for all, particularly the days before moving to another water point. In order to ensure schooling appropriate to the needs of specific groups. marginalized and disadvantaged. The Dakar of girls as well as of boys in the area, the Ministry of Education established While it is important to increase the supply of Framework of Action is built on a promise that mobile schools near water points. Flexible timetables enabled schools to education and boost demand, it is equally necessary, no government committed to education develop- adjust to the nomadic lives. In Cebu City in the Philippines, the mobile as noted earlier, to change the educational experi- ment will be ‘thwarted by lack of resources’. Yet, school programme delivered by bus serves over 500 street children and other ences of the marginalized in schools. Table 4 focuses the UNESCO 2009 global monitoring report vulnerable children annually. (See Case Study, pp. 36–41.) on key teaching and learning interventions, includ- estimates that of the US$11 billion in development

30 Overcoming exclusion State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Overcoming exclusion 31 in education and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 in education Table 3 Examples of alternative forms of education provision (Continued) Table 4 Key teaching and learning interventions

Community schools Offer smaller community schools closer to home. Some girls in Pakistan’s Language Introduce legislation on minority language instruction in school. Indigenous North-West Frontier Province attend community schools assisted by Sami people in Norway are guaranteed first-language education in and official UNICEF. The number of public schools in the area is limited, and some status for the Sami languages. Until the seventh grade, parents have the choice children walk for up to three hours each way to attend school. Community of whether their children are taught in Sami or not. Local parents welcomed schools help girls who could not otherwise receive primary education. In order this and many Sami children learn in their mother tongue. Some Sami teacher to ensure the quality of education and the curriculum content, teachers must training is done in Sami languages. have a primary teaching certificate and a head teacher of the nearest public Curriculum Develop a curriculum that integrates indigenous cultures. In Australia, there is primary school visits the community school on a weekly basis. funding for Aboriginal education through special programmes, although this has led to short-term solutions and Aboriginal education has come to be seen as not relevant to business. Consequently, despite improvement in educational aid annually needed for low-income countries to out controversy, is to load the funding formula in outcomes of indigenous Australians in past decades, many indigenous students achieve education for all, in 2006 only one-third favour of schools that attract such communities. In continue to drop out before Year 12. Poor education outcomes of indigenous of this was promised. This affects minorities and other words, additional financial resources accrue students limit their access to further education as well as post-school options. indigenous peoples, who are the most in need of to schools which teach marginalized groups. There Teacher training Offer teacher trainees a curriculum that enhances awareness of special educational support but are also the hard- should also be conscious efforts to redirect the best and curriculum multiculturalism. Intercultural Bilingual Education Teacher Training est to reach. In Tanzania, aid to education sup- teachers to schools serving minorities. Programmes in Peru (AIDESEP/ISPL Programme) expose trainees to the ported the reduction of out-of-school children by A further option would be to create a special different cultures that exist in Peru, enabling them to understand the needs 3 million since 1999. In Ethiopia, the government policy reserve fund from the general exchequer for and demands of indigenous peoples. Although the Ministry of Education increased the budget allocation to education from education programmes that favour the marginalized. welcomed the programme in teacher training colleges, in 1999 it adopted 3.6 per cent of gross national product (GNP) in Such a fund would pay for the kind of interventions a new national competence-based curriculum for teacher training, which 1999 to 6 per cent in 2006. The number of out- discussed in the previous section. For such a fund to limited what could and could not be done in the intercultural bilingual of-school children decreased from 7 million to 3.7 be effective there need to be clearly developed crite- education programme. million during the same period, and this would ria and effective means of targeting and monitoring Teacher training and Give teachers incentives to teach in remote areas or recruit teachers from not be achieved without international assistance. disbursement. deployment minority communities. In Uganda, a recent World Bank study on teacher Yet, despite promises made at Gleneagles in 2005, An obvious strategy is to remove school fees and attrition shows that the provision of housing to teachers who were posted in donors are still not forthcoming with aid, and not just tuition fees. However, free state provision of rural areas had a positive effect on teacher retention. In 2005, 15 per cent of almost US $30 billion remains to be committed if education seems to be the exception, with a major- the school facility grant was allocated to the construction of teacher housing. the overall promise is to be met. ity of countries charging fees, in different forms. Of In Ghana, posting newly qualified teachers from the same college in pairs Worryingly, while education as a share of total the 92 countries surveyed by Bentaouet and Burnett seems to work well, as does providing opportunities for study leave. In Laos, official development assistance (ODA) remained in a 2004 study for the World Bank, 83 per cent recruiting ethnic minorities into teacher training had some positive outcomes, constant at 9 per cent in 2006, basic education as a have some type of fee (whether legal or illegal). The although language barriers had to be overcome. In addition, not all students share of total aid to education slightly dropped to majority of these countries (58 countries), including who graduated from training courses returned to their communities, due to 45 per cent, compared with 48 per cent in 2004. South Africa, charge legal fees which often take the marriage and other reasons. Thus, more aid to basic education is important to form of tuition fees. As many as 33 countries sup- ensure that the world keeps the promise of educa- plement state income with informal types of school tion for all by 2015. fees, such as Parent Teacher Association or com- the extent to which redress (or differential spending) The government of South Africa has also sought Although more aid is a necessary condition, it is munity contributions. In sub-Saharan Africa, only has been achieved. to use the principle of pro-poor financing in the not a sufficient condition. Increased aid to educa- three countries provide fully free primary education. The primary interventions to achieve equity in funding of independent schools on condition that tion must be accompanied by aid which is predict- The removal of fees (tuition and other charges) will education in South Africa include shifts in inter- they provide quality education, combat racism and able, harmonized and coordinated. Developing have a positive effect on encouraging marginalized provincial funding (the poorest provinces will serve the poor. While such public funding of inde- country governments should also improve the minorities to enrol. receive more) and greater school allocations for the pendent schools is fairly limited, it is very significant fairness and quality of education service delivery, Given the enormous inequalities in state expendi- poorest pupils. The differential allocation is a sig- for lower-cost providers with a high intake of poorer and transparency and accountability, by tackling ture during the Apartheid period, achieving equity nificant departure from previous policy that focused children. The Department of Education recognized corruption. in South Africa was always going to be a major chal- on equalizing state per capita expenditure. It is an in 1998 that independent schools are cost-efficient Developing country governments can do much lenge. Current reviews concur that there have been acknowledgement that the poor need greater sup- for the state: ‘if all learners were to transfer to public to increase resourcing for minorities and indigenous enormous gains in racial equity in terms of state port, but also that the Apartheid legacy of poverty schools, the cost of public education in certain prov- peoples. One general approach, which is not with- expenditure per pupil. What is more contentious is remains. inces might increase by as much as five percent’.

32 Overcoming exclusion State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Overcoming exclusion 33 in education and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 in education Left: Women from the nomadic Hidareb minor- appropriate system of incentives is in place at the ity who live on the arid plains of the Barka River, institutional level to encourage schools to monitor Kerkebet region, Eritrea. Heldur Netocny/Panos. the progress of the excluded. Development agencies can and should play a key framework which has the needs of the marginalized role in overcoming marginalization. There are a at its centre, impressive rates of growth will not number of ways this could be done, including: automatically benefit the poor. In adopting a holis- tic approach, it is also important to note that the p ensuring that educational inclusion features marginalized are not a homogeneous group ­– the prominently in sector reviews, development category of those classified as excluded reflects and dialogues and other modalities of support; refracts existing ethnic, class and gender differences p working with partner governments to ensure and other inequities in society. that social inclusion is planned for, budgeted Third, there should be a participatory process and monitored; involving all social groups and in particular those p sharing and disseminating good practice on whom the policy is intended to benefit. Effective tackling social exclusion in education; take-up rests on ownership by those for whom the p encouraging constructive policy dialogue policy is intended. with NGOs; Fourth, policy mandates need to be coupled with p consolidating and aligning international efforts strong political will and enhanced social awareness to tackle social exclusion in education; to ensure effective implementation and desirable p collecting data, reporting on progress and outcomes. Thus communities need to be active in ensuring effective international monitoring and arguing for and being party to how inclusion poli- advocacy. cies unfold at all levels of the education system. In particular, attention needs to be paid to strength- Overcoming the marginalization of minorities ening the ability of communities to hold schools and indigenous peoples requires conscious policy accountable. choices where the goal is to enlarge the opportuni- ties people have to develop and lead valued lives. Policy lessons in overcoming important to develop context-specific policies that Effective implementation of policies For this to occur requires strong political will and marginalization are tailored to specific needs while ensuring that While the rhetorical value of many policies on capacity on the part of governments. It also requires A number of lessons can be highlighted from differentiation does not drift into new forms of seg- inclusion is high, their potential for implementation an active and assertive civil society populated by research and experience in overcoming the exclu- regation. Thus, the key policy is to move towards an remains precarious. In this regard strong efforts need organizations of the marginalized that champion sion of marginalized groups. The first relates to approach which ensures unity and equality through to be made to establish mechanisms to support the their needs and hold governments to account. the dialectic between the universality of the right diversity. implementation of policy and to ensure that there Overcoming discrimination and promoting inclu- to education and the specificity of need and focus. Second, it is important to recognize that a more is much stronger correspondence between policy as sion in education are important goals in any society, In developing policies which are responsive to the inclusive education system is a necessary but not a pronounced and policy as practised. Implementing but they are not ends in themselves. They are means needs of minorities and indigenous peoples, there sufficient condition for ensuring that the rights of policy on inclusion should be the responsibility of to an end that is ultimately the fundamental trans- is a need to move away from one-size-fits-all poli- minorities and indigenous peoples are protected, all levels of the education system, right down to the formation of society so that groups whose rights are cies and instead develop those which recognize that promoted and advanced. What is also needed, as the level of school heads of department. most often denied can see their freedoms enlarged. p individuals’ social positions. A failure to understand experience of promoting gender equality reveals, is Effective implementation at the school level has the specificity of the problems can create perverse respect for the rights of minorities in society more already been described extensively in this chap- unintended outcomes. However, there is also simul- widely. Greater synergy between education reform ter. Additionally, a key condition for ensuring taneously a need to retain a focus on ‘universalism’ and societal transformation is crucial in developing implementation of policy is enhanced monitoring or an integrated view of social equality. In education a more coherent, holistic and joined-up approach of exclusion. This needs to develop an expanded terms, the needs of minorities are in one way similar to protecting and advancing the rights of minori- notion of inclusion beyond formal access to school, to those of all learners, that is, the need for good- ties. For example, without the marginalized being and should include monitoring the achievement quality education that is accessible, relevant, respon- able to meet basic needs such as health and housing, of learners from marginalized and disadvantaged sive and acceptable. Marginalized groups don’t they have to trade off education against other needs. communities and disaggregating expenditure in need, as the South African Apartheid system prior Without a policy which champions gender equal- terms of beneficiary analysis. Robust and appropri- to 1994 poignantly illustrates, a segregated, separate ity, girls and women will find it especially difficult ate monitoring means that policy remediation can and inferior second-chance education system. It is to benefit from education. Without an economic occur. Effective monitoring also requires that an

34 Overcoming exclusion State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Overcoming exclusion 35 in education and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 in education astoralists and nomadic herders number define and make visible their rights. The first defini- several tens of millions of people worldwide. tion of ‘mobile peoples’ in the international context P Located mainly in the dry lands of Africa, is given in the Dana Declaration (Jordan, 2002): South and Central Asia, and the Middle East, they include some of the most vulnerable peoples in the ‘The term mobile peoples (i.e. pastoralists, hunter- world, though they frequently make an important gatherers, shifting agriculturalists and other peoples with contribution to national food production. In several dynamic regular changing patterns of land use) refers countries of the Horn of Africa, a significant propor- to a subset of indigenous and traditional peoples whose tion of the population – at least 10 per cent – are livelihoods depend on extensive common property use of considered to be nomads or pastoralists. Other coun- natural resources over an area, who use mobility as a tries, such as Nigeria and Tanzania, now refer to new management strategy for dealing with sustainable land types of nomads, including not only fishing com- use and conservation, and who possess a distinctive cul- munities but also small-scale mining groups, tea har- tural identity and natural resource management system.’ vesters and sugar cane cutters. The mobility of these groups and the remote, often harsh environments in The first definition of mobile indigenous peoples is which they live are persistent obstacles to the provi- included in Recommendation 27 of the 5th World sion of formal education, and millions of nomadic Parks Congress (Durban, September 2003): children remain outside the education system. One of the biggest risks for these children is that, ‘Mobile indigenous peoples (i.e. nomads, pastoralists, with the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) hunter-gatherers, and shifting agriculturalists) are a Case Study being based on national averages, such inequalities subset of traditional and indigenous peoples whose live- within countries can be obscured. Absence of reliable lihoods depend on some form of common property use data and the resulting invisibility of pastoralist groups of natural resources, and whose mobility is both a dis- within national education statistics renders them tinctive source of cultural identity and a management Challenges in unseen, uncountable and uncounted. The disconnect strategy for sustainable land use and conservation.’ probably derives from assumptions that the nomads fit poorly in the imperatives of Education for All and of Most recently, the Segovia Declaration of Nomadic policy and practice: the MDGs for multiple reasons, which mainly include and Transhumant Pastoralists (Spain, 2007) recog- the scattered and low-density distribution of pastoral nizes the need to: populations, their varying degrees of mobility being pastoralists and seen as negative indicators of social development rather ‘promote education of children in mobile communities than viable livelihood and natural resource manage- by providing mobile and boarding schools as required, ment strategies. This is to forget that the Millennium using the indigenous or local languages, and respecting Declaration is both visionary and pragmatic. As the the dignity of mobile communities by incorporating in nomadic peoples UNICEF State of the World’s Children report proposed the teaching curricula elements of the local culture and in 2006, its vision is a world of peace, equity, toler- indigenous knowledge.’ Amina Osman ance, security, freedom, solidarity, respect for the envi- ronment and shared responsibility in which special care The Segovia Declaration also promotes the respon- and attention is given to the vulnerable, especially chil- sibility to: dren. Its pragmatism lies in its central premise: human development and poverty reduction are prerequisites ‘assure equal access by pastoralists and other mobile for such a world. communities to higher education, and develop specific educational programmes on pastoralism and subjects International definitions and related to mobile and nomadic communities, promote recommendations action-research of relevance to mobile communities and When nomadic peoples are made invisible, it is easi- ensure access by mobile communities to such relevant er to deny them recognition and the rights common educational and action-research programmes’. to any national citizen. However, while nomadic peoples are often invisible at the national level, there The Segovia Declaration builds on both the Dana are several international precedents that can assist to Declaration and the World Parks Congress

36 Pastoralists and State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Challenges in policy 37 nomadic peoples and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and practice recommendations, reaffirming the right of all chil- Right: Children line up to enter the Galifega dren to learn while recognizing their diverse needs Alternative Basic Education Primary School, within a range of flexible learning and teaching Ethiopia. When they move to a new location, strategies and spaces. families can dismantle the ‘mobile school’ along with their huts. The ‘alternative education’ model Overcoming issues of mobility and adapts learning environments to the pastoral way of remoteness life. Indrias/UNICEF. If nomadic peoples’ continuous mobility is per- ceived as a lack of social evolution, it legitimizes any and resource-management strategy, is also deeply political push for sedentarization, and educational interrelated with identity. Saverio Kratli, researcher provision may well serve as a direct or indirect at the Institute of Development Studies at Sussex instrument in promoting a hidden agenda of chang- University, points out in a study for the World ing the attitudes and beliefs of nomads, when there Bank that, when addressing the education of is no alternative provision that adequately responds pastoralists: to their needs and respects their right to education and learning. Do pastoralists and other mobile com- ‘it is all too often forgotten that to be “pastoral- munities want their children to learn to read and ist” means being Turkana (Kenya), Rabari (India), write? Qashqa’i (Iran), or from some other community. It is In effect, with the consequences of food cri- an identity these people take pride in, a complex and sis, climate change and globalization and other sophisticated way of life which, with all its harshness, factors, nomads are having increasing difficulty they profoundly love.’ sustaining their livelihood. Education can bring a sense of possibilities and fulfilment to commu- Arguing that education has mainly been intended nity members. For example the Tigré community as an instrument to transform the pastoralists into in Geleb, on the Eritrean coast, who live part of something else, however, he explains that: the year in semi-desert areas, have seen increased access to education for their children over the ‘The history of mass education programmes for nomads last three years, as well as an improvement in safe has been that of an encounter between people seeking realize national objectives and foster national unity of constant search for pasture for their animals, water supply and sanitation. Quality of life for the new ways of adapting to an evolving context – mon- through a uniform system. When the centrally very few Wodaabe children of Niger go to school. community has greatly improved. The elders say etarization of the economy, commodification of labour planned and controlled curriculum stresses formal It has not been part of their tradition and they are their children are learning new concepts and skills, and privatization of land – and a broad set of actors, academic achievements rather than knowledge and constantly prone to periods of hunger, especially which they hope will provide a future different from policy-makers and project officers to teachers and practical skills relevant to pastoralists, it is invariably when there is a drought and they do not have access from their own lives, largely determined by the local officials, who widely believe that nomads have perceived as inappropriate and irrelevant, alienating to millet or to water. Often the Wodaabe would be daily struggle for survival and seasonal migrations to be “saved” from their way of life. It is upon this children from their communities and lifestyles, and forced to sell their cattle. in search of water. cultural clash that the “problem” of delivering mass contributing to poor attendance and participation In Ethiopia, pastoralists often do not send their Nomads and pastoralists may be turning to edu- education to nomads has been framed and policy solu- in education. Central curricula tend then to create children to school as they cannot afford to pay cation as a means to assure their children’s future, tions devised.’ disparities between pastoralist communities and the for their food and lodging in the towns where the but when the outcomes of such provision remain rest of the population. schools are located. However, economic challenges uncertain, they turn away. Consequently, these Problems are defined according to the line that Inequity also comes from an education of poor are not the only barrier to education for nomadic nomadic pastoralist communities have very low the mobility of the nomadic pastoralists makes any quality delivered through poor infrastructure and boys and girls. Even when fees are not charged and enrolment figures and high drop-out rates in the effective use of conventional schools difficult. Low inadequate facilities. Furthermore, the use of per- indirect costs are low, or when parents could in formal system. Estimates of numbers of nomadic population sparsely distributed over an extended manent and immovable structures for conventional principle afford to send their children to school, and pastoralist children out of school worldwide are area requires a large catchment area to provide classrooms and schools is unsuitable for nomads, there are other interrelated problems. There is a difficult to make because of the invisibility of pas- enough children for a school, leading to long who are continually on the move, migrating from wide range of tasks that both boys and girls in rural toralist groups within national aggregated education walking distance to school each day. At the same one settlement to another in response to seasonal areas are expected to carry out, such as tending live- statistics. A 2003 Oxfam study puts the estimated time, the rigid education system does not allow and occupational demands. With the best inten- stock, collecting water, cooking. Sending children number of nomadic and pastoralist children out of children of nomadic pastoralists to attend school tions, these constant migrations disrupt their chil- to school imposes a significant additional non-cash school between 15 and 25 million. as they are required to provide labour in herding dren’s schooling as they do not stay long enough in burden on the families. This is particularly impor- As defined by the 5th World Parks Congress animals. This also leads to the question of national a settlement for learners to complete an academic tant where tasks, and other obligations, fall dispro- Recommendation 27, pastoralism, as a livelihoods centrally mandated curricula, which are meant to session or school year. For instance, due to a lifestyle portionately on girls.

38 Challenges in policy State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Challenges in policy 39 and practice and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and practice Articulation of knowledge systems Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda), which ern states, undertaken by the Federal Ministry of Mobile and boarding schools have not always been pose a serious threat to the challenge of the MDG General Education, found that more than one-third Complementary the best solution. Kratli notes that, in 1970, the par- of Universal Primary Education by the year 2015. of families that did not enrol children in school did Elementary Education liament in Kenya amended the Anglo-Maasai agree- The study makes a set of recommendations for what so through choice rather than because of any exter- ment which had kept reserves closed to non-Maasai, can be done to resolve problems of equity, access, nal obstacle. (CEE) in Eritrea and launched a programme aimed at improving quality of education provision and learning, and to In Kenya, it is estimated that there are about 6.7 enrolment by setting up low-cost boarding schools. ensure an environment that is conducive to learn- million children of school age (6–13) with about By UNICEF However, the new educational facilities were flood- ing, the assumption being that each context creates 660,000 in the twelve pastoral districts. These ed by pupils from non-pastoral ethnic groups and the rationale for appropriate policy response(s) and areas have a comparatively low gross enrolment were disregarded by the Maasai. Mobile schools, services that address the specific educational needs rate (GER), with a majority of children of primary Nomadic populations in Eritrea move twice likewise, can sometimes turn out to be costly and of nomads. school age not enrolled in schools. The predomi- a year between the lowlands and the high- unsustainable. The recommendations include better articulation nantly Muslim North East Province districts of lands. These migrations are incompatible Experience in the non-formal education sector of the particular situations of nomadic groups in Garissa, Wajir, Ijara and Mandera have the lowest with the formal school calendar. Generally, shows that community-based interventions that the Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers, specific sup- GER. The GER for Garissa indicates that 87 per- classes are already in session when the time respond to context and mobility patterns can have port to nomadic communities, as well as training in cent of children are outside the formal system of comes for nomadic children to resettle. greater success. In fact, recent work has increasingly community participation, and dialogue in education education, possibly engaged in early marriage, child They end up being excluded from the for- reverted to policy frameworks which accommodate and learning. Multi-sectoral responses for improving labour, herding or involved in household duties, mal system. Non-formal Complementary diverse provisions and support a variety of responses the nomads’ situation should be conceived alongside combining these activities with koranic teaching in Elementary Education (CEE), with its to the situations and learning needs of nomads and poverty reduction strategies as a means to include madrassas. flexible calendar, is more suitable to their pastoralists. Nomadic and pastoralist families’ own them within the wider development process and The net enrolment rates (NER) in districts where migration patterns. CEE is having a positive informal educational transmittal of their wisdom ensure that they are not ignored when MDG-based nomads coexist with sedentarized communities are impact on access to education for nomadic and their knowledge system is concerned with strategies are being developed and implemented. high but very low where nomadic pastoralists are a boys and girls, providing them with new teaching about their way of life and their values. These issues should also figure prominently in edu- majority. To increase GER/NER in the ASAL dis- opportunities for learning. As Roger Blench describes, in a 1999 paper for the cational fora that often do not underscore them. trict, UNICEF recently supported the development The establishment of education commit- Overseas Development Institute in London: The new Nomadic Education Strategic Plan of a draft nomadic education policy, paving the way tees composed of community elders, moth- launched in Sudan at the end of March 2009 is for the establishment of a national commission as ers and fathers has also contributed to the ‘In reality, pastoralists’ landscape is flecked with expected to respond to the special educational needs a significant step in formalizing and assuring viable increased value attributed to the education an invisible constellation of resources. They have of the estimated 500,000 nomadic children liv- schooling or learning options for children living of girls amongst pastoralists – and to the to balance their knowledge of pasture, rainfall, ing in the northern states, and sets out to increase nomadic lifestyles. Life skills curriculum develop- appreciation of its long-term benefits for the disease, husbandry, political insecurity and national enrolment rates to 70 per cent by 2011, compared ment is also ongoing and will be incorporated into community as a whole. boundaries with access to markets and infrastructure, to current levels of 32 per cent. Government the peace education curriculum to prevent or reduce ‘UNICEF and the government request that and preferred established migration routes. Pastoralists enrolment figures for the northern states of Sudan conflict, including ethnic clashes and cattle rustling. we send more girls to school’, said one elder. usually only diverge from their existing patterns in the indicate that girls’ enrolment in primary educa- face of a drought, a pasture failure or the spread of an tion stands at just below 66 per cent. The Plan Conclusion ‘This is a piece of welcome advice. The com- epizootic. Nonetheless, this flexibility is often the key to will also set out to strengthen the responsiveness of Despite positive commitments to the MDGs and munity is a combination of boys and girls. Unless their survival.’ the education system and curriculum to the needs EFA, rigid state control over education can be a the girls are developed, the community cannot of nomadic children, and increase the number of barrier to social change. Formal education systems develop. The sun gives light to the outside world The knowledge is transmitted from generation to trained, motivated teachers. promoting a national curriculum, standardized in the daytime. The moon and the stars shine generation, as they try to adapt to new circumstan- Among the practical responses offered for pedagogy and with inflexible scheduling can lead to in the sky at night. The light inside our homes ces and articulate different forms of knowing. nomadic children is a shift from provision of mobile conflict between the traditional values of nomadic is given by our women and our girls. Education schools to on-site learning centres, as many children and pastoralist peoples and state policies as promul- can make that light even brighter.’ New opportunities for nomadic children remain in one place for up to six months of the gated through the educational system, threatening More in-depth studies, better data collection and year. The Plan also emphasizes the value of board- the very sense of collective unity such policies are So far, education for pastoralists has mainly promising initiatives are forging new trends and ing schools for nomadic children, to enable them to often intended to promote. If, in part, the situa- been provided through CEE in Eritrea. The creating new opportunities for nomadic children. continue learning even while their families are on tion of pastoralists and nomadic groups is just an country is now moving towards developing A 2006 study commissioned by UNICEF and the move, and sets out to enrol a further 133,000 extreme example of the problem that marginalized a provision that is tailored around the needs the African Development Bank, The Education of nomadic children in regular primary education. groups encounter, it is also a reminder that no and lifestyles of this group. In December Nomadic Peoples in East Africa, identified major The importance of increasing perceptions of value learning process is context-free. p 2008, the first National Consultation on societal issues impacting on more than 10 per cent of education among all families is also highlighted: Nomadic Education was held in Eritrea p of the population in the countries studied (Djibouti, the 2008 Baseline Survey of Education in the north-

40 Challenges in policy State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Challenges in policy 41 and practice and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and practice ducation is the vehicle by which a child est possible social integration and individual devel- grows to be an independent adult. It is opment, including his or her cultural and spiritual E also the means by which cultural values development’. These provisions complement Article are transmitted and the child is bound to his or 31 of the CRC, for a child’s right to participate in her family, community and society. The right to cultural life; and Article 30 for the recognition of education has a special value as it enables children the rights of children of minorities and indigenous to increase their chances of having their other rights children to enjoy their culture, practise their religion fulfilled. According to Katarina Tomaševski, the and use their language. Hence, culture is an essen- former UN Special Rapporteur on the right to tial dimension for the implementation of the CRC, education, the right to education ‘functions as a including its guiding principles of non-discrimina- multiplier, enhancing all rights and freedoms when tion; best interests of the child; right to life, survival it is guaranteed while jeopardizing them all when it and development; and right to participate. is violated’. It is thus well-acknowledged within the interna- The realization of the right to education takes tional framework that culture is a key element for on a double importance for minority and indig- the development of the child. The conditions under enous children. First, because these children are which cultural identity is protected and promoted often socially excluded and discriminated against, and the extent of states’ obligations in this regard the ‘multiplying’ effect of the right to education is have been progressively defined in international of particular relevance to break or perpetuate the standards. cycle of exclusion and marginalization. Second, by Following the Second World War, a restrictive Fulfilling the enabling the transmission of values and culture, the interpretation of the principle of non-discrimination right to education has a key function in the preser- prevailed. At the same time, culture was understood vation of minorities’ and indigenous peoples’ cul- primarily as a private matter. However, international right to education tures, hence their existence as distinct groups. standards have progressively acknowledged the impor- Culture indeed plays a defining role in identi- tance of taking positive measures for the recognition of fying national or ethnic, religious and linguistic cultural differences in the public sphere, including with minorities, and indigenous peoples. While there is respect to the right to education. However, indigenous for minority and no internationally agreed definition of these terms, peoples and minorities exhibit significant differences it could be argued that the main characteristics of and have diverse aspirations. For this reason, two these groups lie not in their numerical inferiority, separate legal regimes have emerged. While necessary, indigenous children: but in their non-dominant status in national society, the recognition of their specific rights includes some their cultural distinctiveness and their members’ risks and challenges. It is therefore equally important sense of belonging to the group. to examine how the human rights framework has where are we in The Convention on the Rights of the Child addressed these concerns. (CRC) recognizes the primary importance of cul- ture. Under the CRC, states have an obligation to Cultural differences and the right to international legal preserve and protect the child’s cultural identity, as education: from formal to real equality an essential element for his or her development. The The recognition of special rights for minorities and Preamble recognizes the ‘importance of the traditions indigenous peoples in the international framework, and cultural values of each people for the protection particularly in a European context, has always met standards? and harmonious development of the child’. Article with suspicion. It has been marked by a tension 8 provides for the right of the child to preserve his between three elements: the importance of respect or her identity. This provision includes not only the for cultural diversity; understandings of the princi- Vanessa Sedletzki administrative components of identity such as name ple of non-discrimination; and the need to ensure and nationality, but also cultural ones. Article 20 peace and stability within states. This explains why requires states to pay due regard to the ‘desirability international standards bear the influence of histori- of continuity in a child’s upbringing and to the cal events and have evolved over time, depending on child’s ethnic, religious, cultural and linguistic back- the weight awarded to each of these elements. ground’. Furthermore, Article 23 provides for the Starting with the religious wars of the sixteenth rights of children with disabilities to achieve the ‘full- century in Europe, religion, and especially its

State of the World’s Minorities Fulfilling the right 43 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 to education recognition in the public sphere, has been appre- Right: Chakma Children at the Motchmara Para hended as a factor of conflict. A state’s neutrality centre in Rangamati, Chittagong Hill Tracts, in terms of religion was seen as the primary means Bangladesh. Din Mohammad Sibly/UNICEF. of solving and preventing these conflicts. In this way, religion, and more broadly cultural identity, no true equality between a majority and a minority has been considered a private matter of no concern if the latter were deprived of its own institutions, to the state. According to the liberal theory, only and were consequently compelled to renounce that one legal regime applies to all. If the state were to which constitutes the very essence of its being as a allow specific rights to some individuals or groups, minority.’ it would breach the equality principle, which could However, it was the liberal approach focused on potentially threaten peace and stability. the rights of the individual which significantly influ- But the liberal theory has faced considerable criti- enced the international human rights system largely cism. What is mainly questioned is the extent to defined in the aftermath of the Second World War. which the state can be culturally neutral. It has been On the one hand, the outbreak of the war was asso- argued that states’ cultural neutrality is an illusion. ciated with the use of minority issues as a pretext for Far from guaranteeing equality among citizens, it aggression. On the other hand, the Second World often marginalizes and excludes minorities by failing War was characterized by genocide and crimes to address their specific rights and needs. According against humanity, by definition aimed at wiping out to this view, public institutions necessarily represent entire minorities. As a result, there was an impera- a majority culture, putting minority cultures at dis- tive that individuals belonging to minorities needed advantage. to be protected from discrimination and its possible With the outbreak of the First World War attrib- consequences. uted to minority issues, provisions were included Accordingly, international standards adopted in peace treaties in 1919–20 for the protection of after the Second World War emphasize the state’s minority rights. These treaties emphasize the equal- responsibility to protect individual rights and idea was to go beyond formal equality and focus on UN Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging ity of all citizens before the law. They also recog- freedoms, but avoid recognizing special rights for real equality. to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic nized the right of minorities to establish and man- minority groups as such. At the core of this system In his book Multicultural Citizenship, Will Minorities (UNDM) in 1992. age at their own expense charitable, religious and is the principle of non-discrimination, mentioned Kymlicka, a political philosopher and authoritative With the increased recognition that non-discrim- social institutions, schools and other educational in virtually all human rights treaties. This principle voice on multicultural issues, seeks to reconcile the ination alone is not sufficient in the realization of establishments, as well as the right to use their own has initially been understood as a ‘negative’ obliga- importance of culture in the individual’s develop- the rights of minorities and indigenous peoples, language and to exercise their religion freely therein. tion for states, in other terms, an obligation not to ment with the recognition that individuals should international instruments have acknowledged the A similar provision was reviewed by the Permanent intervene. The approach is reflected in provisions have the freedom to review their choices, assess their need to take positive measures to ensure real equal- Court of International Justice in the Minority on minorities and indigenous peoples. Article 27 of beliefs and question their values. Nevertheless, to ity. Notably, however, the provision of culturally Schools in Albania case of 1935, which significantly the International Covenant on Civil and Political be able to make choices, individuals need to have sensitive education is not fully recognized as a state influenced the future regime for the right to educa- Rights (ICCPR) states that ‘persons belonging to options. As Kymlicka puts it: ‘our societal culture obligation under international law. Rather, it is tion of minorities and indigenous peoples. … minorities shall not be denied the right to enjoy not only provides these options, but also makes identified as one of the important means to be con- In this case, the Greek government was contest- their own culture’. Article 30 of the CRC, on the them meaningful to us’. According to this view, sidered for the realization of the right to education ing the closure of private schools in Albania, which rights of children belonging to minorities or who cultural membership is essential to individuals’ self- for minorities and indigenous peoples. meant that members of the Christian Greek minor- are indigenous, also uses a negative construction. identity. In this context, if a culture is not respected, The UNDM, in its first article, provides that ity could not retain their schools. The Court stated Under these provisions, the state has the obligation the dignity of its members is also threatened. At the states should adopt appropriate measures to protect that this constituted a breach of equality, because it to make education services available to all children group level, failure to protect cultural rights can also and promote the cultural identity of minorities was depriving the minorities of their own schools, without discrimination. lead to the disappearance of the group and/or of its within their territories. The recognition of the while the majority would continue to enjoy the As a consequence, the recognition of a positive distinctiveness. importance of preserving minority cultures and their schools provided by the state system. The Court obligation to protect and promote cultural identity This is the approach that has progressively contribution to enriching the society as a whole has concluded that the treaty stipulation ‘ensures that in the international legal framework for minorities prevailed in the interpretation of the principle of inspired the interpretation of existing treaty provi- the majority shall not be given a privileged situation and indigenous peoples has resulted from the adop- non-discrimination, in particular with respect to sions. These interpretations highlight states’ positive as compared with the minority’. Furthermore, the tion of posterior instruments, as will now be exam- the right to education by international bodies and obligations to support minority cultures, including Court recognized the special role of education in ined. It has also been induced by the proactive posi- in political instruments. Developments in this area in the area of education. the preservation of minority cultures, hence of the tion of treaty bodies in charge of monitoring these were particularly substantial in the 1990s, following After 1992, several treaty bodies have introduced group itself. As stated by the Court: ‘there would be instruments and guiding their implementation. The the adoption by the UN General Assembly of the General Comments recognizing the importance

44 Fulfilling the right State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Fulfilling the right 45 to education and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 to education of adopting special measures to ensure the equal to this provision a set of strict conditions. With a Below: Playtime at a secret school in the Tak nantly indigenous identity’. From this consideration enjoyment of rights by members of minorities and broader scope, the UNDM provides in its Article Province of Thailand. Buddhist, Muslim and stem a number of important implications for the indigenous peoples. In its General Comment No. 4 that: ‘States should take appropriate measures Christian children of various ethnic backgrounds are respective international legal regimes of both groups. 23 on the rights of minorities, the UN Human so that, wherever possible, persons belonging to provided with learning, mentoring and sometimes First of all, while minority rights are solely indi- Rights Committee states that the rights contained minorities may have adequate opportunities to learn accommodation by a Burmese exiled women’s vidual rights that can be exercised in community in Article 27 imply safeguarding minority cultures, their mother tongue or to have instruction in their organization. Dean Chapman/Panos. with other members of the group, indigenous rights languages or religions. It therefore recognizes that: mother tongue.’ The UN Declaration on the Rights also include rights to be exercised by the group ‘positive measures by States may … be necessary to of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) also specifies that The fundamental difference between indigenous itself. In the UNDM, the subject of rights is the protect the identity of a minority and the rights of indigenous peoples have the right to establish insti- peoples and minorities lies in indigenous peoples’ individual member of the minority. Consequently, its members’. The same document also emphasizes tutions providing education in their own language. ties to their territory of origin or specific livelihoods the wording of the Declaration, including its title, the value of cultural diversity and states’ specific While the UN International Covenant on when nomadic. In many indigenous belief systems, repeatedly refers to ‘the rights of persons belonging obligation to foster it. The position of the Human Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) land has a symbolic and spiritual value, as well as to minorities’. This formulation is consistently used Rights Committee has influenced the approach of does not contain any reference to mother tongue a social and economic function within the group, in international and regional instruments related additional treaty bodies in relation to education. education, the treaty monitoring body has clearly even for those who live outside of the homeland. to minority rights. Conversely, indigenous rights A similar stance is indeed reflected in the UN recognized its importance. In its latest reporting As a consequence, indigenousness as defined by the instruments principally refer to ‘peoples’. Committee on Economic Social and Cultural guidelines adopted in November 2008 the CESCR relationship to the land or livelihood for nomadic In spite of their individual focus, minority rights Rights’ (CESCR) General Comment No. 13 on the requests state parties to ‘indicate whether minority peoples impinges on all aspects of life. Asbjørn Eide can be exercised ‘in community’ with others. Some Right to Education. Outlining the essential features and indigenous children have adequate opportuni- explains in a working paper prepared with Erika of these rights are linked to the individual’s belonging of education systems, the CESCR explains that: ties to receive instruction in or of their native lan- Irene Daes for the former UN Sub-Commission on to a specific group. They are originally not aimed at ‘education has to be flexible so it can adapt to the guage’. Additional instruments dealing with specific the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights enhancing the group itself, but rather stem from the needs of changing societies and communities and minority groups such as the Roma also mention the that: ‘the underlying assumption is that persons recognition that, in order to be enjoyed by individu- respond to the needs of students within their diverse importance of mother tongue education. belonging to indigenous peoples have a predomi- als, these rights require collective exercise. To the social and cultural settings’. Reviewing specific legal There is, therefore, a general movement towards obligations, the CESCR asserts that states must: the acceptance in international law that the fulfil- ‘fulfil (facilitate) the acceptability of education by ment of the right to education for children of taking positive measures to ensure that education is minorities and indigenous peoples requires special culturally appropriate for minorities and indigenous measures. This movement draws from the progres- peoples, and of good quality for all’. sive recognition of the importance of the preserva- Mother tongue education is considered an essen- tion of cultural differences within a country and the tial aspect of high-quality appropriate education assurance of equality for all members of the society. and is of concern to both minorities and indigenous However, the content of these rights and related peoples. Various studies have shown that children state obligations diverge for these two groups. learn better if education is initially provided in their mother tongue, with skills progressively transferred as they learn the dominant language. Furthermore, Minorities and indigenous peoples: a UNICEF study has found that when the cultural different approaches background of students is integrated into the cur- Although it is now recognized that the realization riculum and teaching language, children have higher of genuine equality for minorities and indigenous rates of success and enjoy better self-esteem than peoples can imply differentiated treatment to ensure when they attend schools where only the dominant that their specific needs are addressed, the nature culture and language are recognized. Intercultural of these measures may not be the same for both and bilingual education increases community mobi- groups. Minorities and indigenous peoples are lization and participation in children’s schooling diverse categories and this is reflected in different due to the use of the mother tongue and the empha- legal regimes developed in international law. sis on cultural identity. Both minority and indigenous rights instruments Origin: different aspirations for recognize the value of mother tongue education. minorities and indigenous peoples The UNESCO Convention against Discrimination The international legal framework applicable to each in Education mentions the right of national minori- category echoes the various nature and aspirations of ties to use or teach their own language, but adds indigenous peoples and minorities.

46 Fulfilling the right State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Fulfilling the right 47 to education and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 to education contrary, for indigenous rights, the subject in most Interestingly, this approach has influenced the provides for the possibility of members to opt out, to manage and choose educational institutions for cases is the group. One of the main struggles of interpretation of the right to self-determination. whereas standards related to indigenous rights children. Consequently, while recognizing the right the indigenous movement has precisely been the The reporting guidelines of the CESCR adopted only implicitly recognize this possibility by refer- of minorities to manage their own educational insti- so-called ‘s’ battle, for the recognition of the rights in November 2008 – i.e. after the UNDRIP – are ence to general human rights law. The UNDM tutions, this right is framed by several conditions. It of indigenous ‘peoples’ – and not ‘people’, imply- a case in point. In relation to Article 1 of the provides that: ‘no disadvantage shall result for any is limited to the institution itself with due respect to ing that they apply to the group as a whole, and not ICESCR, the reporting guidelines make specific person belonging to a minority as the consequence standards applicable in the broader society; it should only to its individual members. This approach has mention of indigenous peoples. They request of the exercise or non-exercise of the rights’ set remain optional; and it does not imply any financial been reflected in International Labour Organization information on: ‘the ways and means by which the forth in the Declaration. Similarly, the Council of obligation on states. For example, the UNESCO (ILO) Convention No. 169 concerning Indigenous State party recognizes and protects the rights of Europe Framework Convention for the Protection Convention Against Discrimination in Education, and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries. The indigenous communities, if any, to ownership of the of National Minorities (FCNM) of 1995 specifies in its Article 2, provides for the establishment Convention lists a set of peoples’ rights while, when lands and territories which they traditionally occupy that ‘every person belonging to a national minority of separate educational systems for religious or relevant, referring specifically to the ‘members’ of or use as traditional sources of livelihood’. The shall have the right freely to choose to be treated or linguistic reasons, provided that: ‘attendance at these peoples. Similarly, the subjects of rights in the guidelines also request states to ‘indicate the extent not to be treated as such and no disadvantage shall such schools [be] optional’ and education respects UNDRIP are in most cases the peoples, rather than to which indigenous and local communities are duly result from this choice’. Conversely, the UNDRIP national standards. the individual. The UNDRIP makes a clear distinc- consulted, and whether their prior informed consent contains a specific provision regarding the relation- These educational institutions are understood as tion in this regard. In its preamble, it recognizes and is sought, in any decision making processes affect- ship between the individual and the group. Article belonging to the private sphere, hence not entitled reaffirms that: ‘indigenous individuals are entitled ing their rights and interests under the Covenant’. 35 states that ‘indigenous peoples have the right to to public funding as of right. First World War without discrimination to all human rights recognized In contrast, minority rights focus on the right of determine the responsibilities of individuals to their peace treaty provisions specified that the minorities’ in international law, and that indigenous peoples pos- minorities to manage their own institutions only to communities’. However, this provision needs to be right to establish and manage institutions was ‘at sess collective rights which are indispensable for their the extent that these are linked to the protection of interpreted and implemented in conjunction with their own expense’. This has been reiterated in the existence, well-being and integral development as peo- their cultural, religious or linguistic identity, as will Article 1 of the same Declaration recalling human European context. While recognizing the right to ples’. The recognition of collective rights eventually be examined in relation to education. rights and fundamental freedoms contained in freedom of thought and religion including teach- leads to a higher degree of autonomy for the group. In connection with self-government aspects, one other international instruments (including of course ing, the European Convention on Human Rights The right to self-determination of indigenous fundamental difference between minority rights minority rights). (ECHR) does not provide for the right to mother peoples is understood in international standards and indigenous rights is the question of integra- The difference between the nature of individual tongue education. The European Court has clearly within the context of states’ sovereignty. However, tion within the society. As Eide says in the working minority rights and indigenous peoples’ collective stated that this right could not be inferred from it is exercised through self-government rights, paper previously mentioned: ‘Whereas the Minority rights, and the self-government rights recognized existing provisions, as several studies have shown. including with respect to the right to education. Declaration and other instruments concerning per- with regard to indigenous peoples, affects the exer- In an important case regarding language educa- The UNDRIP provides in its Articles 3 and 4 that: sons belonging to minorities aim at ensuring a space cise of the right to education for both groups. tion in Belgium, the Court has underlined that the for pluralism in togetherness, the instruments con- Convention does not require that, in the sphere ‘indigenous peoples have the right to self-determination. cerning indigenous peoples are intended to allow for Effects on the right to education of education or teaching, states respect parents’ By virtue of that right they freely determine their a high degree of autonomous development.’ The implementation of international legal frame- linguistic preferences. This right has only been rec- political status and freely pursue their economic, social Consequently, the UNDM focuses on the par- works for the right to education of minorities and ognized to some extent in relation to continuation and cultural development. Indigenous peoples, in exer- ticipation by members of minorities in the larger indigenous peoples differs in many respects. In line of education in the mother tongue when it had been cising their right to self-determination, have the right society. Article 2 (2) provides that: ‘persons belong- with the above discussions, the right to education of available in the past. Furthermore, there is neither to autonomy or self-government in matters relating to ing to minorities have the right to participate effec- minorities makes a larger space for taking part in the an obligation on states parties to subsidize private their internal and local affairs, as well as ways and tively in cultural, religious, social, economic and broader society, while education for indigenous chil- educational establishments, nor to create or subsi- means for financing their autonomous functions.’ public life’. Another provision indicates that states dren emphasizes separateness and self-government. dize schools which are in conformity with particular should take measures: ‘so that persons belonging Minorities. International standards related to religious or philosophical convictions. However, if As a result, and as reaffirmed in additional provi- to minorities may participate fully in the economic minorities tend to consider culture as one aspect of providing subsidies, the state cannot discriminate sions of the UNDRIP, indigenous peoples should progress and development in their country’. In con- the identity of individuals belonging to these minor- between various types of schools. This approach is have control over their institutions and states should trast, indigenous peoples’ rights focus on the right ities. As a result, minorities’ autonomy to manage reflected in other international instruments adopted obtain their free, prior and informed consent before of indigenous peoples to make their own decisions, their institutions is strictly related to the protec- by the Council of Europe. The FCNM, for exam- adopting and implementing legislative or adminis- and participation in the larger society is presented as tion of their cultural, religious or linguistic identity ple, recognizes the right for persons belonging to a trative measures that may affect them. These provi- an option. The UNDRIP specifies that indigenous – while for indigenous peoples self-government national minority to set up and manage their own sions echo the recognition in ILO Convention No. peoples retain ‘their right to participate fully, if they applies to all spheres. Because minority rights are private educational establishments, but stipulates that 169 of the ‘aspirations of these peoples to exercise so choose, in the political, economic, social and cul- individual, a number of global and regional instru- the exercise of this right shall not entail any financial control over their own institutions, ways of life and tural life of the State’. ments containing provisions on the right to educa- obligation for states parties. economic development … within the framework of With regard to this issue, one characteristic of tion consistently place under the scope of the rights Indigenous peoples. The recognition that indig- the States in which they live’. the minority rights framework is that it explicitly of individuals, in particular parents, the possibility enous peoples have a general right to control their

48 Fulfilling the right State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Fulfilling the right 49 to education and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 to education Left: Garífuna children outside their home on the used in some extreme cases to carry out segregation Mosquito coast, Santa Rosa de Aguan, Honduras. policies. Challenges associated with separate educa- Neil Cooper/Panos. tion systems therefore take place both at micro and society level. one hand to the definition of minorities and indig- One issue is the fact that identity has several enous peoples, and on the other hand to its effect facets. Individuals have various identities such as on children’s right to education. gender, disability, etc., which can lead them to feel Identifying persons belonging to minorities and indig- connected to one group or another. By reinforcing enous peoples. As previously mentioned, international a sense of cultural belonging, culturally sensitive law does not provide a definition of minorities and education privileges a specific aspect of individual indigenous peoples. Yet, since group recognition is identity. As a result, it contributes to immobiliz- associated with specific rights, identification proc- ing the boundaries of a certain group and can in esses have a particular importance. Traditionally, some instances limit the ability of individuals to groups have been defined by their members’ ‘sense opt out. Connected to this topic is the question of of belonging’ and ‘self-identification’. Accordingly, dissent within a community. In the context of edu- it is for the individual or, as the case may be, for the cation, this issue takes on a particular significance. group to identify oneself as a member of a minor- Education should help challenge and re-examine ity or an indigenous people. Translated from the social norms if these do not respect human rights, individual level to the society level, the issue of such as gender biases for instance. definition has intricate implications for states’ poli- At the society level, the strengthening of groups cies and processes. States’ obligations tend to be has significant repercussions. While cultural bonds more complex in relation to the realization of the can create solidarity and opportunities, they can right to education of indigenous peoples than that also perpetuate social exclusion. This is especially development has a significant impact on the exercise recognized in a number of instruments, including of persons belonging to minorities, for whom this true for poorer groups. Theories of social capital, as of the right to education by indigenous children. ILO Convention No. 169 and the recently adopted right falls under the scope of the private sphere. presented in particular by political scientist Robert International instruments related to indigenous peo- General Comment of the Committee on the Rights Beyond financial implications previously examined, Putnam, argue that the existence of networks based ples’ rights lay the emphasis on the responsibility of of the Child on the rights of indigenous children. the establishment and management of education on shared values creates opportunities for individu- indigenous peoples to manage their own education In summary, the implementation of the right to systems imply the full involvement and consent of als and communities. However, strong cultural ties programmes. For instance, ILO Convention No. education for minorities and indigenous peoples indigenous communities. This requires specific deci- within one group are also likely to reduce coopera- 169 highlights the fact that education programmes is framed by the diverse international legal frame- sion making processes that take into account indig- tion among groups. As some studies have pointed and services shall be developed and implemented in works applicable to them. While education is part enous traditions within the process itself. Conversely, out, social capital can hinder the economic and cooperation with indigenous peoples and provides of a broader approach for indigenous peoples, for for minorities, states’ obligations focus on ensuring social development of groups that are isolated or for the training of their members: ‘with a view to minorities it is more strictly linked to the protection proper consultation, but education standards for parochial. Accordingly, in developing separate edu- the progressive transfer of responsibility for the of their cultural, religious or linguistic identity, with minorities need to conform with national standards. cation systems for children of minorities and indige- conduct of these programmes to these peoples as concrete implications in the exercise of this right and Consequently, even if the rights of indigenous peo- nous peoples, the risk of aggravating social exclusion appropriate’. Likewise, Article 14 of the UNDRIP states’ obligations. However, the recognition of these ples and persons belonging to minorities are clearly should be addressed. provides that: ‘indigenous peoples have the right rights and its implications raises several issues. These spelled out, making them meaningful in practice As mentioned above, one of the challenges in the to establish and control their educational systems challenges have been addressed in the human rights requires being able to identify each category. existence of different groups within a state is the and institutions providing education in their own framework, as defined in particular by the CRC. However, states’ recognition of the existence of risk of fragmentation. In some cases, fragmentation languages, in a manner appropriate to their cultural minority groups and indigenous peoples, and its has led to ethnic and international conflicts. States’ methods of teaching and learning’. A child rights approach to implications for education policies, present addi- cautiousness in recognizing minority and indigenous The prevailing framework for minorities is that minorities’ and indigenous peoples’ tional challenges. rights stems from the fear that specific rights could they can have their own educational institutions, right to education Challenges associated with separate education sys- exacerbate divisions between groups. These could in as opposed to ‘systems’ for indigenous peoples. tems. The provision of culturally sensitive education turn pave the way for secessionist claims. Education Nevertheless, these do not have a right to state sub- Challenges associated with the for children of minorities and indigenous children contributes to forming a common cultural identity sidies (although, as noted above, the UNDM does recognition of differentiated rights and can lead to the development of separate education for group members. It thus plays an important role recognize a positive obligation on states to ensure separate education systems systems. In these systems, children may have better in reinforcing various cultural identities. However, that minorities have opportunities to learn their The recognition of differentiated rights for persons opportunities to learn, think and thrive in an envi- as will be seen below, education also bears the mother tongue). In contrast, states’ duty to allocate belonging to minorities and indigenous peoples ronment suited to their cultural needs. At the same potential to help overcome these biases and promote resources for indigenous education is explicitly raises a number of questions. These relate on the time, it may reinforce separateness and has been peace and stability.

50 Fulfilling the right State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Fulfilling the right 51 to education and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 to education In conclusion, there are many challenges in the promotion of the cultural identity of children should included with a view to promoting intercultural imperatives. It addresses states’ concern for unity recognition of minority and indigenous rights, in not hinder the realization of other rights. understanding and tolerance, identified as key com- and sovereignty over their population. It aims to particular with respect to education. Children are The recognition of the role of parents and the child’s ponents for peace, democratic stability and respect preserve cultural pluralism. It also protects and likely to be particularly affected for two reasons. evolving capacities. Article 5 of the CRC recog- for human rights in the society. These provisions respects the rights of minorities and indigenous First, children are more vulnerable to having their nizes the role of parents, or, where applicable, the are precisely included in provisions related to edu- peoples, including that of their children, to equal rights violated and have less access to effective rem- extended family or community, and legal guardians cation and its goals, highlighting once again the access to quality education that takes into account edies. Second, they are generally perceived by their in providing direction and guidance to the child importance of education in promoting a culture of their culture and language. In recent years, the communities as representing the future, hence the in the exercise of his or her rights. These terms human rights. They aim on the one hand to address international legal system has been leaning towards main vehicles for cultural survival, potentially lead- are reiterated in relation to the right to freedom the possible discrimination members of these groups a proactive interpretation of treaty provisions in ing to some tensions. of religion. Interestingly, several provisions related experience, and on the other hand to ensure that favour of the recognition of cultural differences in to the right to education in other human rights minority and indigenous children have the opportu- the public sphere, particularly through the adoption Responses by international standards instruments contain an analogous recognition of the nity to learn about the dominant and other cultures. of Declarations on minority and indigenous rights International standards, and primarily the CRC, rights of parents to choose an educational institu- Consequently, the onus of knowing other cultures is respectively. This recognition implies increased state provide a framework in which the challenges tion for their children in line with their moral and equally on dominant and minority groups. obligations to take positive action, including and faced by indigenous and minority groups can be religious convictions. Regional instruments have also Article 29 of the CRC captures many dimensions especially in the area of education. Furthermore, addressed. Certainly, they provide a balance between included similar provisions. The rationale is to strike for the fulfilment of the right to education of indig- minorities and indigenous peoples have different respect for minority and indigenous rights and the a balance between the view that children’s upbring- enous and minority children. Importantly, it lists legal regimes, revolving around the recognition of need to protect the child’s right to grow and thrive ing is a private matter and the fact that education among the aims of education: far-reaching self-government rights to indigenous in an open society. The best interests principle is systems are provided by the state. These provisions peoples and more limited autonomy to minorities, also a primary consideration. also usually underline that parents’ right to choose ‘The development of respect for the child’s parents, his thereby implying the need for different approaches The supremacy of individual human rights and children’s educational institutions should not lead to or her own cultural identity, language and values, for in supporting the implementation of this right. freedoms. The human rights framework consistently a lower standard of education. the national values of the country in which the child is Importantly, the principle of the child’s best reaffirms the supremacy of individual human rights However, the CRC also provides that such guid- living, the country from which he or she may originate, interests has to remain at the centre of strategies for and freedoms, advocating against the misuse of ance should be provided ‘in a manner consistent and for civilizations different from his or her own.’ the promotion of the right to education. While the these rights. The two International Covenants (the with the evolving capacities of the child’. This addi- value of cultural continuity is specifically recognized ICCPR and ICESCR) contain a common Article 5 tion is one of the most important elements of the In its General Comment No.1 on Article 29, the in the CRC, the Convention also requires a space stating that: child rights framework defined by the CRC and Committee on the Rights of the Child stated that: for openness to knowing other cultures and promot- ensures a space for children’s agency in exercising ing tolerance among peoples. The purpose of cultur- ‘nothing in the present Covenant may be interpreted their rights. The African Charter on the Rights ‘Part of the importance of this provision lies precisely in ally sensitive education should remain to increase as implying for any State, group or person any right to and Welfare of the Child uses a similar wording in its recognition of the need for a balanced approach to the child’s opportunities, self-confidence and ability engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at its education provision. This dimension has been education and one which succeeds in reconciling diverse to develop in a harmonious environment, as well as the destruction of any of the rights or freedoms recog- analysed in depth in an Innocenti Insight publica- values through dialogue and respect for difference. build his or her own evolving capacities to define nized herein, or at their limitation to a greater extent tion on The Evolving Capacities of the Child issued Moreover, children are capable of playing a unique his or her best interests. As the Committee on the than is provided for in the present Covenant.’ in 2005 by UNICEF and Save the Children. In this role in bridging many of the differences that have his- Rights of the Child said in its General Comment context, the rights of parents, extended families and torically separated groups of people from one another.’ No. 1 on the Right to Education: Similarly, the UNDM stipulates that ‘the exercise of communities as may be relevant, are not unbound. the rights set forth in the present Declaration shall These must respect the extent to which the child Interestingly, instruments dealing with minority ‘Basic skills include not only literacy and numeracy but not prejudice the enjoyment by all persons of uni- is capable of exercising those rights on his or her rights and indigenous rights, including the two UN also life skills such as the ability to make well-balanced versally recognized human rights and fundamental own behalf. This element should be understood in Declarations, contain stipulations in the same spirit, decisions; to resolve conflicts in a non-violent manner; freedoms’. The UNDRIP reaffirms this principle in conjunction with Article 12 of the African Charter in relation to the right to education. Article 29 of and to develop a healthy lifestyle, good social relation- its first article. In its preamble, the UNDRIP also regarding the right of the child to express views in the CRC is supplemented by Article 17 on the right ships and responsibility, critical thinking, creative expressly recognizes ‘in particular the right of indig- all matters affecting him or her, ‘the view of the of children to access to information, which also con- talents, and other abilities which give children the tools enous families and communities to retain shared child being given due weight in accordance with the tains a strong cultural component and requires that needed to pursue their options in life.’ p responsibility for the upbringing, training, education age and maturity of the child’. These provisions also attention be paid to the special linguistic needs of and well-being of their children, consistent with the apply to decisions on the child’s education. minority or indigenous children. rights of the child’. More generally, the overarching The aims of education: promoting interculturalism obligation in the CRC to give ‘primary considera- and tolerance. In virtually all international standards Conclusion: lessons for public policies tion’ to the best interests of the child ensures the starting with the Universal Declaration of Human and best interests of the child primacy of the best interests principle over cultural Rights, and in particular those dealing with indig- The international legal framework for minorities traditions when the two are in conflict. Hence, the enous and minority rights, specific provisions are and indigenous peoples aims to balance several

52 Fulfilling the right State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Fulfilling the right 53 to education and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 to education oma people are the most marginalized and able, and a human rights obligation to ensure that least integrated of recent migrant com- education occurs without discrimination. According R munities to Ireland. Frequently they have to the United Nations Committee on Economic been stereotyped in the media as criminals and ille- Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR): ‘Educational gal immigrants (even though they are EU citizens). data should be disaggregated by the prohibited They fare poorly in all indicators of social and eco- grounds of discrimination.’ In the 2007 Ostravia nomic well-being including education. According to case, D.H. and others vs. the Czech Republic, sta- Sara Russell, Roma Officer at NGO Pavee Point: tistical data was collected to show the existence of discrimination in the disproportionate placement of ‘There are no formal statistics about how many Roma Roma children, regardless of their abilities, in ‘spe- there are in Ireland or how many Roma there are in cial’ schools for children with learning disabilities. schools. The previous Census did not include Roma as The judgment ruled that statistics can be helpful in an option and even if it did few Roma could complete determining discrimination. it, as most are illiterate.’ Using ethnically disaggregated data: Previously, population estimates could be taken a long way to go using asylum and work permit data, but as Romania Urban Jonsson, who formulated the idea of a – the country of origin for many of Ireland’s Roma rights-based approach for development, advo- – is now a member of the EU, this is no longer a cates that ethnic research is essential to address source of information. ‘This lack of information disparities in development and emphasizes that The importance about the numbers of children in school makes tackling inequalities of opportunities and of results advocacy very difficult,’ Sara Russell said. is part and parcel of a rights-based approach to The experience of the Roma in Ireland is no development. But despite the positive judgment of ethnic data for exception. Lack of quantitative and qualitative data in the Ostravia case above, and other small steps is a problem affecting minority and indigenous forward (discusssed later in this chapter), there is communities around the world. The information still a long way to go before the use of ethnic data that is available frequently shows lower enrolment becomes standard. promoting the right rates, higher drop-out rates, disproportionately high- The collection of ethnic data is infrequently pri- er disciplinary rates and lower achievements, with oritized, and the impact of this lack of information the situation usually even worse for minority girls. is grave. Minorities are not adequately targeted, they to education A clear picture about how different ethnic, religious fall through the gaps, marginalized in mainstream and linguistic groups benefit or are disadvantaged development and education programmes, stuck by educational policies and projects is essential to in poverty. In the collection of information and Zoë Gray raise awareness about problems and as a starting development of indices of children’s well-being, point to resolve them. UNESCO’s Education for geographic and income deprivation indicators are All (EFA) Global Monitoring Report 2009 projects often used instead. In recent years there have been that 29 million children will remain out of school considerable advances in the disaggregation of data in 2015 unless all disparities – gender, ethnic, rural by gender, with increased usage and greater atten- and other – are tackled. Amongst the key recom- tion to developing better methodologies. mendations the report calls for improved targeting In December 2007 researchers from the United to reduce disparities based on ethnicity and other Nations Economic Commission for Europe indicators of disadvantage. (UNECE) called for attention to sub-populations This chapter will consider the importance of or minorities when disaggregating information by collecting and analysing ethnically disaggregated gender. They said it is unusual for governments and data (quantitative and qualitative) as the basis for other bodies to collect information by ethnicity – and working towards achieving equal opportunities and as minority women often face additional barriers in results in education for all communities. education and development, information is required As discussed extensively elsewhere in this volume, to help target minority women. As the case study on states have a responsibility to ensure that education the USA included in this book argues, the need also must be available, accessible, acceptable and adapt- applies to boys from minority communities.

State of the World’s Minorities The importance 55 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 of ethnic data But when ethnic data is collected, it is usually Pastoralist Thematic Group, which influenced the (termed ‘Pygmy’ by this delegate) have been his- felt: ‘that acceptance will be granted only with total not done systematically and consistently to allow PRSP … by developing a creative schooling programme torically marginalized, including in education in assimilation that forces them to reject major facets for comparisons to be made across gender, groups, for pastoralist children, strengthening community- Rwanda. In Rwanda, where the 1994 genocide of their identities’. The country experienced race countries and over time, and when it relates to edu- based health care systems and preventive medicine, and wiped out a third of the Batwa population, this riots in 2005 and in 2007 sparked by poverty and cation it tends to focus on attendance rather than improving food security through community-based early refusal to recognize different identities is based on exclusion. achievements. Jonsson’s comments notwithstanding, warning systems … A target of increasing primary an argument that it will cause instability. But it also In 2009, the government of France acknowledged workshops on ethnic data are something of a rarity enrolment among pastoralists to 40 per cent contributes to ongoing exclusion for Batwa children. the reality of discrimination within the country, and child poverty or education seminars and confer- was adopted.’ In countries and regions where there has been giving credence to the view that diversity needs ences seldom treat the subject. repeated ethnic or sectarian violence it is under- to be accepted and discrimination addressed, by Furthermore, the Millennium Development Human rights bodies including the Committee standable that there is a reluctance to highlight eth- launching a commission to investigate the use of Goals (MDGs) do not adequately attend to such on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial nic and religious difference, but failing to formally ethnic data, including in the next census. According issues. Measurement does not require the use Discrimination (CERD) and the CESCR recognize different ethnic groups and monitor their to media reports there has been uproar about the of ethnic statistics and little attention is paid to consistently request that governments provide needs through data collection does not prevent change in approach, reflecting concerns held by ethnic or minority or indigenous issues in overall ethnic information on population, on education and resentments and differences arising. A general stere- many other states that ethnic data will be divisive or assessments of progress. Occasionally countries employment in their reports to the Committees. In otype or perception of these differences will exist the information used to disadvantage ethnic com- such as Thailand use data on different regions in the last few years the Committee on the Elimination without data, and if unaddressed, these inequalities munities (such as past targeting of Jews under Nazi their country reports, acknowledging that the par- of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) has could provide fuel for community violence. Maurice occupation.) However, the commission is rightly ticular disadvantaged areas are populated mainly also been asking state parties for data stratified Odhiambo Makoloo, director of the Institute for forging ahead, recognizing that the current situa- by minorities or indigenous peoples and as such by gender and ethnicity. But the data offered is Law and Environmental Governance, a non-profit tion is intolerable. Yazid Sabeg, who is responsible should be targeted. Vietnam’s fourth report shows frequently poor or states give reasons why they civil society organization based in Nairobi, outlines for setting up the commission, said that France is disparities in enrolment rates for minorities, and cannot or will not collect such data. some of the benefits to states of disaggregating data: becoming like ‘an apartheid state’. He said it was particularly minority girls, but it does not provide When CERD requested data from the govern- ‘essential to measure how effective are official poli- specific information for the different ethnic groups. ment of Russia, the state’s response was that it does ‘Those who fear that publishing disaggregated data will cies combating discrimination’, adding that: ‘It’s no This failure to adequately attend to the situations of not collect comparative statistical data, ‘in order lead to “unnecessary tension” need to understand that longer possible to say that here we say we’re just one different excluded groups, and girls and boys from to prevent any discrimination on the basis of eth- a certain amount of constructive tension within society community and therefore there’s no racism or dis- those groups, and to tackle structural inequalities is nicity’. In its 2008 Concluding Observations to is inevitable and prevents latent tensions building up crimination. This isn’t working any more.’ harmful to poverty reduction. To reach the poorest the Government of Russia, CERD persisted in its which can explode into violence. If a government has of the poor there must be an understanding of the request stating that: ‘Without such data, it is very no data about the position of different communities, it Challenges in collecting and using data barriers that minorities and indigenous peoples face. difficult to assess the socioeconomic status of the is extremely vulnerable to accusation, exaggeration and about ethnic, religious and linguistic To do this, the MDGs must improve involvement different ethnic groups in the State party and, on rumour, which it may find difficult to refute. Indeed, communities of minority communities throughout programming, that basis, adopt special measures to address any without accurate information political extremists can In some countries there are legal restrictions on data and add ethnic and other minority specific indica- inequalities in the enjoyment of those rights.’ provide their own biased ethnic data to stir up trouble. but usually laws don’t prohibit collection and analy- tors such as language and religion targets across all The existence of authoritative data allows the govern- sis of ethnic data used to identify discrimination and countries. These should also be gathered from a Reluctance of governments to collect ment not only to refute exaggerated claims and ensure inequality. European data protection laws, for exam- gender-specific point of view. ethnic data that political extremists manipulating ethnicity do ple, differentiate between the collection of individ- The World Bank Poverty Reduction Strategy Many states believe that recognizing ethnic, reli- not gain ground, but also to plan programmes so as to ual personal data, which is strictly controlled, and Papers (PRSPs) are one of the key tools for develop- gious or linguistic differences will have a negative, reach the poorest. Having transparency in the system anonymous aggregate data. Accordingly, statistical ment, setting out country goals regarding reducing disruptive and even destabilizing effect on a country. allows this not only to be done, but be seen to be done. results are not personal data, because they are not poverty. They are intended to pay particular atten- Efforts to deny the existence of minorities can stem Such a strategy can avoid the development of unman- linked to a person who is identifiable. There are also tion to participation of civil society in their formula- from a desire to create a homogenized identity in ageable tensions in the long term.’ considerable methodological difficulties in attain- tion but they have been criticized for their failures order to maintain national unity (see Turkey in the ing representative and accurate data where there is a to involve minority and indigenous groups ade- Europe chapter, for example), and sometimes in a In France, traditionally the European nation that small number of a minority group or groups in an quately. According to the EFA report 2009, PRSPs post-conflict environment. But the negative impact stalwartly advocates a ‘one size fits all’ approach area; creative approaches will need to be used, such are poor at attending to ethnic and religious issues of this desire often means the same communities to human rights and development, it is illegal as carrying out small targeted surveys, using boosters (thus failing to use ethnic or religious indicators), are consistently excluded, fuelling further tensions; to include ethnic data in official statistics, or for and combining a range of research approaches. stating that not one of the 18 second-generation and resources remain in the hands of specific ethnic, the census to include questions about race or ori- There are sensitive issues about methods – how PRSPs mentions education of religious minority linguistic, religious or ideological groups. gin. Reporting on her 2007 mission to France, to categorize different groups and how to collect the groups. However, according to the report: According to a Rwanda government delegate at the Independent Expert on Minority Issues Gay information? MRG holds that minorities are often ‘Kenya provides a rare illustration of an integrated CEDAW in early 2009: ‘The country of Rwanda McDougall stated that minorities expressed their among the poorest and most marginalized groups in approach to the needs of marginalized people with its does not have Pygmy children.’ Batwa people discomfort at the rigid French identity, that they society. They may lack access to political power and

56 The importance State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities The importance 57 of ethnic data and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 of ethnic data Left: A biology class in Peje/Pec, western Kosovo, collecting and using information to benefit minori- offers Roma teenagers the chance to catch up with the ties and indigenous peoples. curriculum’s science component so they can join their peers at the local school. William Henley/OSCE. Namibia According to the most recent census in Namibia were enrolled in school and 7.7 per cent of boys. In (2001), almost twice as many San in Namibia were 2005 the researchers aimed to establish the causes illiterate (84 per cent: 47 per cent) and almost half of under-performance of ethnic minority groups at as many San of primary school age were enrolled in secondary level and consider what could be done to a school as compared to the Namibian average (34 improve the situation. Information that was already per cent: 66 per cent). Kleofas Geingob, a member available showed high public exam failure and high of the Hai//om, the largest San community, and drop-out rates among minorities. The researchers Field Officer in Outjo region for the Working spent a month in six schools in the region looking Group for Indigenous Minorities in Southern Africa at classroom participation, attendance and achieve- (WIMSA), collected data for the census. According ment levels. They used a range of methods, includ- to Geingob, among other commentators, the data ing surveys with teachers, interviews with parents, gives an overestimate and most of the San commu- classroom observation and examination observation. nities are illiterate. However, he said that the census Facing considerable obstacles, including poor school was conducted in quite a positive way: ‘Speaking to records, they found that a combination of factors people in their own languages, people could reply negatively impacted the children’s performance freely.’ including language issues, lack of a culturally sensi- In recent years there have been some education tive environment and socio-economic factors. The and literacy programmes with some improve- report was used to promote more culturally sensitive ment but implementation is problematic. Geingob policies toward educating minorities. Although explained: ‘A small number of San are being macro-level research is important to determine pat- trained as teachers. However these programmes are terns of discrimination across a country, in order operational only in some areas. There is still lack of frequently have development policies imposed on ties are fluid and a person from a minority may to obtain information which goes to the core of the teachers and a lack of awareness. Transport to the them. The seeds for subsequent tensions are often have a changing perspective of what it means to matter so as to understand the problem fully, this schools can be a problem.’ But some effort is being sown by this lack of participation, while the poten- be a member of a particular community, this can kind of targeted research is also essential. made: ‘Something commendable from the govern- tial for peaceful coexistence between different com- make comparison over time difficult. These factors ment is that if San can’t afford to pay fees there is munities is thwarted by the denial of minority rights. may contribute to the gross under-representation of Involving civil society in data collection an exemption level.’ WIMSA visits communities However, some communities may not wish to be minorities in official statistics. Involving civil society and different minority and to assess why the San are dropping out and failing, classified primarily as minorities for various reasons. Efforts to collect representative data to accurately indigenous groups throughout the process, from and to help provide support to the communities by The word ‘minority’ is interpreted differently in portray the situation of minorities in Bangladesh design through to collection, will help improve giving them information on the exemption rule; the different societies. In the former Soviet Union and are challenged by its demographic diversity. In accuracy and consistency of data collection and group works directly with schools to persuade them former Yugoslavia, it can have a pejorative con- Bangladesh 2 per cent of the population is made analysis. The Heinrich Boll Foundation and other of the need for change. ‘When visiting the schools notation, implying a lesser status than nationalities. up of a large number of small ethnic groups. civil society organizations have been lobbying for some of the principals are a bit cautious, they feel In certain circumstances, it is preferable to refer to These include indigenous communities or Adivasis improvement of a range of indicators in recent people should be treated equally. We explain our groups or communities, while in other situations from hill regions, and Biharis from urban areas. censuses in Cambodia. Language is used as a proxy mission to the principal and explain how the San reference to sects, peoples or ethnicities is preferred. Approximately 10 per cent of the population are indicator for ethnicity, and though usually this is need and have a right to special attention. We This is not something that can be dictated by religious minorities. Research from 1999 on the not ideal, the group has successfully lobbied for the brainstorm with the principal and this can help,’ a government or a researcher, and thus poses a four most populous small ethnic groups that live in inclusion of a list of the Cambodian indigenous Geingob said. problem in data collection. Furthermore, and Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT), data collected when languages to be included in the most recent census. understandably, minorities themselves can be mis- the region was recovering from conflict, showed They are currently lobbying for indicators on educa- Ireland trustful of data collection; in Hungary some Roma that the net enrolment rates for the Chakma, tion and literacy disaggregated by ethnicity and sex. Although the Traveller community in Ireland is organizations oppose it because in the past ethnic Marma, Mro and Tripuras were far behind the Below are some examples of minorities and civil now considered a ‘cultural’ group, they are not rec- data has been used to develop anti-minority poli- national estimate. The data showed considerable society lobbying to improve ethnic data and con- ognized by the government as a distinct ethnic or cies. Minorities also often fear stigmatization or diversity between the ethnic groups and between ducting some of their own research. Their impor- minority group. According to Colette Murray, Early being designated as being lesser or backward, based girls’ primary enrolment rates and boys’. For the tant contributions should not detract from the fact Childhood Care and Education Coordinator at on long-term prejudices against a group. As identi- worst-off group, the Mro, only 2.7 per cent girls that governments have the main responsibility for NGO Pavee Point: ‘Historically there has been no

58 The importance State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities The importance 59 of ethnic data and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 of ethnic data Left: A young boy plays in the early learning centre Roma and non-Roma throughout south-eastern attached to Pavee Point Travellers’ Centre, Dublin, Europe. Information was collated from official and Ireland. Derek Speirs. unofficial sources and ranges were presented for numbers of Roma. The 2008 data-set provides esti- and outcomes, there is some data but it isn’t very mates for the Roma population, numbers of Roma good … We have been fighting for disaggregated enrolled in, and who had completed, primary school, data for some years now.’ Over the last few years a secondary school and tertiary education. According government-led Education Strategy was developed to the data-set, in Albania there are between 1,261 to improve the situation for Travellers. It involved and 95,000 Roma in the population (official: unof- consultations around the country and individual ficial sources), and only 48 per cent of the primary meetings with children carried out by Pavee Point. school age Roma population is in primary school Although consensus wasn’t reached on all the issues, – meaning that anywhere between 135 and 10,133 the Education Strategy is considered relatively good; Roma children are enrolled in primary school. however implementation is a problem and there is One of the best sources of information on Roma no formal monitoring mechanism as yet. The gov- is the United Nations Development Programme ernment has now made a commitment to set up a (UNDP) vulnerable groups’ survey of 2006. Key Forum to govern implementation of the Strategy, findings included that one in four Roma in the and Pavee Point is lobbying to ensure the Forum countries focused on were illiterate, and that three- has sufficient authority and capacity. quarters of Roma women did not complete primary education. It found that a quarter of Roma children The importance of ethnic statistics to were not attending school at all. Poverty, including advance the Decade of Roma Inclusion poor housing, was a major cause of the Roma’s poor There has been considerable effort in the last education, the survey concluded, saying, ‘21 per couple of years to advocate for disaggregated data cent of Roma households reported exposure to sani- within the Decade of Roma Inclusion as a means to tation-related diseases to be the single greatest threat determine the depth of exclusion and to determine facing their families’. Other barriers to education progress in National Action Plans. The 2007 report were the lack of a role model in ‘a well-educated monitoring the Decade highlighted the fact that household head’, segregation in education; and atti- ‘Data collection is sparse, irregular and not nation- tudes towards education due to poor employment ally representative.’ prospects. Specific barriers for girls include house- A Working Group on Indicators was set up in hold duties, early marriage and attitudes towards 2008. It found a ‘general lack of data and severe girls’ education. measurement problems’, including missing variables in data when it is available, low self-identification Integrating ethnicity in Multiple rates and restrictive questionnaires not allowing for Indicator Cluster surveys complex identities. The Working Group proposed UNICEF has been working with governments that indicators should focus on access, results and around the world to address gaps in data collection success. For education the indicators should include on children and women. This has included devel- enrolment rates; segregation, drop-out rates, special oping nationally representative household surveys, school incidences; length of stay, achievements and known as Multiple Indicator Cluster surveys (MICs) engagement with education.’ Travellers face discrim- negative way. Pavee Point carried out some outreach attainments. According to the Working Group, all which focus on a range of health and socio-econom- ination and bullying in schools and have difficulty work to educate them on the importance of being regularly collected data needs to be disaggregated. ic indicators. Governments are given the option to getting jobs; when they do get jobs they often have included in the statistics. The most recent available However it recognizes that in the medium term include ethnicity, language and religion questions to hide their identity. According to the 2002 Census data from 2006 shows a doubling in the number more creative approaches to monitoring will need in the MICs but to date most have chosen not to, in Ireland 63.3 per cent of Traveller children of Travellers in post-primary school between 2000 to be undertaken, such as dedicated mini-surveys or due to the concerns discussed above. However, dropped out of education before they were 15 years and 2006, but retention rates remained very poor ethnicity supplements in existing surveys. between 2005 and 2006 (the most recent round of old compared to the national rate of 15.4 per cent. (709 students were enrolled in first year and only The Open Society Institute’s Monitoring MICs), 17 countries collected data disaggregated by Travellers are under-represented in the data as they 115 were enrolled in sixth year). Regarding disag- Education baselines from 2006 and 2008 show how ethnicity, language and religion, based on member- were fearful of identifying as Travellers, that some- gregated data in education monitoring, Colette said: enormous the gaps and inconsistencies are in infor- ship of the head of household. These were Albania, how they would lose something or be targeted in a ‘There is a lack of information about absenteeism mation on Roma, and the gross disparities between Belize, Gambia, Georgia, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana,

60 The importance State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities The importance 61 of ethnic data and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 of ethnic data Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Lao PDR, Macedonia, entrenched, systematic and self-reinforcing discrimi- specific data in a consistent and sensitive manner Montenegro, Serbia, Sierra Leone, Thailand, Togo, nation (because the educational level of parents is to benefit minorities. The data should come from Uzbekistan and Vietnam. a key determinant of that of their children). It is a range of sources – from censuses, from national The findings show wide disparities in educa- very difficult to successfully design interventions socio-economic surveys and from education report- tion attendance at primary and secondary level in a to tackle a complex issue like this without detailed, ing that covers all aspects of the right to education: number of countries. The survey asks about highest disaggregated and complete data. But even excellent its availablity, accessiblity, acceptablilty and adapt- level of education, current school attendance and data does not guarantee that the right interven- ability. This information should be made easily attendance during the previous school year, and tions will be made, or even that any intervention accessible to the public. the information can be used to estimate net attend- will be made. The UK has some of the most com- The World Bank, UN agencies, regional bodies ance rates, survival rate to the last grade of primary plex and complete disaggregated statistical data, at such as the EU and ASEAN, and bilateral donor school and transition rate to secondary school, least in the area of ethnicity (data on language and governments, as well as NGOs, need to place much among other indicators. religion are not as complete). Schools are required greater weight on disaggregated data in education Although a very positive step towards incorporat- to monitor children’s performance by gender and and development. They can do this by making eth- ing ethnic, religious and linguistic groups in socio- ethnicity as well as by some indices of poverty, and nic indicators a requirement for monitoring poverty economic research, there are some limitations in the these data are analysed and scrutinized at the level reduction and education programmes, in particular questionnaires to date. Information on smaller com- of the school, the local authority and nationally. the MDGs and EFA goals, and by encouraging, munities’ experiences, or those of groups that are Schools also have a statutory duty to monitor and supporting and pressurizing governments to collect not recognized within a given country, can be lost report on racial incidents within schools. This data this information and to make it available. As data within the survey, often falling within the general shows that UK black children have lower education collection on minorities and indigenous peoples category of ‘other’. Additionally, like most data that achievements and are more likely to be disciplined involves many methodological challenges, emphasis is currently available on the education of minorities or excluded (i.e. expelled). Each year the London needs to be placed on developing and sharing best- and indigenous peoples, the data does not focus on Schools and the Black Child initiative organizes practice experiences. educational achievements except for literacy, and a conference with approximately 2,000 delegates, Trust is paramount in data collection and analy- usually information on literacy is investigated for a including black children, their parents and teach- sis. Where groups have been historically disadvan- sub-sample of the female population only. ers, to give those present an opportunity to voice taged, it is important that they are involved in the Friedrich Huebler, of the UNICEF Division of their concerns and to use the findings to influence data collection, from design to use and publication Policy and Practice, has developed a relative parity policy. But speaking at the UN Forum in 2008, of the information. All efforts to collect information index using the data-sets. This index is calculated the founder of the initiative, Diane Abbott MP, should pay attention to the principle of self-iden- by comparing the net attendance rate of the ethnic, said: ‘Once the … government agreed to look into tification, and should be conducted in a language religious or linguistic group with highest attend- the specific problem of Black and ethnic minority and manner that is accessible to the different ethnic, ance with those with the lowest attendance. The under-achievement, they refused to set targets for religious and linguistic communities. Outreach further away from 1, the more unequal the situa- improvement. This effectively just leaves recommen- programmes are necessary to sensitize people about tion. For example in Lao the relative parity index dations, reports and proposals but little action – or the importance of self-identification, and how the (RPI) of primary school attendance based on the effective way of monitoring progress.’ information will or will not be used. Regular con- language difference of household head is 0.59. Like Inequality in access to education will not end tact with members of the minority and indigenous the Human Development Index and the Gender without solid ethnic data and analysis, and carefully groups and consultations with them on the specific Empowerment index, this index can be used to rank designed and implemented targeted programming. issues that affect them is essential. countries in order, to highlight good or bad practice Treating all people the same in development or edu- Methods of governance that deny cultural dif- and outcomes. It has the potential to be a very valu- cation policies and programmes is akin to expecting ferences and fail to address inequalities across able advocacy tool, if used widely, to indicate the economic growth to bring a ‘trickle down’ effect to ethnicities or religions have repeatedly proven to extent of equality or disparity within a country in a the poorest and the most marginalized people in a be destabilizing. To promote peace and stability, way that can easily be compared with other coun- society, regardless of the cause of their disadvantag- governments and organizations involved in conflict tries. But it is the disaggregated data that informs es. There are many reasons why minorities are not prevention must attend to the rights of minorities the index that will be most useful in understanding benefiting equally in their education; disaggregated and indigenous peoples, measuring the impacts of the problem, as it provides the information on spe- data provides objective and comparative materials policies and programmes on different communities cific groups and the reality of their exclusion. that can be used to design interventions that tackle and developing programmes to promote de facto the root causes of these problems. equality for all. p Conclusions and recommendations If states are serious about respecting, protecting The marginalization of minorities and indigenous and fulfilling the human rights that they have vol- peoples in education involves complex patterns of untarily subscribed to, they must collect minority-

62 The importance State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities The importance 63 of ethnic data and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 of ethnic data hen Barack Obama ran for President point since the famous finding in Brown v. Board of the United States of America of Education (1954) that ‘separate education’ in W (USA), he did not avoid difficult America was ‘inherently unequal’. Without access to questions of racial identity or gloss over the legacy this kind of baseline data on race, ethinicity, gender of racial injustice, even while urging American vot- and disability, the advocacy efforts described below ers to move beyond the racial divide that threatened would have been impossible. to undermine his candidacy. Instead, he pointed to continued divides and reframed the deep-rooted Example one: racial disproportionality racial inequities that exist in the USA as a subset in special education of the great challenges confronting the nation as a Very similar to the plight of Roma children whole. Obama said: throughout Europe, in the USA there is a legacy of labelling minority children mentally disabled and ‘This time we want to talk about the crumbling schools relegating them to substandard and segregated edu- that are stealing the future of black children and white cational facilities. Given the extant exclusionary and children and Asian children and Hispanic children bigoted policies surrounding students with disabili- and Native American children. This time we want ties, it should not be surprising that the disability to reject the cynicism that tells us that these kids can’t label was used by those seeking to preserve racial learn; that those kids who don’t look like us are some- segregation when they could no longer explicitly use body else’s problem. The children of America are not race as the basis of exclusion. those kids, they are our kids, and we will not let them Researchers, disability advocates, educators and Case Study fall behind in a 21st-century economy. Not this time.’ minority families had known about this problem for decades, but it was not until 2001 that the Obama’s approach to race may contain a valuable national news media really took notice. Following lesson for those seeking to guarantee the right to a research conference in 2000, the CRP presented Using racial data to education for the world’s minority and indigenous the most salient findings in Washington DC, at a children. This article suggests that a similarly sensi- forum co-sponsored by the NGO American Youth tive yet unblinking approach toward the collection Policy Forum. The forum was attended by the staff improve education and utilization of racial data in education is needed of members of Congress, education policy NGOs, to combat the racism that is an obstacle to the right education researchers and members of the media. of all children to be educated. Without such data, Broadcast journalists who covered the event decried for minority minority and indigenous children will remain invis- the fact that black people were three times as likely ible and the injustices they suffer, including the as white people to be labelled mentally retarded, and denial of educational opportunity will only persist. even mentioned that unconscious racial bias was, at Documenting progress is equally important, but least in part, likely responsible for these disparities. The children in the USA without accurate baseline racial data it will be hard full report also showed that black and Latino students to distinguish policies that bring true progress from with disabilities were far more likely than their white Daniel J. Losen false claims of equal opportunity. counterparts to be suspended from school, to drop out The examples that follow illustrate how the use or to be imprisoned. The report had data describing of racially disaggregated data bolstered efforts to the often significant disparities in each of the 50 states secure a more racially just system of public educa- in rank order, and the coverage on national television tion in America. The examples are rooted in the gave rise to extensive coverage by local news media. work of the Civil Rights Project (CRP) at Harvard There can be no question that the stark nature of the University (now at UCLA). In each case, research data, and the fact that the data and analysis were from using empirical data helped reveal large inequalities reliable sources (federal databases) that were easy to in educational opportunity in a way that compelled verify, helped considerably in getting the message out. legislators and administrators to change laws to At the request of Representative Chaka Fattah, the better improve educational outcomes for minority USA House of Representatives convened hearings on children. They fall within the context of a long- the issue in 2001. standing civil rights movement in the USA, that One obstacle, however, was the notion that the has had the right to education as a primary focal racial disparities revealed were all explainable by

64 The importance State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Using racial data 65 of ethnic data and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 in the USA Left: African American students and their teacher change on paper actually represents a shifting of a in a middle school in Florida, USA. Betty Press/ problem rather than an effective remedy. For exam- Panos. ple, as pressure against over-representing students of colour rises, identification rates for special education the appearance of possibly inappropriate identifi- and removal from class on disability grounds may cation of minority students in categories such as go down. Yet if during this same period there is also mental retardation and emotional disturbance, and a large increase in the rates of suspension and expul- the long legacy of students of colour being unfairly sion for non-disabled minority students, that would stigmatized and intentionally removed to segregated suggest that exclusion on grounds of discipline had settings. simply replaced exclusionary special education prac- Revealing this data in the media and in the subse- tices. If this were the case, it would be hard to claim quent congressional hearings elicited a reaction, and that the change in educational policy and increase by 2004 the Individuals with Disabilities Education in opportunities actually improved the conditions of Act (IDEA) was amended, making remedying racial education for children of colour. disproportionality in special education a top govern- ment enforcement priority. Example two: racial disparities in One particular enforcement provision requires graduation rates state educational agencies to intervene where the While internationally the denial of education to state has determined that a district has significant women is of primary concern, in the USA, black racial disproportionality in identification, and that males are often the sub-group experiencing the the over-representation was the result of inappropri- greatest harm. Reports combining data on race and ate identification. A subsequent provision requires gender are therefore invaluable. public reporting by the state regarding each district’s Following a conference convened jointly by CRP performance in this regard. But perhaps the most and the NGO Achieve Inc., the analysis shown in important provision not only requires extensive data Table 1 was published to confront a major problem: collection and analysis, but also requires sizeable minority youth were failing to finish high school at expenditures on preventive interventions where a very high rates. The public was largely unaware of state, in reviewing the data alone, finds significant this problem. The Department of Education was racial disproportionality. not reporting any data to the public on graduation The legislative achievement created potential for rates, despite the capacity to do so. State govern- change, but also set the stage for continuing advo- ments filled the void with reports that masked over poverty, not race. Here the research that further beneficial; and that there were adequate procedural cacy struggles. For example, even though President this educational crisis for minority students. disaggregated the disability data by race and gender protections to ensure that students with disabilities George W. Bush signed the reauthorized IDEA into The report on graduation rates, with a focus on was most persuasive. The expected relationship was were not unfairly disciplined. Additionally, research law he issued a ‘signing statement’ suggesting that the crisis for minority youth, attracted national that risk for disability would rise with the level of indicated that children of colour who do have dis- he disapproved of the provisions described in this attention, again using influential and popular poverty, regardless of gender or race. But one study abilities receive vastly unequal supports and services, case study. The US Department of Education cre- media. As public awareness grew, CRP held further of national data powerfully showed that, contrary especially compared to their white counterparts. ated administrative interpretations that were often conferences, and many other researchers began to the expected trend, black people generally, and Ultimately, compared to white students with dis- confusing, and many that civil rights groups for- studying and reporting similar findings. Several black males most dramatically, were at increasing abilities, black students with disabilities were found mally objected to. politicians, including Obama, added improving risk of being labelled mentally retarded as poverty to be four times as likely to be educated in a cor- Evaluation of the impact is not as direct and graduation rates to their election campaign’s edu- decreased. Moreover, neither the large differences rectional facility (prison), and Latinos nearly twice straightforward as one would like. One reason cational platform. Before election year in 2008, the in rates of identification by equally poor black and as likely. is that while single indicators such as unusually Department of Education issued new regulations Latino children, nor larger differences in identifica- Any one of the several studies alone might have high levels of enrolment in special education pro- requiring the reporting of more accurate, disag- tion rates by gender within each racial group, could raised questions about unjust labelling. An isolated grammes, or very low graduation rates, may serve gregated rates by race. The new regulations added be explained by poverty. report, however, would not have been as illuminat- well to highlight inequity, no single indicator can accountability for schools and districts if minority The combined analysis of race and gender data ing as the combination of the data with individual suffice to indicate that minority children have equal or ethnic groups, students with disabilities, English also cast doubt on the assumptions: that the special anecdotes and historical references. The legal history educational opportunity, or that their conditions learners or socio-economically disadvantaged youth education identification process was a scientific of the misuse of special education placement to cir- of education in fact improved following a change failed to make adequate improvements in their rate and accurate one; that the placement, supports and cumvent court ordered desegregation requirements, in education policy. One ever-present concern for of graduation. The regulations further called for states services provided to the recipients were necessarily for example, helped to connect the dots between advocates is that what appears to be a significant to provide greater oversight and accountability for

66 Using racial data State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Using racial data 67 in the USA and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 in the USA their access to key resources, including per pupil Table 1 National graduation rates by race and gender (class of 2001) expenditures on education and access to qualified teachers. Therefore, one important specific recom- Race/ethnicity Nation Female Male mendation to complement the general one is that campaigners and others urge governments to track Asian/Pacific Islander 77 80 73 and monitor minorities’ access to the most critical Hispanic 53 59 48 educational resources. Black 50 56 43 While human rights advocates must be sensi- White 75 77 71 tive to the potentially divisive quality of discourse All Groups 68 72 64 on race, too much caution risks failing to confront racial injustice. Though the examples here may seem unique to the USA, there are several core principles very low graduation rates among minority students. ‘In America, a black boy born in 2001 has a 1 in 3 embedded in them that are relevant for advocacy The regulations should lead to more accurate report- chance of going to prison in his lifetime, and a Latino once the following prerequisites are achieved: that ing, but issues of accountability and resources for boy a 1 in 6 chance, and yet we spend nearly three states acknowledge that minorities do exist; and that intervention remain. Fortunately, the issue remains times as much on every prisoner as we do per public the education of minority children is an important high on Obama’s education reform agenda, and that school pupil.’ national interest (even if, as in the USA, a funda- of numerous politicians, education researchers and mental right to education is not yet protected con- campaigners. Therefore, domestically and internationally, there stitutionally). When those prerequisites are in place, But the hard reality is that we know the least is a need to collect and analyse disaggregated data here are just a few important principles regarding about the minority children who are suffering the on rates of incarceration and access to education for data that advocates from the international commu- most. For example, when rates of discipline are dis- minority children behind bars. nity might stress for every country. aggregated by gender and race, black males are often significantly worse off than other groups, including Conclusion p Data on minority children should be pub- black females. Unlike the data on special education We only count those whom we care about, the rest licly reported and verifiable by independent and graduation rates, the disaggregated discipline remain invisible. If we cannot keep track of chil- researchers. data on short-term suspensions is not reported dren from minorities, their educational outcomes, p Racial and ethnic data should be further disag- annually to the federal government, and large racial their access to educational resources or their rates of gregated and reported by gender, socio-eco- disparities do not trigger any interventions. incarceration, then we cannot hope to protect their nomic status and disability whenever possible. As Table 2 on 12–14-year-old students demon- right to be educated. From a human rights perspec- p It is critically important to track and moni- strates, there are dramatic differences in rates of tive, having access to disaggregated quantitative data tor data on all forms of labelling, sorting and suspension both between racial groups and within increases our capacity to reveal injustices and speak exclusion from mainstream educational oppor- racial groups, when the data are broken down by truth to power. tunities. gender. Moreover, the USA fails to regularly collect The disparities highlighted here reflect deep edu- p The most predictive inputs, such as access to and report data on the thousands of children who cational resource inequalities. We can often predict highly qualified teachers, as well as outputs that are arrested (many for offences committed while in educational outcomes for minorities by looking at reflect the success or failure of the entire sys- school) and put in jail. These untracked children are tem, such as high school graduation rates in the the most vulnerable, in part because we know the USA, should be measured and monitored. Table 2 Middle school suspension rates for all least about them. From the few reports that have p Disaggregated data on minority children who children broken down by race and gender: 2005–6 been conducted we know these children are dispro- are incarcerated, forced to serve in the military portionately minority males, and students with dis- or otherwise foreclosed from the educational abilities. We also know that children in US prisons 30 system should be collected and investigated. p are exposed to a high risk of abuse and substandard 25 education, if education is even provided. Juvenile 20 incarceration is known to be a leading indicator of 15 adult incarceration. Moreover, the USA incarcerates 10 the highest percentage of its adult citizenry, with 5 tremendous racial disparities. According to Marian 0 Black Hispanic American White Asian/PI Wright Edelman, President of the Children’s Indian Defense Fund, a non-profit organization: Source: USA. Department of Education: Office for Civil Rights (over 9,000 middle schools).

68 Using racial data State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Using racial data 69 in the USA and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 in the USA arch 2009 saw a historic sentence Below: A teacher helping a child to learn to read at handed down in a courtroom in a community school for San children in Botswana. M Gujarat, India. Six male professors of Giacomo Pirozzi/Panos. a women’s college were jailed for life for repeat- edly gang raping a Dalit girl studying at the college indigenous girls are specifically affected by inter- (see Box, p. 72). India’s 167 million Dalits, known sectional issues and suggesting ways these problems as Scheduled Castes (and by the derogatory term could begin to be addressed. ‘untouchables’), experience extreme discrimination in all aspects of life. Although the caste system has Poverty been legally abolished, violence, abuse, segrega- It is well documented that poverty is a major fac- tion and discrimination still occur against them. tor contributing to children not attending school. According to activists working with Dalits across Poverty forces people into poor housing, it forces India, rape is a common occurrence for Dalit girls, them to live in remote areas and far from schools, and perpetrators are rarely held to account. and they have to cope with hunger. Many countries Minority and indigenous girls are more vulnerable charge fees for attending primary school and, even to this type of violence and problems of reporting where school fees have been abolished, informal because of their membership of an excluded group. charges such as for books, requirements for children They may experience violence at the hands of men to wear uniforms or the payment of ‘incentives’ for from their own community or violence may be per- teachers (which act as supplements to low salaries) petrated by men from dominant communities as a prevent poor children attending school. The gender form of discrimination, subjugation and control. Their Minorities and indigenous peoples are among disadvantaged position, as minorities and girls, makes the poorest communities in many countries. This, reporting violence, having their reports taken seriously combined with the other factors discussed in this dimension of and cases brought against male perpetrators from their chapter, means they experience greater difficulties in own and from other communities, extremely difficult. sending their children to school. The ramifications Impunity is widespread. All this makes the judgment for minority girls are particularly severe. in the case in Gujarat a landmark victory in an ongo- When poverty prevents all children being edu- minority and ing struggle for the right to access safe, quality educa- cated, the education of boys may be prioritized tion for minority and indigenous girls. over that of girls. Communities may not see any MRG’s 2004 report Gender, Minorities and benefit in educating their daughters; girls’ labour indigenous Indigenous Peoples (hereafter Gender report) defines is frequently needed to help the family and, should gender as: ‘the ascribed, social nature of distinctions they get an education and secure better work, that between women and men’. Gender issues do not labour will benefit their husband’s family rather education just concern women; socially ascribed distinctions than benefiting their parents who paid for the also apply to men. Equally, intersectional discrimi- nation (discrimination on the basis of both sex and Kathryn Ramsay race) can affect minority men and minority women. This chapter will concentrate predominantly on intersectional issues affecting minority and indig- enous girls in education because of their dispropor- tionately disadvantaged position highlighted above, and briefly touch on some specific examples for minority boys. Although the factors that impact on the education of minority and indigenous girls are intrinsically linked, this chapter will consider them in three main sections: poverty, discrimination and cultural issues. It will set the context by highlighting problems affecting minorities in general, or girls in general, before examining in more detail how minority and

State of the World’s Minorities The gender dimension 71 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 doctor, if she wanted, but they are very poor. She schooling. MRG’s 2008 report A Double Bind: for them to travel long distances alone. ‘They decided to be a primary school teacher. The Exclusion of Pastoralist Women in the East and Minority girls are frequently enrolled in school ‘Her father asked the school’s professors for help Horn of Africa highlights that Boran pastoralists later than their male peers, or miss large amounts of targeted her’ with the fees, as he did not have the money to pay in northern Kenya perceive that there are very few schooling and so have to repeat classes. Poverty con- them. He said he was putting the girl in the school, opportunities for pastoralist women to secure any tributes to this. Therefore minority girls in primary in their care and trust. She was staying in the paid employment that requires an education; there- school can be several years older than their class- Manjula Pradeep, executive director hostel. She was frequently asked to come and help fore there is little incentive for families to sacrifice mates. This has an impact on their self-esteem; it of Indian NGO Navsarjan, tells Leena the professors at lunch times and breaks. the benefits of their daughters’ labour to send them also means they reach puberty by grade 3–5, setting Patel about a young Dalit girl brave ‘The first time the incident occurred, one of to school. In Vietnam, similar views are held among them apart from the group. Lack of adequate sanita- enough to take her rapists to court the professors asked to see her and there were the Bahnar and J’rai communities, even though they tion facilities compounds the problem. UNICEF two professors in the room. One of the professors are matriarchal societies. Natal families do not lose noted that in Vietnam, ‘J’rai girls often enter school On Friday 6 March 2009, a ground-breaking grabbed her by the hand and the other removed her their daughters’ labour following marriage because late, and thus, by the time they reach lower second- case was heard in the Fast-Track Magistrate’s salwar. She was 17 years old at the time.’ girls do not join their husbands’ families; however, ary school, studying at a school without toilets was a Court in the north Indian state of Gujarat. a lack of job prospects means the education of girls great barrier that made them feel uncomfortable and Despite huge pressure from her family and Pradeep said the professors were blackmailing is not considered important. One teacher from a contributed to their drop out.’ Minority girls may community, and against the norms of Indian the young Dalit girl, and raped her again and J’rai district noted: ‘An ethnic minority student who therefore drop out at the same age and for the same society, a young Dalit girl spoke out against six again. completed ninth grade could not find any job in the reasons as other girls, but will have completed fewer of her professors. They had raped her 14 times She said: ‘To fight against caste-based commune … She got discouraged and dropped out years of primary schooling. over three months as she struggled to complete violence, the affected Dalit woman has to first of school … Even with education, eventually the Economic, social and cultural rights, including her teacher training. face the challenge within the family, then the children would end up working on the field.’ the right to education as set out in the Convention Despite the odds posed by centuries of community and the society at large.’ The girl’s Though the prioritization of boys’ education over on the Rights of the Child (CRC), must be imple- discrimination against Dalits, and against father threatened to commit suicide, and the girls’ is frequently the case in majority communities mented by states to ‘the maximum extent of their women from the community in particular, the Dalit community pressured the girl not to go to as well, the higher poverty rate of many minor- available resources’ (Article 4). This recognizes court found in her favour. All six men were court. The girl’s father was threatened by a BJP ity and indigenous communities means that they that immediate full implementation of the right to sentenced to life imprisonment. Party member and the village head, who was an are more likely to be forced to make this choice. education for all is unrealistic, especially for poor Manjula Pradeep, executive director of upper-caste leader, and the accused side offered Minority and indigenous girls are therefore dispro- countries; however, states are legally required to Navsarjan, an Indian NGO fighting for the bribes through caste leaders. portionately affected. continuously improve the situation. freedoms and rights of Dalits in Gujarat, The girl was cut off from family and Hunger is also a factor that impacts on minority Minority and indigenous girls may suffer acute supported the girl through the court case. community and, said Pradeep, ‘obviously alone girls. A UNICEF study in Vietnam found that the embarrassment about their family’s poverty, the low As Pradeep went to the court to listen to the – everybody’s eyes were on her’. She was under need for Bahnar and Khmer girls to find or prepare quality of their clothes or their difficulties catching judgment, she was called names and shouted at police protection for 20 days while the trial food for the family contributed to them dropping up following periods of absence from school when by the wives and supporters of the accused. But took place. out of school. One Khmer girl, who had to wait for they have to work, which affects drop-outs (see Box, she stayed to hear the court’s decision. She says The case highlighted that girls were abused at her mother to return with rice after harvesting it p. 76). it was a moving experience. ‘I was so relaxed and the school over a period of 10 years. Pradeep said: for other people so the girl could cook for the fam- so happy I don’t have words.’ ‘After the filing of a complaint in this incident 58 ily said, ‘The teacher asked [why I was late] and I Strategies The young Dalit girl was a student at the girls- girls wrote to the Education Department about answered that we didn’t have rice to cook any earlier A wide variety of initiatives could be taken to only government Direct Institute of Education similar experiences which they had also gone in the day, so I didn’t come to school.’ She dropped improve the access to education of minority and Training – Primary Training College (DIET- through. The girls who were targeted were from out of school because of this. Batwa boys in the indigenous girls affected by poverty. A thorough PTC) in Patan district. The attacks took place various castes but mainly from the lower castes.’ Great Lakes region of Africa may be given priority examination of the barriers, with the effective partici- both in the college grounds and outside. Two of Pradeep has commented that the ‘rape of over their sisters in the amount of food they receive. pation of the community, especially the affected girls, the rapists were from the Dalit community. Dalit females is a regular occurrence that has Batwa girls go to school hungry and consequently is needed to ensure that any measures are appropri- Pradeep explained how the girl’s background largely gone unpunished’ throughout India. are less able to concentrate. ately targeted and will have the desired effect. When and status made her vulnerable. According to But she added that the case and the judgment Many minority and indigenous communities live asked for their ideas, the minority communities tak- Pradeep, ‘They targeted her.’ ‘opened the eyes of many dominant castes’, and in remote areas. These frequently suffer from higher ing part in the UNICEF study in Vietnam suggested ‘the Dalit community has gained faith in the levels of poverty than the national average and have a range of schemes: providing stipends to girls for ‘Her father was a labourer and an alcoholic. But judiciary’. fewer facilities or services. Therefore, minority chil- buying books, notebooks or for paying fees; awarding she was a very bright girl. She achieved 76 per cent The girl herself went back to the school to dren may have further to go to get to school. Bad or scholarships to high-achieving girls to continue in in her twelfth grade exams. She could have been a complete her final exams. p non-existent roads may make the journey danger- higher grades of schooling with the hope they would ous, especially during seasonal rains. This may dis- provide role models for younger girls; and improving advantage minority girls whose parents are unwilling school facilities, including sanitation.

72 The gender dimension State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities The gender dimension 73 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Left: Heena (not her real name) teaches young nity that minority and indigenous girls go (or try to children from her village in Madhya Pradesh, India. go) to school. A Dalit, forced into prostitution at the age of 12 by Those stereotypes may make minority and her parents, she has recently started studying as well as indigenous girls vulnerable to violence at school teaching. Atul Loke/Panos. from those who are supposed to protect and edu- cate them (see Box, p. 72). Fellow pupils may also majority language before entering school. For exam- target minority or indigenous girls. An Amnesty ple, in Vietnam, although minorities have the right International report into school safety highlighted to receive mother tongue instruction in primary the case of a 14-year-old Muslim girl in Canada schools, and efforts are being made to improve the who was sexually assaulted at school by male provision of bilingual education, for many H’mong students who allegedly targeted her because they children the only schools available use Vietnamese thought that, as a member of a minority, she would as the language of instruction. H’mong boys may be less likely to report the attack to the authorities. accompany their fathers in social and communal The journey to and from school may be fraught activities, thus exposing them to the Vietnamese with danger too; girls may face bullying or harass- language before they enrol in school, whereas ment from their fellow pupils or local men. A H’mong girls tend to help their mothers with agri- 16-year-old Dalit girl reported being attacked by cultural work and housework and do not have the dominant-caste boys from her class on her way same chance to learn. to school. They grabbed her and tried to drag her Some stereotypes about minority and indigenous into the bushes ‘to teach her a lesson’ for touch- women in society as a whole can lead to physical ing the water pitcher at school the day before. danger for girls from those communities, with severe (‘Untouchability practices’, such as refusing to allow consequences for their education. MRG’s Gender Dalits to touch water or food utensils used by other report noted that in southern Africa, perceptions castes, have been banned in India; however, occur- However, monitoring of the implementation minorities and indigenous peoples; textbooks may of indigenous San women as inferior, weak and rences are widely reported, especially in rural areas.) and impact (both intentional and unintentional) reinforce stereotypes by containing racist references. promiscuous lead to violence against them from She was lucky that her screams alerted a passer-by of any programme is essential to ensure that the This can lead to negative treatment of minority and majority groups. In the Great Lakes region, Batwa and the boys ran away; however, after the incident affected communities are reached. In India’s federal indigenous children, such as low teacher expecta- women’s vulnerability to rape is increased by a she stopped going to school. system, states may make a variety of provisions tions of their abilities or bullying from their peers. widespread myth in the region that sex with a Batwa The threat of this violence contributes to the for poor Dalit children through financial schemes, Such discrimination can contribute to a decision to woman cures backache. reluctance of minority and indigenous parents scholarships and reductions in fees, to help them drop out, low self-esteem or a negative perception While violence against women is endemic in to send their daughters to school. Parents worry attend school. Some of these provisions are general of their own culture. The forms this discrimination many, if not all countries, and minority and indige- about the consequences of possible violence against schemes for talented poor children and others are takes may impact differently on girls and boys from nous women and girls may experience violence from their daughters – pregnancy, HIV and the result- reserved for Scheduled Castes. The NGO National minority and indigenous communities. men in their own community, violence, including ing shame these would bring on the family. One Campaign on Dalit Human Rights (NCDHR) cited The 2007 UNESCO report Education for All by sexual violence may also be perpetrated against them H’mong mother said: ‘I only want to let my sons go a case where a Dalit girl discovered that dominant- 2015: Will We Make It? cited a variety of studies because of their minority or indigenous identity to school. If girls go to school and get pregnant, I’d caste teachers had given scholarship money that was worldwide showing that, in general, girls are often (particularly in conflict situations). It is frequently be very ashamed.’ In many countries pregnant girls due to be given to Dalit students, including her, to marginalized in class and given less attention by used by majority communities to subjugate and are prohibited from going to school. A girl, particu- dominant-caste children. She approached the dom- teachers, leading to low self-esteem. Stereotypical exert control over the minority. Sexual violence not larly one from a stigmatized minority, who became inant-caste headmaster to ask for her scholarship, views of minority communities, combined with only harms the women, it acts as a form of collective pregnant following rape, would be highly unlikely was beaten for daring to speak out and suspended these views of girls, have a double impact on minor- humiliation for minority and indigenous men who to be able to complete her education. from school for a month. ity girls. Negative assumptions about their academic are perceived to have been unable to perform their Gender stereotypes not only affect minority and ability may lead to low expectations and therefore a traditionally perceived roles of protecting women indigenous girls, minority boys are also particularly Discrimination lack of encouragement from teachers. For linguistic from the community. Finally, the widespread impu- disadvantaged by some gendered ethnic stereotypes The experience of minorities and indigenous peo- minorities this is especially true where the language nity which exists for perpetrators of violence against against them. In the UK, although the gap is nar- ples in the education system (as outlined earlier used in education is not their mother tongue. women across many countries is even stronger when rowing, Afro-Caribbean boys achieve lower results in this book) is frequently one of discrimination Minority and indigenous children may be per- the victims are minority and indigenous women and than Afro-Caribbean girls or any other ethnic group. and exclusion. Discriminatory attitudes prevalent ceived as stupid if they struggle to understand the girls, who are thought of as inferior and/or stere- Diane Abbot MP reported to the UN Forum the in society are also present in schools: teachers and language of instruction. Minority girls may have had otyped as sexually available to dominant groups. It ‘possibility that Black children – particularly boys fellow pupils may hold stereotyped ideas about fewer opportunities to be exposed to and learn the is in this climate of stereotypes, violence and impu- – are excluded from school more than their peers as

74 The gender dimension State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities The gender dimension 75 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 clothes. I asked Mother for money, and Mother the economic and financial barrier was and experiences of dominant groups are included. ‘We both share said, “Mother does not have money. You have to the most important for three of the four Teachers need to be equipped to challenge intersec- work and earn money to buy your own things.”’ groups. The report describes many not- tional discrimination and stereotypes that negatively this one pen’ The inability to communicate: ‘My younger surprising issues such as lack of food, impact on minority and indigenous students when- sibling studies in grade three but still cannot money, nice clothes and bicycles for getting ever they occur. speak Vietnamese.’ to school over distances of up to 23 km. A report brings home the impact Research was conducted by the Research There also are major language difficulties, Cultural issues of discrimination in Vietnam. By Centre for Ethnic Minority Education from issues of caring for siblings and wanting to There are a number of cultural issues which impact Karen Emmons January to May 2006. The report gave evidence help parents work, bad teacher behaviour, on education for minorities and indigenous peoples. from 79 focus group discussions, in-depth security concerns in boarding facilities, early These can be cultural barriers, tensions or dilemmas interviews with 62 girls and 24 boys (both marriage and gender discrimination, as well between the majority education system and minor- The national primary enrolment rate of children in and out of school) and observations of 42 as a disconnection between education and ity or indigenous culture that inhibit access to edu- in Vietnam stands at more than 95 per cent. classrooms. It included statements and solutions future needs. The most recurring theme cation or make dropping out of school more likely. But there are large numbers of children, and from parents, teachers, community leaders and throughout is children’s embarrassment As with other types of difficulty, there is a gender particularly girls, in ethnic minority areas local officials. It was the first time a government about what they lack. dimension to these cultural issues which affects and whose absence from a classroom is conspicuous. education study directly interviewed children, The report’s final recommendations disadvantages minority and indigenous girls and Among some ethnic groups, rates have been using a participatory approach. include immediate strategies for enabling boys differently. only 40–70 per cent; and, worse, lower To help the young people and parents rank a community, stipends or elimination An education that is rooted in their experience secondary enrolment can be as low as 20 per their barriers and propose solutions, teams of direct costs, boarding and sanitation and relevant to their lives is more likely to motivate cent. The difference between girls’ and boys’ of five researchers used sorting cards and a facilities, and new secondary schools. and inspire children. The education provided in enrolment rates in those areas is as much as 20 problem/solution matrix. Local minority people Longer-term strategies include support state-run schools may not be relevant to the lives per cent. were trained as translators, with instructions to school leaders, child-centred and and cultures of minorities and indigenous peoples. In 2006, the Vietnamese Ministry of to retell responses honestly and avoid personal culturally appropriate teaching, safe learning In some cases, curricula designed by the majority Education and Training asked UNICEF and judgement. The questionnaire and other environments, bilingual education, gender- may ignore the history and culture of minorities, UNESCO to carry out collaborative research approaches were first tested among two ethnic sensitivity training, ethnic minority teachers, sometimes through a government policy of assimila- among four ethnic groups – Bahnar, H’mong, minority communities for appropriateness. vocational education and microfinance tion. In other cases, the culture of the minority may J’rai and Khmer – in three provinces (north, Changes were needed: questions were too schemes. be so different from that of the majority that what is central and south Vietnam). The children’s general or not friendly, or salutations were out In October 2008, 40 policy makers taught may be alien to minority children. The edu- testimony revealed the details of difficulties they of line with local custom. discussed the findings. They vowed to cation system may teach minority and indigenous deal with each day. Hunger: ‘Sometimes I do Each ethnic group identified five primary use existing policies to lighten the burden children that their culture and way of life is back- not eat for two to three days.’ Bullying: ‘They barriers to girls’ education: economic and on ethnic minority girls, and called for a ward, wrong or inferior. teased me and said I’m very ugly’, ‘Boys often financial, the need to work, the poor quality specific policy that protects their right to an These factors have particular impact on minor- write nonsense on the back of my shirt and even of teaching and learning, inadequate school education. They pledged to finalize a decree ity and indigenous girls. Girls are often perceived hit me.’ Lack of resources: ‘The teacher loaned infrastructure, and parents’ and girls’ perceptions for mother tongue learning from pre-school to be the custodians and transmitters of traditional me a pen. I study in the morning, my older of an education’s value to girls. The findings through higher learning. One participant culture; as such, parental concerns over the curricu- sister studies in the afternoon, and we both share also showed these barriers ranked differently in said: ‘Many cases mentioned in the study lum may be stronger for girls. A district education this one pen’, ‘When [my one uniform] got importance for each ethnic group, indicating broke our hearts, as we have marginalized officer in Uganda said of Karamojong pastoralists: wet in the rain, I stayed home or wore my own a need for contextual responses. For example, those disadvantaged children.’ p ‘In Karamoja, parents believe that if their daughters attain formal education they will become less com- petent wives, prostitutes, or run off to marry non- Karamojong men who will divert them from the a result of some form of institutional racism: being crimination (where, for example, an apparently neu- Procedures should be put in place for complaints Karamojong way of life.’ assumed to be more violent/disruptive/unruly than tral provision has a disproportionate negative impact of discrimination to be investigated impartially and In some cases, restrictions imposed by states on their peers’. on minorities or indigenous peoples). Legislation in disciplinary measures taken against perpetrators of cultural practices can force minority girls to choose line with international principles, which defines and discrimination or violence, whether they are teachers between their culture and gaining an education. The Strategies outlaws discrimination, is imperative. or fellow pupils. ban in France on the wearing of visible religious States have an obligation to ensure the elimination Specific strategies to eliminate discrimination Revision of textbooks is needed to ensure the symbols in schools is phrased in neutral terms but of discrimination in education – both direct dis- against minority and indigenous girls include the removal of discriminatory references and the inclu- disproportionately affects Muslim girls who wish crimination (for example, excluding children from a training of teachers on anti-discrimination and the sion of minority and indigenous contributions and to wear a hijab. France’s last report to the UN school because they are minorities) and indirect dis- particular needs of minority and indigenous girls. concerns in the same way as the historical narrative Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination

76 The gender dimension State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities The gender dimension 77 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Left: For 20 years, the Masai residents of the Highland movements are to blame. The reasons for a lack of town of Dol Dol have claimed that soldiers from the schools locally, or in areas where girls would be able nearby British army camp have sexually abused their to travel, should also be examined. As discussed women, yet no soldier has ever been punished. Sven above, fear of violence perpetrated by members of Torfinn/Panos. other communities may also be an issue. There is an obligation on the state to protect minority girls, tion. According to the National Committee on punish perpetrators of violence and provide access Traditional Practices of Ethiopia, rates of marriage to quality education. by abduction are as high as 92 per cent in one province, the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Law and strategies Peoples Region. Where a man’s family does not States have a duty to protect women and girls have enough money to pay a ‘bride price’ to a girl’s from practices that violate their rights whether the family it is customary for him to forcibly abduct practices are carried out by a majority or a minor- her, rape her and then afterwards negotiate to pay ity community. However, balancing this with the a small amount to the girl’s family so he can marry right to identity can be a particularly difficult area her. Adolescent girls are particularly vulnerable to for both governments and minorities. The UN abduction on their way to and from school. Few Declaration on Minorities (UNDM) provides guid- school-age girls who are abducted return to school ance on the issue (the UNDM is not legally bind- afterwards. Fear of abduction can also lead to girls ing; however, it was adopted by consensus which dropping out of school. means that no state objected to its provisions). The UN Special Rapporteur on violence against Minorities have the right to protect and develop women highlighted that in Iran a Kurdish man their culture except under two circumstances: decides, ‘whether or not his daughter, sister or where specific practices are in ‘violation of national spouse attends school … For this reason, the literacy law’ and where they are ‘contrary to international rate of Kurdish women and girls, particularly in the standards’. The reference to national law is prob- rural areas is either the lowest or one of the low- lematic, but it is clear that it would be meaningless est in the country.’ These strict social codes hinder if states were permitted to adopt whatever laws they outsiders (including state officials) from addressing wished against the cultural practices of minorities. Kurdish girls’ education. Prohibitions on cultural practices must be based But barriers to the education of minority and on reasonable and objective grounds. ‘Contrary to Against Women (CEDAW) stated that at the start For example, restrictions on religious practices indigenous girls can be the result of multiple fac- international standards’ means that states are free of the school year when the ban was introduced, must conform to standards on freedom of religion. tors. Bedouin girls in the Negev region of southern to (and should) prohibit practices that violate other of the 639 children wearing religious symbols, 626 Any restrictions must be ‘prescribed by law’ and Israel have a drop-out rate of 77 per cent in some of international human rights standards. were Muslim girls. During that school year, 47 ‘necessary to protect public safety, order, health, or the ‘unrecognized villages’ (much of the Negev was But states may not use provisions permitting children were expelled from school because they did morals or the fundamental rights and freedoms of declared state land between 1948 and 1966, with them to prohibit harmful cultural practices in order not comply with the ban (three Sikh boys and 44 others’. States also need to monitor the effects of the settlement on this land declared illegal; around half to prohibit whole cultures on the grounds that a Muslim girls) and 96 others left the state education restrictions to ensure that minorities and indigenous the Bedouin population live in 39 villages which practice violates human rights norms; the restric- system to circumvent the ban, moving to distance- peoples are not suffering discrimination by being remain unrecognized by the Israeli government). tions must be on the specific practices. Neither may learning courses or private schools, or leaving educa- disproportionately affected. The UN Forum in 2008 heard how these ‘unrecog- they act in a discriminatory manner, prohibiting tion completely. The choice they were left with was Cultural restrictions placed on them by their nized villages’ have no basic services such as electric- harmful practices in minority communities while to give up a cultural practice, to leave education or own communities can also make education more ity or drinking water, and there is no high school ignoring those of the majority. Legislation is needed to move to a form of education outside the state difficult for minority or indigenous girls, and in anywhere nearby. Bedouin culture requires girls to to prohibit specific practices in violation of human system where they would effectively be segregated certain cases these can be harmful and also violate be accompanied by a relative when leaving their vil- rights norms – but legislation alone will not be because they do not have the opportunity to mix their other rights, for example, female genital muti- lages and they should not study with or be in the sufficient to end these practices. For example, in with children of other backgrounds. lation (FGM) or early or forced marriage (which company of unknown boys. This means that the Ethiopia, the government has set the legal age for Restrictions on cultural practices designed to also occurs in majority communities). Girls do not long journey to the nearest school is a great obstacle marriage as 18 and outlawed marriage by abduction; regulate the education system must not discriminate usually return to school following FGM as they are and leads to the high drop-out rate of Bedouin girls. however the practice continues. The most effective (either directly or indirectly) against minorities or considered ready for marriage. The multiple factors impacting on the education methods of eradicating harmful practices require indigenous peoples, and international law does not Among a number of ethnic groups in Ethiopia of these girls must be examined; it cannot simply the cooperation of all sections of the affected com- permit states to adopt any restrictions they choose. there is a traditional practice of bride abduc- be assumed that the Bedouin restrictions on girls’ munity and are implemented in a way that is non-

78 The gender dimension State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities The gender dimension 79 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 threatening to the overall cultural identity of the group, stripped and made to march through the resentative of the group) should also be consulted. community. For example, states may use the educa- streets naked simply for reporting on an anti-FGM Participation by schools (teachers, managers and tion system to encourage eradication of a specific campaign. other students), with local government and other cultural practice affecting minority or indigenous States, NGOs and community groups need to be relevant local organizations such as NGOs, is essen- girls. However, without the cooperation of the com- aware of the diversity of opinions within minority tial, and with the national government and other munity, it may result in more girls being withdrawn and indigenous communities. They should be sensi- national or international organizations (education from school by parents who are fearful of the school tive to, and supportive of the difficulties faced by bodies, teachers unions, UN agencies and NGOs). changing their daughters’ opinion of the practice women from those communities who are working A 15-year-old Batwa girl in Burundi said, ‘School and thereby losing their culture. to eradicate harmful practices. is very important because when you have been, you Minority or indigenous communities experienc- have a better life, better health.’ All minority and ing discrimination or marginalization may perceive Conclusions indigenous girls have the right to go to school, but legitimate state concern over specific cultural prac- Though the experiences of the minority and indig- as this chapter has shown, they struggle to access it. tices that violate human rights norms as a further enous girls highlighted above represent a fraction of The situation of these girls, who face double dis- attack on them. There may be a negative reaction the world, they are illustrative of the problems faced crimination, requires urgent attention if the balance from the community (or from community leaders by many. The serious shortage of information about is to be redressed, and they are to take their equal who tend to be men) to what they feel is state inter- these issues means that the day-to-day reality faced place in society. p ference or pressure. However, no culture is homo- by minority girls remains hidden and is a severe bar- geneous – majority or minority – and very often rier to addressing their situation. Governments and there are individuals or groups within a community development agencies need to know about the reali- who do not participate or are working to eradicate ties of their lives and understand the interlinkages harmful practices. When minority and indigenous between the various contributing factors in order women refuse to conform to cultural practices that to ensure that efforts to improve the situation are violate their rights and/or work to eradicate them, effective. Without adequate data and analysis, pro- they very often face resistance or hostility from both grammes may not help get minority and indigenous men and women in their community. MRG’s 2008 girls into school. For example, a cursory examina- report on Pastoralist women highlighted the case tion of a situation might show the most obvious rea- of a woman from the Sabiny community (one of son for minority girls not being in school to be the the very few groups in Uganda which still practise poverty of the family. As a result the government FGM) who avoided FGM by staying with relatives. may set up a scheme to provide income supple- She tried to participate in politics and was told by ments for poor minority families; however, the most community leaders she was still a ‘child’ and not to important factor for that community may actually waste her time. Women (and also men) who actively be the distance from the minority area to the school work to stop harmful practices might be told that and related safety concerns. Therefore the income by speaking out, they are giving the government supplement scheme would be ineffective and minor- and the majority more reasons to attack their com- ity girls would remain unable to access education. munity. The arguments used are often that it is While legislation against discrimination is vital, it more important to secure the rights of the group is not enough to ensure protection. Effective imple- first before addressing other ‘less important’ issues mentation is necessary, as are specific policies and relating to women’s rights. They may be accused programmes designed to reach long-disadvantaged of pandering to the majority or aiding assimilation minority and indigenous girls. The policies that by trying to change a cultural practice that is seen are most likely to succeed will work at a number of as a cornerstone of the culture. They may even be levels, recognizing the barriers to participation that threatened or suffer from violence. In Sierra Leone, minority girls face at all levels of society. Working where most communities practise FGM and it is directly with the excluded minority and indigenous estimated that 94 per cent of women aged 15–49 girls themselves, in order to ensure a full under- have undergone it, one campaigner has received standing of their experience and what they feel, is death threats, been threatened with machetes and necessary to address the situation. had over 100 people protesting outside her house. Parents and the local community (recogniz- According to media reports, four female Sierra ing that no community is homogeneous and that Leonean journalists were abducted by a pro-FGM ‘community leaders’ may or may not be fully rep-

80 The gender dimension State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities The gender dimension 81 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 ‘Fifty percent of the world’s out-of-school children live Non-specialists most commonly use ‘mother in communities where the language of schooling is tongue education’ to mean education in a language rarely, if ever, used at home.’ (World Bank, In Their that children speak at home, with the implication Own Language, Education for All, 2005) that education is solely in that language, although this is rarely if ever the case. This is particularly ecisions about the language medium unfortunate because policy makers often mistakenly used in schools affect most minorities believe that education in a home language will mean D and almost all indigenous peoples. It is that children will never really master a national these groups who most commonly speak a language or majority language. But in fact, the opposite is other than the prevailing national or majority one. true (see below.) What we are really talking about As such, minority and indigenous children are most is multilingual education, whereby children start often affected by the absence of education in their school speaking the language that they speak at ‘home’ language, and suffer the most severe conse- home, and other languages are gradually introduced quences; for generations, they are relegated to life over time. For the rest of this chapter I will refer on the margins. Very high numbers of children are to Mother Tongue-based Multilingual Education affected. For example, according to the Institute (MTME). for Development Studies in the UK, approximately ‘1.38 billion people speak local languages – languag- Education in MTME is better es that are less well-known, without written forms for children and not used in formal education. This includes an World Bank research from Mali in 2005 showed A positively estimated 221 million school-aged children.’ that, ‘End-of-primary pass rates between 1994 and It seems obvious to say that children learn better 2000 for children who transitioned gradually from when they understand and speak the language of a local language to French were, on average, 32 per plurilingual the classroom. But currently many children around cent higher than for children in French-only pro- the world are taught at school in a language that grammes.’ Policy makers’ most common reaction they do not understand either well or at all. This to a population of children who speak a different has a direct impact, resulting in lower educational language at home (and who are often not doing well world: promoting achievement, higher drop-out rates, loss of heritage in school as a result) is to put in place special pro- languages and lower self-esteem for these children. grammes teaching the national or school language The challenges facing mother tongue education for these children. But research over two decades mother tongue provision include the concentration or disper- has demonstrated that, instead of supplementary sal of minority communities, and the effects of support in the national language, teaching such decentralization on educational decision making. children through their home language and gradu- education These will be discussed here, and the best ways of ally introducing other languages is more effective organizing mother tongue education sketched out, in terms of educational achievement for minority using examples and results from practice around language pupils. Importantly, it also showed that Claire Thomas the world. minority language children progress faster in both Finally, some of the reasons decision makers give their language and the majority language when they for resisting mother tongue education, despite its first receive education in their home language. proven effectiveness, will be examined. Therefore, While all children benefit from education in their the chapter will be most useful for advocacy by home language, UNESCO has found that girls ben- minority and indigenous activists, and those work- efit more. This may be for cultural reasons: girls, in ing to shape educational policies. general, are more restricted to the home. This limits their opportunities to be exposed to and learn other Terminology languages that may be spoken outside the home. In this chapter, a ‘mother tongue’ is a language that Minority girls may participate very little in class children learn from their parents (both mother and because they do not understand the classroom lan- father), siblings, wider family and community, when guage. Teachers may support and challenge boys in they are very young (this includes signed languages this situation because they have higher expectations of used primarily by deaf people and their families). them but may not do so with girls.

State of the World’s Minorities A positively 83 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 plurilingual world barrier. Unfortunately, students have struggled. Below: Girls from an indigenous community read to conclude that groups are less likely to mobilize Bilingual teach- Many gave up. outdoors at Ban Pho primary school in Lao Cai around topics like the language of schooling. But The Ministry of Education and Training Province, Vietnam. The UNICEF-supported school this is dangerously short-sighted. Examples show ing heads to (MOET) asked UNICEF and international con- provides education in a safe, child-friendly learning that the closure of minority language schools and sultants for help in developing a flexible bilin- environment and includes classes taught in the universities has been a contributing factor to raised gual programme specific to the Vietnam context. children’s indigenous language. Josh Estey/UNICEF. ethnic tensions and conflict. In Kosovo in the early the front of the Preparation spanned almost two years, including 1990s, the closure of many Albanian language pri- policy decisions on which languages to choose home … [helps] pupils feel secure about their identity. mary and secondary schools and the mass expulsion class in Vietnam for the pilot (H’mong, J’rai and Khmer were They will meet other children like themselves, make of Albanian language students from the university chosen), assessments to pick pilot sites and field friends within their community, engage in cultural certainly was one significant factor in increasing By Karen Emmons visits to suggested schools. activities and, most important of all, gain in self-esteem.’ tensions. This was echoed a decade later in Tetovo, In 2008 the first piloted bilingual kinder- Macedonia; this time, however, partly due to more In a typical Vietnam primary class with eth- garten classes opened their books and played MTME as a tool of conflict prevention effective international interventions, a compromise nic minority students, the Vietnamese teacher games in the three mother tongues. One child The link between assimilationist education policies over an Albanian-language university helped prevent strains to communicate through body language said, ‘I enjoy speaking H’mong with my teacher and low self-esteem, absenteeism and high drop-out widespread ethnic conflict. Other examples that or through classmates who may know both and friends and find it much more fun going rates of children from indigenous and linguistic demonstrate the links between assimilationist policy, the minority language and some Vietnamese. to school.’ Grade 1 classes follow in 2009. minority communities is now widely accepted. Such language provisions and potential conflict include Learning is a sporadic occurrence. Ultimately, 13 kindergarten and 13 grade 1 policies perpetuate a cycle of exclusion and margin- Botswana, China and Nicaragua, as documented in Vietnam’s Constitution and 1991 Universal classes (in three provinces) will be monitored alization that, in turn, can pave the way for mobi- recent MRG reports. Primary Education Law recognize that ethnic until 2014, with materials and teacher training lization of communities along ethnic lines when States that run well-planned and well-implement- minority children have a right to study in their developed up to grade 5. That research will con- tensions are high. ed MTME programmes will, in the long run, reduce mother tongue. With 54 ethnic groups in the tribute to new policies and practices (including Some policy makers may feel that both minority the risk of inter-ethnic conflict. Minority children country, that’s a lot of mother tongues. But a legal framework) to promote the use of ethnic languages and education are relatively soft topics – will do better, will be able to break out of cycles of somewhere along the way, using Vietnamese for minority languages as a means for improving compared, perhaps, to land rights, resource rights or poverty, and intercultural education will build links instruction took precedence as the way to help access, quality and equity of education and other reserved seats in Parliaments. This might lead them between communities. ethnic minority students overcome the language social services. p

MTME means lower drop-out rates, MTME means higher self-esteem improved attendance Educational development expert Carol Benson A telling insight from Bangladesh was offered by activist believes that systematic but frequently ignored dif- Mathura Bikash Tripura at the UN Forum. He said: ferences between the language and culture of the school and the learner’s community only succeed in ‘As a whole, net enrolment rate in Bangladesh has been teaching low self-esteem. She goes on to state: increased from 71.2 per cent in 1990 to 86.6 per cent in 2001, with gender parity. But in the Chittagong Hill ‘Bilingual education addresses self-esteem in at least Tracts, only 56.8 per cent of the indigenous children from two ways. First, children are allowed to express their 6–10 years old enrolled in schools, and 60 per cent of the full range of knowledge and experience in a language enrolled children drop out in early primary. This is double in which they are competent. Second, use of the mother the national drop-out rate; the children are turning away tongue in the official context of school demonstrates for not speaking Bangla and they are experiencing educa- that their language and culture is deemed worthy of tion in a totally unfamiliar language.’ (see Box, p. 154) high-status activities such as schooling.’

Conversely, in Guatemala, according to Save the The benefits of this to children and to parents who Children in 2008, with long-term bilingual and may not have had MTME or even mainstream intercultural education, grade repetition is about schooling cannot be underestimated. According to half that in traditional schools, while drop-out rates Our Languages, a languages project in the UK: are about 25 per cent lower. These are just two examples of many worldwide that confirm the ben- ‘Introducing pupils to their heritage language, or teach- efits of MTME to minority and indigenous pupils. ing them literacy in a language they already speak at

84 A positively State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities A positively 85 plurilingual world and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 plurilingual world MTME gives life to languages that um of these languages and it takes place outside the documents. These teams are organized by are threatened main school day. In 2003, the National Agency for Success in three languages and regions of indigenous peoples Alexandra Vujic, in her statement to the UN Forum Education Statistics in Sweden reported on ‘Mother in three countries. on behalf of the Vojvodina Center for Human Rights, Tongue Studies’, whereby: countries tells p Thirty-three indigenous students from the stressed that for endangered languages, language as a University of Cuenca are studying for a medium of education (rather than as a subject taught ‘Students with a mother tongue other than Swedish bachelor’s degree as investigators and high alongside other subjects) is critically important: have the right to receive tuition in their native lan- its own story school teachers. guage as a school subject … [with] its own separate p Indigenous investigators have been chosen ‘Homogeneous minorities [i.e. geographically concen- syllabus … Just over half of all pupils who are entitled By Juan de Dios Simón by their own peoples to conduct applied trated] have more opportunities to preserve their lan- to receive mother tongue tuition do so.’ research in IBE in their own communities. guage and culture in education through the medium of p Five bilingual and teachers’ schools have mother tongue, while dispersed minorities, whose only It said: ‘Mother Tongue Studies courses are taught The EIBAMAZ project (Intercultural Bilingual received technical and financial support. opportunity is more often just to learn their language, in approximately 60 languages (e.g. Arabic to Education in the Amazon Region) works with Three public universities (Universidad are strongly faced with assimilation processes and loss of 21,073 pupils, Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian to 14,829 17 indigenous groups in Bolivia, Ecuador and Nacional Mayor de San Simón in Bolivia, their language and culture.’ pupils, Finnish to 11,384 pupils and Albanian to Peru. It is run by UNICEF and is supported Universidad de Cuenca in Ecuador, 7,704 pupils).’ This type of provision is very valu- by the government of Finland. In Bolivia the Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Ahola Ejembi of the Civil Liberties Organization able to dispersed linguistic minorities and offers a groups are the Cavineño, Movida, Moseten, Marcos in Peru), have committed to in Nigeria, stated that the ‘Akweya language is thus partial solution, but it is not MTME. Tacana and Tsimane. In Ecuador the project including indigenous professional and threatened with extinction and we are of the opin- works in eight provinces of the department of traditional community leaders in the ion that if the language is taught in primary schools Devolution or centralization of decision Puyo, with nine indigenous peoples and nation- teaching and research institutes of the in the area this drift will be arrested’. making on education alities: Achuar, Ando, Cofan, Kichwa, Secoya, universities. A separate but related issue is the degree of devo- Shuar, Siona, Waorani and Zapara. In Peru it is Degrees of geographic concentration lution or centralization of power on educational working in the Ucayali region with three groups: An evaluation of the programme to date or dispersal decision making. Devolving power to regions or Ashaninka, Shipibo and Yine. The project found that: It is important to note that, rights to mother states can lead to a resurgence in MTME where started in 2005. tongue education for children notwithstanding, one language community is concentrated. For Early results include: p EIBAMAZ is innovative, well accepted by the number of speakers of a language and the geo- example, since 1999, when the Welsh Assembly was p 100 per cent of indigenous children study- actors and counterparts and its components graphical distribution of speakers do impact on the established, there has been a 46 per cent increase ing under the integrated unities of learning are dynamic. practicalities of organizing MTME, and both pol- in Welsh medium secondary school pupils. This (first four years) in the Amazonian area of p With UNICEF’s management, the icy makers and minorities and indigenous peoples is despite the fact that support and provision for Ecuador have their own books. project has had a broader impact and accept that these practical effects are important. speakers of minority languages in the UK (particu- p More than 4,000 boys and girls radius of activities than it would otherwise Most linguistic minorities and indigenous peoples larly migrant languages but also sign language and received their first bilingual materials in have done. around the world tend to live in areas where there other regional languages) is not at all adequate. Ucayali, Peru. p EIBAMAZ has generated a wide range of are high concentrations of people speaking one, However this is not always the case. According p Thousands of teachers in Bolivia have activities, and engaged with both teaching two or three languages. However internal migration to the Indian Constitution, states and local authori- guidelines on how to apply interculturality and education reform, despite a relatively to cities, internal displacement, and international ties in India must ‘provide adequate facilities for in classrooms and didactic skills for multi- small budget. migration and refugee movements are leading to a instruction in the mother-tongue at the primary grade teaching and multi-ethnic classrooms. p The cost-benefit ratio and the efficiency of situation where more and more linguistic minori- stage of education to children belonging to linguis- p 3,000 bilingual teachers have been use of financial resources are very positive. ties find themselves isolated from their traditional tic minority groups’. In Andra Pradesh education trained in diverse themes of Intercultural p There is a strong demand in the Amazon community area. Their languages are therefore more programmes in eight languages have been running and Bilingual Education (IBE) in three for an efficient, effective and pertinent vulnerable. In some cases, a particular school may since 2003. The state of Orissa began rolling out countries. intercultural bilingual education. have pupils speaking 20, 40 or even 60 different programmes in ten languages in 2007. Despite this, p 1,000 indigenous teachers have access to p Indigenous leaders are committed to languages, and teaching through the medium of according to experts in India: technology centres, using the internet and working for their own IBE based in their all of these languages would clearly be challeng- diverse books in the documentation centres. own culture. ing. Minorities and indigenous peoples who are ‘Most states decide their own medium or mediums of p Indigenous teams have been created to pro- p Parents see the school as an ally in their dispersed rather than living all together are much instruction (MOI) for primary schools … state policy duce materials, using local technology com- attempts to transmit to their children their less likely to benefit from MTME. Though some varies for lack of implementation guidelines. States bined with computer software to edit and cultural heritage. states do provide at least some educational support often designate the official state language (such as for highly dispersed minority languages (e.g. Sweden Tamil in Tamil Nadu) as MOI or even, increasingly, and Belgium), the teaching is not through the medi- English.’

86 A positively State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities A positively 87 plurilingual world and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 plurilingual world How to organize MTME Why the gap between research findings could also be included’ and that policy should Successful MTME requires high-quality, well- and reality? ‘A person who take account of ‘Girls … who benefit most planned and well-implemented programmes. The After significant civil society lobbying at the deeply from the contributions’, including girls best initiatives include consultation with and partici- International Bureau of Education international does not know from ‘the remote rural communities’. pation of the community, and are sensitive to and conference in 2008, the world’s education ministers Jessica agreed that the IBE ‘has still a way to include the specific cultural knowledge and practices recommended that states should: ‘view linguistic go’, that it could be improved through better of children. MTME should go beyond merely and cultural diversity in the classroom as a valuable his history is textbooks and more learning materials. She also sustaining languages to significantly contribute to resource and promote the use of the mother tongue said that there are few options available within a child’s development, and education programmes in the early years of instruction’. The UN Forum doomed’ the bilingual educational system, and that is why need to be run in combination with policies that also made strong recommendations on MTME (see she had to do part of her studies in the Hispanic maximize the use of minority and indigenous lan- References, pp. 234–40). Graduates of Intercultural Bilingual system. guages in the economy and in the public sector. But despite these and other similar public state- Education speak out. By Anna Ramber summed up the importance of giv- However, because a majority of countries are ments, actual implementation of high-quality Lucia D’Emilio ing indigenous children the opportunity to gain running either no MTME or programmes that fall MTME around the world is rare. Unlike some access to IBE programmes when he contrasted significantly short of even the very minimal standards other aspects of education provision covered in this ‘study in one’s mother tongue’ – through which set out below, activists in such challenging situations book, the wealth of a state and the availability of The UNICEF-supported 8th Latin American it is possible to study in depth ‘important and will need to first concentrate on more limited and resources is rarely a determining factor in whether Congress of Intercultural Bilingual Education took significant aspects of our experiences, philoso- targeted goals. or not MTME is provided, or even of its quality. place in Argentina in 2008. Participants included phy and our life itself’ – with study in Spanish, Expert Kathleen Heugh has found that good Ideological considerations come into play too, with a panel of high school graduates from Intercultural because the texts that they were taught to read in practice is to have education using only one language varying practices across regions. Bilingual Education (IBE) programmes. Spanish were not ‘that enjoyable since we would as a medium (the language spoken at home) for at At the UN Forum, the French Minister of The group included: Ramber Molina, 23, understand little of the real meaning, the essence least six years. The most common failing of current Education stated, ‘French policy … does not a Quechua Bolivian; Moisés Rivero, 20, a ... it’s that that view did not match (adapt to) MTME programmes is that children stop using the prevent the teaching of languages and herit- Guaraní Bolivian; Daniel Paucar, 17, a Quechua our way of understanding life’. home language after only two or three years and age culture on an optional basis and outside the Peruvian; Dora Virginia Alonzo Quijivicx, 17, Ramber is about to complete his under- transition to a national language at this point. school day to those who desire it.’ But more pro- Maya Quiché from Guatemala; and Jessica graduate studies in law at Universidad Nacional MTME can be either additive or subtractive. gressive policies on diverse languages as education Peñafiel, 14, a Kiwcha Ecuadorian. Mayor de San Simón in Cochabamba, Bolivia, Subtractive MTME is where the home language is mediums exist in many of France’s neighbours Dora said IBE made a difference to her iden- and would like to become a lecturer in constitu- replaced by another language after the first years of including Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain tity as an indigenous woman. tional law. education. This is by far the most common form (in relation to the Basque region), the UK (in Moisés is studying to become a teacher at of MTME. But well-planned and well-implement- relation to Wales) and Switzerland. Some coun- ‘I believe that IBE has made new opportunities INSPOC, a model institute in teacher training ed additive MTME programmes, where languages tries in Latin America have made great progress available to us, one of the greatest signs being that for IBE, in Camiri, Bolivia. are added but none are dropped, are associated but Canada’s record remains patchy, with far we can demonstrate to the whole world that we with a very high degree of fluency and a wide and more effort being made and success resulting with indigenous women can indeed attain what we set for ‘I’ll be a teacher, not for advancement but as a deep vocabulary in several languages. It is helpful if French and English as minority languages in dif- ourselves. A clear example is that we have women vocation. I’d like to reach the sectors most in need mother tongues/minority languages are also used as ferent regions than with indigenous and migrant MPs. I feel very proud of having a representative within the community and the sectors that nobody a language medium for national examinations. minority languages. The USA retains bilingual who is a woman and a Maya at the Guatemalan knows about nor studies. I want to reach out to Children and parents should always be able education programmes but California, through a Congress, of having indigenous teachers who impart them, for them to be aware of the cultural values, to choose whether children attend MTME or measure known as Proposition 227, moved away to us our education, of our grandmothers who have the grandfathers’ knowledge, the values of our mainstream education in the majority language from bilingual programmes and back to giving much knowledge which compares with the people region, so that they remain in the books and will or schools that combine both. Under no circum- children with limited proficiency in English extra who know about anthropology, astrology and other never be rubbed out of the Guaraní culture. In my stances should bilingual or minority language support in that language. subjects, and then our grandfathers, who know what region slavery still exists – we help them to rise up schools be less well resourced than majority lan- Some states have far better special provision for a a Mayan ceremony is, living in harmony with our and eliminate slavery.’ guage ones. Certainly there should be no issue of few languages than for others (e.g. French in Canada, loved ones [and] our ancestors, [who] remember any required segregation of children by language, Saami in Sweden, Welsh in the UK). In some cases, them and want to shape our identity.’ Daniel, who is studying to become a social com- although MTME may in fact lead to some separate certain languages are protected by historical treaties municator and a community leader, said: ‘A per- classes in practice. For this reason, it is important (e.g. Greek in Turkey and Turkish in Greece). But She added: ‘It would be good if, when making son who does not know his history is doomed. I that minority languages are also taught as a subject this continues to leave those speaking other languages public policies regarding children, our opinions don’t want to be like this.’ p to all children in a country along with intercultural in these states disadvantaged and complaining about education. these disparities.

88 A positively State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities A positively 89 plurilingual world and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 plurilingual world Reasons given for not providing MTME Right: Ryan Malibirr, an Aboriginal student Some states declare a national language as neces- at school in Ramingining, Northern Territory, sary for national unity. Article 21 of the Syrian Australia. Yolngu Matha, the local language, is taught Consitution states: ‘The education and cultural in language and culture classes. Polly Hemming. system aims to build an Arabic national socialistic generation’ (emphasis added). This excludes the should be made easier for local people to be trained Kurdish speaking community in Syria (around as teachers, as local teachers are much more likely 3 million people). Jian Badrachan, of the Kurd- to stay in remote areas (where minorities often live) ish Centre for Legal Studies and Consultancy than teachers from cities or other parts of the coun- explained that in Syria: try. The EIBAMAZ project in Latin America coor- dinated by UNICEF (see Box, p. 89) has worked in ‘It is forbidden to teach a lesson in the mother tongue this way, as has SIL in Papua New Guinea. As Carol of the Kurdish language. Teachers are forced to give Benson points out in ‘Girls, educational equity and lessons to pupils in Arabic which nobody understands, mother tongue education’, locally based mother thus reflecting a strategy of the government in excluding tongue teachers are more likely to have a closer rela- the Kurds from a prospective education.’ tionship with and the trust of parents. This can par- ticularly affect girls’ enrolment in school and reduce Syria has such a hardline stance on this issue that girls’ drop-out rates. Benson adds that a higher teaching Kurdish in private has even led to teach- proportion of locally based mother tongue teachers ers being arrested, as reported at the UN Durban are often female, providing positive role models for Review Conference in Geneva in April 2009 by the girl pupils. Human Rights Organization in Syria. Education departments often cite the additional Some governments claim that majority opin- investment and costs of MTME. It is true that ion forces them to follow assimilationist policies funding is often needed to develop materials, and and quote examples of MTME issues that have to invest initially in teacher training. However been put to the public vote (Proposition 227 in researchers and analysts, including at the World California is the best-known example). Botswana Bank, have shown that because of the reduced drop- Let there be no more children who describe their things outside, but learning through reading and writ- has brought bills to parliament on several occasions, out rate and repetition of years, even though the experience as one Punjabi speaker, who was sub- ing to be proud of our way of life. When he is big, he which would modify the policy that privileges the initial costs may be somewhat higher, MTME is still merged in an English-language medium education will not reject us. It is important to teach our children Setswana language and culture over Botswana’s 20 more cost effective in the long term. aged 7, did, saying: to read and write, but it is more important to teach or so other languages, but none has passed. them to be proud of themselves, and of us.’ p However, when the benefits are explained and Conclusion ‘Very difficult … I didn’t understand what people were a debate takes place in which nationalist or anti- It is not coincidental that children from linguistic saying around me so I thought that they were talking immigrant sentiments are not promoted, there is minority communities make up a large proportion about me and I was thinking “What are they plan- widespread public support for MTME. Initiatives of the children who are currently not in school. ning?” I didn’t understand a word … It was scary … I are going ahead with broad support in Ethiopia, Linguistic minorities and most indigenous peoples came home every day in tears.’ Papua New Guinea and Mozambique, which is cur- are often marginalized in political and economic rently rolling out a new programme of education in life. They are often either invisible or are just not Let there be more parents of children who can say, 16 languages (out of 43), with some early indica- a priority when policy decisions are taken. This is as UNESCO reported this Tok Ples speaking parent tions of success. the overwhelming, if short-sighted reason, why their in Papua New Guinea: needs are so often ignored. Practical arguments made against It is clear that education policies that deny ‘Now my child is in a Tok Ples school. He is not MTME education education rights for linguistic minorities must leaving his place. He is learning in school about his There is an acute shortage of trained teachers who be challenged. Education must be adapted to the customs, his way of life. Now he can write anything he speak or have training in mother tongue languages. languages that children speak rather than children wants to in Tok Ples. Not just the things he can see, According to the NGO Save the Children, ‘Because being changed to fit in with the education systems but things he thinks about, too. And he writes about speakers of local or minority languages often don’t in place. Provision needs to be tailored to take into his place. He writes about helping his mother carry do well in school due to an unfriendly language account different languages and different cultures. water, about digging kaukau, about going to the gar- of instruction, they don’t make it through higher More domestic and international litigation to call den. When he writes these things they become impor- education and thus cannot qualify as teachers.’ It states to account on these issues is sorely needed. tant to him. He is not only reading and writing about

90 A positively State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities A positively 91 plurilingual world and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 plurilingual world TUNISIA MOROCCO

ALGERIA LIBYA Western EGYPT Sahara

MAURITANIA MALI NIGER ERITREA SENEGAL THE GAMBIA CHAD SUDAN GUINEA-BISSAU BURKINA DJIBOUTI FASO GUINEA BENIN NIGERIA SIERRA TOGO ETHIOPIA LEONE CÔTE CENTRAL D’IVOIRE GHANA LIBERIA AFRICAN REP.

CAMEROON SOMALIA

UGANDA SAO TOME EQUAT. Africa AND PRINCIPE GUINEA REP. OF KENYA GABON Sophie Elmhirst THE CONGO RWANDA DEM. REP. BURUNDI OF THE CONGO INDIAN TANZANIA OCEAN

ANGOLA MALAWI ATL ANTIC ZAMBIA

OCEAN MOZAMBIQUE ZIMBABWE MADAGASCAR

NAMIBIA BOTSWANA

SWAZILAND

LESOTHO

SOUTH AFRICA hile enrolment at all education levels importantly, and least surprisingly, it is the most government started to make significant changes, Nkurunziza, and the last active Hutu rebel group, has increased in recent years in sub- vulnerable and marginalized of children who strug- including stopping rote learning (which was linked the Party for the Liberation of the Hutu People W Saharan Africa, children in the region, gle to get to school and reap the many rewards from to memorizing the Koran). National Liberation Forces (Palipehutu-FNL), was depending on where they live, what gender they are, a comprehensive education. not entirely resolved in 2008. But on 9 January how poor they are, and if they are part of a minority Women from minority and indigenous communi- Botswana 2009 the rebels announced changes that meant they or indigenous group, will have widely varying degrees ties continue to suffer FGM and rape, often in areas The president of Botswana, Seretse Khama Ian could become a legally recognized political party – a of access to school. Overall, progress has been made: torn by conflict. They face double discrimination in Khama, took office in April 2008 with statements potential breakthrough. according to UNESCO’s Global Monitoring Report such situations, as the chapter by Kathryn Ramsay about the need to celebrate Botswana’s ‘unity in Batwa are formally recognized in Burundi, unlike 2009, sub-Saharan Africa accounted for the world’s discusses. Reporting such incidents, often in a climate diversity’. These were welcome in the context in neighbouring Rwanda, and representation in par- highest increase in total primary school enrolment of impunity, is extremely difficult for those already of a country that continues to give the eight liament and the senate for Hutu, Tutsi and Batwa is (42 per cent) in the period 1999–2006. And in marginalized by their minority status and gender. Tswana tribes, a numerical minority, the privileges written into the Constitution. But the Batwa, who 2006, more than 23 million children in the region attached to official recognition, while many of number only 30,000–40,000 (0.4–0.5 per cent of stepped through a classroom door for the very first Algeria Botswana’s other 38 tribes continue to suffer from the population), have historically suffered a deep time. However, millions of children remain out of Long-standing rivalries between Arabs and the disproportionate poverty and have experienced level of ongoing discrimination. Batwa communities school – some 35 million children were not enrolled minority Berber community erupted into violence the loss of both their culture and language, which have difficulty accessing health care; Batwa women in 2006, around one-third of the school-age popula- in May 2008. At least three people were killed and are not permitted on private or public radio, or and girls report being sexually harassed; and some tion. The reasons for this vary. Over four out of five many made homeless after three nights of rioting in education. However, according to Survival remain in bonded labour, according to a 2008 out-of-school children live in rural areas. Many of in the north Saharan town of Berriane. Algerian International, the new president dealt the Bushmen MRG report. these are from minority and indigenous communities. security forces were deployed to quell the unrest. a major blow in a speech in December 2008 when There is very little disaggregated data on the Gender also plays a significant role. In 2006, girls The Berber group involved, the Mozabites (Berbers he said that ‘the notion … that [the Bushmen wish] Batwa community as the government has not accounted for 54 per cent of children not in school. from the M’zavb valley), say they have been to subsist today on the basis of a hunter-gathering conducted a general census. Anecdotal reports illus- And children from minority groups, either because excluded from state jobs and that they continue to lifestyle is an archaic fantasy’. trate the needs of the Batwa community, particu- they suffer discrimination, live in remote areas and be discriminated against by the Arab majority. Some small steps towards recognition were larly in the field of education. In 2005 an African because of their gender, are also much less likely to Since the 2007 elections, achieving cultural made by the government during 2008. In May, Commission working group on indigenous peoples access education. unity within Algeria has been a priority for the at a workshop on the Botswana Consensus on the found that the Batwa’s lack of access to land, and Events of 2008 have clearly shown the vulner- government. Education plays a major role in this Rule of Law and Good Governance, the Attorney the contempt of other Burundians, ‘seem to be the ability of minority groups to political change aim – the government has permitted the teaching General stated the need to ‘review the Constitution root causes of the high illiteracy rates within the and discrimination, and the knock-on effects on of the Berber language in schools in order to reach and enhance the protection of fundamental rights’, Batwa communities’. This view is supported by children’s education. Political upheaval and vio- out to the Berber community. They have also cre- which gives minority rights groups in Botswana Alfred Ahingejeje, a Batwa MP. In March 2008 he lence in Kenya, Sudan and Zimbabwe has had a ated an Academy and a Superior Council of the an opportunity to address the current imbalances. described the need for affirmative action: devastating effect on children’s access to education, Tamazight language. A New York Times report in In addition, in July, President’s Day holidays were particularly of minority groups such as the pastoral- June 2008 described the efforts by the government marked with cultural competitions in performing ‘Generally speaking everyone in Burundi, the Hutu ists in Kenya, whose mobile existence makes them to implement changes to the education system and arts – again providing an opportunity for minority and Tutsi too, has needs in the area of education. But especially vulnerable to the volatile situation in the school curriculum to ‘wrest momentum from the groups to express their own cultures. the Batwa have been forgotten for many years. This country. Ongoing problems, such as the abduction Islamists’. After French colonial rule ended in 1962, Another major step was the appointment of a is why we ask for particular help … the government of children to be child soldiers in Chad and the French was banned as the language of education Wayeyi chief to the House of Chiefs (Ntlo ya Dikgosi) says that there are no funds to lend to the Batwa in the Democratic Republic of Congo, also has a terrible and replaced by Arabic; the study of Islamic law for the first time. However, the chief has no powers to domain of education … the Batwa are forgotten, we effect on children’s ability to take part in school. and the Koran became obligatory. An April 2008 appoint headman like the Tswana chiefs do. Minority haven’t been able to do long studies.’ And the living conditions of certain minorities in report by United Press International claimed that groups are now calling for legislation to be changed to African countries – for example the Saharawi refu- North African al-Qaida were seeking to woo recruits respect all the other minorities similarly. The government has however made some moves gees in the Western Sahara refugee camps – has a from the Berber community, playing on the unrest Non-Tswana, especially the San communities, to actively collaborate with other organizations on very damaging effect on people’s ability to access revealed in protests on April 20 to honour those have long faced barriers to education, as they have behalf of the Batwa. In December 2008, accord- basic services, including education. Language is killed during anti-government action. been unable to educate their children in their own ing to UNIPROBA, a campaigning organization another key issue that acts as a barrier for children Recently, French has been reintroduced into the language. According to a 2007 IRIN report, teach- representing the Batwa, and the Burundian Senate from minorities to go to school, for example in curriculum, the most extreme religious teachers ing is mostly done in English or Setswana, which in partnership with the AWEPA (Association of Mauritania where neither Afro-Mauritanian national have been removed and there have been attempts many San children do not speak. European Parliamentarians for Africa) organized a languages nor the local Hassaniya Arabic dialect are to revise the religious curriculum. A committee day of ‘reflection’ on the living conditions of the used as languages of instruction. appointed seven years ago to overhaul the school Burundi Batwa in Burundi. Recommendations included giv- Each child’s experience of, and access to, educa- system collapsed under political pressure from The ongoing conflict between the Hutu-majority ing Batwa children free schooling and ensuring that tion is extremely varied across the region. Most conservative and Islamist groups. But in 2008, the government in Burundi, led by President Pierre they are admitted to secondary schools. The issue

94 Africa State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Africa 95 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 of the Batwa’s land rights was also discussed, and Right: Children lining up before the start of it was recommended that Batwa with no land, or their lessons at a school inside a refugee camp very little land, be given fertile land and ownership run by the Office of the United Nations High rights. The recommendations are clearly positive, Commissioner for Refugees near the Chadian- although, as UNIPROBA make clear, it is essential Sudanese border. The camp houses approximately that they be implemented. 60,000 Sudanese refugees who have fled the Burundi has ratified the UNESCO Convention conflict in Darfur. Teun Voeten/Panos. on Discrimination in Education, and Batwa com- munities and activists have reported that discrimina- UN agencies and NGOs, CAR has ‘one of the tion has decreased in schools. Batwa children can world’s weakest educational systems’. Only 1.45 per now sit with Hutu and Tutsi children in the class- cent of GDP is spent on education, half the African room which was previously not possible. average, and insecurity in the north has meant the formal education system there has vanished. ‘Bush Central African Republic schools’ have been set up, with parents providing Political change came to the Central African basic tuition to children whose families were forced Republic (CAR) in 2008 as a new Prime Minister, to flee their villages to live in temporary settlements. Faustin-Archange Touadéra, was named on 22 Where primary education exists, the pupil to teacher January. On 9 May a ‘peace accord’ was agreed in ration is 92:1 and according to United Nations Gabon between the government and the Popular Development Programme (UNDP) figures for Army for the Restoration of Democracy (APRD). 2007/8 the adult literacy rate is 48.6 per cent. Girls A further peace deal was signed with the other rebel are less likely to be schooled than boys – UNICEF group, the Union of Democratic Forces for Unity figures show that net primary school enrolment for (UFDR), in June. However, fighting continued in boys is 64 per cent, but only 45 percent for girls. bursts and IRIN reported from Sam Ouandja, a In June 2008, UNICEF reported good news from in March 2009 – with 6,000 troops replacing the more are still missing out, especially at the post-pri- town on the border with Sudan, that the majority the northern regions of the country as schools began 3,700 currently there. The Chadian government has mary level due to insufficient funding and teachers. of the population (20,000 people) had fled as rebel to reopen. In 2007 UNICEF had worked with said that it does not need any more troops however. factions (reportedly of the UFDR group) attacked. Italian NGO COOPI to help re-open 104 schools The humanitarian impact of the conflict is severe. Democratic Republic of Congo This came just ahead of further peace talks that in northern CAR, allowing 32,000 children to Human Rights Watch estimates that there are more Minorities in the DRC, particularly the Batwa, began on 8 December. return to school. Sixty per cent of these schools were than 400,000 civilians living in refugee and IDP Bambuti and Babendielle groups, have been hugely The humanitarian consequences of the con- in the bush, serving families too afraid to return (internally displaced people) camps along Chad’s east- affected by the ongoing instability of the country. flict within CAR and the wider region have been home. In addition, UNICEF has supported the ern border. Refugees from Sudan are mostly Zaghawa Of particular concern were the Bambuti living in great. According to the Office of the UN High training of 300 parent-teachers in the region as most and other small ethnic groups, who are escaping forest communities. Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) around teachers fled during the fighting in 2003 and 2004. attack in Darfur. There have also been thousands of A local NGO, Programme d’Intégration et 56,000 Central Africans have fled to southern Chad Parents are now teaching their children the national house demolitions in Chad’s capital, N’Djamena. de Développement du Peuple Pygmée au Kivu since 2003 and are living in five different camps. curriculum, which will help to reintegrate the chil- IRIN reported in January 2009 that 10,000–15,000 (PIDP), which promotes and protects the rights of Since late 2008, some 100 Central Africans had dren back into school when they return. homes have been destroyed, with the government indigenous Batwa in North Kivu, South Kivu and been arriving monthly. claiming it was because they were built on govern- Maniema provinces, said that the sexual violence, IRIN reports reveal the particular impact on some Chad ment-owned land. Observers suggested that it was an displacement and insecurity caused by the ongoing minority groups in Chad, such as the cattle-raising The situation in Chad remained highly volatile dur- attempt to wipe out rebel households in the city. conflict in the DRC has particularly affected the communities of the Mbororo group in north-western ing 2008 as the conflict with Sudan escalated. The Many of the barriers facing children in access- Batwa/Bambuti community. PIDP described how CAR. Many men fled to Cameroon to avoid being African Union attempted to make peace between ing education are associated with, or created by, the fighting between August and October 2008 kidnapped by ‘bandits’ who demanded huge ran- the two countries, without success. In early August, the conflict. Human Rights Watch reported that in the capital city of the Rutshuru territory and in soms. Many had to sell their cattle to pay ransoms, the Libyan government helped to broker an agree- ‘the use and recruitment of child soldiers by gov- Kiwandja uprooted more than 120 Batwa/Bambuti leaving them in poverty. Tensions between pastoral ment between the two governments, and in October ernment forces and allied para-military groups is families, and 20 of these families are still missing. populations persisted along the border with southern 2008 representatives from Chad and Sudan met in ongoing’. UNICEF also reported on the thousands NGOs working with the Batwa community have Sudan over water and grazing rights. In January Tripoli to formally restore diplomatic ties between of Sudanese refugee children living in 12 camps in also been affected. In October 2008, the internation- 2008 UNICEF reported on the worrying living con- their nations. In November, UN Secretary-General eastern Chad who are struggling to access education. al NGO Care International was forced to suspend ditions and challenges facing the Aka people. Ban Ki-moon called for the number of international According to October 2008 reports, UNICEF’s two major programmes in the DRC, including one According to the country’s Humanitarian troops deployed in eastern Chad to be doubled. UN work in the camps allowed 75,000 children to in the Rutshuru territory in North Kivu that focused Development Partnership Team, which comprises peacekeepers are expected to replace the EU force attend school in the first half of 2008, but many on marginalized populations including the Batwa.

96 Africa State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Africa 97 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 the family they will not choose a girl, they will failure to demarcate their lands and territories, the New York Times (2 August 2008). In response, ‘If a child pays choose a boy. The girls will accompany their extractive industries, such as coltan, gold, timber Egypt’s security officials said that this was a ‘singular mothers to go and work or find food. That and iron ore companies, have entered indigenous incident’ and not to do with wider inter-faith hostil- their school is a general problem [for poor communities]. peoples’ territories and caused many to abandon ity in the country. But according to both Human Specifically for the Batwa, where there is their land and traditional way of life, forcing them Rights Watch and Amnesty International, discrimina- conflict, children are not schooled because into poverty. The report also expresses concern tion against Egyptian Christians and official intoler- fees, they can’t their families have been displaced. The school over the World Bank and DRC government for- ance of Baha’is and some Muslim sects continues. year passes and there is no way of taking them estry reform programme that so far has failed to IRIN reported on the dire circumstances of the be chased out to school. recognize or protect indigenous peoples’ rights. On 30,000 Bedouin in the Sinai peninsula. They are no ‘Also there are Batwa girls who have been a more positive note, the Indigenous Peoples of longer able to earn an income from their livestock of the class’ raped. This makes them ashamed to go to school Africa Co-ordinating Committee (IPAAC) reported and are forced to work on the rubbish tips of Sharm in case people say: “Her there, she has been their support in 2008 for a project in eastern DRC Al-Sheikh to survive. Adolphine Byayuwa Muley, director raped.” Even the parents, they know that their in which local Batwa and Bambuti people were Border issues also continued. Egypt refused to of l’Union pour l’Emancipation de la child has been raped and that holds them back attempting to negotiate their rights with the Kahuzi allow officials of the UNHCR access to a group of Femme Autochtone (UEFA), tells a bit. Biega National Park, which covers some 600,000 91 Eritreans, Sudanese, and Somalis, whom Israel Fay Warrilow about the plight of Batwa ‘Lack of shelter is another problem. There are hectares and is classified as a World Heritage Site returned in August 2008, and to a prior group of in the DRC Batwa who were dispossessed of their territory by UNESCO (making it a potentially important 48 whom Israel returned in August 2007. In April by the government, after the time of Mobutu contributor DRC’s economy). The park employed 2008 Egypt forcibly returned 49 Sudanese men and ‘For the Batwa the problem is discrimination. and during the creation of the national parks. minority group members as trackers in conservation boys, including 11 refugees and asylum seekers, to It is made worse by poverty. Everyone poor The forest where they made a living has become or anti-poaching units, but often failed to remuner- southern Sudan, where authorities detained them has to deal with the attitude of other people, a conservation area, and all the Batwa who ate them properly or recognize their skills. for four months. In June Egypt forcibly returned at but Batwa are poorer, because they used to lived in the forest no longer have land or their All children in the DRC lack access to educa- least 740 Eritreans, including women and children, live only through hunting and gathering. Now nomadic lifestyle. But to practise agriculture you tion. A 2008 MRG report cites Department for without allowing UNHCR access to them. They are this kind of life doesn’t provide remuneration need a field. Because they have been dispossessed International Development (DfID) statistics that allegedly detained at a military jail and are at risk of and they can’t advance from a socio-economic of their land they have to work for other fewer than 64 per cent of children overall are enrolled torture and ill-treatment. point of view. communities and they are not paid a fair price. in primary school and the literacy rate is 62 per cent. Egypt has a good track record in education com- ‘There is a problem with access to education This also makes it difficult to put together the While the government’s Poverty Reduction Strategy pared to many African countries, with net primary because parents have to pay school fees. At the school fees for children. Even to stay temporarily Paper (PRSP) does not identify the Batwa as needing school enrolment exceeding 94 per cent, according start, we had problems sensitizing parents to they have to ask the head of a village to accept special support, the World Bank recognizes that the to UNICEF. However, not all regions are equal send their children to school: parents wanted them. But there are conditions and if it happens Batwa are among the most vulnerable groups when – the poorer parts of the country, such as Upper their children to accompany them hunting, and that the Batwa don’t respect the conditions put it comes to education. However there is as yet no Egypt, lag behind the rest of the country’s progress. for the girls to accompany them in other kinds on them the village head may chase them away. government policy on education, let alone a specific of work. But now almost all have a sense of the So there is a problem of instability. policy for Batwa children. Eritrea value of schooling. Yet they still have a problem ‘Yet in the east discrimination against Batwa is UNICEF reported in November 2008 that thou- Eritrea remains under the totalitarian grip of finding the means to do it. reducing because there are lots of organizations sands of schools in North Kivu province had been President Isayas Afewerki. According to Human ‘When it comes to girls, they are doubly working now for the benefit of the Batwa. If a closed due to fighting; many of these schools were Rights Watch, in 2008 the president said that marginalized, because if these families are able Mutwa child pays their school fees they can’t be now occupied by displaced people. ‘Rutshuru terri- elections would not be held for decades because to afford an education for just one child in chased out of the class.’ p tory, in particular, has been a zone of conflict and they would polarize society. He also said he would we know that 85 per cent of schools in that territory remain in full control of the country until the coun- have been closed for the last three weeks,’ UNICEF try is secure. On 31 July, the UN Security Council Communications Specialist Jaya Murthy reported. terminated the UN Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea; Sexual violence has been widespread. Since Indigenous communities also face challenges ‘That has halted the education for approximately observers were hopeful that neither side would 2005, more than 32,000 cases of rape and sexual beyond the direct impact of the conflict. In April 150,000 students.’ return to conflict, despite the unresolved border violence have been registered in South Kivu alone, 2008, a report was submitted to the African issue. However, in June, International Crisis Group but numbers are certainly far higher as most attacks Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights by Egypt warned in a report that the border problem meant go unreported. In eastern DRC, Rose Mutombo the Forest Peoples Programme and the Centre The year began badly in Egypt for the minority there was a risk of a new war, and suggested that the and Immaculée Birhaheka are leading a campaign d’Accompagnement des Autochtones Pygmées et Coptic Christians who make up about 10 per cent of immediate priorities were for Ethiopia to withdraw (Urgent Action Fund) for a women-specific agenda Minoritaires Vulnérables. The report outlines the the population. An attack on a monastery in January its troops from all land that the border commission in conflict resolution efforts that have been going on ‘systematic discrimination’ experienced by such was followed by another assault in May when monks had awarded Eritrea, and for Eritrea to pull its army for over a decade. minorities. As a result of the DRC government’s were kidnapped, whipped and beaten according to back from the Transitional Security Zone.

98 Africa State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Africa 99 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 mention of hunter-gatherers as an excluded A pre-education project, which was put usually spoken need to be translated into written Education group. Their particular needs must be taken in place by the local NGO Association form. According to UNICEF, half of school-age into account in policies, in order to ensure that pour l’autopromotion des populations de children, mostly girls, do not attend school. The Focus: Gabon education for Baka children respects and supports l’Est du Cameroun (AAPPEC) among government has partnered with UNICEF to ensure a semi-nomadic way of life. the Baka from Cameroon, is based on the that 100,000 girls complete primary school in Seven out of eight of the villages are far from ‘Observe, Reflect and Act’ (ORA) method. three target regions. The scheme, Complementary For the Baka discrimination is at the town centre, where schools are situated. This encourages children to draw on their Elementary Education (CEE, see p. 41), was set up the heart of the problem, reports It is difficult, sometimes impossible, for most daily lives during learning, and use Baka in 2005 and provides out-of-school children with Pascale Paulin Baka children to access schools. In 2002, a and French. However, the school schedule basic competences. It is currently bringing educa- complaint was referred to the government by does not coincide with Baka’s seasonal tion to over 5,000 girls and boys in more than 70 The Baka in the north of Gabon are a the inhabitants of the village of Doumassi, who movements and, as children have to go with centres in remote villages. community of around 350 people living in eight expressed their wish that the state provide them their parents, they cannot attend school. villages around the city of Minvoul. Previously with schooling services. But, like the other The learning method is also exclusionary Kenya nomadic hunter-gatherers, they have been remote villages, they still do not have access to for Baka as it is based on explicit didactics Kenya continued to be rocked in early 2008 by the subject to a settling process imposed on them educational services. rather than on imitation, which is a practice violence triggered by the presidential election in by government. But they still mainly get their Some children from Bitouga started going of Baka communication. According to a December 2007. Politicians from both the Orange livelihood from the forest and have always had to school, but mockery from their Fang joint OHCHR, ILO and UNICEF report, Democratic Movement (ODM) and the incumbent close contact with neighbouring populations, for schoolmates discouraged them. Out of 20 almost 50 per cent of children did not Party of National Unity (PNU) allegedly organized the purpose of trade. Today, they live in close children from this village, only one young boy is complete their 2007–8 school year. violence in the Rift Valley and western Kenya in connection with Gabon’s largest community, the attending school, but this is in Libreville where The practices of Baka and other hunter- January and February 2008. According to the Waki Fang, and are bilingual, speaking Baka and Fang he has been living in an urban environment. gatherer communities must be taken into Commission, at least 1,133 people were killed and from an early age. Such a move has a profound impact on the account when education policy and delivery a further 300,000 (some estimates claim up to half Hunter-gatherers are rejected and discriminated identity of the person, and thus for the survival strategy are formed. The Baka calendar of a million) people displaced. An estimated 10,000 against in Gabon. They are excluded from of the Baka way of life. life, their daily agendas, and their traditions people fled the country as refugees into neighbour- general social services such as health, education, Of the 130 to 150 Baka children living in of learning should all be considered. ing Uganda. citizenship and legal rights. this area, only about 10 – all from the village of Decisions related to curriculum development The Kikuyu, the dominant group in Kenya since The Baka have no education and are often Mfefelam (which is the closest to the city and should be more decentralized. It would be an the country’s independence in 1963 and backbone hired as an underpaid workforce. They are where Baka are permanently in contact with the advantage to train one teacher, and hire Baka of the PNU, bore the brunt of the violence. In the seen by their neighbours as subhuman. Their Fang from the village of Esseng) – actually attend teachers so as to avoid any possible tensions Northern Rift Valley town of Eldoret, Kalenjins Bantu neighbours generally think Baka belong the school. But they often miss school during linked to differences of social status. forced Kikuyu to flee their homes and burned them to them, like land or property. In an interview hunting periods or for other reasons. Communities should be put at the heart of down. Attacks were also reported in the Southern with the Dynamique du Langage laboratory And school itself is not free from any education or social project, and serve as Rift, Western Kenya and in the minority Ogiek (DDL) in Lyon, France in November 2004, a discrimination. The language of instruction is the main decision makers. At a national level, hunter-gatherer community close to Nakuru. member of the Bantu community said: ‘They French, which clearly excludes Baka. There have communities of hunter-gatherers or their A power-sharing deal was struck on 28 February are my grandma’s pygmies, they belong to her. been initiatives to take national languages into elected representatives must participate in 2008 between Mwai Kibaki (PNU) and Raila Anyway, they aren’t really human, they are like account in education, such as the ‘Rapidolangue’ decision making processes for education and Odinga (ODA) and this heralded the formation of animals.’ Although it is wrong to claim that programme of the Raponda Walker Foundation. other services. The educational programme the Grand Coalition between the two parties. The hunter-gatherers are not free, they are increasingly Baka is not included in that programme, and content should be reviewed according delicate brokering process, led by Kofi Annan, has dependent on a bondage system for survival. however, which is all the more serious as Baka is to a set of objectives and methods that brought peace back to Kenya, but it is fragile. Gabon’s national education policy advocates an an Ubangui language and is very different from correspond to their specific value system Large numbers of internally displaced people education for all children, but there is no specific the country’s other Bantu-like languages. rather than set national criteria. p (IDPs) are living in camps and displacement has continued over the year due to ethnic conflicts over water resources and a government operation against the Sabaot Land Defence Force in the Mount Pastoralist groups in Eritrea were at grave risk displaced people, and an estimated 85,500 malnour- Eritrea has around nine ethno-linguistic groups Elgon region of Western Kenya. In May 2008 the during 2008 because of inadequate rains. UNICEF ished children in the country. and the country has a policy that primary school government launched an IDP return programme, stated that the ongoing border stalemate with Religious persecution remained a live issue: instruction should be available in the mother Operation Rudi Nyumbani (return home) and, Ethiopia, crop failure and high food prices would all Amnesty International calculated that there were ‘at tongue. In reality, there are not enough qualified according to the Internal Displacement Monitoring have a negative impact on the already challenging least’ 2,000 religious prisoners of conscience, mostly and experienced teachers to prepare the curricu- Centre, pressured people to leave by cutting off humanitarian situation. There are 22,300 internally from evangelical churches. lum, and challenges arise when languages that are essential services.

100 Africa State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Africa 101 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 The violence and instability has particularly crimination divided MPs and it seems unlikely that Below: Muslim girls from Mauritania doing exer- tia groups in the area. In September, IRIN reported affected minority and indigenous peoples, who have the commission will ever be established. cises before school. Bounessa is a village of only 61 that Mali officials had arrested dozens of suspects received the least assistance from the government Land distribution was historically skewed in families, once nomadic but now settled due to the in the Ganda Izo militia, or ‘children of the earth’, and have not been involved in the political nego- favour of some of the major ethnic communities, construction of a new dam. Ami Vitale/Panos. including its leader Amadou Diallo, who had fled to tiations and deals. The coalition government has for example the Kikuyus, and this was a factor in neighbouring Niger and was arrested there. pledged to tackle the ‘scourge of ethnicity’ in Kenya; the post-election violence. Indigenous groups have has a long history and has been intensified by years In November, the rebels, part of the Alliance it is unclear whether this means a more hostile particularly suffered in terms of violations of their of marginalization by the government. The Tuareg for Democracy and Change, met two government approach to minority rights or an attempt to depo- land rights. According to an MRG report, many report that they have been deprived of equal edu- ministers in the north-eastern Kidal region, in a bid liticize ethnicity, which would be welcome. pastoralists have had land seized and resources stolen cation opportunities and suffered discrimination, to restart a peace process. However, in December Ogiek community members who were caught in recent years. A particular source of concern is the hindering their ability to get identity documents or Reuters reported that the Tuaregs killed at least 14 up in the post-election violence have so far received Endorois community, who were evicted from their register to vote. In 2008, the Tuareg-based human Malian soldiers in an attack on an army post close no assistance from the government; they see this as lands around Lake Bogoria in the Rift Valley to rights group Temedt, along with Anti-Slavery to Mali’s border with Mauritania. evidence of state discrimination rooted in the gov- make way for tourist game reserves. The community International, reported that ‘several thousand’ mem- ernment’s refusal to recognize their existence as a have not been compensated and now live on a strip bers of the Tuareg Bella caste remain enslaved in the Mauritania distinct group. The state officially recognizes 42 eth- of semi-arid land, with no way of sustaining their Gao Region. They complain that while laws provide Minorities in Mauritania continued to face discrimi- nic groups in Kenya but there are over 70 distinct former work of cattle-rearing and bee-keeping. They redress, cases are rarely resolved by Malian courts. nation by the government. The unreliable issuing of communities. According to a 2008 MRG report, live in severe poverty and struggle to access basic The Tuareg in Mali have now formalized into a national identification cards, which were required several minorities believe they are in danger of being services. Many can’t afford to send their children to political movement in the form of the Alliance for for voting, effectively disenfranchised numerous wiped out, either through the destruction of their school; the few children who do have to walk up to Democracy and Change. members of southern minority groups. Racial and traditional livelihoods or through assimilation. 40 km to get there. The community await the result Clashes in early June 2008 in the north-west cultural tension and discrimination also arose from The new government has created a Ministry for of a case, outlining the rights violations, that it took desert region of Kidal in Mali killed at least 20 the geographic and cultural divides between Moors Northern Kenya and Arid Lands, which seems to to the African Commission on Human People’s Tuaregs. These followed a series of abductions by and Afro-Mauritanians. According to the US State offer assistance to marginalized communities in Rights in 2003. The result is expected in 2009. the Tuareg over the previous year. In July, a cease- Department: ‘the Black Moors (also called Haratins) northern and western Kenya. The pastoralist com- The draft national Land Policy (led by the Lands fire agreement was brokered by Algeria. Further remain politically and economically weaker than munities of northern Kenya have long had poor Ministry) includes special sections to protect minor- peace talks took place in August, but ex-rebel fight- White Moors. Afro-Mauritanian ethnic groups, access to resources and a very limited voice in ities and, significantly, recognizes pastoralism as a ers continued to stir unrest in the north and the comprising the Halpulaar (the largest non-Moor government. The promise of the new ministry has legitimate land use. But the policy has met fierce government tried to carry out a crackdown on mili- group), Wolof, and Soninke, meanwhile remained been offset by complaints that it is under-resourced resistance from the Kenya Landowners Association. and was created for political reasons, rather than to Education in Kenya was affected by the post- improve the lot of the poorest communities in the election violence in early 2008. UNICEF reported country. on the thousands of children not returning to The smaller indigenous communities still lack school in January, and provided ‘tent schools’ to representation in parliament. Recently there have those who had been displaced. Children from been attempts by groups such as the Ilchamus, a pastoralist communities commonly face exclusion pastoralist community located around Lake Baringo, from the school system, through a range of factors, to challenge the lack of representation in the although some NGOs are addressing this. Oxfam Kenyan Constitutional Court. supports the Coalition of Pastoralist Children’s The constitutional review process currently under Education (CPCE) to lobby for the establishment of way offers opportunities for minorities to fight for a National Commission for Pastoralist Education. recognition. The review covers the issue of regional Oxfam also supports alternative forms of education, autonomy, which is popular among minority groups better suited to pastoralist communities, such as in Kenya. However, the tight timetable limits the mobile and boarding schools. time for wide-ranging consultation with minorities. The newly formed Minority Reform Consortium, Mali a body representing around 50 minority and Relations between the Malian government and indigenous groups, advocated that at least one of Tuareg minority remained strained through 2008. the members of the Committee of Experts should The Tuareg continued to push for more self- be from a minority community. The process of determination, particularly in places where their establishing a National Ethnic and Race Relations traditional territory coincides with rich deposits of Commission to investigate complaints of ethnic dis- gold and uranium. Their desire for independence

102 Africa State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Africa 103 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 hours, or in domestic work, or in gardens and Ethnic tensions between the black population Pohamba, took measures to end discrimination ‘People who tending livestock. (Afro-Mauritanians) and White and Black Moor against the San. According to a report from the ‘I am the son of a slave. My grandmother was (Arab-Berber) communities escalated during the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of are slaves or a slave but my father fled and went to the town. year. The black refugees who fled to Senegal Racial Discrimination (CERD) in July 2008, this He left for Senegal where there are lots of former to escape the ethnic conflict have been particu- included the San Development Programme, which: slaves. Then he returned, married my mother and larly affected. They have been returning to their ‘aimed specifically to accelerate San people in edu- former slaves we were born. I was the only member of my family homeland throughout 2008. In February 2009 cation, literacy and resettlement programmes’. It who went to school – of my family four children IRIN reported that more than 7,000 people have also included seeking their advice about proposed like me, bear died and we are six now. returned. Returning families have been given 400 legislation on communal lands and increasing their ‘It was difficult at school because when I was square metres of land and support from UNHCR access to education. Indigenous lands were effectively witness’ there because the teachers lived with ‘les blancs’ to help them resettle. Despite the 2007 law that demarcated, but ‘poorly managed’ and the group [the majority Arab-Berber population]. When we criminalized the practice of slavery, there are still remained excluded in many cases. Biram dah Abeid, who works as an went to school it was at a time when if you weren’t many issues associated with slaves and ex-slaves in A major issue for minority groups in Namibia is adviser to human rights group SOS a “blanc” you didn’t normally go to school. Mauritania. There are said to be around 600,000 achieving political recognition. The government has Esclaves Mauritania, talks to Fay ‘The teachers were friends with the [Arab- slaves in the country (20 per cent of the total popu- the authority to withhold recognition from traditional Warrilow about his life and work Berber] children and after, when I went to lycée, lation). The National Human Rights Commission leaders, even in opposition to local preference. For there were [Arab-Berber] students with nice has said that the law has led to the liberation of 43 example, in February 2008, Katjamba Tjambiru, a ‘The Haratin identity developed in the historic clothes but we had nothing. When I did my people, with hundreds of cases still in the courts. female chief of the Ovahimba community, claimed practice of slavery and a caste system that Baccalaureat I had to take the bus each day. In Ex-slaves have difficulty constructing lives after hav- that the government rejected her application for official confined them to manual labour under the sun the end I had to leave because I couldn’t pay the ing left bonded labour (see Box, p. 104). recognition as a traditional authority because she did and keeping them out of the education system. fare, and I didn’t go back for ten years. A new human rights commissioner, Lemine not support the ruling party. The government subse- ‘There are large shantytowns or ghettos ‘It was difficult for my father to find work. A Dadde, was installed after the coup. He has been quently recognized her nephew Vemuii Tjambiru, a populated by impoverished people surrounding former slave finds it difficult to find work. The recorded as saying that the ruling military council SWAPO (the governing party) supporter. the major cities of Mauritania, as well as adwaba in former master or his family may come to look has budgeted more than US $5 million to help vic- Many children of indigenous and rural families rural areas, which are the villages of former slaves for him and offer work, but one doesn’t want to tims of slavery. Forty-six villages in extreme poverty do not attend school. Children from poorer families who have broken with their masters. This section do that – my father said no. with high concentrations of black Africans – who are also less likely to be educated, and more likely to of society is marginalized and there is reluctance ‘For 10 years I worked in a little interpreting make up the majority of the slave population – were be involved in child labour. to abolish discrimination in the administration of office because I knew the national languages. earmarked to receive emergency cash assistance from The government has introduced programmes to education in the Haratin ghettos and villages. If the Finally I had enough means to go to Senegal February 2009. support children to stay in school. Overall, primary ghettos have schools, they suffer from a shortage of and do a superior diploma in sociology. At Minorities face difficulties in the education sys- school enrolment has risen to about 76 per cent equipment. More importantly the teachers, who the moment I work in the movement SOS tem as neither Afro-Mauritanian national languages for boys and 81 per cent for girls. The Ministry are mainly from the dominant community, often Esclaves and write about the situation of slaves nor the local Hassaniya Arabic dialect are used as of Gender Equality and Child Welfare and the refuse to teach in Haratin areas or the adwaba. in Mauritania. People who are slaves or former languages of instruction. The Constitution desig- Ministry of Health and Social Services targeted Also, children work for their families during school slaves like me bear witness to their plight.’ p nates Arabic as the official national language and orphans, providing grants and scholarships to keep encourages French and Arabic bilingualism within them in school. Additionally, the government col- the school system. laborated with the Namibia Agricultural Union and the Namibia Farm Workers Union to eliminate underrepresented in the military and security sec- US to stop or threaten to curtail development and Namibia child labour through awareness campaigns. tors’. Black Moors and Afro-Mauritanians also con- military support to the county. In November 2008, Namibia faces a presidential and parliamentary elec- tinued to be under-represented in mid- to high-level IRIN reported that the military in Mauritania were tion in November 2009. Its indigenous groups, in Nigeria public and private sector jobs. anxious about the international community’s reaction, particular the San, still face exploitation. While the The government of President Umaru Yar’Adua is A military coup on 6 August ousted the democrati- as they felt unable to face the terrorist threat from the law says that all indigenous groups should participate now in its second year and, according to Human cally elected president, Sidi Ould Cheikh Abdallahi, Algeria-based extremist Islamist group, al-Qaeda of equally in decisions affecting their lands, cultures, Rights Watch, has ‘done little to address deeply- from office. General Mohamed Ould Abdelaziz, the Islamic Maghreb. This group claimed responsibil- traditions and allocations of natural resources, the entrenched human rights problems’ in the country. who had been instrumental in the 2005 coup that ity for an attack on a military convoy in September San and other indigenous groups have been unable Since the end of military rule in 1999 more than overthrew former President Maaouiya Ould Taya, outside the northern town of Tourine, and attacks on to exercise these rights fully as a result of minimal 12,000 Nigerians have died in ethnic, religious and installed himself as the new president. The coup led to a police post and tourists in December 2007. The US access to education, limited economic opportuni- political violence (some estimates put the figure far the suspension of IMF and World Bank programmes, had helped to train Mauritanian soldiers in counter- ties and relative isolation. According to the US State higher). In November 2008, around 400 people which will affect the country’s efforts to reduce pov- terrorism techniques but has now pulled out of doing Department’s 2008 Human Rights Report, the were killed in Plateau State when Christians and erty. It also provoked the EU, African Union and further training. Namibian government, under President Hifikepunye Muslims clashed over the result of a local election.

104 Africa State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Africa 105 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Other clashes in Ebonyi, Enugu and Benue states general population, and there is high rate of p 25 people were trained in the ORA method; left at least 42 dead and many more displaced. Education sexual violence against indigenous girls and p 456 indigenous teenagers received literacy The long-running dispute between local communi- women; programmes in the pilot area of Likouala. ties and Shell in the Niger Delta ended on 4 June opportunities p teenagers do not have access to information, 2008, when the Nigerian government took a decision nor to life skills education opportunities, The overall engagement was increased and the to replace Shell as operator of oil concessions in Ogoni which makes them particularly vulnerable to partnership enlarged to include: UNICEF, areas. Initial enthusiasm was dampened when the for the HIV/AIDS. IPHD, the World Bank, RENAPAC, the government announced that the concession would be Association of Congo’s Spirituals (ASPC) and taken over by the Nigerian Petroleum Development indigenous Efforts to address the issues the Association of Retired Teachers without Company (NPDC), the upstream subsidiary of the UNICEF – in partnership with the government Borders (GREF) state-owned Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation population of – has supported a process of advocacy and the (NNPC). International Crisis Group reported that, as implementation of a programme to improve Implementing the plans quickly and effectively Ogoni leaders sought clarification, it was first revealed the Republic access to basic social services, strengthening relies on: that Addax Petroleum of Canada would run the opera- the communities’ ability to participate in p raising awareness among parents on the issue tion, and then that Russian-owned Gazprom, one of of Congo society and setting up a legal framework for and importance of a basic education for their the world’s largest gas companies, had signed a pre- the protection of the rights of indigenous children; liminary agreement to do so. Further details are not yet populations. As a result, the National Network p identifying children who are out of school clear. The Ogoni saw this development as yet another By Victor Mboungou for Congo’s Indigenous people (RENAPAC) and, through local organizations, associations denial of their rights as local stakeholders. They are was established. A national consultation and religious groups, organizing recruitment increasingly insistent in their demands for agreements workshop in November 2007 led to the campaigns; that grant them rights in the exploitation of oil and gas The situation development of a national strategy on the p building the capacities of RENAPAC, NGOs reserves on their land. In the Republic of Congo, the indigenous issue of the indigenous people, a process that and indigenous peoples’ associations on the Guerrilla activity by MEND, the Movement for population is estimated to be 300,000 involved the government, NGOs, international issue of education; the Emancipation of the Niger Delta, stepped up people (representing one-tenth of the total agencies, the media, and other stakeholders p rehabilitating schools and infrastructure, in September 2008 when the group released a state- Congolese population). They mainly live from the sub-region. providing learning materials and equipment; ment saying that their militants had launched an in Lekoumou, Likouala, Plateaux and The aim is to ensure that by 2013, 50 p ensuring a stronger influence on national and ‘oil war’ throughout the Niger Delta against pipe- Sangha, and are extremely vulnerable to per cent of indigenous children have access local government with regard to the action lines and oil production facilities, and the Nigerian social marginalization and discrimination. to and achieve quality basic education, and plans and their implementation and working soldiers that protect them. Both MEND and the Their basic rights are not recognized as that children and youth previously excluded towards scale; Nigerian government claim to have inflicted heavy they have no access to basic social services, from any education are provided with literacy p supporting the implementation of the casualties on one another. land and resources, and they suffer from courses for them to be fully integrated into national education strategy for indigenous On social issues, both the new government and illiteracy, economic exploitation, society. people through the key priorities of: school its predecessor have tried to make progress. Official poverty and lack of empowerment to claim The ORA (Observation, Reflection and legislation, harmonization of the school figures indicate that primary school intake has their rights. Action) method was introduced in 18 pilot calendar, training of teachers, non-formal more than doubled in Nigeria since the govern- Data collected from a survey supported schools. It is a teaching approach that aims to education, mobilization of partners and ment introduced free primary education in 2001. by UNICEF on the situation of children’s help children to manage their first language and resources, and literacy training; However, there is still a significant gender discrep- education reveals that: learn French, using concepts and items they are p coordination of the actions of partners, ancy, particularly in the northern states. According p more than 50 per cent of indigenous familiar with in their everyday lives. monitoring, supervision and evaluation of the to UNICEF, just over a quarter of girls in northern children do not have a birth certificate, activities of the decentralized action plans. Nigeria make it to secondary school, and more than compared with 19 per cent for the Achievements half are married before the age of 15. Overall in the population as a whole; In 2008, with the support of the major partners: Challenges north, 40 per cent of school-aged children are not in p 65 per cent of indigenous teenagers p 2,461 indigenous pupils gained access to basic There are still serious challenges related to school. According to the UN, this is because of ‘the aged 12–15 years have not had access to education, of whom 1,600 now attend ORA the implementation of the programme. In low value accorded by parents to girls’ education, education, as against 39 per cent for the schools (Likouala 14, Sangha 4); 120 attend particular, partners need to work towards early marriages, poverty, and low quality learning general population; the Béné school (Gamboma); and 741 go to influencing national policy more strongly, environments’. p 50 per cent of indigenous youth have had Lékoumou; and mobilizing resources more effectively IRIN reported from Kano in December 2008 their first sexual experience at the age of p 1,720 indigenous pupils benefited from towards the theme at national and that a community-run project to create ‘girl- 13 years, compared to 31 per cent of the receiving basic education materials; international levels. p friendly’ primary schools is ‘helping to correct long-time gender inequalities in education’. Kano is

106 Africa State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Africa 107 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 the region’s most populous state in the north. Boys Right: Bambuti children sit on wooden logs in a continue to outnumber girls in school, but educa- classroom using pencils and wooden boards to make tion officials say the margin has narrowed. The notes. Ituri province, DRC. Sven Torfinn/Panos. government has also partnered with UNICEF and others to launch a Girls’ Education Project in north- conflict in January 2009, when hundreds of troops ern Nigeria. The UK committed $50 million to the entered Democratic Republic of Congo to back a project, which so far has distributed free learning DRC operation against Rwandan Hutu rebels in the materials to more than 700 schools in the region. east of the country. According to IRIN reports, a government spokesman, Lambert Mende, said that Republic of Congo the operation’s aim was to ‘disarm the Interahamwe’ The indigenous groups in the Republic of Congo, and repatriate them ‘voluntarily or by force’. who constitute about 10 per cent of the country’s The Batwa in Rwanda still struggle for any kind population of about 3.6 million, have borne the of formal recognition. Given the country’s past, the brunt of ethnic division in the country. Civil society Rwandan government does not recognize ethnic organizations say that their access to education and groupings. According to a 2008 MRG report, recent health is especially limited. In August 2008, IRIN historical evidence has suggested that the Hutu/ reported on the discrimination against indigenous Tutsi ethnic differentiation was the product of a communities in the north of the country. A local colonial perspective. The Batwa maintain that their leader of an indigenous group, the Sangha people, case is different, arguing that Batwa identity cannot living near Ouesso, the main town in the region, be conflated with Hutu and Tutsi identity, and that said that the dominant group, the Bantus, dispar- their distinct history and culture sets them apart. As aged the ‘Pygmies’ for their way of life. He also said in Burundi, there is a lack of formal census data but that in school, ‘indigenous children are often ridi- rough estimates put the Batwa population at around culed by their peers’. 33,000 in Rwanda. A director of the Girubuntu Toutou Ngamiye, president of the Association for programme, which runs infant and primary schools the Socio-Cultural Promotion of Congo Pygmies in Rwanda, explains: ‘We don’t count them. We (APSPC), said it was necessary to promote literacy can do it if there is a need, but there has not been support Batwa in light of their economic, rather Somalia’s parliament, in Dijbouti, met to elect a and the education of indigenous children to help any need to count who is Batwa, who is what, than ethnic status. Similarly, educational support new president, Sheikh Sharif Sheikh Ahmed. In an the people out of extreme poverty and dependence, because we are trying to counter discrimination.’ is provided for Batwa children through a scheme interview with IRIN, President Ahmed said that (see Box, p. 106). According to Ngamiye: ‘Over 40 In 2007, the principal organization representing aimed at helping poorer children through school. ‘rebuilding the unity of our people and nation will years have passed since the country’s independence the Batwa in Rwanda had to change its name from This scheme uses lists compiled by Batwa welfare be one of our biggest challenges’. He maintained and unfortunately there are fewer than 10 Pygmy CAURWA (Community of Indigenous People of organizations, although there are no statistics avail- that he was open to ‘dialogue and negotiations’. graduates and very few have completed secondary Rwanda) to COPORWA (Community of Rwandese able on exactly how many Batwa children have been However, according to the US State Department, school.’ Potters) to adhere to the government’s rule on not assisted. Some Batwa community members would minority groups (who make up 22 per cent of the As part of the process of recognizing their rights, allowing formal recognition of distinct ethnic or like to see a dedicated grant system, based on the country’s population) were generally excluded from Congo organized the first International Forum of indigenous groups. This was a setback for activists, model used to support genocide survivors, so that ‘effective participation in governing institutions and Autochthonous Peoples of the Forests of Central and in the last year they have reported continuing school leavers can go on to university. were subject to discrimination in employment, judi- Africa (FIPAC) in 2007, bringing together delegates discrimination. COPORWA particularly noted dis- cial proceedings, and access to public services’. Data from all over the region. A law to protect the rights crimination in rural schools, which lack the policy Somalia on minority groups is sorely lacking, given that they of indigenous people is also being considered. of non-discrimination and tolerance found in some The situation in Somalia deteriorated further dur- make up nearly a quarter of Somalia’s population. Kigali schools. ing 2008. The conflict between Somalia’s weak Intermarriage between minority groups (includ- Rwanda According to the Ministry of Education, Rwanda Transitional Federal Government (TFG) and a ing the Bantu – the largest minority group – the Government attempts to end genocide trials con- has one of the highest primary net enrolment fragmented insurgency continued, killing more Benadiri, Brawanese, Faqayaqub, Hawrarsame, tinued in Rwanda. Nearly fifteen years after the ratios in the region (92 per cent in 2004). But than 6,000 civilians. It is estimated that more than Madhiban, Muse Dheryo, Rer Hamar, Swahili, genocide that killed three-quarters of the Tutsi there is no mention of the Batwa in the govern- 870,000 civilians have fled the capital, Mogadishu, Tumal, Yaxar and Yibir) and the majority clans population, the government is concentrating on ment’s education strategies. The Ministry for Local since the beginning of 2007. A political process to remained restricted. And minorities, who did not the economic development of the country. During Government’s (MINALOC) Good Governance, stabilize the country continued; the TFG and the have their own militias, suffered disproportionately 2008, most of the serious genocide cases were shift- Community Development and Social Affairs Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia (ARS) from the violence, including the looting of their land ed from conventional courts to community-based programme has a system to identify vulnerable reached the Djibouti Agreement on 9 June and and property by militias and majority clan members. gacaca courts. Rwandan troops re-engaged in ethnic members of the community and through this could began to implement its terms. On 30 January 2009, Minorities in Somalia suffered in other ways too.

108 Africa State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Africa 109 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 The Somali press reported on the Eyle community, parliament but the seat was lost in the last election. With restricted access to education and social a marginalized hunter-gatherer group, living in However, two officials from minority communi- ‘There is no activities, it is difficult for children to imagine the drought-stricken Middle Shabelle Region. An ties – the Deputy Minister of Health and Labour, any future. Amna says, ‘There is no future, they estimated population of around 10,000 were lack- Mahdi Osman Buri, and Jirde Sa’id Mohamoud, future … they are lost [in] between. All they think is about ing food and water due to droughts and high food a member of the standing committee of the upper how to get food for tomorrow. They don’t think prices. Those representing minorities come under house of parliament – remain in government. about education.’ She says the situation is the attack. In an interview with Amnesty International don’t think same even for those who do not live in camps. in 2009 Zam Zam Abdullahi, a human rights activ- Sudan Where opportunities are present, institu- ist working for the Coalition for Grassroots Women Four years after the Comprehensive Peace about education’ tional discrimination poses a barrier for the Organizations, described how she received threats Agreement (CPA) that ended two decades of con- children from Amna’s people. She says, ‘Forms and her office was targeted. flict between North and South Sudan, fears have Amna Abdallah Osman Wadi tells Preti for enrolment ask for tribe; if you say you are Women in Somalia continued to experience wide- grown that progress is stalling. A January 2009 Taneja about the lost youth of Darfur from a targeted minority, you can’t get a place. spread discrimination – the laws prohibiting rape in report by the Royal Institute for International Scientific education like medicine or engineering the country remain largely unenforced and, accord- Affairs highlights the flaws in the CPA, saying that is blocked for minorities.’ ing to the US State Department: ‘NGOs document- the parties involved (the Sudan People’s Liberation Amna, 33, is a graduate from a university in Sudan Girls, according to Amna, face multiple dis- ed patterns of rape perpetrated with impunity, par- Movement [SPLM], and the National Congress with a Master’s in Peace Development Diplomacy. crimination, within their own tribes as well as ticularly of women displaced from their homes due Party) have used the country’s oil wealth to build She is also a member of the Zaghawa. Since 2003, from external threats. She says they are viewed to civil conflict or who were members of minority armies and that there are still major issues around the Zaghawa have been caught up in the conflict in as being, ‘born for marriage and taking care of clans.’ Women remain ‘systematically subordinated’. border demarcation. These problems will be Darfur, and Amna is deeply concerned about the men’, and that their rights are further violated in Female genital mutilation (FGM) remains a major heightened with the presidential and parliamentary long-term impact of the conflict on the children the form of early marriage and forced circumci- problem in Somalia. According to UNICEF, it has elections due to take place by July 2009; however, who are growing up in a culture of war. sion. Finally, they are highly vulnerable to sexual a prevalence of about 95 per cent in the country, delays in preparations for these elections have cre- In 2008 it was estimated that in a five-year abuse both within and outside camps. primarily being performed on girls between the ages ated challenges of their own. span about 300,000 people have died as a result Peace and security are a long way off for of 4 and 11. A long-delayed census, necessary for the elections of the war, famine and disease. An estimated 2.3 the people of Darfur. Amna says, ‘There is the Education is a major problem in Somalia – sta- to take place, was eventually carried out in April million people have been internally displaced in Darfur Peace Agreement with the intervention tistics are unreliable because of the conflict, but the 2008, although it is yet to be made public (the the region. Among those struggling to survive in of the international community since 2005/6, latest data (from 2003–4) suggests that there is a date of release has been repeatedly postponed). The vast IDP camps, about 1 million are children. but no change on the ground.’ 19.9 per cent enrolment ratio, one of the lowest in highly politicized process was beset by logistical and The deprivations of camp life, including the In the meantime, it is essential that any pos- the world. UNICEF says that ‘education and formal security problems. Many in South Sudan objected ongoing lack of access to education, point to a sible future for the children is not ignored. That classroom learning opportunities are limited and that the census would be inaccurate due to the esti- bleak future for the generations to come. is why Amna and her people are struggling to unavailable for a majority of children in Somalia’, mated 2 million internally displaced Southerners ‘[Our] community is 40 per cent of the popu- bring attention to issues such as education and and only a third of those who are educated are girls. still living in the North. In a massive blow for lation of Darfur and the conflict has affected welfare. ‘We are trying to raise our voices to There is also a lack of female teachers – only about minorities the government decided not to break access to education. There is no transport, no UN and NGOs, so they can try and see,’ she 13 per cent of teachers in Somalia are women. Most down census data by religion or ethnicity. Officials communication and most young children live in says. While the world is preoccupied by larger existing schools are in urban areas, while more said that such information could open old wounds camps,’ Amna says. Things have got worse and political battles, it is vital, as Amna says, to ‘try remote areas lack any facilities. and increase tensions. In Darfur, rebel leaders and worse, she adds, saying, ‘We had 2,500 children and see’ that the children of Darfur deserve the In November 2008 IRIN reported on the issue victims of the violence wanted the census postponed not enrolled in school in 2007. Since then there chance an education might give them, for a life of children from minority groups in Somalia, and until there was increased stability and camp-dwellers has been conflict and displacement, therefore beyond the conflict. p particularly Somaliland, missing out on school. The were able to return home. As it is, many camps were now [there are] more [displaced].’ Additional reporting by Madeeha Ansari Ubah Social Welfare Organization said that the low deemed ‘no-go’ areas for the census-takers, despite economic status and ‘social exclusion’ of minor- attempts by UN negotiators to persuade camp lead- ity groups such as the Gaboye, Tumal and Yibir, ers to embrace the process. sects not affiliated with the ruling party, such as Khartoum and Omdurman’. The government was were the main obstacles stopping children going to According to the US State Department’s Human in Darfur and the Nuba Mountains, said that they held responsible for these. Thousands of the esti- school. In collaboration with UNICEF, the organi- Rights report for 2008, the Muslim majority and were treated as second-class citizens, and experi- mated 15,000 Dinka women and children abducted zation has built an education centre for minority the government continued to discriminate against enced discrimination when applying for government between 1983 and 1999 remain unaccounted for. children in Daami and enrolled almost 300 pupils. ethnic minorities in almost every aspect of society jobs and contracts in the North and government- UNICEF estimates that 4,000 Dinka abductees Parents from minority groups said that discrimina- in the north of the country. There were also reports controlled southern areas. remain in South Darfur – far from their ancestral tion prevented them from sending their children of discrimination against Arabs and Muslims by The State Department report also refers to the villages in South Sudan. to public schools. Minority groups used to have a individuals in the Christian-dominated south. ‘hundreds of politically and ethnically-motivated Displacement has drastically affected the edu- representative in the lower house of Somaliland’s Non-Arab Muslims and Muslims from tribes and disappearances, particularly of Zaghawas living in cation of children in Sudan. In October 2008,

110 Africa State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Africa 111 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 UNICEF reported from the contested area of One of the reasons for the escalation of violence, Maasai pastoralists may graze their cattle and the livestock had died or been lost in the process: ‘The oil-rich Abyei, where 50,000 people have been dis- according to Sudan expert Alex de Waal, was the right to evict or relocate families who they deem eviction … was implemented by a heavily armed … placed since May 2008. Many have arrived in Agok, impending decision by the International Criminal not to be ‘original’ inhabitants of the area. More regular police, anti-poaching unit and game wardens and UNICEF has attempted to provide emergency Court (ICC) on charges related to war crimes in than 40 families have been issued with letters by the … [at] short notice and [in] great haste and caused schooling to children; however a local headmaster, Darfur against President Omar al-Bashir. Authority warning them of relocation to the Soit a lot of suffering for the pastoralists.’ Peter Majok Deng, expressed concern over over- UNICEF has reported progress, however, thanks Sambu village in Loliondo division, approximately The report described a range of human rights crowding and lack of resources. to the presence of humanitarian agencies. In educa- 300 km from their homes. Maasai in Soit Sambu abuses committed during the eviction: ‘theft of live- In more positive developments, UNHCR report- tion, primary school enrolment has increased from village in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area have stock; imposition of unjustified fines for environ- ed in February 2009 that over 300,000 refugees had 516,000 in 2006 to more than 976,000 in 2008 also been threatened. MRG has made a submission mental degradation; extortion of bribes; subjection returned to South Sudan. A tripartite commission according to UNICEF and Ministry of Education to the UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial of individuals to torture; the forced separation of comprising representatives of UNHCR and the data. Whether this progress can be sustained is Discrimination (CERD) on their behalf. CERD has families; children, women and elderly left without governments of Sudan and Kenya met in Juba, the another matter. responded to the state party, although details are yet protection and food; disruption of social networks capital of South Sudan, to discuss the further repa- Women in Darfur remain highly vulnerable to to be made public. and safety nets, denial of access to education to chil- triation of refugees, and the development of educa- sexual violence. A Human Rights Watch 2008 report Both the Barbaig and the Hadzabe have also suf- dren; death of large numbers of livestock, and wide- tional facilities in the area. stated that women and girls are ‘now as likely to be fered discrimination at the hands of the authorities. spread hunger.’ A Commission of Enquiry presented The situation for women in Sudan remains dire, assaulted in periods of calm as during attacks on their Attempts to evict the Barbaig from their land have its findings to the president in June 2007, but the with rape continuing to be a systematic problem. villages and towns’. Women in IDP camps in the met with fierce resistance, for example their response affected families have neither been compensated nor Rapes go unreported because victims fear being region are particularly targeted, and rapes and attacks to the leasing of Barbaig grazing land in the Babati helped in their move to southern Tanzania. Many arrested – unless a victim can provide proof of her are carried out by government forces, militias and District in Northern Tanzania to a foreign investor are now completely destitute. rape, she is liable to be charged with the capital rebel soldiers alike. For those in the camps, education to set up a tourist camp. Police arrested 14 villag- Another victimized group in Tanzania are the offence of adultery. The law also remains deficient remains particularly inaccessible (see Box, p. 111). ers, alleged ‘ringleaders’ undermining the district Albinos who are targeted on cultural (witchcraft) in not specifically prohibiting sexual discrimination authorities who were encouraging the foreign invest- or superstitious grounds. There have been local or domestic violence. Tanzania ment. The villagers were released without charge reports of murders of Albino children. The issue has The indigenous communities of Tanzania include but the situation was not resolved and at least 45 attracted international attention, and condemnation Darfur the Maasai and the Barbaig, both pastoralist families are still under threat of eviction. from the UN and the US government. Over the course of 2008, the nature of the conflict groups, and the Hadzabe who are forest-dwelling The Hadzabe, who live in the Mbulu district in Access to education is problematic for indigenous in Darfur has changed, with further splintering of hunter-gatherers. They are all extremely vulner- northern Tanzania are both the smallest in number communities, in many cases through sheer lack the parties involved and an increased number of able, as their access to their traditional lands is not and probably the most marginalized group in of facilities. In Ngorongoro, for example, efforts confrontations. Aerial bombardments and ground currently recognized under Tanzanian land laws. Tanzania. In 2007, it was reported that the Mbulu to build secondary schools have been blocked by attacks were launched by the government in West For example, a report to the African Commission District Council was giving away some of their land bureaucratic procedures on the pretext that such Darfur in February 2008 and in mid-May the rebel on Human and Peoples’ Rights (published in May to the United Arabs Emirates royal family for hunt- areas are ecologically sensitive, though hotels and Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) launched 2008 by Community Research and Development ing. This was supposedly in return for investment resorts are being built in places where schools have an assault on Khartoum which left at least 200 Services, CORDS) described how the Ngorongoro in a secondary school, health clinics and roads in been prohibited. The president of Tanzania is dead. This was the first assault on the capital in Conservation Area Authority prioritized conser- the area – but the Hadzabe were never consulted. clearly conscious of the country’s need to progress in 30 years. The hybrid UN/AU peacekeeping force vation and tourism interests over the welfare of PINGOs FORUM, an umbrella NGO that advo- terms of education, but in March 2008 he pinpoint- (UNAMID) began deploying on 31 December indigenous peoples. The Authority has the power to cates for the rights of the indigenous peoples, made ed ‘mobility among pastoralists as having the poten- 2007 and faced difficulties in its first months, prohibit, restrict, or control residence or settlement an intervention to help the Hadzabe secure their tial of causing failure to achieve the Millennium including staff shortages and attacks on peacekeep- in the area; it has used this to restrict the move- lands. Some activists were arrested on charges of Development Goals as far as primary school enrol- ers (one in July 2008 killed several members of the ments of the local indigenous Maasai population breaching the peace after they voiced their opposi- ment is concerned’. According to CORDS, this atti- force). and banned them from cultivating certain areas. tion at a meeting. tude reflects a fundamental ‘lack of appreciation on The ethnic dimension of the conflict is complex. This has made the practice of pastoralism impos- Other reports of evictions emerged during the the part of the Tanzanian government of the special According to the International Crisis Group: ‘Inter- sible and denied the Maasai pastoralists their right course of 2008. A report from the International plight of the indigenous peoples’. Arab dissension has added new volatility to the situ- to livelihood. Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA) pub- ation on the ground.’ On 10 February 2008, more than 5,000 resi- lished in June 2008 revealed how, from May 2006 Uganda The recent resumption of conflict in the South dents of Irkeepusi village within the Ngorongoro to May 2007, large numbers of Sukuma agro-pas- Although the Ugandan Government of President Darfur town of Muhajiriya has had a particularly Conservation Area threatened to demonstrate toralists and IlParakuiyo, Taturu and Barbaig pas- Yoweri Museveni and the Lord’s Resistance Army damaging impact on civilians. Fighting between against the regulations imposed by the author- toralists and their livestock had been evicted from (LRA) concluded peace talks to end the long- government forces, the Sudanese Liberation Army/ ity. This protest was not able to change the rules, the Usangu Plains in Mbarali district. The IWGIA running war in northern Uganda, the final accord Mini Minnawi faction and JEM has claimed at least however. The Ngorongoro Conservation Area estimates that more than 400 families and 300,000 was not signed by LRA leader Joseph Kony. 30 lives and forced 30,000 people from their homes. Authority still reserves the right to decide where the livestock were moved, and that a large number of Now flushed out of their bases in north-eastern

112 Africa State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Africa 113 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Left: Alternative Basic Education for Karamoja opportunity to press their case to the Uganda gov- were mainstreamed into formal primary schools (ABEK) provides Karamojong children with school- ernment and donors. through the Accelerated Learning Programme ing close to their homes, and of a sort that would The Karamojong people in Uganda has experi- (ALP). Another 1,891 learners (91 per cent girls) not alienate them from everyday life in a herding enced similar difficulties to the Batwa in accessing are accessing primary education in the ALP centres community. Crispin Hughes/Panos. education – fuelled in part by a long-held suspicion under the tutelage of all-female community instruc- of the formal education system. According to the tors. In north-east region (Karamoja), there are Committee has conducted a survey of ethnic groups UNICEF Uganda country report 2008, in Karamoja, an additional 35,643 learners (59 per cent girls) in Uganda, but it has not been published and the where communities are largely pastoralist or agro- enrolled in ABEK centres. Batwa are not acknowledged to be a priority. pastoralist, complex armed conflicts stemming largely Smaller minority groups in Uganda, such as In a September 2008 report, the FPP described from inter-communal large-scale violent cattle raiding the Acholi, and other minorities such as the Alur, recent evictions and exclusions of the Ugandan and exacerbated by climate change, have resulted in Kakwa, Lugbara and Madi in north-west Uganda, Batwa from their forests, and their endemic mar- enrolment and completion rates as low as 6–8 per continue to be disproportionately disadvantaged. ginalization within Ugandan society. The FPP cent in four of five districts. Girls’ enrolment been Many Acholi children have been abducted to serve calculates that almost half of the Batwa squat on particularly affected. Severe poverty is another barrier as child soldiers and have missed out on education other people’s land, while working in bonded labour to access; MRG has reported that often the Karamoja entirely. The Acholi used to enjoy among the high- (essentially slavery) for non-Batwa masters. Those cannot afford to pay for school materials, or lose chil- est per capita representation in Uganda’s higher who live on land donated by charities still experi- dren’s labour during school hours. education. Now, however, Acholi children lag ence poorer levels of health care, education and Education is a key tool for peace building in behind the rest of the nation in all educational areas. employment than their non-Batwa neighbours. such an environment. Non-formal education Batwa children have historically faced extreme schemes such as Accelerated Learning Programmes Western Sahara exclusion in accessing and staying in school. (ALPs) for northern Uganda and Alternative Basic Talks between Morocco and the Polisario Front Discrimination against children from ethnic minori- Education for Karamojong (ABEK) were included (the independence movement of Western Sahara) ties, and the quality of education they receive, were in the Education Act (2008). They seek to make resumed in March 2008 in New York, with identified as major issues for dialogue between the education more relevant by including topics such as Mauritania and Algeria also attending. However, Committee on the Rights of the Child and Uganda. animal husbandry, and health and sanitation, which they quickly stalled. Representatives from the gov- Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and split Uganda’s Equal Opportunities Commission Act are not offered by the national curriculum, and offer ernment of Morocco and the Polisario Front have into smaller groups, the LRA are accused of mass 2007 established a committee to monitor and evalu- a more flexible schedule. These innovations can now met four times since August 2007 to negotiate murder, rape and pillage in both the DRC and ate state bodies, NGOs and businesses to ensure help to soften parental resistance to sending their the status of Western Sahara, but there has been no Southern Sudan. They have been particularly violent that they comply with equal opportunities and children to school. progress since the UN envoy to the territory stated since December 2008 when the Ugandan govern- affirmative action policies. Education is identified UNICEF has reported that such programmes in April 2008 that independence is unrealistic. ment, with the support of the DRC and Southern as a policy priority area. The Act could significantly have sparked a debate on whether they are indeed The exiled government of the self-proclaimed Sudan armies, launched an offensive against them. help the situation of the Batwa in Uganda, and beneficial or if the emphasis should be placed on Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) is based Hopes for a peaceful end to the conflict rose on 30 stand as an example to other governments in the formal schooling. Difficulty moving from non- at the Tindouf refugee camps in Algeria, which January 2009, however, when IRIN reported that region. formal education programmes into more formal it controls. It also claims to control the part of a senior LRA commander, Okot Odhiambo, had Uganda’s Poverty Eradication Action Plan schooling has impacted negatively on student reten- Western Sahara to the east of the Moroccan Wall, defected. Some opposition leaders expressed doubt (PEAP), first formulated in 1997, provides the tion in ABEK, as well as similar interventions offer- known as the Free Zone. The area has a very small as to whether these reports were true. framework for education policy and planning ing mobile schooling or boarding schools. population, estimated to be approximately 30,000. The political instability and conflict in Uganda towards the attainment of the MDGs. In the most In 2007 and 2008, the Go-to-School, Back-to- The Moroccan government, however, views this has badly affected the minority Batwa community recent January 2008 version, areas identified for School, Stay in School (GBS) campaign, created area as a no-man’s land patrolled by UN troops. – for example, on the country’s western border intervention include shifting public expenditure after national-level consultation between govern- The SADR government whose troops also patrol with the DRC, which is close to the home districts allocation in favour of broader access and quality to ment, civil society partners and UN agencies, the area regard it as the liberated territories and of many Batwa communities. However, there is a basic education and improving retention. However increased enrolment in both northern and north- have proclaimed a village in the area, Bir Lehlou as lack of official data on the communities and the the Ugandan government is now dropping the eastern Uganda. In Kamwenge District, for exam- SADR’s provisional capital. government does not officially recognize the Batwa PEAP in favour of a National Development Plan, ple, comparison of pre- and post-campaign data The conflict in Western Sahara has resulted in as indigenous. According to the Forest Peoples which is more focused on economic poverty than indicates an increase of 14 per cent (15 per cent for many serious human rights abuses, including the Programme (FPP), an NGO representing the the basic social dimensions of poverty affecting boys; 14 per cent for girls) over a six-month period. displacement of tens of thousands of Saharawi civil- Batwa throughout the Great Lakes Region, there the Batwa. The civil society consultation process Girls’ Education Movement (GEM) statistics indi- ians from the country and the expulsion of tens of are approximately 6,700 Batwa living within the which is under way as the PEAP is replaced by cate that 299 children (141 girls) enrolled in school thousands of Moroccan civilians by the Algerian state boundaries of Uganda. According to an MRG the National Development Plan may allow Batwa as a result of GEM mobilization. In Kitgum and government from Algeria. report in 2008, the Ugandan Equal Opportunities organizations and other civil society bodies the Pader districts, 1,416 learners (64 per cent girls) Former US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice

114 Africa State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Africa 115 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 attempted to break the impasse between the two January 2009, when Tsvangirai declared his party’s levels of child abuse a major advocacy issue. sides during a visit to North Africa in September willingness to join the power-sharing government. In February 2009, UNICEF released data regard- 2008 (while still in office), but the pursuit of al- Tsvangirai was sworn in as prime minister in ing the crisis in education in Zimbabwe, particularly Qaeda networks in Morocco and Algeria instead February 2009. in rural areas. In a country which used to have dominated her visit. A Human Rights Watch In a speech after his inauguration, Tsvangirai the best education system in Africa, 94 per cent of report released in December 2008 claimed that called for an end to human rights abuses and politi- schools in rural Zimbabwe remain closed and 66 Morocco was violating ‘the rights to expression, cal violence. However reports in the Zimbabwe of 70 schools visited were abandoned. UNICEF association and assembly in Western Sahara’. The Times said that Tsvangirai had come under fire reported that: ‘in the only fully operational school report also said that human rights had improved for not achieving an adequate ‘tribal balance’ in found during visits, a third of pupils were reporting in the Saharawi refugee camps managed by the his selections for nominations to the cabinet. The for classes’. Many of the abandoned schools have Polisario Front in Algeria, although it claimed that Ndebele community was particularly outraged as been vandalized. the Polisario marginalizes those who oppose its only one Ndebele representative was included. The The year 2008 saw a massive decrease in numbers leadership. The population of the camps is vulner- selections were instead mostly dominated by Shona of teachers in schools, a plummeting school attend- able because of the camps’ isolation, the lack of any Karangas, the biggest tribal group in Zimbabwe. ance rate from over 80 per cent to 20 per cent, and regular independent human rights monitoring and After Mugabe’s predominantly Shona government, postponement of national exams. In 2009, schools reporting, and Algeria’s claim that the Polisario, the Ndebele thought they would achieve greater were opened two weeks late, exam results have not rather than Algeria itself, is responsible for pro- recognition from Tsvangirai. The group, who make been released and learning only resumed in some tecting the human rights of the camps’ residents. up 20 per cent of Zimbabwe’s population, say they urban areas for the few who could afford to subsi- The UNHCR’s plans for voluntary repatriation of have borne the brunt of the country’s economic cri- dize teachers’ salaries and pay exorbitant tuition fees Saharawi refugees have had to be repeatedly put on sis. Members of the community called Tsvangirai’s in US dollars. UNICEF has invested $17 million hold, due to the continuing political deadlock. selections ‘a betrayal’ of the community; however over the last two years in the Ministry of Education, The status of education in the refugee camps has others suggested he had simply chosen the best peo- Sport and Culture – to help 100,000 children with improved in recent years. Although teaching materials ple for the jobs and had not been considering tribal school fees and to provide books and learning mate- remain scarce, literacy has received welcome attention issues in his selections. rials as well as constructing classrooms and toilets. and the Polisario Front claim that nearly 90 per cent European communities in Zimbabwe faced fur- However the lack of teachers is still critical. p of refugees are literate, compared to less than 10 per ther hardship during 2008. By June 2008, it was cent in 1975. Thousands have also received university reported that only 280 white farmers remained and education in foreign countries as part of aid packages all of their farms were invaded. On 28 June, the day (mainly in Algeria, Cuba and Spain). of Mugabe’s inauguration as president, several white The Moroccan government has also invested in farmers who had protested at the seizure of their the social and economic development of Western land were beaten and burned by Robert Mugabe’s Sahara. El-Aaiun in particular has been targeted, supporters. A British-born farmer, Ben Freeth and has grown quickly. Several thousand Saharawis and his in-laws, Mike and Angela Campbell, were study in Moroccan universities and literacy rates are abducted and found badly beaten. Mr Campbell, estimated at some 50 per cent of the population. speaking from hospital in Harare, vowed to con- tinue with his legal fight for his farm. Then, on 28 Zimbabwe November 2008, a Southern African Development In the March 2008 parliamentary election, Zanu- Community (SADC) tribunal ruled that the gov- PF, the party led by Robert Mugabe, lost its major- ernment had racially discriminated against Mike ity in parliament for the first time in 28 years. Campbell, denied him legal redress and prevented After months of turmoil, his party won the run-off him from defending his farm. The tribunal also election in June, after opposition leader Morgan found that the Campbells were entitled to compen- Tsvangirai (of the Movement for Democratic sation for the expropriation of their lands. Change), the only challenger, pulled out on the The situation of Zimbabwe’s people, and in par- grounds that a free and fair election was not possible ticular the country’s children, is horrifying. One in because of violent attacks on his supporters. Under five Zimbabwean children (an estimated 1.3 million) a power-sharing deal signed with the opposition are orphans; many are out of school because their in September 2008, President Mugabe remained guardians or parents cannot afford school fees and head of state, head of the cabinet and head of the uniforms; others have been affected by the death of armed services. Further talks were put off until one or both parents. UNICEF has made the rising

116 Africa State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Africa 117 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Alaska (US)

CANADA

NORTH UNITED STATES PACIFIC

ATL ANTIC OCEAN Americas CUBA Hawaiian Islands (US) MEXICO Maurice Bryan DOMINICAN REP. HAITI Puerto Rico (US) BELIZE JAMAICA GUATEMALA HONDURAS EL SALVADOR NICARAGUA

COSTA RICA VENEZUELA PANAMA GUYANA COLOMBIA Guyane (Fr.) SURINAM

ECUADOR

PERU BRAZIL

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY

SOUTH CHILE URUGUAY PACIFIC ARGENTINA he immense and diverse Americas region Right: Indigenous children in Pimbaro, Ecuador, contains large populations of mixed ethnic- playing outside their bilingual school. Julio Etchart/ T ity. These are composed of descendants Panos. of immigrants from European, Asian-Pacific and Middle Eastern countries, and tens of millions of occurring within an international regime of Inter- distinct indigenous peoples (IP) and African descend- American and international treaties including the ant populations (ADP). In some Central and South International Labour Organization Convention No. American states ADP and IP constitute as much as 169 and the 2007 UN Declaration on the Rights of 45 per cent or more of the national total. Indigenous Peoples. A 500-year-old colonial era legacy characterized Legislation and decisions by regional bodies such by dispossession, enslavement and cultural imposi- as the Inter-American Human Rights Court have tion continues to hamper efforts to bring about real also bolstered the rights of indigenous peoples and and lasting change, especially with respect to the African descendants in their claims for recognition, rights of people of indigenous and African descent. territory, autonomy and justice. In 2008 they remained the most marginalized and Moreover, agencies such as the World Bank and disadvantaged populations, constituting a dispro- the Inter-American Development Bank (IADB), portionate percentage of the poorest of the poor in once strongly criticized for ignoring the plight of their respective countries. the region’s minorities, now officially recognize their Among these minorities the main concerns in marginal status and routinely enact special guide- 2008 continued to be societal and institutional lines for the inclusion of indigenous and African discrimination, chronic poverty, land seizure, socio- descendant populations in development initiatives. Whether state-provided or non-governmental, tle or no adequate primary or secondary education, economic marginalization and various other forms This includes commissioning special studies, such these educational efforts essentially supported much less higher learning. of exclusion. This included limited political partici- as the 2006 World Bank Policy Research paper on an assimilationist national agenda that devalued pation, poor infrastructure provision and inadequate the quality of schools and education available to indigenous languages, practices, ideals and beliefs. Student profiles access to services such as health and education. indigenous students in Guatemala, Mexico and Peru. Indigenous students in particular were sometimes Regional studies show that a majority of African By most measures, therefore, the human rights subjected to verbal and physical mistreatment, and, descendant and indigenous students come from low- situation of IP and ADP in the Americas region State of education in extreme cases such as government residential income households. They often need to travel long remains very challenging; however, there were It could be said that these changes – though argu- schools in Canada, also sexual abuse. distances to classes, have poor nutrition levels, study increasing signs during 2008 that some significant ably modest – would not have occurred without prior At the 2008 World Indigenous People’s in dilapidated rural or overcrowded urban schools positive trends are now gaining momentum. access to primary, secondary and higher education by a Conference on Education (WIPC:E) Dr Marie with few resources, and have higher rates of non- critical mass of ADP and IP rights activists, who used Battiste – the first indigenous Canadian woman to completion compared to others in their societies. Education and gradual change their knowledge and training to campaign for funda- receive a doctorate (1984) – explained that moving In 2008, IP and ADP students continued to Increasingly over the past two decades IP and ADP mental rights and freedoms for their communities beyond the limitations imposed by the dominant represent a disproportionate number of school drop- rights movements in Latin America have been able to Consequently, during 2008, in addition to hav- cultures towards identity reclamation and self-em- outs and repeaters in their countries, and to have advocate and organize successfully at local, national ing to address pressing issues such as continuing powerment often required that survivors of assimi- high failure rates. Many are unable to read or write and transnational levels. Consequently, there is now a land dispossession, climate change effects and global lationist education engage in radical self-analysis, adequately. In Central American countries with general trend towards official state acceptance of the economic contraction, minority rights advocates in reorientation and identity reclamation. large indigenous populations (Guatemala, Mexico) specificity of diverse identities and cultures. the Americas increasingly directed their attention to To some extent this contributed to strengthening indigenous adults tend to have half the years of For example, in 2008, after centuries of margin- bolstering the right of access to a proper education. their resolve to work not just for improved educa- schooling of non-indigenous people. Moreover there alization and oppression, Andean peoples of Bolivia Marginalized people in the hemisphere have long tion access but also for policies and reforms based are few if any special programmes for continuing and Ecuador were finally able to articulate a strong- seen education as the key to long-term improve- on respect for the rights and values of indigenous their education as adults. er national indigenous presence by approving new ment of collective material well-being, and to ena- and minority populations. UNESCO’s Regional Education Office for Latin constitutions that provide greater recognition of IP bling them to realize their aspirations, worldviews Nevertheless, access to quality education in 2008 America and the Caribbean (OREALC) and the cultural, political and land ownership structures. and right to self-determination. This includes the remained one of the most difficult rights for African United States College Board indicate that IP and In several regional states, including Brazil, safeguarding of languages, histories and cultures. descendant and indigenous populations in the ADP students across the Americas are a minority Honduras and Nicaragua, there is now special legis- However for several generations – in Latin America Americas to realize. Although their nations’ con- of test-takers and, as a whole, perform significantly lation, and government departments are developing and the Caribbean especially – they have had to stitutions and international conventions may guar- worse than their national counterparts on a range of policies for African descendant populations. depend mainly on the goodwill of faith-based antee that right, this does not always translate into standard exams. Most countries have now formally adopted multi- organizations for education, and were served to a adequate budget allocations or policy initiatives. As There is a variety of contributing causes, includ- cultural citizenship structures and rights reforms are much lesser extent by their national governments. a result, in 2008 a significant majority still had lit- ing the fact that some minority students are placed

120 Americas State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Americas 121 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 at a disadvantage very early in their educational texts and the production of teaching materials. includes compulsory support of an indigenous lives through the failure of educators to accom- Intercultural An important part of the work is the empirical organization to guarantee an organic link modate linguistic and cultural diversity in learning research of institutions and students who look between the student and his or her community, approaches. and bilingual at the inherent problems of education in multi- to encourage the student to use their PROEIB Compared to their non-indigenous counter- lingual and multicultural contexts, especially in skills towards building better opportunities for the parts, students in Latin America who still speak an indigenous education, and also provide propos- people of his or her organization and community. indigenous language more often enter school with education in als on how to improve the current situation. In a joint project UNICEF, the Spanish limited knowledge of the main idiom of educational PROEIB Andes has also collaborated with many Agency for Development Cooperation and the instruction (Spanish). Latin America national and international organizations, includ- PROEIB Andes Foundation have developed a ing UNICEF. Sociolinguistic Atlas of Indigenous Peoples in Latin Education and income By Inge Sichra However, the biggest impact of PROEIB is America. This is a tool to promote the visibility In 2008 there also continued to be especially com- how the new professionals trained by the IBE of the ethnic, cultural and linguistic diversity pelling links between low educational levels of teaching programme and who have taken up of the region, diversity whcih needs to be taken parents, their reduced income-earning opportunities Since 1996, the Training Program in important positions in the IBE network across into account to address prevailing inequality. It and the perpetuation of poverty cycles in minor- Intercultural and Bilingual Education for Latin America, use and pass on their skills (see is also a key for planning in the education sector. ity populations. Poorly educated indigenous and Andean Countries (PROEIB), based at the table). There are now 158 indigenous profes- The Atlas and accompanying DVD cover 522 African descendant parents earn less and cannot University of San Simón in Cochabamba, sionals who graduated over ten years of IBE indigenous peoples; 420 registered indigenous afford to send their children to good schools where Bolivia, has focused on the training of courses in roles related to education and culture; languages are in use in the region, of which they have a better chance of getting a quality educa- indigenous professors, researchers and 63 of these are women (40 per cent). In Chile, nearly a quarter are cross-border. However, what tion and increasing their income-earning potential. professionals of six South American coun- a female graduate of PROEIB Andes is Director distinguishes Latin America from other world A World Bank poverty report found that in tries (Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, of the Anthropological Museum of Cañete, regions si the diversity of linguistic families: Guatemala, average hourly wages increased 15 per Ecuador and Peru). It has produced five Concepción. In Bolivia, graduates of PROEIB the Atlas records no less than 99 such linguistic cent with a primary education, 51 per cent with a graduating classes of the teaching pro- Andes have been and continue to be deputy families. secondary education, and 74 per cent with a uni- gramme and two graduating classes of the ministers, national directors, governors of nor- Through is interactive character and versity education. Moreover, the improvement for relatively new training programme in indig- mal and higher IBE institutions. use of graphics, the Atlas is designed to be women was especially pronounced. Also, according enous leadership. At present a sixth class is The development of the PROEIB Master’s used by planners, officials and international to a 2007 US College Board study, people in the being formed, with students from some of programme takes into account the leading role organizations, as well as indigenous peoples United States with a bachelor’s degree earn over 60 these countries alongside seven indigenous of indigenous people, and has been formulated themselves, students and the media. It should per cent more than those with only a high school professionals from Mexico. The 25 peoples in consultation with indigenous leaders from the become a key tool for conveying the rich diploma. represented in PROEIB’s six Master’s pro- six associated countries. diversity of indigenous peoples in the region and In Brazil, where African descendants make up grammes are: Amuzgo, Awajún, Aymara, Finally, PROEIB’s selection process promoting genuine multiculturalism. p more than half the population, 78 per cent live Chayahuita, Cofán, Colla, Guambiano, below the poverty line and only 2 per cent of uni- Guaraní, Huasteco, Mapuche, Maya, versity graduates are black Brazilians. According Mazahua, Mixe, Moxeño, Nahuatl, Nasa, Placement of graduates of four PROEIB Andes Master’s programmes (2001–7) to the World Bank, African Colombians represent Otomí, Quechua/Quichua/Inga, Shawi, in the education sector approximately 25 per cent of the entire population Shwar, Triqui, Tsotsil, Wayuu, Wixarica but nearly 80 per cent of African Colombians live and Yanacona. Entity Argentina Bolivia Colombia Chile Ecuador Perú Total in extreme poverty, and only 13 per cent of adult The main goal of PROEIB is to train African Colombians have completed primary educa- indigenous intellectuals and professionals Governments and ministries 1 8 3 2 4 13 31 tion. capable of making new Intercultural and Universities and teacher 29 3 4 36 The poor, predominantly rural dwelling IP and Bilingual Education (IBE) programmes training institutes ADP students in Latin America, are not only under- across the region viable. As well as train- Schools 2 2 2 4 5 15 served where they live, but also are hardly likely to ing of new professors and researchers, it Indigenous organizations, 13 2 3 2 5 25 attend a private school or pursue further study in an includes academic exchanges, collaborative NGOs urban area, and therefore have almost no chance of research and publishing, and participation Independent consultants, 8 1 7 2 7 25 changing their status. in workshops. doctoral candidates and others Even if they could afford private school costs, The programme includes personal reflec- Totals 1 60 8 17 12 34 132 there are societal factors that come into play. The tions, indigenous languages, theoretical daily assimilationist pressures, racial stereotyping and historical prejudices of both peers and teachers

122 Americas State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Americas 123 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 in many urban environments can often diminish the Americas continued to point out that the historical Americas with respect to the relationship of humans American African descendant activists have consist- quality of the educational experience. World Bank component of IP and ADP education continues to to the Earth. These have greatly influenced the ently advocated the need to end their group’s statisti- study results for Guatemala have shown that private be overlooked. This not only helps to restrict the full development of the international environmental cal invisibility as a means of addressing exclusion. school attendance is not necessarily as beneficial for academic participation of the specific groups, but movement and approaches to sustainable global eco- Based on national averages half of the states in indigenous students as it is for their non-indigenous also denies opportunities for attitude and perception logical management. Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) are statisti- counterparts. changes within a larger intercultural national context. Nonetheless, in most cases public school curricula cally considered to be middle-income countries. In the majority of countries of the Americas – in the Americas have completely failed to develop During 2008, however, there was the growing Teacher quality and work requirements including the Caribbean states – the history and new methodologies or cultural content relevant understanding that this often results in a distorted There are also issues related to the quality of contributions of indigenous and especially African to the contemporary issues and needs of African picture of the true conditions of IP and ADP. instruction. Studies across the Americas show that descended populations is rarely if ever included in descendant and indigenous groups. Given the great income gap that often prevails instructors of IP and ADP students more often tend state-based school curricula. Critics argue that this In Jamaica, the Ministry of Education is launch- within individual LAC countries, the real status of to be less experienced, less educated and less well distorts the true historical record of each nation and ing a major initiative in 2009 to raise the literacy minority and indigenous communities at local and paid compared to teachers of mainstream students. denies students an opportunity to develop a sense of levels in schools. A lack of children’s books dealing municipal levels is very often hidden behind the Within the United States, the Urban League has self-worth and pride in their indigenous and African with Jamaican and Caribbean life, history, culture broad national averages. found that teachers with less than three years’ expe- descendant heritage. It also reinforces students’ sense and values is being addressed through the publica- During 2008, organizations such as UNICEF rience teach in minority schools at twice the rate of of alienation and exclusion from the society in general. tion of books for children up to the age of 8 featur- continued to highlight the difficulty in determining those in predominantly white schools. World Bank When coupled with societal discrimination and ing a 6-year-old Rastafarian boy. whether Millennium Development programming studies in Guatemala, Mexico and Peru in 2006 economic necessity, this ‘disconnectedness’ can goals are actually being met for these vulnerable also show that teachers of indigenous groups tend to sometimes cause minority students to question the Bilingual programmes populations, especially given the absence of local- have half the number of years’ experience compared benefits and need for any formal education in their Many countries in the region have passed legal level statistics. to teachers in non-indigenous schools. UNICEF has lives. They then either fail to enrol or drop out, thus guarantees of bilingual education; nevertheless, in Such data provides governments with specific been working in the Andes region to train teachers narrowing their income-earning options to legal but all these countries, bilingual education is consist- demographic information and allows better use of to work in Intercultural and Bilingual Education low-paid work or involvement in potentially more ently under-funded, continues to have limited reach increasingly limited resources. This helps to ensure (IBE) schools. lucrative but high-risk criminal ventures. UNICEF among indigenous children and therefore has a lim- that national funds go further and go where they A combination of often acute financial need as has been working in Bolivia on a scheme to address ited social multiplier effect. are most needed. In most cases this means the many well as cultural factors – such as the encouragement this (see Box, p. 131). Bilingualism is also an issue in the Anglophone historically disadvantaged African descendant and of customary work values in children – means that According to the Brazilian NGO, Reference islands in the Caribbean area, where African indigenous communities. in every country, minority population students are Center on Children and Adolescents (CECRIA) the descended populations make up the majority, as However, in 2008, despite the best intentions of more likely than their national counterparts to com- thousands of females and adolescent males exploited well as in Central America (Belize, Nicaragua), institutions such as the Economic Commission for bine schooling with work in and outside the home. in sex and labour trafficking schemes in 2008 typi- where there are substantial African Caribbean cul- Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) and In Guatemala, 24 per cent of indigenous children cally were ‘darker skinned’, came from low-income tural minorities. In 2008, cultural rights activists other multilateral agencies – and even when gov- work, compared to 16 per cent of non-indigenous families, usually had not finished high school and continued their call for the recognition of Caribbean ernment departments are willing to cooperate – a children. In the many small cooperatively run tin, were often lured with promises of well-paid local or Creole (Kriol) as a respected first language, and for reliable system to gather statistical data at municipal zinc and silver mines in the high plains of Bolivia, international work. its formal introduction into the education system. and provincial levels has not yet been developed. indigenous children constitute up to 10 per cent of Likewise in the USA, the Bureau of Justice Programmes that use Creole as an initial ‘start- One factor is the absence of systematic strate- the approximately 38,600-strong workforce. In the Statistics as well as the National Council on Crime up’ language for primary grades are being piloted gies to accurately identify IP and ADP in census or Dominican Republic, African descendant children and Delinquency, in February 2009 reported that in Belize, Nicaragua and Providence-San Andreas household surveys. The self-identification registration 12 years old and younger regularly work alongside 75 per cent of the inmates in America’s state prisons Islands (Colombia), and university researchers are methods currently used are not always fully reliable. their parents in the sugarcane fields. Also in Bolivia are high school drop-outs, and about 67 per cent are involved in standardizing Creole spelling and devel- In the race- and colour-conscious societies of the young girls often leave school early to work at home functionally illiterate. oping learning materials. Americas the process is often influenced by the highly or in the informal economy. Advocates in places such as St Lucia point out that subjective perceptions and prejudices of both the data Accordingly in 2008, policy makers across the Cultural education and ecology the overwhelming majority of the population uses collector and the informants with regard to nomen- region have been focusing their attention especially IP and ADP rights activists point out in that cultur- Creole, yet there is no government policy on the use clature and racial/ethnic categorizations. on the linkage between high child labour rates and ally specific instruction and bilingual education are of the Creole language. Moreover, people are denied Often this translates as favouring ‘white-oriented’ low schooling results for indigenous and African particularly important to social and ecological pres- the right to participate in the Saint Lucian parliament designations and avoiding labels such as ‘indigenous’ descendant populations. ervation. This includes halting the outright loss of if they do not speak standard English. or ‘black’. Furthermore, rights researchers indicate heritage languages and cultures, which may contain that in countries such as Colombia census takers are Cultural and linguistic dimension universally useful knowledge. Statistical invisibility more likely to avoid entering socially marginalized There is an absence of culturally appropriate cur- They cite the example of the philosophies Many of the problems affecting basic service delivery zones with high indices of violence and to opt for riculum content. During 2008 rights advocates in the and worldview of the indigenous peoples of the are difficult to tackle without proper statistics. Latin filling out the questionnaires themselves.

124 Americas State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Americas 125 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Child and adolescent registration management agencies, more than 250,000 people (Organization of American States) headquarters in tiers imposed during the post-independence era, Another key factor linking statistical invisibility of were affected by damage and destruction to houses, Washington DC, the group working on final text Argentina’s indigenous minorities proclaim a transna- IP and ADP communities to limited service delivery infrastructure and crops. Many of the affected lived revisions debated issues and identified the regional tional identity and also endorse greater linkages. in LAC countries is the issue of child registration. in marginal hard-to-reach areas that in most cases particularities that should be reflected in the final Bilingual intercultural education is an issue which Non-registration restricts children’s access to impor- had little prior access to basic services. Moreover, draft document. These included the regularity with continues to unite members of Aymara, Chiriguano, tant public services including education. massive agricultural damage raised the possibility of which states fail to comply with treaties signed Mapuche, Mbyá Guarani, Mocoví, Quechua, Toba During 2008 a range of NGOs as well as mul- further increases in already high food prices. with IP; the long-running internal armed conflict and Wichi nations that have ethnic links in all the tilateral agencies have continued to address this Agencies such as UNICEF have noted that such in Colombia that is imposing blatant human rights neighbouring countries. in initiatives such as the ‘Name and Nationality’ natural disasters take a great toll on children and violations on IP and ADP; as well as autonomy The indigenous population in Argentina is programme supported UNICEF and other develop- their education. There are long-term effects on edu- issues, such as IP who choose to remain in isola- estimated at between 700,000 and 1.5 million. ment organizations. At the first and second regional cational activities: student nutritional levels stay low, tion (in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and the Amazon Although the Argentine Constitution recognizes conferences on the ‘Right to an Identity’ (2007 and damaged schools are slow to be rebuilt and parents region), and those with their own judicial systems, indigenous ethnic, cultural and other rights, imple- 2008), Latin American governments, international sometimes are forced to choose between food and governments and traditional legislative organiza- mentation is the task of the 23 provinces, of which organizations, civil society and representatives of schooling. tions. only 11 recognize indigenous rights in their consti- indigenous and African descendant communities Because of their marginal social, political and eco- While there is consensus among the working tutions. agreed to cooperate to achieve free, universal and nomic status and historical official neglect, IP and group’s indigenous representatives, a major ongo- In 2008, IP poverty rates in Argentina continued appropriate birth registration for all children in the ADP tend to recover much more slowly from the ing challenge has been the attitude of the US to to be above average and IP displayed higher levels of region by 2015. losses incurred and their needs are much greater in new human rights standards. The USA has not yet illiteracy, unemployment and chronic disease. Access Identity registration also has a cultural dimension. the aftermath. ratified the UN Convention on the Rights of the to education remained a problem for indigenous For example, in some areas, indigenous cultures Indigenous and rural ADP communities often Child. Moreover, along with Australia, Canada children as well for the small, mainly urban, African do not believe in officially naming a child until it have very strong community structures and collec- and New Zealand, the US voted against the 2007 Argentine population. African Argentines continued articulates its first word. Studies in Guatemala also tive practices, which facilitate recovery. However, adoption of the UN Declaration on the Rights of to experience discrimination in employment, hous- found that, as well as the investment of time and educated populations arguably are more likely to Indigenous Peoples. Currently US representatives ing and education, as well as racial insults while money, the need to travel to unfamiliar urban areas be in a stronger financial and political position to attend ADRIP drafting sessions only as non-active using public transportation. and interact with non-indigenous male government engage in disaster preparedness, including having observers. officials tended to discourage indigenous women the means to evacuate themselves beforehand from Nonetheless, indigenous rights activists see Indigenous education from registering their children and themselves. threatened areas. ADRIP as providing strong regional standards for Indigenous education in Argentina is the respon- Ultimately this is related to the historical mar- They are also more likely to independently access justice administration and the promotion and pro- sibility of the National Institute for Indigenous ginalization, official indifference and consistently information and undertake civic reorganization tection of human rights, especially in light of the Affairs (INAI). During 2008 it continued to focus poor-quality services that IP and ADP communities and rebuilding in the aftermath, even if govern- existence of autonomous organs such as the Inter- on adding to the 6,000 plus scholarships which continue to receive from their governments. ment programmes are slow to arrive in their areas. American Court of Human Rights (IACHR) and enable Argentina’s IP to attend secondary and post- This includes knowing how and when to petition the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights. secondary institutions, including universities. Economic crises and climate authorities and denounce corruption if required, ADRIP is therefore viewed as being a more The country’s interest in forging international change disasters and how to encourage heightened media focus to effective instrument for the region than the UN links has also been visible in the area of IP and ADP The end of 2008 produced economic and environ- publicize concerns. Declaration. The IACHR and domestic courts education. Twenty indigenous and African descend- mentally related events in the Americas that further It is in such circumstances that appropriate in Mexico and Central and South America have ants from rural Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and threatened the long-term well-being of IP and ADP human rights instruments that can guarantee the already used the standards of the draft ADRIP in Peru are now receiving an education in Argentina communities. One was the contraction of the global delivery of services such as health and education deciding indigenous cases. at the Universidad Nacional del Litoral (National economy and the other was a succession of natural become even more useful to IP and ADP; especially Two more meetings are scheduled for 2009 and, University of the Coast) in Santa Fe. The transna- disasters, both of which risk retarding access to edu- given the regional history of social exclusion and once the final language is approved, the working tional programme is financed by the Inter-American cation among minority populations. official indifference. group will submit the text to the OAS General Development Bank (IADB). Between October and December 2008, heavy Assembly for a final vote in 2010. The five students from each country, totalling rainfall left a trail of destruction across Central and Draft American Declaration on the Rights eight women and twelve men, are participants in South America. Landslides and substantial flood- of Indigenous Peoples Argentina a two-year agribusiness administration degree pro- ing affected large areas in Belize, Brazil, Costa Rica, The draft of the American Declaration on the Transnational scholarship programme gramme. The students will receive full scholarships Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Rights of Indigenous Peoples (ADRIP), geared During 2008, Argentina, the second largest country and also have an opportunity to build ties with Panama. specifically to the legal needs of the indigenous and in South America, continued to strengthen its inter- indigenous students from within Argentina. Five Indigenous people and African descendants original peoples of the Americas, moved closer to national ties with other states in the region, includ- indigenous students drawn from Mocoví and Toba represented a large part of the affected popula- completion in December 2008. ing Brazil, Cuba and Venezuela. communities in Santa Fe will also participate in the tion. According to relief organizations and disaster During the special sessions at the OAS Having been divided by the national fron- programme.

126 Americas State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Americas 127 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Left: Quechua Indian women marching for equal indigenous. One of the nine departmental pre- departments held autonomy referenda, which the rights, Cuzco Deparment, Peru. Jeremy Horner/Panos. fects (governors), Sabina Cuellar, is an indigenous international community declined to monitor woman. and the federal government refused to recognize. sion violated the Constitution and instructed the Since attaining the presidency in 2005, Evo Although all four referenda gained easy majorities provincial court to take into consideration the rights Morales – who is of indigenous Aymara ancestry – they were marked by high voter abstention. of indigenous people to use the resources found on has focused on instituting a number of key reforms In August 2008 the government held a national ancestral lands. aimed at addressing the historical exclusion of the recall referendum to determine whether President In December 2008, in response to a lawsuit filed indigenous population. Central to this was the Morales, the Vice President and eight out of nine by 18 indigenous communities, the Supreme Court introduction of a new constitution that recognizes departmental Prefects should remain in power. ordered Salta Province to suspend plans to harvest indigenous cultural, political and ownership sys- This received a 67 per cent national vote of confi- approximately 2 million acres of forest, pending the tems, and includes clauses aimed at achieving more dence, and six of the eight prefects were returned. outcome of a further hearing. equitable distribution of land and natural resources, Although four of the six were pro-opposition pre- In 2008 the Inter-American Commission on and at opening opportunities for indigenous people fects, significant for government supporters was Human Rights continued to evaluate a petition pre- to gain more power. that the plebiscite produced an almost 40 per cent sented by the Lhaka Honhat indigenous association The plan has faced stiff resistance from opposing approval vote in the autonomy-seeking eastern concerning failure of the Argentine government to landowning interests in the eastern departments, states. This demonstrated that the vocal and well- implement a titling policy that would return their at every step. This included strikes, walk-outs and orchestrated anti-government regional opposition ancestral lands. armed conflicts that have led to scores of injuries, did not represent unanimous opinion. human rights abuses and loss of life. In the face of continuing violence in September Bolivia Directly connected to this initiative was the gov- in eastern departments such as Pando, Morales Despite having 70 per cent of the world’s iron ernment’s April 2008 ratification of its recognition called for a week-long 200 km march from the west- and magnesium and the second largest natural gas of indigenous autonomies, in accordance with a ern highland city of Caracollo to the capital La Paz reserves in South America, in 2008 Bolivia contin- November 2007 ruling and the UN Declaration on in October 2008, to demand a referendum on the ued to be regarded as the poorest county in South the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, which demon- proposed constitution. This drew tens of thousands America, with two-thirds of its population living in strated its commitment to enabling self-determina- of mostly indigenous peasants, miners, coca-growers poverty or extreme poverty. tion, and self-government for IP and ensuring the and other government supporters, who marched to According to the 2001 census, the majority management of their own financial resources. demonstrate their resolve and pressure the Bolivian (approximately 62 per cent) of Bolivia’s 9.25 mil- Congress to pass the law sanctioning the twice- lion people self-identified as indigenous (Quechua Opposition postponed constitution referendum. and Aymara). Most were rural subsistence farmers The non-indigenous landowning minority in the By the end of the march, the government and Food security is increasingly becoming an issue living in remote areas where government serv- wealthy eastern departments of Beni, Pando, Santa opposition had reached a compromise, allowing a in the region. Along with Uruguay and southern ices remain unavailable. In 2008, 70 per cent of Cruz and Tarija, who feared their farms would final national vote on the proposed constitution. Brazil, Argentina was among the countries most Bolivia’s IP continued to live with little access to be broken up and handed over to the poor, have Among the concessions were that the president affected by what is arguably the worst drought to hit basic services such as health, water, sanitation and mostly opposed the government’s efforts and, dur- would not seek a third term in 2014, and that limits the region in decades. In early 2009 this began to education. ing 2008 increased their efforts to block reforms, on the size of landholdings (5,000 hectares) would pose a serious threat to agricultural production. Discrimination and strong historical prejudices including calling for departmental autonomy and not be retroactive. against Bolivia’s indigenous groups remained exten- fomenting civil strife. Land claims sive, and the country’s human rights ombudsman In May 2008 opposition gangs, encouraged by New constitution In 2008 land claims and related issues continued, reported that approximately 70 per cent of the civic leaders from Sucre, captured and humiliated The January 2009 constitution referendum received such as the eviction of IP to make way for mining national population considered racism a problem. a pro-government advance party of approximately the required 50 per cent plus national majority but, forestry and other projects. In October Argentina’s Societal and institutional discrimination was two dozen indigenous workers and leaders, who had as expected, was defeated in the eastern opposition Supreme Court overruled a decision by Salta pro- also directed against the African Bolivian minority travelled to that city to ensure safe entry during a strongholds. vincial court, which had previously turned down (approx 35,0000), who continued to face severe planned presidential visit. Among other clauses, the new document a land claim appeal by the Eben Ezer indigenous disadvantages in life expectancy, income, literacy, After being taken prisoner by a hostile mob, sev- enshrines state control over key economic sectors, community. employment, health and education. eral were beaten and subjected to significant abuse, and grants greater autonomy, not only to indig- IP of Eben Ezer had asked the Salta provincial forced to remove their shirts and march several enous communities but also for the nine depart- court to issue an injunction halting the sale of pro- Political representation miles to the central plaza, where they were then ments. The implementation of the new charter is vincial land previously considered a natural reserve Bolivia’s IP have continued to be under-represented made to kneel and shout anti-government slogans. far from certain, however. Several articles have to and which they claim as ancestral territory. The in government and politics. In 2008 only an esti- Between May and June 2008, in defiance of legal be approved in Congress, where President Morales Supreme Court indicated that Salta’s court deci- mated 17 per cent of members of Congress were injunctions, Beni, Pando, Santa Cruz and Tarija does not have a Senate majority.

128 Americas State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Americas 129 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Nevertheless, for the indigenous majority who, affirmative action policies – continued to promote defining curricula to classroom implementation just some 50 years ago, were not allowed to vote, or some improvements in African descendant educa- New curricula and evaluation. even walk in the central square of the capital La Paz, tion during 2008. this represented a major turning point in their long- Federal universities such as the prestigious Rio are making a Principal results standing efforts to achieve their fundamental rights Branco training university run by the Brazilian The aim of the programme is to improve the and freedoms. Ministry of Foreign Affairs have continued to quality of learning for children involved and to There are enormous challenges: indigenous lands implement admissions quotas and affirmative action difference for give them more relevant and improved learning are not demarcated fully and traditional prejudices programmes, and the federal government has man- in mathematics and languages. At the end of the and social conditions remain obstacles in rural dated the teaching of African and African Brazilian indigenous first year they know how to read and write tales, areas, including restrictions on land inheritance for history in high schools and universities. tongue twisters and stories in their own language women. children in and in Spanish. At the same time they know In the cooperative-operated mining sector that is Favela containment a great deal about their own cultural context. responsible for some 32 of the overall 40 per cent of These initiatives are yet to have a significant multi- Bolivia Specific results include: the country’s exports that mining produces, mainly plier effect in the lives of the majority of the coun- indigenous miners continue to work for less than try’s African descendants. In the 800 low-income p 11 indigenous organizations (local and region- $3.00 for a 12-hour day in dangerous and unhealthy favelas (shantytowns) of Rio de Janeiro, which By Adán Pari Rodríguez al) and parents in the communities actively conditions. The fall in global fossil fuel prices has have large African Brazilian populations, human participate in the educational process of their diminished revenues from natural gas sales, which in rights observers in 2008 continued to report on the children, guiding the teaching staff in plan- turn limits the amounts available for social invest- indiscriminate use of force by police. Few killings The Tacana, Mosetén, Tsimane’ and Movima ning, evaluating and teaching aspects of their ment, such as the provision of quality health and are independently investigated and perpetrators are peoples are situated in the Amazonian area, in culture; and guiding educational management education services. seldom prosecuted. the provinces of Beni and La Paz. There is a low across their territories, municipalities and In 2008 Amnesty International and local NGOs school registration and high drop-out rate of departments. Brazil claimed that in these marginalized urban areas, pupils in these areas. p 1,600 teaching staff are now indirectly According to official figures, African descendants rep- which contain over 2 million residents, law enforce- With government backing, and in collabora- qualified, of whom 40 participate directly and resent almost half of Brazil’s approximately 190 mil- ment continued to be characterized by large-scale tion with the Universidad Mayor de San Simón actively in the process, and have changed their lion population; the true figure is likely to be higher. armoured ‘invasions’ by police units that inevitably de Cochabamba, UNICEF has formulated four daily routine and curricular development, During 2008, besides continuing to experience result in human rights violations. separate curricula for indigenous groups, using teaching a fresh curriculum, producing texts, historical societal discrimination African Brazilians Moreover so-called ‘militias’ have continued the criteria of nationality and indigenous terri- doing bilingual classes, encouraging pupil par- continued to be remarkably under-represented in to expand and now control over 100 of the city’s tory. Teachers, students, indigenous organiza- ticipation and varying didactic strategies. the government, professional positions, and the favelas. Made up mainly of off-duty or former law tions and other community members took part p 1,200 children, from 28 educational units, middle- and upper-income groups. They experi- enforcement officers, they take community policing in shaping the curricula. are learning better and in a meaningful way, enced a higher rate of unemployment and earned into their own hands but have come to engage in The first stage of the programme worked both established standard contents as well as average wages approximately half those of a white similar illegal activities to the drug traffickers they with indigenous organizations, leaders and innovative and relevant contents from their worker. In part this may be linked to a continuing were formed to confront. Militias tend to enjoy experts in their respective cultures to highlight own cultures. gap in the area of education. the tacit support of the police, who regularly fail to indigenous knowledge and understanding. African Brazilians average just 6.4 years of school- investigate ‘social cleansing’ killings and other viola- The second stage took place in schools, With government support, the programme is set ing and the illiteracy rate among African descend- tions, and often do not conduct operations in the incorporating the findings into the current to expand into other schools in each educational ants over 15 years of age is 20 per cent compared to militia-controlled communities. primary curriculum, and teachers were district and to other indigenous peoples in the just 8 per cent for Euro-descendants. In the area of simultaneously trained. Amazonian area. This time universities of the higher education the US-based Chronicle of Higher Indigenous Brazilians The impetus behind the programme is the region will be involved, supporting the investiga- Education reported that, while 45 per cent of the Brazil’s National Indigenous Foundation (FUNAI) historical process by which indigenous and tion of knowledge and culture as well as outlin- country’s people defined themselves as either black estimates that there were 460,000 indigenous persons original inhabitants of Bolivia have demanded ing teaching processes that include educational or mixed race (pardo) in the 2000 census, only 17 in 225 communities living on demarcated lands, and their own education, first supported by planning. Universities can also support the per cent of university graduates are of mixed race an additional 100,000 to 190,000 dwelling outside Intercultural Bilingual Education (IBE), and permanent training of teaching staff. Going for- and only 2 per cent are black. these territories, including in urban areas. developed over the course of more than ten ward, the programme should also be introduced Under the government of President Luiz Inácio More than half of Brazil’s IP live in poverty years. Today, this demand and the influence in teacher training colleges, so that new contents da Silva (Lula) there is now explicit legal state and under constant threat from expanding agri- of IBE is getting stronger and stronger, and that are relevant to the indigenous peoples of opposition to racism, and public policies against cultural, mining and other development projects. indigenous organizations and parents are each zone are incorporated into the teacher discrimination. In addition, the increase in social In 2008 indigenous leaders continued to criticize involved in designing educational models, from training curriculum. p mobility – partly due to the still hotly debated the government for failing to protect their lands

130 Americas State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Americas 131 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Left: A Xavante child within the Xavante munity involvement in the indigenous education protected area in Mato Grosso, Brazil. Eduardo process. Martino/Panos. According to one of the early school organizers, they had to overcome significant resistance to the ensuring that schools are located in indigenous vil- idea of children being taught entirely in the Guaraní lages as a way to revitalize the local culture and to language during the first two years at school, before maintain young people in their communities. gradually switching to Portuguese. Ironically, the resistance came from Guaraní parents, who Community initiatives were afraid that their children would not learn The establishment of indigenous schools in Brazil Portuguese, thereby limiting their chances to ‘get has come about after decades of independent effort out of the village’. by rights activists and groups to promote indigenous In addition to the Guaraní language, there are education. Moreover the issue of indigenous educa- also interdisciplinary classes that include Guaraní tion in some areas is closely tied to ethnicity and regional geography discussions with community land rights, especially because many teachers take on elders, and participation in community action such leadership roles in their villages. as land occupations to recover indigenous territory. On the Brazil-Paraguay border, in the State of In 2006 a special five-year training course called Mato Grosso do Sul, where indigenous Guaraní Teko Arandú (‘living in wisdom’) was established ancestral lands were taken over by big cattle ranch- for Guaraní students at the Don Bosco Catholic ers, the search for better education is closely linked University (UCDB) (in nearby Dourados), which to the struggle for Ñanderú Marangatú (Great provides technical assistance through the efforts of Sacred Father): a term for ‘land’ used by the Kaiowá female Professor Adir Casaro Nascimento, a cam- branch of the Guaraní. The Kaiowá, a nomadic peo- paigner for indigenous education for the past 20 ple, constitute half of the over 60,000 indigenous years. Most of the 114 students are adults, including people who live in northern coastal state of Mato a few elderly people; the majority are women. Grosso do Sul. The experience in Matto Grosso has show that In 2005 the government recognized indigenous ethnically sensitive education within indigenous from encroachment, and for not devoting sufficient supports the training/development of teachers and rights to 9,317 hectares of territory; actual posses- communities provides an education better suited to resources to health care and other basic services such technicians in a culture- and identity-preserving sion has been delayed, however, pending a decision the preservation of indigenous identity and culture, as education. intercultural education programme. There is also a by the Supreme Court and negotiations on land- and can also have a significant multiplier effect. In Brazil the three levels of formal education are programme which supports indigenous students to owner compensation. Since then relations between The expansion of indigenous education is especially the responsibility of the government and the right continue their studies at urban-based schools. indigenous people and settlers have remained tense empowering Guaraní women, who are now more of indigenous societies to a ‘specific, intercultural In an effort to ensure cultural content in indig- with local high-level elected officials being among confident about expressing their opinions publicly and bilingual scholastic education’ is constitution- enous education, FUNAI has organized seminars the foremost opponents of demarcation. at school meetings. ally guaranteed and established in the ‘Directives and meetings between teachers and indigenous lead- Many Guaraní/Kaiowá continue to live in poor Community involvement has also stimulated for a National Policy of Indigenous Scholastic ers, including the 3rd Meeting of Oral and Written conditions in roadside tents and the Indigenist a new desire for education in general, leading to Education’. Languages of Indigenous Societies, and the 2nd Missionary Council (CIMI) noted that 40 of the 53 increased Guaraní enrolment in standard state Indigenous education is currently provided to Seminar on Indigenous School Education. murders of indigenous people in Brazil during 2008 schools: 500 indigenous children currently attend approximately 165,000 students in 2,332 schools. Indigenous schools in Brazil differ from their were of Guaraní/Kaiowá in the state of Mato Grosso these institutions, with the long-term potential of In 2008 the Brazilian Ministry of Education (MEC) mainstream counterparts by having more culturally do Sul. One such murder in 2003 led directly significantly changing Guaraní attitudes towards announced the addition of some 400 new schools at related content. Classes may be given in more than to the establishment of one of the first Guaraní further pursuit of higher education. a cost of nearly US $8.5 million. This is expected to one language and they are usually geared to the community-based bilingual schools. Following her Long-time supporter and facilitator of indigenous provide an additional 15,000 places and benefit 90 demands of each indigenous community. father’s murder for leading an occupation of a large education, UCDB professor Antonio Brand explained indigenous groups. For example, environmentally sensitive agricul- estate, the current 28-year-old Kaiowá head teacher that, while going to university was once seen as a way Twenty state and federal universities in Brazil ture, or agroecology, is included in the village second- at Panambizinho village dropped out of her law of losing indigenous identity and becoming assimi- reserve places for indigenous persons and, according ary school curricula of some municipalities. This is school course and trained to run a bilingual school lated into mainstream society, with the new sense of to the MEC in 2008, there were nearly 5,000 indig- aimed at bolstering local production and drawing programme. self-esteem that is no longer the case. enous university students, or approximately 1 per on the resources of traditional knowledge. Community-based bilingual schools in Mato In 2008 the Kaiowá reached an agreement with cent of the national university student body. MEC also has a directorate of Education for Grosso offer an example of the positive aspects, as local landowners to provisionally move onto two areas FUNAI also has an Education Department that Diversity and Citizenship that is responsible for well as some of the challenges involved in com- totalling 127 hectares pending the legal outcome.

132 Americas State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Americas 133 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Raposa Serra do Sol Right: A girl in the fourth grade class from the In December 2008 Brazil’s Supreme Court voted Afro-Honduran community of Bajamar Garífuna to uphold President Lula da Silva’s creation of the studying at the Francisco Marozan school. Giacomo Raposa Serra do Sol reserve, along the Venezuela- Pirozzi/Panos. Guyana border in the northern Brazilian state of Roraima. greater strain on the environment and the Amazon The over 4 million acre territory encompassing people who have traditionally depended on fishing about 42 per cent of Roraima State is the ancestral and hunting in the rainforest for their livelihood. land of a combined total of 19,000 indigenous In an effort to raise global awareness, in January Ingaricó, Macuxi, Patamona, Taurepang and 2009 indigenous people and African descendants Wapichana. It will be one of the largest protected staged a display before the opening of the 2009 indigenous areas in the world. The territory was World Social Forum (WSF) in the northern city of demarcated in 2005 following a 20-year plus battle Belém – the north-eastern gateway to the Amazon. that involved significant pressure from the Indigenous The demonstration took the form of a human ban- Council of Roraima and the UN Committee on the ner made up of more than 1,000 people, that could Elimination of Racial Discrimination. be seen and photographed from the air, and that However, the proposed area contains hundreds of spelled out ‘SOS Amazon’. cattle ranches and, as in other demarcated areas in In addition to indigenous groups from Brazil, Brazil, a tense, sometimes violent frontier conflict has other original peoples included indigenous repre- smouldered between Euro-Brazilian farmers and the sentatives from neighbouring countries and African indigenous people since its initial proposal in 1993. descendant Quilombolas from the African Brazilian In early 2008 there were armed skirmishes with ‘maroon’ communities created during the colonial farmers using Molotov cocktails, blocking roads and era by Africans escaping enslavement. burning bridges to hamper police eviction actions The message was particularly designed to draw the against them. Rice farmers who moved into the ter- attention of presidents of Amazon region countries ritory two decades ago petitioned the court to create (Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Venezuela) to the issue non-indigenous ‘islands’ within the reserve so they of climate change and its effects on the indigenous development of joint ventures and projects. This throughout Belize to obtain information on training could remain. However in an 8–11 vote, the judges peoples; most especially the immediate and long-term prompted the establishment of a centre to meet the needs and indigenous community priorities, and decided in favour of restarting their eviction. effects of projects such as the construction of hydro- specific training requirements of indigenous peoples. to demonstrate that the institute would rely on the The court also ruled that the indigenous people electric power stations in Brazil that flood vast areas Belize Indigenous Training Institute (BITI), communities for governance and direction. could not stop the national government from send- of Amazon rainforest and displace riverbank dwellers. which began operations in 2008, is a ground- break- BITI will deliver programmes in Kekchi, Mopan ing military forces into the territory to protect the The unusual weather patterns at the end of 2008 ing indigenous cooperative educational project that and Garífuna (African Indigenous) communities. national borders, or from establishing hospitals, and early 2009, which brought extreme tempera- marks the first time that the country’s indigenous This includes a range of services, among them the schools and other service delivery infrastructure. tures and unprecedented drought conditions to peoples (Mayan and Kalinago-Garífuna) have coop- design and production of culturally appropriate All the same, indigenous rights advocates hailed Argentina, southern Brazil and Uruguay, also served erated on a project as ‘indigenous Belizeans’. It is training materials and the administration of local the court’s action as historic with regard to the to strengthen their message. also an example of the strong transnational nature of and remote training programmes and facilities. rights of Brazil’s indigenous people to their origi- the indigenous rights movement in the Americas. nal lands. Belize BITI is a unique alliance between the indigenous Canada Transnational cooperation peoples of Belize and the Inuit of Canada, repre- Indigenous residential schools Sustainable Amazon Plan Belize is the most culturally diverse nation in sented by the Inuit Circumpolar Conference (ICC) According to the 2006 census, indigenous people In early May 2008 President Lula unveiled what Central America and the approximately 300,000 and Unaaq, an Inuit-owned firm. Over the course represent about 4 per cent of Canada’s 33 mil- was titled a ‘Sustainable Amazon Plan’, which will person population considers itself to be both of two years the Inuit provided planning and facili- lion population and constitute sizeable minorities grant farmers US $600 million in loans at 4 per Caribbean and Central American. There are four tation services, and helped to implement a compre- in northern areas such as Yukon (25 per cent), cent annual interest (compared to the 11.75 per main indigenous groups in Belize, namely the hensive project plan and communication strategy Northwest Territories (50 per cent) and Nunavut cent national rate) to adopt supposedly eco-friendly Kekchi Maya, Mopan, Yucatec, and the African for BITI. (85 per cent). farming methods and encourage reforestation. descendant Garífuna (Garinagu), who retain their The experience in indigenous community-based Although Canada was one of the four nations However, the plan also aims to broaden access to own language and indigenous African Carib culture. practical training gained in the Arctic was used in that voted against adoption of the 2007 UN electricity, expand ports and improve Amazon high- One of the main constraints to indigenous self- the Belize education project. This included organ- Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, ways and river transport. All of these are intended realization in Belize has been the critical lack of izing consultation meetings in Maya and Garífuna over several decades it has acquired the reputation of to boost economic activity and will inevitably place trained indigenous Belizeans to participate in the village community centres and government offices being in the forefront of demonstrating a strong and

134 Americas State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Americas 135 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 practical commitment towards state recognition of treaty rights, revenue and taxation, and fishing and ested in connecting underserved indigenous and in Canada have seen nearly 10 languages become indigenous rights in the Americas. During 2008 this hunting limitations. Indigenous people remained African descendant populations through greater use extinct. commitment was extended also to officially address- under-represented in the workforce, over-represent- of IT. K-Net is a programme of the Keewaytinook Ottawa-based ICCTA President Tony Belcourt ing induced ‘wrongs’ in the area of indigenous ed in prison populations, and more vulnerable to Okimakanak (KO), Tribal Council, and is directed has noted that simple indigenous communications education. suicide, poverty and police harassment compared to by the chiefs of six indigenous communities. It technologies – educational information on digital In June 2008 Canadian Prime Minister Stephen other groups. began in 1994 as a simple electronic bulletin board discs or electronic indigenous language dictionaries Harper issued a public apology to 80,000 First Indigenous women are particularly affected. In a (BBS) to fill the education gap created by the high – can greatly help in the preservation of indigenous Nation residential school survivors. On behalf of 2008 report Amnesty International highlighted the student drop-out rate from the now officially dis- language. all Canadians, he expressed strong regret for the continuing high levels of discrimination and vio- credited indigenous residential boarding schools. In October 2008 interested Brazilian delegates at psychological trauma and social damage the schools lence against indigenous women, including internal It has since grown into the world’s largest indig- a tele-health conference in Ottawa met with indig- had done to individuals and to indigenous culture trafficking, and criticized officials for failing to put enous broadband network and a global model for enous representatives via K-Net video conferencing and heritage for over a century until 1996. forward a functional national strategy. indigenous telecommunications and IT-based tele- and ICCTA has received a $100,000 grant from the The prime minister admitted that the original In 2008 IP accounted for 18.5 per cent of the education. Consisting of a terrestrial network with Canadian International Aid Agency (CIDA) to sup- objectives of the residential schools were based on total Canadian federal prison population, with satellite links, K-Net connects about 70 Canadian port its development. an incorrect assumption that aboriginal cultures and indigenous women especially accounting for 32 per indigenous communities and a number of non- spiritual beliefs were inferior and unequal. Moreover cent of the inmates in female federal penitentiaries. indigenous locations to each other and to the world. Colombia the institutions were inadequately controlled and A disproportionate number of IP prisoners were The indigenous communities – some reachable Education policy had given rise to significant physical and sexual in maximum-security prisons and in isolation, and only by aircraft – coordinate with service agencies African Colombians and indigenous peoples togeth- abuse and neglect. indigenous inmates spent longer periods in jail than and universities to deliver Internet high school pro- er constitute a sizeable minority of Colombia’s Besides separating children from their cultures non-indigenous prisoners. grammes, tele-health, tele-justice, and webcasts of nearly 44 million total population. Approximately and traditions the process had disrupted community education and training events to residents via K-Net. 27 per cent of Colombia’s population self-identifies life and undermined the ability of many to ade- Land claims The network provides Internet broadband services as African Colombian and 2 per cent as indigenous. quately parent their own children. Furthermore, its In 2008 the government continued the process of to homes and public sites (community centres and Article 67 of Colombia’s Constitution (1991) devi- effects had continued to negatively affect subsequent claim settlements and self-government negotiations libraries). The online high school programme con- ates from inter-American and international treaty generations. with more than 350 First Nations communities. sists of general content for middle grades (9–10) as obligations regarding the right to universal free pri- Indigenous leaders, including Phil Fontaine, In February 2008 parliament voted into law the well as compulsory courses for grades 11 and 12. It mary education, by requiring payment by those who National Chief of the Canadian Assembly of First Nunavik Inuit Land Claims Agreement Act, which also shares teachers among communities, allowing can afford to pay. This has a direct negative impact Nations, and Clem Chartier, Metis National provides for the establishment of an Inuit-controlled students to remain at home longer and maintain on Colombia’s African descendant and indigenous Council – themselves residential school survivors – regional government (accountable to Quebec’s their cultural support system. populations. Being unable to afford matriculation fees as well as Mary Simon, president of Inuit Tapiriit National Assembly) to administer the large region of Other services include video conferencing, which and the costs of uniforms, school supplies and trans- Kanatam, were among those who responded from Quebec north of the 55th parallel. allows health care providers at distant locations to portation, they are the least educated in the country. the floor of the parliament. In June 2008 the federal government passed leg- listen to a patient’s heart and breathing. This serves In 2008 they continued to make up a disproportion- While stating that the memories of the years of islation implementing the Tsawwassen First Nation a crucial need as First Nations and Inuit tubercu- ate number of the poorest of the poor. racism and abuse were hard to forget, the leaders, Final Agreement, which grants control over approxi- losis rates nationwide were 29 and 90 times higher In a country where the (former) UN Commission along with the country’s indigenous elders, said mately 1,790 acres of coastal British Columbia to respectively than among the Canadian-born non- on Human Rights once noted that the wealthiest they respected what they considered to be a sincere the Tsawwassen First Nation. This includes control indigenous population. 10 per cent is responsible for 46.9 per cent of all apology and the commitment to reconciliation and over governance, tax policy, land management, fish- Canadian indigenous communities that devel- consumer spending, nearly half of Colombia’s total building of a new relationship with Canada’s indig- eries, wildlife as well as culture and heritage. oped K-Net are strong supporters of the Indigenous population lives below the poverty line. Fully 80 per enous Inuit, Metis (mixed indigenous-European) Commission for Communications Technologies in cent of African Colombians live in extreme poverty. and First Nations. Indigenous communications technologies the Americas (ICCTA), which was created by indig- African Colombians annually earn the equivalent The public apology followed an approximately and education enous peoples of North, Central and South America of US $500 per person compared to the average US $1.8 billion settlement (2006) between the fed- As a result of its immense geographical area, Canada following the 2003 Geneva World Summit on the non-African Colombian annual income of US eral government and former students. A Residential is one of the pioneers in developing satellite com- Information Society. They have therefore been $1,900. The majority of African Colombians are Schools Truth and Reconciliation Commission munications technology. Canadian indigenous active in sharing their experiences with others. rural subsistence farmers and live in the Choco, the began holding hearings across the country in 2009. populations are now among the leaders in the use of At the 2008 World Indigenous People’s region of Colombia with the absolute lowest levels information technologies (IT) for long-distance tele- Conference on Education (WIPC:E), Canadian of health and education service delivery. Most indig- Indigenous conditions health and tele-education service delivery. indigenous rights activist Dr Marie Battiste criti- enous people live in territorial entities or reserva- Despite the gesture, tensions between the govern- In 2008 Canada’s indigenous Kuhkenah Network cized the idea of residential schools particularly tions which are defined as autonomous units in the ment and indigenous groups continued in 2008 (K-Net) enhanced its efforts to obtain transnational for violating the cultural rights of members of the Colombian Constitution, but their administrative over other key issues such as land claims, autonomy, partners in the rest of the Americas who are inter- affected language communities. Indigenous peoples integration has not yet been achieved.

136 Americas State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Americas 137 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Colombia’s national education policies also limit Some paramilitaries have refused to demobilize levels and employment levels of IDPs are always tinued to marginalize and cast Haitian-Dominicans the control the government can exercise in ensuring and others have returned to violence, including lower than for poor people who are not displaced. as irregular or illegal immigrants, and to regularly the quality of schools and teachers that serve these selected and systematic threats and killings of leaders Half of all displaced persons live in shantytown use the ‘in transit’ clause to deny national registra- populations. This has led to the mushrooming of and rights advocates, and illegal usurpation of com- homes made of cloth, cardboard or wood scraps. tion to Dominican-born children whose parents are so-called ‘garage schools’ – poor-quality fee-charging munity lands. Education is both economically and physically dif- of Haitian descent. private schools which generally lack quality teachers, In 1993, under Federal Law 40, African ficult. This occurs even though Haitian-born parents and curricula, learning materials or adequate infrastruc- Colombian communities were granted legal right Indigenous and African descendant children’s grandparents may have resided in the country for ture. Often such schools are all that is within the to over 15 million acres of land (nearly 5 per cent schooling is disrupted or permanently abandoned by decades, and even when the child may be as much as economic reach of African descendant and indig- of Colombia’s territory). Much of it is now greatly displacement. In addition, paramilitary groups enter third-generation Haitian-Dominican, with grandpar- enous populations. desired by expansionists making all rural ADP a low-income areas and refugee camps with cash offers ents who were also born and raised in the DR. In 2008 African Colombian and indigenous targeted population. Among African Colombians, and/or threats with the aim of recruiting children. For their part, Haitian consulates indicated populations had an illiteracy rate of 33 per cent and the probability of being displaced is 84 per cent Minors are forced to drop out of school and they were legally authorized to register only 31 per cent respectively – nearly three times that of higher than for the majority mestizo population and thereafter fighting becomes their principal ‘educa- those births declared within the child’s first year. the rest of the population. African Colombians now represent 30 per cent of all tional’ experience. Minors now make up at least Parents are required to submit valid identification Seventy-two per cent of Colombia’s indigenous Colombia’s IDPs. 15 per cent of paramilitary group members and in forms to support the claim, but many persons of people and 87 per cent of African Colombians over The Inter-American Commission on Human some areas as many as 50 per cent. Haitian descent in the DR lack any documents. 18 years of age have not completed primary educa- Rights has noted that forced displacement has Consequently, in 2008 an estimated 600,000 to 1 tion. At the postgraduate levels, less than 1 per cent become a ‘tool of dispossession’ aimed at acquiring Dominican Republic million Dominican-born persons of Haitian descent (0.71) of enrolled students are indigenous and just land for the benefit of large landowners, narco- The situation affecting the Haitian minority in the remained not just merely undocumented but func- 7.07 per cent are African Colombian. traffickers, and private enterprise initiatives. Dominican Republic (DR) is a notable example of tionally stateless and destined to a life of marginali- Apart from issues related to adequate access, there In 2008, female African Colombian Senator how ethnicity, colour, history and economics inter- zation and uncertainty. were ongoing concerns over education content. In and rights campaigner Piedad Córdoba, who cam- act to disadvantage indigenous and African descend- They face difficulties when travelling within a December 2008 report the Observatory on Racial paigned strongly for Law 40 and was herself once ant populations in the Americas, including with as well as outside of the DR, and cannot obtain Discrimination pointed out that, although the taken hostage, continued to play mediating role, respect to their right to education. national identification cards (cedula) or passports. Colombian government has adopted measures to helping broker the release of hostages and to advo- An estimated 70 per cent of the 9.5 million pop- Persons without a cedula have limited access to implement ethno-education policies and guarantee cate for a commitment by all factions involved to ulation of the DR is of mixed African descent and formal sector jobs, higher education, marriage and the right to cultural diversity in education, so far develop a political settlement. define themselves as ‘Hispanics’ while identifying birth registration, or financial services such as banks this is limited to hiring teachers with ethno-educa- Haitians as ‘blacks’. and loans. They especially have no access to courts tion training. War and education In 2008 local NGOs continued to report on dis- and judicial procedures, cannot own land or prop- There are no institutional measures allowing for The conflict continues to have a devastatingly dis- crimination against people with dark skin, including erty, and cannot vote. the implementation of ethno-education and, in a proportional effect on minorities and is another being denied birth registration in hospitals, enrol- In 2008 the largely undocumented Haitian- country where the myth of egalitarian social rela- factor seriously hampering ADP and IP access to ment in private schools and right of access to some Dominican population continued to live with a 70 tions between ethno-racial groups (social democ- quality education. African Colombian and indige- public places. per cent poverty rate and in perpetual fear of ethni- racy) is deeply rooted, the state is yet to adopt meas- nous peoples have been forced into extreme poverty Despite a November 2007 report by the cally motivated assault, arrest and forced expatria- ures to eradicate racist stereotypes that persist in the and driven into displaced person camps, and are UN Special Rapporteur against racism and the tion. This makes them particularly vulnerable to general education system. There are still no tools to now part of the highest number of internally dis- Independent Expert on Minority Issues, as of early sub-minimum wage exploitation by employers and educate against racism or promote values of accept- placed persons (IDP) in any country in the Western 2009 there was still no official effort to recognize prone to attacks by anti-Haitian mobs. ance, tolerance, diversity and respect for indigenous Hemisphere. The Colombian NGO Consultancy the existence of anti-black racism and discrimina- In a May 2008 document, the Jesuit Service for and African descendant cultures. Consequently for Human Rights and Displacement (CODHES) tion in the DR, or to adopt a national action plan Refugees and Migrants (SJRM) in Santo Domingo long-standing practices of racial discrimination estimated that during the first six months of 2008 to address the problem, especially given its effects on reported that as many as 62.5 per cent of Haitian remain an integral part of the social, economic and alone, 270,675 persons were displaced – a 41 per citizenship rights, including education. construction workers receive no overtime pay, even educational structure. cent increase compared to 2007. The Dominican Constitution recognizes all though 21.4 per cent of them work between 9 and Although collectively constituting under 30 people born in the territory as Dominican citizens, 11 hours per day and 38 per cent work seven days a Endless conflict per cent of Colombia’s total population, African except children born to diplomats or those ‘in week. Despite negotiated ceasefire agreements, violence Colombians and indigenous people together make transit’. This means that hundreds of thousands of In October 2008 a mob in the town of Neiba and territorial dispossession in Colombia continued up 46 per cent of all IDPs. Significantly, indigenous Dominican-born people of Haitian descent, who are killed two Haitians and injured 12 in reprisal for the during 2008. people, who make up just 2 per cent of the national the product of a century-long history of substantial alleged killing of a Dominican national by a Haitian, The long-running internal conflict has killed hun- total, account for 16 per cent of all IDPs. economic migration between the DR and Haiti, and migrant rights defenders remain at risk. dreds of thousands and displaced nearly 3 million The government Social Solidarity Network found legally qualify to be registered as citizens. As a result of their uncertain status, some Haitian people. that housing quality, sanitation access, education In 2008, however, DR government policies con- immigrants continue to live in shantytowns or work

138 Americas State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Americas 139 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 camps known as ‘bateyes’, with limited or no utilities and in 2008 tens of thousands of black children ing on indigenous-focused programmes, including that indigenous children are less likely to be enrolled and inadequate schooling. Despite the conditions, continue to be denied initial enrolment and their rural bilingualism and the creation of a Mayan in school and more likely to be over-age if they do for some undocumented residents bateyes may have right to an education; even more so if their parents university. enrol. come to represent relatively safe retreats. lack legal documentation. However, one huge impediment to indigenous According to the Guatemalan Ministry of These bateye communities have virtually no access and minority access to quality better education is Education (MINED), the highest concentration to primary education. This also eliminates all chanc- Guatemala the country’s low level of social investment. In 2007 (64 per cent) of school-aged children (7–12) who es of secondary and higher education. Available Colonially derived social and economic relationships Guatemala spent just 1.8 per cent of its GDP (US are not enrolled live in the rural mainly indigenous schools are deficient in infrastructure, poorly have remained particularly deeply entrenched in $611 million) on education – well below the Latin regions of Alta Verapaz, Huehuetenango and equipped and staffed by minimally trained voluntary Guatemala. Despite attempts at reconciliation at the American and Caribbean average of 4.7 per cent, as Quiche. instructors. Students are very often under-nourished end of the civil war, in 2008 these historical patterns well as the UNESCO-recommended 6 per cent of Once in school, indigenous children are also more and unable to afford basic clothing. continued to affect access to education for indig- GDP. likely to repeat grades and drop out without attain- A survey conducted by the NGO Health Justice enous and African descendant populations. The This policy helps to preserve the highly unequal ing literacy or completing primary school. In 2005, Collaborative in 28 Haitian settlements in the DR departments in Guatemala with the highest concen- socio-economic structure and weighs most heav- 25 per cent of all enrolled students in Guatemala found that the average illiteracy rate was 35 per cent tration of indigenous and African descendants have ily on indigenous populations. It also guarantees repeated first grade. This increases the chances of and in some cases as high as 64 per cent; the overall the highest poverty indicators and the lowest levels the continuation of their historical socio-economic non-completion. Most drop-outs occur between the national illiteracy rate is 13 per cent. In one Haitian of educational achievement. exclusion, including the denial of their educational fifth and sixth grades. According to a 2008 World settlement near the Dominican-Haitian border, the The almost 12.5 million Guatemalan popula- rights. Bank study, over 45 per cent of children enrolled in survey found that 48 per cent of the adult residents tion is particularly diverse. Indigenous Mayan and Minimal social investment rates, coupled with grade 5 in 2005 did not return the next year. over 15 years of age could not read in Spanish. African descendant peoples together comprise over Guatemala’s largely rural demography and the his- Consequently, only 33 per cent of all students in Over the past five years the process for register- 40 per cent according to the 2001 census, although torical marginalization of ethnically diverse popula- Guatemala aged 13 to 15 were enrolled in lower sec- ing births in the DR has been structured to make it over half the population has some Mayan ancestry. tions, have helped to produce among the lowest ondary school (grades 7 through 9), and indigenous almost impossible for Haitian-Dominicans to obtain The Mayan population is made up of at least 21 literacy and education levels in all of the Americas people as a whole end up with half the number of the identification cards needed for attaining citizen- sub-ethnic groups, each with their own distinct lan- – and these levels are lower among indigenous and years of schooling of non-indigenous people. ship, and/or access to services such as education. guage. African descendants consist of Atlantic Coast African descendant populations. There is also a problem with teacher quality: there More information on this can be found online in Garífuna and African Caribbean Creoles, and rural In urban areas, 91 per cent of non-indigenous is a chronic shortage of teachers and it is difficult to MRG’s World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous ethnically assimilated African mestizos. males are literate versus 75 per cent of the indig- attract new staff. Guatemala’s teachers are trained Peoples. Sixty-five per cent of the Guatemala population enous males; 86 per cent of urban non-indigenous only up to secondary level (grades 10–12); those is rural and three-quarters of the indigenous popu- females are literate, compared to just 55 per cent of who teach indigenous children have even less experi- Documentation and education lation live in the rural departments. Basic service urban indigenous women. ence and education. Besides the issue of nationality, these policies have delivery is poor. However the largest percentage of the indigenous Pay scales are linked to years of service so once an immediate effect on children’s education, with Income distribution in the country is particularly population lives in the rural departments, where 42 teachers reach the highest pay grade they often retire long-term consequences. unequal: 20 per cent control two-thirds of the coun- per cent of indigenous males cannot read or write, to work as independent contractors or in the private The Dominican Constitution guarantees the try’s wealth, with the topmost 10 per cent dominat- compared to 30 per cent for the rest of the rural sector. right to free and compulsory primary and second- ing fully 50 per cent. This leaves 80 per cent of the male population. Among women, 65 per cent of ary education to all those legally within its borders; population to get by on about 35 per cent of the indigenous women in the rural areas lack literacy Language since Dominican children of Haitian descent do not national wealth. According to a 2006 study by the skills, compared to 38 per cent of non-indigenous The failure of the state to take account of the lan- receive proper birth certificates or the identifica- Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala, 86 per women. guage barrier faced by many indigenous students is tion cards needed for school enrolment, this effec- cent of Guatemala’s indigenous population lives Low government expenditure means there are also a major factor. Twenty-seven per cent of indig- tively excludes them from obtaining education and below the poverty line. not enough schools to serve the country’s student enous Guatemalans speak no Spanish, and there are restricts further opportunity. population. In 2006, Guatemala had 14,207 pri- 23 distinct indigenous languages officially recog- Moreover, although previous DR administra- Legal framework mary schools for 2,116,385 primary level students. nized by the state including those used by African tions had allowed undocumented Haitian descend- The Guatemalan Constitution guarantees the right Eighty-five per cent of schools have inadequate descendant populations (Garífuna). Forty per cent ants educational access through to eighth grade, to free compulsory primary education to all without space, classrooms and services such as electricity, of the population speaks one of the 20 Mayan lan- following an IACHR ruling the Secretary of discrimination. The National Education Law also drinking water and sanitation. Classes are over- guages and the majority (75 per cent) of these are Education limited access to just primary schooling recognizes bilingual education as being important crowded, with high student/teacher ratios (31:1). rural dwellers. (fourth grade) and made enrolment the discretion- for strengthening indigenous Mayan communities. Significantly more than half (7,832) of all schools The lack of adequate bilingual schools is another ary responsibility of local and regional education Moreover, in the 1996 Peace Accords that fol- are in departments with substantial indigenous deterrent to enrolment. In 2005, of the 7,832 administrators. lowed the protracted civil war, the government populations. schools in departments with significant indigenous The result is that some Dominican-born children agreed to improve indigenous education through Given the low income levels in rural indigenous Maya populations only 1,869 provided bilingual of Haitian descent have been expelled from school scholarships, literacy projects and increased spend- communities, a lack of financial resources means education.

140 Americas State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Americas 141 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Furthermore the bilingual education that is pro- than 80 per cent of the second crop. The affected Parents find it difficult to take time off from their political, economic and other human rights. vided does not necessarily translate into skills that indigenous populations are likely to experience a subsistence fishing and farming activities and leave In March 2009 the new president unveiled a enable graduates to progress socially and economi- food shortfall, hunger and rising prices in 2009, fur- often-remote villages to register their children. comprehensive education reform plan at the US cally. About half of employed indigenous people ther jeopardizing education activity. According to the University of the Autonomous Hispanic Chamber of Commerce, stressing the need work in agriculture, but the education programme is Regions of Nicaragua’s Caribbean Coast, indigenous to reach those who have been historically excluded. not adapted to the unique needs of the rural farm- Nicaragua people make up 8.6 per cent of the country’s 5.4 The plan includes investing in early childhood ing population. During 2008 efforts increased to end the statistical million people, with Garífuna, Mayangna, Miskito, education; encouraging better standards; recruiting, A 2003 study undertaken by the Guatemalan invisibility of minority populations in Nicaragua and Rama ethnic groups of the Autonomous training and rewarding good teachers; and promot- General Directorate of Bilingual Intercultural as an essential step towards achieving their basic Atlantic coastal region representing 5.3 per cent of ing excellence. Education reported that 58 per cent of bilingual human rights, and especially their right to educa- the national total. US educators in recent years have been increas- education graduates still worked in the poorly paid tion. This involved a programme to document some In addition to enabling greater access to health ingly concerned about the apparent decline of the agriculture sector. With little to gain through stay- 250,000 indigenous children and adolescents who care and education, registration would also help to US education system. The country has fallen from ing in school, indigenous people often choose to did not figure in national demographic data. Among guarantee the political autonomy rights of the indig- second to eleventh place globally in the portion remain close to their traditional values. other rights restrictions, public schools would not enous peoples of the region. of students completing college, and this situation In the year 2000, indigenous children were most accept them without birth documents. The Autonomous Caribbean Coast region is one has disproportionately affected African American, commonly employed in household work or else- The initiative is the fruit of a five-year effort of the poorest and most neglected parts of the coun- Native Americans and Hispanic Latino Americans. where (approximately 23 per cent and 28 per cent, by human rights groups and universities on try. There are almost no paved roads and communi- Inner-city schools, which generally have large respectively). In comparison, only 16 per cent of the Caribbean Coast of Nicaragua who became ties are widely dispersed. For some, it was a five-day minority populations, have drop-out rates of over non-indigenous children work. concerned that around 500,000 youngsters in river journey to a child registration point. 50 per cent. Traditional values are passed on orally; often they indigenous communities in the North Atlantic The programme has already had an impact, help- The 2000 US census found that 27.7 per cent of are at odds with the nationally endorsed Western Autonomous Region (RAAN) and the South ing to expand voter lists in some RAAN municipali- African Americans had less than high school educa- value system. According to a UNESCO, five out of Atlantic Autonomous Region (RAAS) had no birth ties by as much as 33 to 45 per cent, as well as pro- tion, and only 14 per cent had an undergraduate or the eight Mayan communities studied perceived a certificates. viding data that will help prevent people trafficking. higher degree, compared with 19.6 and 24 per cent, conflict between formal education and traditional According to their research, nearly 40 per cent respectively, of the total US population. Moreover, oral teaching. of all children in Nicaragua are unregistered. In the United States in 2007 more than 9 per cent of all black adults With indigenous science and philosophical princi- indigenous areas on the Caribbean Coast, and in Presidential elections were incarcerated or on probation or parole, as ples not being valued in the curriculum and remain- central and northern Nicaragua, researchers found The size, complexity and global influence of the opposed to about 4 per cent of Hispanics and 2 per ing in school being of limited economic value, communities where none of the children and ado- United States make it unique in the Americas. The cent of Euro-Americans. drop-outs and non-completion continue and the lescents had ever been inscribed in the civil register. population profile includes African descendants, In February 2009 the US College Board reported education rates among the indigenous population Many parents also lacked documents, requiring that indigenous peoples and minorities from within the that African-Americans are notably under-repre- will almost certainly remain low in 2009. the entire community become involved in helping country and the rest of the Americas, as well as from sented in the Advance Placement (AP) programme, relatives to remember information. around the world. which offers students college-level courses and Flooding During the past four and a half years, the mission In November 2008, Democratic senator Barack exams while still in high school, thereby enabling During 2008 Guatemala experienced an intense has inscribed 97,000 out of 100,000 children and Hussein Obama, an African American (partly of them to receive college credits acceptable at many rainy season. By December 180,000 people were teenagers in the RAAN, and in 2008 these efforts Kenyan heritage) became the first person from a universities. affected and there were government appeals to expanded to the RAAS, and the nearby province of minority to be elected president. Media estimates While 14 per cent of last year’s 3 million high donors for assistance. Nueva Guinea, where the goal is to register a total of are that about 20 per cent (5.8 million) more ethnic school graduates were African American, African Torrential rains destroyed 67,000 hectares of 150,000 minors. At the end of the first stage in late minorities voted in the November 2008 election Americans represented only 8 per cent of the 460,000 land; underground water sources were contami- August 2008 several municipalities in the RAAS had compared to 2004. Obama received 96 per cent taking AP exams, and just 4 per cent of those who nated; and serious damage was inflicted on infra- already been declared free of unregistered children. of the African American vote, 67 per cent of the passed. Hispanics, at 15 per cent of all graduates, structure. The weather seriously affected the mainly The socially complex process of on-site data col- Latino/Hispanic vote and 63 per cent of the Asian were proportionally represented in the AP exams. indigenous rural departments of Alta Verapaz, El lection, registration and issuing of birth certificates American vote. The ethnic minority voters over- Asian students made up 10 per cent of all those Peten, Izabal and Quiche, causing some 27 munici- was carried out by the Centre for Human, Civil whelmingly favoured the campaign’s focus on social who took AP exams, despite being just 5 per cent of palities in these departments to come under a state and Autonomous Rights (CEDEHCA) as part of and economic issues: access to employment, health the overall US high school graduating population. of emergency. the ‘Right to a Name and Nationality’ programme and quality education. However, a March 2008 report prepared by New The affected area is the principal producer of the supported by Save the Children, Plan International, Obama graduated from Harvard Law School and York University, the US College Board and a com- country’s staples: corn, rice and beans. According to UNICEF, Nicaragua’s Supreme Electoral Council worked as a grassroots community organizer before mission of mostly Asian-American educators and the Ministry of Agriculture, more than 65 per cent (CSE) and regional and municipal authorities. becoming a senator. He provides strong evidence for community leaders, challenged the stereotype of the of the crop was damaged by flooding in May 2008 Low registration rates are linked to the extreme the role access to good-quality education can play high-achieving Asian-Pacific American student. and Tropical Depression No. 16, destroyed more poverty affecting the country’s indigenous people. in promoting change and helping minorities achieve The report stresses that the test scores of Asian

142 Americas State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Americas 143 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Americans tend to match the income and educa- arrest and incarceration, and low-quality education. situation, but only marginally – in part because of a The Gila are the first federally recognized tribal tional level of their parents, and that there are real One in five lives below the poverty line, and one in shortage of qualified Native American teachers. nation within the United States to support the educational disparities within this very diverse popu- three has no health insurance coverage. More than Alaska Natives who were concerned about the dis- UN Declaration of September 2007, and leaders lation group. twice as many young Latino men are in prison as appearance of their languages have begun to organ- indicated that their actions were intended to affirm AP credits are seen as being particularly useful young white men. ize their own schools. However, they receive little their own inherent right to self-determination as for minority families with limited budgets, since According to a study released in February 2009 financial support and serve only a small minority of well as to demonstrate transnational solidarity with they can cut college time by an average of two years by the Pew Research Center, Latino convicts also the students interested in attending such schools. Ak-Chin, Pee-Posh, Salt River, Thono O’otham (approx. $18,000) and also introduce students early now represent the largest ethnic population in the Consequently, parents were left with no choice but and other ethnically related indigenous groups who to college-level disciplines. federal prison system, accounting for 40 per cent of to send their children to English-speaking public live on the Mexican side of the border with the those convicted of federal crimes. Nearly 48 per cent schools designed for Euro-American children. United States. p Historically Black Colleges and were convicted of immigration crimes, with drug Representatives of the Alaska Federation of Universities (HBCUs) offences being the second most prevalent charge. Natives and the Indigenous Youth have indicated The majority of African American college students (76 According to figures from the US Department that many Alaska Native peoples are adversely per cent) now attend standard universities, but some of Justice, the United States has the highest incar- affected by government policies that call for English- choose to attend one of the 103 so-called Historically ceration rate and the biggest prison population of language proficiency. Indigenous languages are Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs), which are a any country in the world in recorded history. The mostly ignored or are taught as foreign languages. legacy of the pre-civil rights era. Pew Center study found that in 2008 state spend- Such policies have helped to sever the ties between HBCUs, which constitute only 3 per cent of ing on prisons had increased 300 per cent over the indigenous youth and their ancestors, and have been America’s 4,084 higher learning institutions, last 20 years. Critics say that the privatization of especially detrimental to people’s confidence. enrol 14 per cent of all African American students the US penal system has contributed to the sharply and play a valuable role in providing a culturally increased rates of incarceration and has encouraged Indigenous law supportive environment. In 2008 the all-female corrupt practices, such as bribes to judges to help In January 2008 the first female Native American Spelman College had 6,000 applicants for the 525 fill the institutions. In February 2009 two judges in US attorney was formally sworn into office. Diane J. places offered. the state of Pennsylvania pleaded guilty to accepting Humetewa of the Hopi nation, who was previously a A majority of students at black colleges come more than $2.6 million from a private youth deten- tribal liaison officer, also sits on the Native American from low- or middle-income families, and nearly tion centre in return for handing out long sentences Issues Subcommittee. This is composed of US attor- 98 per cent require loans and scholarships, which to youths and teenagers. neys who have jurisdiction in Native American ter- became much less accessible between 2007 and Educators have compared the costs of incarcera- ritories, and who are responsible for informing the 2008, in some cases causing nearly 10 per cent of tion to education, arguing that the money would be Attorney General about indigenous issues. the students to drop out before completion. much better spent on early education programmes For the Navajo Nation, a key legal concern is In the government’s reform plan, HBCUs will for at-risk minorities. Children in these programmes the continued unwillingness of businesses and the have access to more than $800 million for infra- are less likely to drop out and much more likely to United States government to acknowledge the valid- structure projects on HBCU campuses, and $500 graduate from high school, attend college and earn ity of Navajo judicial system which that nation’s million for technological and federal grants for stu- more in their jobs. Council has institutionalized in its government dents from low-income families. The average tuition cost for a full-time student at structures since 2002. The system, which takes into a public four-year institution of higher learning in account Navajo values and culture, is the basis of Latinos the US is about $9,000 a year, while incarcerating the group’s common law and has influenced the Latinos are the fastest-growing minority group in one inmate for a year costs $29,000, with no obvi- very structure of Navajo government. the country, having increased more than 60 per cent ous positive multiplier effect. Navajo concerns about proper recognition of since 1990; they now form 4.5 per cent of the total customary law indicate the importance indigenous US population and are the second largest minority Native Americans peoples of the Americas place on ensuring that in the US. Indigenous Native Americans remain the most such specifics are adequately reflected in the final Many Latino immigrants to the US are of mixed educationally disadvantaged of all minorities in draft of the American Declaration on the Rights of (mestizo) or indigenous descent. In 2000, about 59.3 their country: they continue to have the lowest high Indigenous Peoples. per cent of Latinos were Mexican Americans with school and university graduation rates of all groups Meanwhile, in a gesture of support and solidarity the rest being from Central and South America, The in the country. with indigenous people in the rest of the Americas number of Mexican migrants to the United States Most Native American children attend public and worldwide, in 2008 the Gila River Indian over the past 28 years is 26 million. schools. Programmes such as bicultural education Community Council passed a resolution ratifying In 2008, Latinos in the USA continued to suf- and Native-run schools established under the Indian the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous fer high levels of poverty, ill-health, discrimination, Education Act of the early 1970s have improved the Peoples.

144 Americas State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Americas 145 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 A R C T I C OCEAN

RUSSIA

JAPAN KAZAKHSTAN NORTH MONGOLIA KOREA UZBEKISTAN SOUTH TURKMENISTAN KOREA KYRGYZSTAN TAJIKISTAN PA C I F I C Jammu and AFGHANIS Kashmir CHINA TAN OCEAN

PAKISTAN TIBET Taiwan NEPAL BHUTAN BANGLADESH Hong Kong INDIA BURMA LAOS PHILIPPINES THAILAND VIETNAM CAMBODIA Andaman and Nicobar BRUNEI SRI LANKA Islands Bougainville MALAYSIA PAPUA NEW SOLOMON ISLANDS MALDIVES GUINEA SINGAPORE Borneo Sulawesi Wallis and Futuna (FR.) Sumatra INDONESIA TIMOR-LESTE FIJI ISLANDS French Polynesia (FR.) Java New Caledonia (FR.) I N D I A N

OCEAN AUSTRALIA

NEW ZEALAND and Farah Mihlar Farah and SnježanaBokulic´, Emma Eastwood Asia Central Asia Right: An Uzbek boy walks along the train tracks Snježana Bokulić that pass through Karasu, Kyrgyzstan, a town that uthoritarianism continued to characterize was divided between Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan the political domain in most Central Asian when the former Soviet Republics became A states placing serious limitations on minori- independent nations. Carolyn Drake/Panos. ties’ ability to exercise their rights. In 2008 further restrictions have been placed on freedom of religion Institutions and Human Rights and the OSCE in several states. Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan adopted High Commissioner on National Minorities. restrictive laws on religion, while a draft law has The government is reported to have continued to been under consideration in Tajikistan. Complaints discriminate in favour of ethnic Kazakhs in senior of limited political participation of minorities and government employment, although the number scarce representation in the public sphere have been of non-Kazakhs in ministerial positions increased. voiced across the board, although in some countries According to a survey, 23.7 per cent of minorities members of minority communities serve as members reported that they experienced ethnic prejudice of parliament. Moreover, the use of Russian language and hostility; 14.4 per cent experienced insult and in the public sector has seen further restrictions in humiliation, while 11.8 per cent were discriminated practice as governments strive to strengthen the use against in employment or dismissed from jobs. of non-Russian language, giving rise to allegations by The government’s public expressions of sup- minorities of discrimination. port for religious tolerance and diversity were not matched in practice. Although Russian language Kazakhstan enjoys equality with Kazakh in official use, the In November, the Kazakh parliament approved effective switch to the exclusive use of Kazakh has amendments which tightened the already restric- in effect curtailed the right to participation in the tive law on religion. International and local human public sphere of non-Kazakh-speakers. Moreover, rights groups argue that the new legislation is not the number of Russian-language schools is reported compatible with the international conventions to have decreased. Kazakhstan has signed, undermining Kazakhstan’s The Kazakh authorities have been promot- credibility as it readies itself to take over the chair- ing the return of ethnic Kazakhs from a number claim that the law is excessively restrictive and part of the prescribed uniform and warning that manship of the Organization for Security and of countries, including Afghanistan, China, Iran, is designed to target the missionary groups of anyone who broke the rules would be excluded. Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) in 2010. The Mongolia, Pakistan and Turkey. The integration of Protestant Christians and adherents of the more This followed the issuing of a set of instructions by changes mean that, for the first time, faith ‘asso- the returnees is hampered by societal prejudice, the radical forms of Islam. the Kyrgyz education ministry to enforce the school ciations’ – defined as formal groups with over 50 lack of jobs and housing, as well as cultural barriers. Religion remains a contentious issue in this uniform rules. Girls and their families in southern members – are legally bound to register with the Communication is rendered difficult by the fact that predominantly Muslim republic as secular govern- Kyrgyzstan, where a large percentage of the popula- authorities and banned from operating if they fail Russian rather than Kazakh is in widespread use. ment remains fearful of Islamic extremism. The tion are ethnic Uzbeks, are faced with the difficult to do so. Groups which have already registered Even the written Kazakh language is inaccessible to government crackdown on Hizb-ut-Tahrir, a radical choice of removing the headscarves or giving up will need to re-submit their documents. President returnees since it uses the Cyrillic script, while some Islamic movement, escalated in the southern town on school. Local authorities appear to be acting on Nazarbayev publicly criticized foreign missionaries Kazakhs living in other countries still use the old of Nookat on 1 October when a demonstration ministry recommendations and exerting pressure on and minority religious groups in a public speech, Arabic alphabet. In order to provide accommoda- against the town council’s refusal to arrange a cel- schools to change their internal rules. The Kyrgyz saying they pose a ‘threat’ to society. Before sign- tion for the returnees, the government announced ebration of the Muslim holiday of Eid-al-Fitr turned human rights ombudsperson and human rights ing the law, the president can send the law to the a plan to create townships in the vicinity of major violent. The demonstration was dispersed by riot activists have condemned the headscarf ban as a Constitutional Council for review. cities, together with some kind of industry or other squads, followed by a large number of detentions gross violation of human rights. A solution to the problem of minority underrep- economic activity to provide a ready-made source of resulting in the convictions of 32 people for offences Furthermore, in the south, there is increasing resentation in the parliament was attempted by the jobs. Critics say that this will create ghettos, which ranging from incitement to cause mass unrest and conflict over the use of the Uzbek language in the adoption of the Law on the Assembly of the People will make it even harder for Kazakhs to integrate. overthrow the authorities, to instigation of ethnic or media. In the region, the Uzbek language – of of Kazakhstan in October 2008. The law provided Some returnees have gone back to their home coun- religious strife. Turkic origin like Kyrgyz – is widely spoken by a for nine reserved seats for minorities. This positive tries after finding they were worse off than before. Strict limitations on public display of Muslim community estimated at between 600,000 and 1.2 initiative was however compromised by the essen- faith have a particular gender dimension in educa- million. To serve its needs, several independent local tially undemocratic and non-transparent way in Kyrgyzstan tion. Although headscarves are not explicitly banned TV stations broadcast part of the time in Uzbek. which the MPs were elected. The arrangement has The Kyrgyz parliament adopted a new law on reli- and in the past schools tolerated them, in 2008 Kyrgyz authorities accused two of them – Osh been criticized by the OSCE Office for Democratic gion which caused much controversy. Observers many schools began insisting that scarves were not TV and Mezon TV – of breaking the law stipulat-

148 Asia State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Asia 149 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 ing that 50 per cent of broadcasting should be in 5.2 million and concentrated in the Dashoguz minority that a failure to register as an ethnic Uzbek many resulted from militant attacks, but the US-led Kyrgyz. The two companies claim the case against and Lebap regions, along the eastern border with will force them to migrate to Kazakhstan. coalition was responsible for 828 of the deaths. them is politically inspired, amounting to orches- Uzbekistan. Ethnic Uzbeks refused to take part in The increase in cross-border attacks between US trated pressure on the Uzbek minority at election the December parliamentary elections because all South Asia forces and insurgents in Pakistan’s North Western time. One reason the two stations focused on ethnic the candidates were ethnic Turkmen, disappoint- Farah Mihlar Frontier Province (NWFP) has put Afghan tribal Uzbek issues in particular, they say, was that the ing hopes that at least some members of parliament Elections throughout South Asia in 2008 offered Pashtuns in greater danger. Afghan law-makers and national broadcasters generally ignored the minority. would have represented Uzbek interests. Analysts prospects for significant change and greater democ- activists have expressed concern that while military say ethnicity is one of the criteria the authorities ratization benefiting all communities in the region. campaigns in Pashtun areas have increased, nothing Tajikistan have used to vet prospective candidates. The govern- In Bangladesh and Pakistan, elections saw an end to is being done by the Afghan government to counter In Tajikistan, a restrictive draft law on religion that ment of Turkmenistan said 90 per cent of eligible years of military rule. In three South Asian countries the growth of extremism in those areas. Earlier in would allow authorities to exert significant control voters had participated in the elections. elections brought about historic changes: in Nepal 2008 Afghan President Hamid Karzai, himself a over Islam and place Christian beliefs outside the On a visit to the country, the OSCE High and Bhutan concretizing the shift to parliamentary Pashtun, said in a speech that the Pashtuns have suf- legal framework, has been under consideration. It Commissioner on National Minorities, Ambassador democracy, and in Maldives an end to the 30-year fered the most at the hands of the militants. would require religious organizations to re-register Knut Vollebaek met with President Gurbanguly rule of President M. Abdul Gayoom. Ethnic tensions increased between an ethnic or lose legal status. The deliberations on the new Berdymukhammedov to discuss national minority Despite these very significant shifts in South group, the Hazaras, and Kuchi nomads over graz- law took place in the light of the ban on Jehovah’s issues and express support for the country’s efforts Asian countries, the situation for ethnic and reli- ing lands amidst severe droughts through most of Witnesses, who were prohibited from operating in to modernize its education system. gious minorities in the region remained a concern. the year. In March and July 2008 thousands of Tajikistan. A military court in Dushanbe ruled that In Pakistan and Afghanistan the security situation Hazaras took to the streets threatening to take up the group had acted illegally by importing religious Uzbekistan worsened, giving rise to increased human rights and arms against Kuchis if they entered the Bamiyan literature and that this was the latest in a series of While Uzbeks make up more than three-quarters minority rights violations. Major restrictions on and Wardak provinces. Kuchi nomads traditionally offences, warranting an official ban. of the population, there are 115 ethnic minorities, freedom of religion remain in Maldives. In 2008 the move from place to place in search of grazing for Unlike the other Central Asian states, in according to government data. The number of country’s Constitution was changed making Islam their flocks. Tajikistan the hijab ban is official. As a result, many Russians, Ukrainians and Jews continues to fall as the official religion of the state and preventing non- Afghanistan’s Independent Human Rights girls have dropped out of school in the Garm valley many decide to leave; no precise government statis- Muslims from becoming Maldivian citizens. Commission (AIHRC) and the Independent of eastern Tajikistan, where Islam has traditionally tics are available, however. The last official census In Sri Lanka the situation for ethnic Tamils in Directorate of Kuchi Affairs (IDKA) warned that had a strong hold. was conducted by Soviet authorities in 1989. the north of the country was dire at the time of the clashes between the communities – which were In the Spitamen and Ghonchi districts, where Government and laws continued to restrict reli- writing. Problems in Sri Lanka spilled over, affect- worse in 2008 than in previous years – could lead Tajik citizens constitute a minority, more than 1,000 gious activity, especially for unregistered groups. ing India’s 65 million minority Tamil population. to conflict. residents have been told they must decide whether The registration criteria are burdensome and In the early part of 2009 riot police had to be called In April provincial security officials in the north- they want to be Tajik or Uzbek nationals, and that if strict, which allows the government to cite tech- in to quell protesters who were rioting in several ern province of Balkh, about 15 km from the city of they choose the latter, they may have to leave. Ethnic nical grounds for denying registration petitions. towns in India’s southern state of Tamil Nadu over Mazar-i-Sharif, discovered a mass grave containing Uzbeks and Tajiks live on both sides of the border, Consequently, numerous small Protestant churches the conflict in Sri Lanka. Several of India’s main cit- about 100 bodies. According to media reports resi- following an exchange of territory between the two remain unregistered and face the threat of prosecu- ies, including Chennai and Mumbai, also saw strikes dents in the areas believed the dead were from the republics more than half a century ago. tion since any religious service conducted by an and demonstrations by Tamils over this issue. Hazara community, who were massacred when the unregistered religious organization is illegal. The India, together with Bangladesh, was also involved Taliban captured the area in the late 1990s. Turkmenistan number of known cases of arrest, detention, or in a crisis regarding the exodus of Burmese Muslim In spring 2008 the Afghan government banned Both registered and unregistered minority religious conviction based on alleged membership in reli- Rohingya minority. India said it was sending some the film The Kite Runner, based on the novel by an communities experienced difficulty in obtaining gious extremist organizations appeared to decline, 450 Rohingyas back to Bangladesh. Bangladesh also Afghan author, which depicts the rape of an ethnic places of worship. Occasional threats and harass- however. Moreover, the government is continuing announced that, together with UNHCR, it would Hazara boy by an ethnic Pashtun boy. The Minister ment by government agents continued. to restrict the numbers of hajj pilgrims to 5,000, repatriate more than 20,000 Rohingyas to Burma. of Cultural Affairs said it showed ethnic groups in Several minority groups tried to register as NGOs though the number of people who could potentially This has been strongly criticized because of the Afghanistan ‘in a bad light’. to have legal status to conduct cultural events, how- go is about fivefold. serious human rights violations Rohingyas face in Afghanistan’s stringent blasphemy laws remained ever no minority groups succeeded in registering. While the society remained generally tolerant of Burma, mainly due to their ethnic origin. a severe threat to minorities. On 11 September, a Non-Turkmen speakers complained that some traditional religions such as Islam, Judaism, Roman Kabul court sentenced two prominent journalists, avenues for promotion and job advancement were Catholicism and Russian Orthodox, minority Afghanistan Ahmed Ghous Zalmai and Mullah Qari Mushtaq, closed to them and only a handful of non-Turkmen religious groups, especially churches with ethnic The general security situation in Afghanistan dete- to 20 years in prison for publishing a Dari transla- occupied high-level jobs in government ministries. Uzbek converts, encountered difficulties and social riorated significantly in 2008 resulting in a larger tion of the Qur’an that allegedly contained errors. The Uzbeks are the country’s second largest prejudice. Ethnic Russians and other minorities fre- number of civilian deaths. According to a UN Significant progress has been recorded in ethnic group after the Turkmen, numbering some quently complained about limited job opportunities. report the civilian death toll rose 40 per cent com- Afghanistan since the 2002 defeat of the Taliban, in 300,000 to 400,000 out of a total population of There has been growing concern among the Kazakh pared to the previous year, from 1,523 to 2,118; getting children enrolled into schools. Despite this,

150 Asia State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Asia 151 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Left: Girls study together during class at Bam few years a total of 1,983 ethnic minority families in Sarai school in the village of Bam Sarai in the 10 north-western districts lost control of 1,748.36 central Bamyan Province, Afghanistan. Some 650 acres of land. The Forest Department grabbed girls and boys, many of the ethnic Hazara minority, the largest area of 1,185.76 acres. Meanwhile, attend classes together in two shifts. Shehzad Bangladesh’s much anticipated Land Commission for Noorani/UNICEF. ethnic minorities failed to get off the ground in 2008. Bangladesh, together with India, is on track to munity, while 36 per cent said they were consider- reach the target of over 97 per cent enrolment rates ing leaving the country. (NRE) in primary education by 2015, according to Through the year there have been several reports UNESCO. However, about 50 per cent of primary of threats, attacks and forced conversion against reli- and 80 per cent of secondary level students drop out gious minorities, including incidents of rape. Media of school in Bangladesh, according to a report by and human rights organizations have reported at the Campaign for Popular Education (CAMPE), a least 10 incidents of rape against religious minority Bangladeshi NGO. ‘We are not at present on track women and girls. to achieve the Millennium Development Goal for Incidents of forced evictions and land grab- 2015’, the report warned. bing by the state and individuals remain a major On 25 September 2008 Bangladesh Adivasi problem in ethnic minority and indigenous areas. Odhikar Anlodon (BAOA), a support group of civic Ethnic minority and indigenous areas remain heav- forums for indigenous peoples, called on political ily militarized resulting in incidents of human rights parties to include indigenous people’s concerns in violations. On 20 April 2008, 132 houses belonging their manifestos for the 18 December parliamen- to Bengali settlers and hill people were set ablaze tary polls. One demand was to provide education in an arson incident; 53 of the houses belonged to for indigenous people in their respective mother hill people. According to Odhikar statistics, in 2008 tongues. Indigenous children in Bangladesh have a half of school-age children remain out of school rule by the army-backed caretaker government. Just there were a total of 75 incidents against ethnic far higher drop-out rate at primary level, which is according to UNESCO, including large numbers of two months after being sworn in as Bangladesh’s minorities including 8 killings and 57 injuries. attributed by indigenous activists to the failure of girls and nomadic children. new Prime Minister, Sheikh Hasina had to deal Ain o Salish Kendro (ASK), a human rights the Bangladeshi education system to provide mother The current high level of violence poses a major with a mutiny of border guards that left 74 people resource centre, reported that the arson attack tongue education that takes greater consideration of security risk to children and the continuation of dead and hundreds missing. occurred despite nearby army camps, and that indigenous culture. their education, particularly in the tribal areas bor- While international attention focused on politi- Forest Department officials were complicit in evic- At the UN Forum, submissions made by minority dering Pakistan. Attacks against children, including cal change in the country, attacks on minority and tions resulting in displacement of ethnic minority activists from Bangladesh also warned that children acid attacks against girls who were attending school, indigenous communities, and violations of their groups in the plains as well. from religious minorities were increasingly affected were reported through 2008. According to the human rights, were neglected. In January 2008 the Bangladeshi govern- by growing Islamization of the education system. Afghan Ministry of Education, in 45 districts of 12 Buddhist, Christian and Hindu minorities in ment banned indigenous Jumma people from the There have been cases where questions on Islam provinces about 610–20 schools have been closed the Muslim-majority Bangladesh faced violations. Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) from holding a have been included in key state-level exams, putting due to violence, mostly in the four southern prov- Odhikar, a Bangladeshi human rights organiza- large gathering at a Buddhist religious temple. The non-Muslim children at a disadvantage. inces of Helmand, Kandahar, Zabul and Urozgan. tion, reported a total of 131 incidents against Asian Centre for Human Rights (ACHR) called The Afghanistan Independent Human Rights religious minorities, including one killing, 90 inju- the incident a ‘microcosm of an ongoing and long- India Commission continued to record complaints of reli- ries and one assault during 2008. According to a established State policy to establish a homogenous ‘We firmly believe that our country can progress gious minority students from the Sikh and Hindu Bangladeshi-Hindu blogging site in December 2008 Bengali Muslim society’. In April UN experts wrote when all minority groups in the country feel safe faiths who were prevented from enrolling in some and January 2009 there were three violent attacks to the Bangladeshi government querying the illegal and secure and the benefits of progress and devel- schools. There have also been cases where Sikh and by Muslim groups against a Hindu political activist, seizure of the traditional lands of Jumma indig- opment reach them’ (Prime Minister Manmohan Hindu children have been forced to drop out of a union member and a journalist. In Keraniganj- enous communities in Barbadan, Khagrachari and Singh, 25 November 2008). school as a result of harassment. Dhaka, also in December, armed gangs attacked Merung districts, in the CHT. Since March 2007, This comment by India’s Prime Minister came people, and looted and demolished a 200-year-old an estimated 4,500 acres of land have been taken after months of violent attacks against Christians Bangladesh Hindu temple. Odhikar reported 24 incidents of away from Jumma individuals and communities in in Orissa in a year when the country’s Christians, The landslide election victory of former Prime attacks on non-Muslim religious properties during at least 16 villages. Muslims and other religious minorities faced Minister Sheikh Hasina in December 2008 raised the year. A survey in December reported that 38 A survey released in May 2008 by the Jatiya numerous instances of abuse and attacks, which prospects of a stronger democracy and respect for per cent of some 1,500 Hindus polled said they felt Adibashi Parishad and Jahangirnagar University’s have been linked to a worrying rise in Hindu the rule of law, following two years of emergency insecure because of being part of the Hindu com- Department of Anthropology found that in the last nationalism. The response of state governments and

152 Asia State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Asia 153 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 communities. The para-centres are built like locally as a main source of income for 6–8 months them social with other people! That’s why I’m still Pre-primary constructed houses and located in the centre of of the year. The rest of the year May’s parents working as a para-worker [teacher] and I love to the para. Each centre is run by a trained worker work as day labourers. Currently, May’s parents work like that! education – usually a local woman selected by the com- are planning a temporary shift to a different hill ‘May was so active, confident and brave during munity, to promote and deliver a wide range of for a new jhum cultivation job. The family will her para-centre class time … I can still remember services and act as a teacher at the local pre-school. return home to Talukdar to stay with May’s the day when I took her with her parents to enrol makes a Para-workers receive initial basic training on early grandmother in September, in time for the next in primary school. I feel so proud when I see that learning, health and nutrition, and water sanitation jhum cultivation (rice, cotton and other crops). May is doing very well in her primary school difference in before starting work. They also receive three- to May enrolled in the para-centre in Talukdar exams.’ seven-day refresher training as required. in 2004, when she was 3 years old. Her parents the Chittagong Para-centres enable CHT children aged 4–6 were initially hesitant to send her to the pre- The community member: Mr Mong Kya years to receive age-appropriate and free pre- school because she was too small for the journey Karbari, para-centre management committee Hill Tracts, primary education. Teaching/learning materials, on the hill slopes. However, with support from chairperson and village elder said: ‘In the past, including games and play, are developed taking the para-worker Minuching, they changed their para people didn’t understand the advantages of Bangladesh consideration of the local indigenous culture, minds. May has already completed three years pre-school, but now we have a para-centre they heritage and socio-economic situation. Classes of pre-primary education at the para-centre. In do. Parents often offer their support to the para- are conducted in local languages, with a gradual 2007, May completed a primary school com- worker and take care of the centre.’ By Early Learning project team, shift to introduce Bangla, the language used in petency assessment, administered by a primary UNICEF Bangladesh formal government primary schools. The World school teacher in her para. May’s literacy, cogni- The primary school teacher: Muimra Prue Food Program distributes fortified biscuits at the tive and social developmental skills were seen to Marma, the teacher of the primary school where para-centres during the classes. be above her age group and, at the teacher’s sug- May Knew Ching is now studying, praised May The Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) are one of Parents are included in para-centre education gestion, May was enrolled directly into grade 2. and the para-centre. ‘May Knew Ching is very the most disadvantaged and isolated areas in and by the time their child has completed the Now, May is enrolled in grade 4 and continues gentle, polite and has a good memory. Because Bangladesh. The CHT consists of three districts second and final year of pre-school it is hoped to enjoy school, maintaining high marks and of her competencies gained before coming to located in the south-eastern part of the country they too have developed an understanding of attending school regularly. primary school, we enrolled May in grade 2. In – Khagrachari, Bandarban and Rangamati. The the importance of education. Parents and com- 2008 May received the second highest mark on total area of the CHT is 13,390 sq km, most munity members are also invited to be involved The pre-primary teacher: Minuching was well her final examination. She is always cheerful and of which is highland (only 3 per cent is plains). in para-centre management committees that link known in the community and had experience regularly attends school.’ p According to the 2001 official census data, the with primary schools in the area. Para-centre working with young children before she became estimated population of the CHT is 1.33 million management committees ensure that all children the Talukdar para-centre worker. After being peoples of whom over 90 per cent live in small, graduating from para-centres enrol in and attend nominated for the role by her community, rural villages, called paras. The population is 44 primary school. As of 2008, approximately Minuching received comprehensive basic train- per cent of indigenous origin and 56 per cent 61,866 students in the CHT had completed pre- ing on the school readiness programme, health of Bengali origin. The indigenous people of the school at one of 2,220 para-centres and 94 per and nutrition, and water and sanitation. She is CHT belong to 11 ethnic groups whose appear- cent of them enrolled in primary schools. now equipped with the skills to teach pre-school ance, language and cultural traditions are remark- children (two hours a day, six days a week). ably different from those of the Bengali-speaking Case study Minuching also disseminates early childhood people living in the plains of Bangladesh. The student: May Knew Ching is 8 years old. development messages to parents and other UNICEF supports an Integrated Community She lives with her parents in a small village caregivers through regular household visits and Development Project (ICDP) in the CHT which called Talukdar, 7 km from the Bandarban courtyard meetings. She sits on the para-centre has two main components: early learning opportu- district in the CHT. The family belongs to the management committee that links with the near- nities for children; and health, hygiene and nutri- Marma ethnic group. She is the youngest of four by primary school, ensuring that her students tion education and promotion for mothers and sisters. Thirty-four families live in the Talukdar enrol into grade 1. Minuching said: children. These activities take place in para-centres, para, most of them of Marma descent. There is each of which covers 25 to 60 families. Between one pre-school (para-centre) and one NGO pri- ‘Before I didn’t think I could be a teacher – but the 1997 and 2009, 2,520 para-centres were con- mary school in Talukdar. May’s family depend villagers and the ICDP appointed me. Now, these Children at play in a para-centre school, structed in 1,854 paras in the three CHT districts; on jhum cultivation (a slash-and-burn agricultur- are my children and I feel very happy to see that Rangamati, Chittagong Hill Tracts. Din 70 per cent of these para-centres target indigenous al technique, shifting cultivation on hill slopes) my children are healthy and smart enough to make Mohammad Sibly/UNICEF.

154 Asia State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Asia 155 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Left: Dalit children learn alongside other children at the community at a school in Rajasthan, India, homes, the All Ceylon Christian Council said. 100 hijras, or working-class transgender people, February 2008. Abbie Trayler-Smith/Panos. Christian leaders also expressed concerns over the from their homes in what human rights groups slow investigation conducted by a one-man state- warned appeared to be a trend of ‘social cleansing’ Through 2008 Muslims also found themselves appointed commission. in the city. The incident followed newspaper report vulnerable to being branded as terrorists. The A large number of the victims were Dalits tar- that Bangalore police had captured a ‘gang’ of hijras counter-terrorism tactics of the Indian police have geted by Hindu mobs because they converted to who, it was alleged, were kidnapping children and been seriously questionable, while security forces are Christianity, partly to avoid caste-based discrimina- using them for sex. rarely held accountable for human rights violations tion. Violence in tribal areas persisted through most committed during counter-terrorism operations. Following months of violence, in November, of 2008. In May, at least 41 people died in clashes In November 2008 charges were dropped against a Prime Minister Manmohan Singh said his govern- between police and nomadic people in the western group of police officers accused of torturing of 21 ment would not tolerate attacks on religious and Indian state of Rajasthan. The violence began when Muslims arrested on suspicion of being involved in other minorities and would do everything possible police opened fire on demonstrators from the Gujjar bomb attacks in Hyderabad in 2007. Human rights to bring the perpetrators to justice. people, who were demanding to be included in groups expressed outrage at the decision not to pros- Reporting to the UN Human Rights Council in affirmative action quotas. ecute as a report by the Andhra Pradesh Minorities’ March 2009 on her visit to India the previous year In October at least 64 people were killed and 300 Commission concluded that the police officers had the UN Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion injured in a series of bomb explosions in India’s used several forms of torture on the suspects. or belief, Asma Jahangir said: ‘organized groups north-eastern state of Assam. The separatist United Opposition groups and sections of civil society claiming roots in religious ideologies have unleashed Liberation Front of Assam denied any role in the also criticized the police for gunning down Atif an all-pervasive fear of mob violence in many parts blasts. Ameen, a 24-year-old Muslim college graduate of the country’. She said the reluctance of law Indian military dominance means that people live accused of being behind a terror attack in Delhi enforcement machinery to take action on religious in fear of targeted attacks against them by the mili- in September that killed 22 people. Later Sadiq violence had created a situation of institutional tary, including incidents of rape. In a 2008 report Sheikh was accused of having played the same impunity. While she praised India’s secularism, Human Rights Watch said that the Indian govern- role. In August the Supreme Court ruled that an human rights activism and strong legal protection ment should fully prosecute army, paramilitary and Indian government ban on an Islamic student group for religious minorities at national level, she cau- police personnel responsible for killings and torture accused of terrorism will remain in force, despite an tioned that, because of the country’s federal system, in the north-eastern state of Manipur. Torture of earlier judgment which had said there was no evi- the implementation of laws differed from state to detainees, particularly suspected militants and their dence to show the Students’ Islamic Movement of state. supporters, remains common, the report said. India (SIMI) was unlawful. In April India’s Jain community asked to be law enforcement officials was limited and slow. India’s popular investigative magazine Tehelka granted minority status on a par with the Buddhists, Education Protests amongst Muslims in the Kashmir val- found that an overwhelming majority of terrorism Christians, Muslims, Parsis and Sikhs, under the Together with Bangladesh, India is the only other ley and Hindus in Jammu over government plans cases were based on ‘non-existent or fraudulent Delhi Minorities Commission Act, 1999. This South Asian country on track to achieve the primary to donate land to build a Hindu shrine resulted in evidence’, and that hundreds of people, mainly would enable them to incorporate Jainism as a sub- education enrolment target of 97 per cent by 2015, violence and killings in the conflict-ridden state. Muslim and poor, were persecuted and falsely ject in Jain schools. UNESCO said. India’s net enrolment rate at pri- Muslims in Kashmir protested through the summer accused of terrorism. According to media reports, mary level is now 94 per cent, while the secondary months of 2008; by June four people had died and Bar Associations in different parts of the country, Discrimination and conflict education enrolment rate has increased from 39 per hundreds had been injured in the protests. Faizabad, Lucknow and Dhar among them, have Incidents of discrimination and attacks against cent in 1999 to 43 per cent in 2006. In August, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh asked their members not to defend Muslim terror India’s more than 166 million caste-based minori- After cabinet approval in October the Indian called all-party talks to discuss protests in the suspects. ties continued through 2008. government introduced to the upper house of Muslim-dominated Kashmir valley and the Hindu- Because they are marginalized and sidelined in parliament the Right of Children to Free and majority Jammu region. By August the death toll Religious violence society, Dalits are often the last to access aid dur- Compulsory Education Bill in November. The bill had risen to over 25 and international human rights India’s Christian population, particularly in the city ing climate-related disasters. When severe flooding is aimed at ensuring free education for all children groups expressed concern over the state’s military of Orissa, witnessed some of the worst violence in in India’s Bihar state left hundreds of thousands aged between 6 and 14, and it could benefit poor response to the protest. recent years in attacks sparked by the killing of a of people homeless in 2008, Dalits were severely minority communities as it requires all schools in In a separate incident in June, clashes between Hindu leader. Hindu mobs burnt down Christian discriminated against in access to aid. According the country to keep 25 per cent of entrance places supporters of the Hindu nationalist Rashtriya monasteries, churches and orphanages even though to Dalit human rights organizations, the number for children to enter free. Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and local Muslim villag- police blamed Maoist rebels for the killing. By of Dalit deaths in relief camps was far higher than Indian President Pratibha Patil, addressing the ers over the RSS setting up a camp on Sagar Island September 300 villages were burnt, 4,014 houses among other groups. last session of the parliament in February, high- in West Bengal resulted in the injury of 40 people. destroyed and 50,000 Christians forced out of their In Bangalore, in November, police forced about lighted the achievements of her UPA government:

156 Asia State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Asia 157 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 families are more concerned with feeding their under the new 15-point programme for the welfare right to self-determination, regional autonomy and ‘We are children than sending them to school. And of minorities almost 800,000 minority students proportional representation. Ethnic Madhesis make putting the camp address on registration forms would be provided with scholarships in 2008, up about one-third of Nepal’s population. The strikes very much can mean children are denied access. increasing to nearly 4 million over the next four affected health, education and transport services years. She said that more than 10,000 new primary across the country. The strike action turned violent ‘It was a struggle to send me to private school. Of and upper primary schools have been constructed in by the end of February, killing at least one person Bangladeshi, the people in my year, only 15–20 from Geneva areas of minority concentration during her govern- and injuring more than 20. Amnesty International camp were able to attend. I still remember first day ment’s rule. Also, a bill to give statutory backing to expressed concern that the Nepali police were using but we [had] no of school. We didn’t know morning PT (physical the National Monitoring Committee of Minority excessive force against the demonstrators. The strikes training), we didn’t know the national anthem. It’s Education will be introduced in the coming session ended in March after the government and the Federal right to vote or in Bangla. We were shocked and listening. Day by of parliament. Republican National Front (FRNF), an alliance of day (for) three to five months we heard and tried to The head of India’s National Commission for seven groups, reached a deal that promised a federal get passports’ learn. We were treated as if we were war criminals, Minorities, Mohammad Shafi Qureshi, in a media system with autonomy to Libmuwan, Khambuwan, we had problems every day. We complained to the interview said that little has changed for minorities Tamangsaling, Tharuhat and Madhesi communities. head master, and he said the students didn’t know because of gap between government pledges and Other groups, such as Madhesi Janaadhikar Forum Khalid Hussain tells Preti Taneja about about history and we were not different from them.’ implementation. ‘Funds are not a problem. The and Loktantrik Madhesi Morcha boycotted the agree- education rights for a linguistic minority programmes are in place, but their implementation ment. They realized things had to change when filling is in a shambles,’ he said. The Indian government The ethnic Madhesis, indigenous Janjathis and in forms for exams: earmarked over Rs.14 billion for 2007–08 for the Dalits were among the minority groups whose sup- Khalid, 28, was born and grew up in Geneva Ministry of Minority Affairs, nearly triple the Rs.5 port helped the Maoists win 220 of the 601 seats camp in Bangladesh – the largest settlement of its ‘The teacher said if you write [the] camp address billion allocated in 2006–07. in the Constitutional Assembly. Out of the 62 seats kind, established by the International Committee you will be rejected. So we put our teacher’s won by indigenous representatives, 40 belonged of the Red Cross (ICRC) in 1972. Such camps address; a false address and information. After Nepal to the Maoist party. But ethnic and indigenous now house over 300,000 Bihari people. Their this we started to question: what are we? Then we The year 2008 was a historic one for the Nepalese divides continued. The new Nepali Maoist gov- status is undefined: they are not classified as refu- started to fight for our rights.’ people, who went to the polls to elect 601 members ernment’s strong allegiance to China saw violent gees by the UNHCR, but are also not accepted to a Constituent Assembly tasked with writing a new crack-downs against Tibetan refugees living in as being Bangladeshi. There are 25,000 people They appealed to the Electoral Commission constitution acceptable to all of the country’s diverse Nepal, in April and August of 2008, in some cases in Geneva camp and the population is growing. in 2001 and to the High Court in 2003. Now communities. Decades of conflict between Maoist leading to arbitrary arrest and detention. In April Many live in 10 ft by 8 ft houses. camp residents have ID cards and voting rights, rebels against the Nepali monarchy and government the Nepali Home Ministry threatened to use force According to Khalid, ‘Bihari’ is a common but still have problems obtaining passports. Jobs ended in 2006 in the ‘people’s revolution’, which saw to stop Tibetans protesting against China while name for a group of people who speak Urdu: and education are still an issue. the ousting of the country’s monarch. Nepal’s former the Olympic Torch passed through the country. Khalid works with NGO Al-Falah Bangladesh Maoist rebels emerged victorious in the 25 April Amnesty International said that in previous silent ‘Our ethnicity and religion is very similar to raising funds from the Urdu-speaking business polls. The Constituent Assembly has a substantial protests by Tibetans on the same issue some 400 Bangladeshi, but we have a distinct language and community for basic education; 15 foundation representation of minority and indigenous communi- people had been arbitrarily detained. By August culture, and now we want to be known as an schools have been set up in Bihari camps. Khalid ties, but progress in drawing up a constitution that 1,000 Tibetan protesters had been detained, and in Urdu-speaking linguistic minority.’ calls this ‘self-help education’. The teachers are meets the expectations of all the different groups is a September the pro-China government announced from the local community and do not have huge challenge. The delays have also caused frustra- that they would push Tibetan exiles to leave the Khalid is President of the Association of Young formal training. The aim is to make students tion among the different ethnic and religious groups. country and return to India. Over 100 Tibetans Generation of Urdu Speaking Community, cam- capable of applying for public school scholar- Through 2008 and in early 2009 there were several were detained by police checking the validity of paigning for the right of his community to be rec- ships at the high-school level. It is a slow path to incidents of protest by ethnic and religious groups in their refugee status. Nepal has some 20,000 exiled ognized as a linguistic minority, and gain access progress but one with long-term implications. Nepal. In most cases the government reached agree- Tibetans. to other rights they are denied. ment with some sections of the communities, which Religious minorities continued to face targeted ‘If one family has two children who develop skills were hailed by the media and government as a success attacks. In March 2008 bombs were thrown into ‘We also have a citizenship problem, where birth certifi- and get work they can help siblings ... With educa- and saw the end to protests and disruption. However, a mosque where some 60 people were praying in cates, public sector jobs and education are concerned.’ tion you can rehabilitate yourself. You don’t need in many cases, sections of these communities refused Biratnagar in eastern Nepal. A one-day general someone to rehabilitate you.’ p to sign up to the agreement, leaving scope for con- strike was called by Muslims in the area demanding Though informal schools exist in the camps, tinuing uprisings that could seriously jeopardize peace compensation. getting access to public school is difficult. Most Additional reporting by Madeeha Ansari. prospects in the country. In July 2008, just prior to becoming prime minis- In February 2008, for instance, Madhesi plains- ter, the chair of the Maoist party Prachanda, prom- people in the Terai region started to strike over the ised to form a ‘Muslim commission’ for the welfare

158 Asia State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Asia 159 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 of the minority community. primary school attendance, but other issues remain tribal areas, are under increasing threat. the tribal areas. According to the Minority Council Also in July, Father Johnson Prakash Moyalan, unaddressed for minority children. The lack of The situation in Pakistan’s ethnic Baluchi popu- of Pakistan (MCP), in January 2008 five Christians a Catholic priest, was gunned down in Sirsia town, mother tongue language education, cultural barriers, lated province of Balochistan remains of concern. were kidnapped in South Waziristan and on 21 about 15 km from the India-Nepal border. A little- having to travel long distances to school, and the It is Pakistan’s biggest province yet one of the June 16 Christians were kidnapped by Islamic mili- known group, the Nepal Defence Army, which opportunity cost of educating children all affect the poorest, most deprived and heavily militarized. The tants. In April two Sikhs who were kidnapped by wants to restore Hinduism as the state religion in education of minority and indigenous children in new government publicly apologized to the people militants in Dowarba, Hangu district, were freed. Nepal, claimed responsibility for the killing. The Nepal and require government attention. of Balochistan for the large-scale military and air In another incident in July 2008, the MCP previously Hindu kingdom was declared a secular force operation launched against militants that reported that a United Presbyterian Church in state in 2007. Pakistan has killed several thousand and displaced 200,000 Karachi, Pakistan’s biggest city, was attacked by a Pakistan began 2008 with a new government in people since 2001. According to the Asian Human Muslim mob. Through the year there were several Education place. The Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP), led by Asif Rights Commission (AHRC) some 4,000 people other reports of attacks on churches, including in Smaller political parties in the Constitutional Ali Zardari, widower of the former Prime Minister have disappeared during this period. Despite the Gajrakh, Punjab province, in March, and Sabz-Kot, Assembly in January 2009 interrupted proceedings Benazir Bhutto, and the Pakistan Muslim League government statements halting military operations, Pasrur, also in Punjab, in February. and demanded that the government withdraw an formed a coalition government in February 2008 incidents and attacks by the military continue to be Rape and gender-based violence against religious education scholarship bill because it did not fix a after months of turmoil in the run-up to the elec- recorded. The increased presence of Taliban mili- minorities continue to be reported in Pakistan. In quota for scholarships for Dalit children. Dalits are tions. tants has resulted in violence and tension over issues April 2008 the MCP reported that police officers in one of the most marginalized minority groups in One of the new government’s first tasks was to of security, human rights and division of resources. town in Lahore had raped and tortured a Christian Nepal. The literacy rate for Dalit men is 10 per cent ratify the International Covenant on Economic, Ethnic Balochis have been caught between the mili- girl in a police station. Police subsequently attacked and for women is 3.2 per cent. According to the Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), and sign tants and Pakistani forces. and arrested nine Christians who protested outside Feminist Dalit Organization, only 3.8 per cent of both the International Covenant on Civil and Sectarian attacks and violence were reported the police station over the incident. Dalits complete the School Leaving Certificate, the Political Rights (ICCPR) and the UN Convention from several parts of Pakistan throughout 2008. In Religious minorities have also been charged basic secondary school qualification. against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or February 2009 a suicide bomb hit the funeral of under Pakistan’s discriminatory blasphemy laws. Religious minorities and indigenous Nepali Degrading Treatment or Punishment (UNCAT). a Shi’ite Muslim leader in a north-western town, In October 2008, in Faisalabad, a Christian man, children continue to be severely disadvantaged in Twelve religious minority members – four killing at least 28 people and wounding several oth- Gulsher Masih, and his daughter, Sandal, were education. According to a study done jointly by Christians and eight Hindus were elected to the ers. Shias make up 20 per cent of Sunni-dominated charged with blasphemy under the Pakistan Penal the World Bank and Department for International National Assembly. Shahbaz Bhatti, the head of Pakistan. Code for allegedly tearing some pages from the Development, participation of Muslim boys and the All Pakistan Minorities Alliance (APMA) and a In July 2008 doctors in Pakistan’s north-western Holy Qur’an, Asia News reported. In Hyderabad girls in school remains low. The percentage of Christian parliamentarian became Federal Minister tribal region of Kurram appealed for urgent medical in Sindh province in July 2008 a Hindu child was Muslim girls going to school between the ages of 11 for Minorities Affairs. He later announced that aid to avert a humanitarian crisis. Shia Muslim areas accused of blasphemy and stripped and beaten by a and 15 has remained at 23 per cent from 1995 to government funds for minorities had been doubled in Kurram have been cut off from the rest of the group of people. Minority groups in Pakistan report 2004. The literacy rates amongst the Chepang and and that a quota guaranteeing government jobs for country since November 2007 following violence at least two incidents a month involving arrests, Bote indigenous groups are as low as 14 and 20 per minorities was to be introduced. In May 2008 the between Shias and Sunnis. In just two weeks in attacks or killings of religious minorities over accu- cent. A major reason for this is the lack of mother PPP endorsed a draft constitutional package (PCP) August 2008, some 200 people were killed in sectar- sations of blasphemy. tongue education. which proposes the election of one religious minor- ian violence in Kurram. Pakistan’s Daily Times, in an editorial on 10 April Early in 2008 the UN and the Nepali Human ity member (Christian, Hindu or other religious Concerns have been raised regarding a recent con- 2008 commenting on an incident where a Hindu Rights Commission expressed concern that children minority) from each province to the Senate, giving troversial peace agreement between the government factory worker was beaten to death by his Muslim participating in protests organized by Madhesis minorities a presence there. The draft also proposed of the NWFP and the Taliban militia group Tahrik- co-workers, who accused him of blasphemy, said: across the country were subject to violence and their an increase in the number of reserved seats to the e-Nifaz Shariat that enables the militia group to education was disrupted. National Assembly. However non-Muslims would implement Sharia laws and gives them power to ‘The truth is that an innocent man has been killed The Nepali government has offered to help fund be banned from becoming prime minister. act as morality police, putting several ethnic and because of the legal “facility” [i.e. the Blasphemy Law] religious schools to develop in exchange for tak- The country was plagued by violence during religious minorities in a vulnerable situation. These available to the killers to hide their real motive. It breaks ing on board the national curriculum. This could 2008, with increasing militant bombings and provinces have seen alarming increase in violence one’s heart to admit that all non-Muslims at the lower benefit Muslim and Buddhist minority schools. attacks leaving scores dead and injured. Militancy since they came under Taliban control, increas- rungs of society are vulnerable to this savagery … And According to official data, some 82,624 Muslim in Pakistan has considerably strengthened in the ing the risk to ethnic and religious minorities who if someone comes to the defense of these wronged people, students are registered in 832 madrassas, and 6,512 last few years as a consequence of the ‘war on ter- inhabit the areas. Several Christians have religious fanatics come out and scare the state away.’ Buddhist children are educated in 236 monasteries. ror’, the influx of militants from across the border reportedly fled. Progress has been slow on two of Nepal’s key with Afghanistan and some policies of the previous The situation for Pakistan’s religious minorities, Ahmadiyyas in Pakistan continue to be terrorized educational policies: Education for All (EFA) and military regime. The new civilian government has especially Christians, remained poor through 2008. for their religious beliefs. Earlier in 2008, Basharat the Education Sector Development Program I. Both shown little sign of being able to improve the situa- Religious minorities were increasingly targeted by Mughal, president of the Ahmadiyya Muslim these progressive policies are expected to increase tion and minorities, particularly those living in the militants in NWFP, including the Swat valley and Community Halqa Manzoor Colony in Karachi,

160 Asia State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Asia 161 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 was murdered. The AHRC said that he was shot on 2008, civilian casualties began to rise. The military female teachers. Pakistani forces also occupied his way to the mosque, becoming the 88th person was responsible for some attacks on civilian targets, Double 17 schools depriving a further 7,039 students from the sect to be killed in Pakistan since 1984. including schools and camps for the displaced. of their right to education. In September the AHRC noted that no action Civilians trapped in the fighting were attacked and discrimination In 2008, following a meeting between had been taken against the presenter Amir Liaquat killed by the Tigers and forced to leave their homes. Pakistan’s own version of the Taliban – the Hussain, who suggested that it was the duty of The Tigers also began to forcibly recruit and to use banned Tehreek-e-Taliban – and the Swat mili- devout Muslims to murder Ahmadi sect members civilians as human shields. – Pashtun tants, a compromise was reached to allow girls on a religious affairs programme on the Dubai- In January 2009 aid agencies and human rights to be educated up to the fourth grade. Maulana based Pakistani channel, Geo TV. According to organizations began to raise the alarm over the girls banned Fazlullah renewed the threat of bombing any the AHRC, two Ahmadi community leaders were severe threat to human life as a result of the dis- schools that continued higher education for lynched and murdered after the first broadcast. A placement of civilians. At the time of writing, more from attending girls. Militants consider schools considered to be total of four Ahmadis were killed in the first nine than 200,000 people had been forced by the Tigers government institutions: attacking them consti- months of 2008, the group said. Ahmadis con- to stay in the tiny strip of land under their control. school tutes an attack against the state. However, there sider themselves Muslims but do not think that In some instances, the Tigers even shot at civilians is also a clear prejudice against girls’ education. Muhammad was the last of the prophets. attempting to escape. The military and air force Maulana Fazlullah has reportedly termed female Taliban in the Swat valley imposed a ban on pursued an aggressive offensive, at times showing Murtaza Shaikh gives a snapshot of education ‘a source of obscenity’. female education and have warned teachers of little regard for civilian casualties. There were also the effect of a long-standing conflict The vulnerable situation for girls was exac- ‘severe consequences’ if any girl is seen heading to several instances when the military shelled unilater- and militancy on girls’ education in erbated by the signing of a peace accord on school (see Box, p. 163). Several thousand children ally created safe zones, killing scores of people. Pakistan’s Swat valley 16 February 2009 between the North West have been forced out of education and girls have The reports coming out of the north are sketchy Frontier Province and the militants: the latter faced targeted violence. Girls’ schools and colleges because the media and NGOs have little or no access agreeing to end attacks in exchange for the on the University of Peshawar campus received sev- to these areas. Based on reports from local aid work- The latest military onslaught making headlines implementation of Islamic law in the Swat eral threatening letters in early January 2009. ers and hospital staff, an average of 15–20 people comes amidst a general rise in violence across valley. This accord was one in several attempts In November 2008 Pakistan Child Rights have been killed each day in January and February the Afghan-Pakistan border and infiltration of to put an end to continuous violence in this Committee member Bakht Zeba was murdered, 2009, many of them children. The last proper food Taliban into Pakistan. Consequently home- restive tribal area. But, security and stability is allegedly by the Taliban, for advocating education convoy reached the area on 29 January 2009 and grown militancy in the Swat valley has gained here sought at the expense of women’s rights. for children in Swat. The Society for the Protection on 7 March the UN said the first starvation casual- new strength and impetus. One of the major Unless the government is able to swiftly of the Rights of the Child (SPARC) said that on ties had been reported. Western governments, the goals of the militants is to strictly implement establish a lasting peace where education for the Universal Children’s Day Ms Bakht, speaking at UN, Japan, the US and India were all exerting severe their version of Islamic law and the worst children of Swat, particularly girls, can be fully a meeting, had criticized the Taliban for burning pressure on the government and LTTE to take the affected in recent months have been young realized, the damage to their futures may be down schools and stopping children, especially girls, necessary precautions to limit civilian casualties and school girls. permanent. from going to school. to respect humanitarian laws. International human More than 200 schools have been torched The implementation of the accord by the Meanwhile the Daily Times newspaper reported rights groups warned that some of the incidents could or bombed in the Swat valley by local mili- president strengthened the militants’ resolve, in August that minority students in Lahore, capital constitute war crimes. The Indian government called tants led by Maulana Fazlullah. Government resulting in their attempt to expand operations of Punjab, may not get admission this year because for a humanitarian ceasefire in February to enable figures released in January revealed that the to neighbouring Buner District. The govern- of a lack of reserved places for them. Nine Sikhs, a civilians to leave the area, and the US government militants had destroyed 172 schools, of which ment retaliated by launching a full-scale offen- Hindu and a large number of Christian students are had reportedly offered to help evacuate civilians. At 122 were girls’ schools and 50 boys’. On sive and at the time of writing the situation in at risk of not being admitted into higher educational the time of writing neither the government nor the 15 January 2009, Maulana Fazlullah issued the Swat valley was critical. Fighting between institutions. LTTE had agreed to the ceasefire, putting the lives a deadline for all girls’ education to be dis- government forces and the militants has already of several thousand ethnic minority Tamils in severe continued in Swat. In response, 400 private resulted in massive displacement estimated at Sri Lanka jeopardy. schools complied with the order; despite 1.4 million by UNHCR. The 200,000 or so The year 2008 brought devastation for Sri Lankan assurances from the government that security that remain trapped in the valley are having to minorities, particularly Tamils, with fierce fight- Climate of impunity would be provided. In addition it was report- cope with a permanent curfew and a near total ing between government forces and Tamil Tiger This humanitarian catastrophe came amidst a ed that 84,248 girl students were unlikely absence of utilities and food. (LTTE) rebels. Through the year the military cap- severe deterioration of human rights through 2008. to return to state-run education due to fear, The recent offensive is indicative of the failed tured several of the Tigers’ strongholds in northern During the year there were several extra-judicial despite the local administration promising to policy of negotiating with the militants. The Sri Lanka and at the time of writing the rebels were killings, disappearances and abductions of ethnic reopen schools. Some schools were destroyed, education of children has again become severely reportedly confined to a 25 sq km patch, having lost minority Tamils. State forces, Tamil Tigers and while others were closed due to a shortage of disrupted by the violence and displacement. p all their major bases. paramilitaries working with the Sri Lankan govern- As the fighting intensified towards the end of ment have all been accused of the violations.

162 Asia State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Asia 163 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Minorities have also been targeted by the govern- encroach on the lives of indigenous peoples in South Freedom House, in its 2008 global report on where they are the majority of the population, is ment in its counter-terrorism operations. The Sri East Asia in 2008, despite constitutional protections Freedom in the World, has ranked Burma among the exclusively provided in the Burmese language, and Lankan forces conducted several search operations for their territories in many countries. Massive cul- ‘worst of the worst’ countries, ‘where civilians enjoy government offices provide no access to services in in minority neighbourhoods resulting in the arrest tivation of oil palm – to meet the growing demand negligible political and civil liberties’. Karen languages. Government jobs in Karen areas and detention of large numbers of Tamils. Stop- for biofuels from Europe and the US – is having The military regime held a constitutional ref- appear to be increasingly the reserved domain of and-search operations across the capital and other a devastating effect on the land and cultures of erendum in May 2008, just weeks after Cyclone ethnic Burman. cities also put Tamils under threat. indigenous communities in Indonesia and Malaysia. Nargis had struck, despite pleas from UN Secretary- The assassination of the general secretary of the There were also killings and attacks on civil Land grabbing and illegal logging are vastly reduc- General Ban Ki-moon to postpone it and focus KNU, Padoh Mahn Sha Lah Phan, on 14 February society, human rights defenders and the media. J.S. ing indigenous peoples’ access to ancestral lands in on humanitarian relief. The referendum – part of 2008, was a major setback for their cause. Observers Tissanayagam, one of Sri Lanka’s most prominent Cambodia, Indonesia and the Philippines, while a ‘roadmap’ to democracy – ensures a pivotal role suspected that the assassins were either rival Karens Tamil journalists, was arrested in March 2008 and controversial hydro projects in Burma, Cambodia, for the military, with enough seats in parliament to or were dispatched by the Burmese government. after months in custody was charged under anti-ter- Laos and Vietnam have displaced, or threaten to block any further reform without its agreement. The Chin, 90 per cent of whom are Christian, rorism laws. Iqbal Athas, a Sri Lankan Muslim and uproot, thousands of highlands minorities. Minorities were widely excluded from this proc- account for about 1 per cent of Burma’s population the country’s best-known defence correspondent, Conflict also continues to wrack the region. ess. The draft constitution, written by a committee and live in the mountainous region near the Indian is under constant threat and has had to leave the Muslim minority militants clashed with government hand-picked by the government and boycotted by border. The Chin National Front armed group is country on several occasions. At least two minority troops in Thailand and the Philippines; the break- the National League for Democracy and ethnic par- engaged in a long-running battle with the military journalists were killed in 2008, while several oth- down of peace talks in the latter dashed all hopes ties, was only available in Burmese and English, and junta. ers were attacked and abducted. In January 2009 of an end to the 30-year-long war in Mindanao. had not been translated into any of the 135 other The UN reports that 70 per cent of the people Lasantha Wickrematunge, one of the country’s best- Protracted conflict between armed groups and the languages spoken by an estimated 40 per cent of in Chin State live below the poverty line and 40 known investigative journalists, was shot dead by a military junta also adversely affected the Karen and the Burmese population. According to government per cent lack access to adequate food sources. Since gang of masked men on a main road in Colombo Chin people of Burma, many of whom continued to sources there was a 92.5 per cent approval rate of 2006, the region has been plagued by a severe food close to a military checkpoint. Wickrematunge was escape over the border into neighbouring countries, the constitutional referendum. crisis, which is compounded by the military regime’s an ethnic Sinhalese but a minority Christian who adding to the burgeoning number of refugees. The In the wake of Cyclone Nargis, the government repressive economic policies. According to a Chin was a known sympathizer of Tamils and critical of Burmese military government’s treatment of minori- failed to provide relief to hundreds of thousands Human Rights Organization 2008 report, the use the government’s military strategy. ties came under international scrutiny in 2008 when of victims and blocked international aid efforts for of unpaid civilian labour is widespread throughout Sri Lankan civil society leaders, particularly human Rohingya Muslim boat people, escaping severe dis- weeks. One month after the cyclone struck, UN Chin State and farmers are forcibly ordered by the rights defenders, are constantly arrested, detained, crimination in their homeland, were arrested by the estimates placed the number of dead at 78,000, with regime to substitute their staple crops for cash crops. questioned and threatened. This has brought about Thai military guarding the country’s coastline and 56,000 still missing; 2 million people were still in The organization also documents the arbitrary col- a climate of extreme fear, while there is impunity sent back to sea with little or no provisions. need of relief. There were reports that minorities lection of ‘donations’ and taxes by the Burmese for the perpetrators. In September 2008 Sri Lanka’s Religious freedom is often severely curtailed in were being systematically excluded from assistance authorities from Chin households in major towns. respected head of the armed forces Lt-General Sarath South East Asia. The year 2008 saw the virtual ban- in the hard-hit Irrawaddy Delta. Human Rights Watch reports ongoing religious Fonseka told a Canadian newspaper that he believed ning of the Ahmadiyya Muslim sect and communal The Karen, who account for nearly 7 million of repression against the Chin in mainly Buddhist the country belonged to the majority Sinhalese tensions between Christians, Hindus and Muslim Burma’s 57 million people, have their own distinc- Burma. The Tatmadaw (Burmese military) has people. Neither the government or the ruling party hardliners in Indonesia. H’mong Christians faced tive culture and language and count Buddhists, burnt down churches, demolished crosses and denounced the comments. There was also no public persecution in both Laos and Vietnam. Christians and animists among them. Throughout prayer rooms to make way for military buildings outcry by Tamil or Muslim minority leaders in Sri Provision of education for indigenous communi- the year an increasing number of Karen refugees and infrastructure. Chin also describe torture and Lanka, an indication of the severe levels of fear and ties is sorely lacking in most countries in the region. crossed over the border to northern Thailand from beatings by Burmese soldiers, arbitrary arrest and suppression minorities are subject to. Factors such as the small numbers of schools in Karen State, where South East Asia’s longest separa- being forced to work as army porters. The education of several thousand children in remote regions, not using indigenous language as a tist conflict is being waged between Burmese troops Cheery Zahau, of the Women’s League of northern Sri Lanka has been disrupted as a result of medium of instruction, high drop-out rates exacerbat- and the armed wing of the Karen National Union Chinland, says Burma’s military government con- the fighting. In January 2009 UNICEF appealed ed by poverty and a paucity of teachers with relevant (KNU). tinues to use rape as a weapon to subdue ethnic to the Tamil Tigers to enable civilians, including language skills, mean that indigenous students are The current phase of the military campaign minorities. nearly 75,000 children, to leave the war-zone for rarely able to fully exercise their right to education. appears to be the most intense. In 2008 Amnesty There is a dire lack of school facilities in many safer areas. The UN agency said that the education International classified attacks by Burmese troops villages in Chin State, forcing Chin children to of at least 30,000 children had been disrupted and Burma (Myanmar) overtly targeting civilians as crimes against human- walk to distant towns and villages or pay expensive 154 schools forced to close or relocate. Following the anti-government protests of ity. According to the Thailand Burma Border boarding fees to attend classes. The quality of edu- September 2007, when tens of thousands of people Consortium, around 66,000 people have been cation is extremely poor and classes are taught in South East Asia took to the streets daily, and the following a bru- forced to flee their homes due to the armed conflict Burmese. The authorities continue to close down Emma Eastwood tal government crackdown, the security situation and human rights abuses. Chin private schools. Exploitation of natural resources continued to within Burma has remained tense. The US-based Education in state schools in Karen areas, even The construction of two dams along the Salween

164 Asia State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Asia 165 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 River is threatening the existence and livelihood rights over the lands concerned. a government committee’s April 2008 recommen- of the giant Indonesian conglomerate Sinar Mas of the Akha, Karen, Karenni, Lahu, Lisu, Mon, The urban poor have also been adversely affected dation that the sect be banned. The government Group, led to the death of two children, burning of Padaung, Palaung, Pa-O, Shan and Wa minorities by illegal land concessions. The government, in col- later issued a decree that did not ban Ahmadiyya, homes and the arrest of about 200. who live along the river. In 2008 the NGO Society lusion with private companies and the courts, has but warned its adherents that they faced potential In Papua, home to some 800,000 indigenous for Threatened Peoples reported that the Ta Sang been evicting residents and selling off land, espe- arrest under laws on the protection of religion. people divided into many hundreds of groups, Dam in Shan State has already caused the forced cially in Phnom Penh. According to rights groups, Muslim hardliners attacked Ahmadiyya mosques Greenpeace has documented large-scale conversion relocation of about 300,000 people (most of whom in 2008 some 150,000 Cambodians were known to in West Java and Islamic Defenders Front mem- of tropical forests for oil palm plantation in a Sinar are Shan) and the military have expelled around live at risk of being forcibly evicted. bers closed the local Ahmadiyya headquarters in Mas concession near Jayapura affecting indigenous 15,000 people during the construction of the Hut Most state schools in the areas where Khmer Makassar, South Sulawesi. In September the South peoples’ rights to own and control their own ter- Gyi Dam in Karen State. Leou are concentrated continue to teach exclusively Sumatra provincial government issued a total ban ritories. The Rohingya, a Muslim ethnic minority liv- in Khmer. This results in a much higher than aver- on Ahmadiyya. Ahmadiyya Muslims number some Rights groups report that although companies ing in northern Rakhine State, western Burma, are age drop-out rate. A few schools teaching partially 200,000 in Indonesia. such as Freeport-McMoRan (who own the mas- unable to qualify for citizenship and their freedom in local indigenous languages have started to operate Communal tensions remained high elsewhere. sive gold and copper Grasberg mine in Papua) of movement is severely restricted. The UN Special on an experimental level; mainly this is through the Human Rights Watch reported that in January have started in the last few years to implement Rapporteur on human rights in Burma, in an April efforts of local and international NGOs. 2008 a mob burnt down the Sangkareang Hindu programmes to hire more Papuans, ethnic Javanese 2008 statement, also cited extortion and arbitrary The Cambodian government is committed to temple in west Lombok and in July Muslim hard- and other Indonesians continue to occupy the best taxation; land confiscation and forced evictions; ‘ensure easy and equitable access to education for liners attacked students at a Christian theology employment categories. restricted access to medical care, food and adequate vulnerable and disadvantaged children’. As part school in east Jakarta, injuring 18 and forcing the Also in Papua, the Institute for Papuan housing; forced labour; and restrictions on marriages. of its Education for All by 2015 programme, the school to shut its campus. In June, the International Advocacy & Human Rights (IPAHR) reported government is making efforts to introduce bilingual Crisis Group highlighted continued Muslim migra- that Indonesian police shot dead one man, Opinus Cambodia education in minority villages. Critics say these ini- tion from other parts of Indonesia and the rise of Tabuni, and injured others at a rally in Wamena Prime Minister Hun Sen and his Cambodian tiatives are designed to erode indigenous languages. exclusivist Christian groups and hard-line Islamists in August 2008. The rally was held to mark the People’s Party further consolidated their power Indigenous communities remain poorly served with on Papua’s west coast as factors heightening the risk International Day of the World’s Indigenous through national elections in July. The elections regard to education, and there is a lack of easily of conflict in the area. People. According to IPAHR, around 20,000 peo- were criticized by the European Union and the accessible state schools in many parts of the north- The UN Committee against Torture urged the ple attended the rally. UN Special Representative for human rights in east. government in 2008 to promptly investigate vio- The use of Dayak languages in schools in the Cambodia and Human Rights Watch labelled the In December 2008 the Cambodian parliament lence and discrimination against religious minorities parts of Kalimantan where they are the majority or election victory as part of a continued ‘drift towards passed draft legislation to provide for financing for and to allow the Special Rapporteur on freedom of live in substantial numbers remains largely illusory authoritarianism’ in the country. two Chinese hydro dams in the Cardamon moun- religion to visit the country. According to the US or simply prohibited. Government policies con- The overwhelming majority of Cambodia’s 14 tains. Environmentalists say the reservoir created by State Department, in 2008 members of minority tinue to exclude the use of the Batak languages in million people are ethnic Khmer, most of whom the dam will cover 110 sq km and displace thou- religious groups continued to experience official dis- Sumatra in many areas of public life, and schooling follow Theravada Buddhism. Minorities are made sands of Khmer Leou in nine villages. crimination in the form of administrative difficul- in their languages remains limited. up of four distinct groups: Cham (most of whom Cambodia continues to violate its obligations ties, often to do with the issuance of identity cards. are Muslims), indigenous ‘hill tribes’ (also known under the UN Refugee Convention by forcibly Indonesia has the second highest rate of annual Laos as Khmer Leou), ethnic Chinese and ethnic returning Vietnamese Montagnards, or Degar, before forest loss after Brazil, but is the largest source of Laos, one of the world’s few remaining communist Vietnamese. they are able to apply for asylum. Riot police broke greenhouse gases from deforestation and land use states, is one of South East Asia’s poorest countries. The issue of collective landownership, and loss of up a demonstration in July 2008 by around 60 change. Deforestation is driven by logging and In a bid to boost development, the government is access to their traditional and agricultural lands, has Montagnard asylum-seekers in the capital, protest- conversion to industrial oil palm plantations – some tapping the resources of Laos’ vast river network and been an ongoing and increasingly important one for ing the forced repatriation of 28 members of their 7.5 million hectares of land have been planted with developing a billion-dollar dam scheme, intended to the Khmer Leou, who continue to lose their land to community to Vietnam. During 2008 UNHCR pro- the crop, mainly in indigenous areas. Despite state generate electricity for export to Thailand. illegal concessions awarded to foreign firms and gov- vided shelter in Phnom Penh to approximately 500 support for the UN Declaration on the Rights of The country’s largest and most controversial ernment officials, and suffer forced relocation and Montagnard asylum seekers, including about 200 Indigenous Peoples, Indonesia continues to lack any hydro project under construction, Nam Theun economic and social losses. new arrivals. (See also Vietnam.) effective legal means for the protection of customary 2, will be fully operating by the end of 2009 and Despite a 2001 Land Law and other regulatory land rights. affects around 130,000 indigenous people depend- measures to recognize the rights of these indigenous Indonesia In Riau, on the eastern coast of Sumatra, where ent on fishing and farming for their livelihoods. peoples, at the beginning of 2007, not a single The year 2008 saw a number of setbacks for reli- rampant deforestation is occurring in the peatlands, In June 2008 NGO International Rivers reported indigenous people had received title for the collec- gious freedom. In June, Islamist mobs attacked Forum Asia reported an attack against the Sakal flooding of a 450 sq km reservoir on the Nakai tive ownership of their traditional lands. Mining Ahmadiyya Muslims, whom they accuse of heresy. indigenous people in December 2008. The attack, Plateau, affecting some 6,200 people from a variety and even tourism concessions by the government of While the government decried the violence, human allegedly by armed groups hired by PT Arara Abadi, of ethnic groups. They were moved to what will Cambodia are given without regard for indigenous rights organizations saw the roots of the violence in one of the world’s biggest paper producers and part be the reservoir shores so they can remain on their

166 Asia State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Asia 167 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 ancestral lands. However, although villagers have enrol to receive the benefits offered; language prob- issues, often resulting in tensions over whether 32,352 indigenous peoples over a collective area of improved services such as electricity, water pumps lems in teacher training have resulted in high drop- Malaysia is a secular or religious state. The govern- 339,984 acres from 18 districts in Sabah, was sub- and better roads, soils are poor and land and forest out levels for indigenous minorities; and many of ment’s Islamic Development Department website mitted to the government. resources are scarce. the students who graduate do not go back to teach identified 56 ‘deviant’ religious teachings it prohib- The Penan, a nomadic indigenous people who An August 2008 report by the UN Special in their home areas. ited during 2008, which include Ahmadi, Ismaili, rely on Sarawak’s rainforests for their survival, Rapporteur on the situation of human rights and Shia and Baha’i teachings. have spent more than 20 years trying to stop log- fundamental freedoms of indigenous people, said Malaysia In May, the long-awaited judgment in the case of ging companies destroying their land. In January that those who have lost their land as a result of In March 2008 Prime Minister Abdullah Ahmad Lina Joy, a Muslim convert to Christianity, added 2008 the UN Special Rapporteur on the situation the dam construction have not been compensated Badawi’s National Front coalition suffered its worst to frustration among the non-Muslim population. of human rights and fundamental freedoms of or informed of their right to be compensated. The election result in decades, losing its two-thirds par- The final ruling effectively barred Muslims from indigenous people and the Special Representative report particularly highlighted the plight of the Lao liamentary majority and control of five state assem- converting to other faiths. of the Secretary-General on the situation of human Tai, who have inhabited the Nakai Plateau for hun- blies. It is widely believed that Badawi’s downfall Pre-school education in rural and semi-rural areas rights defenders, raised concerns with the Malaysian dreds of years. was precipitated by huge ethnic minority protest in Malaysia is within the jurisdiction of the Rural government on the 2007 death of a Penan leader There are further concerns for indigenous com- marches and that the opposition hence won votes Development Ministry, however children from involved in anti-logging campaigns in the Upper munities living downstream on the Xe Bang Fai by promising racial equality. However, although his minorities whose first language is not Malay have Baram region. Survival International reported River, who are expected to suffer frequent floods replacement, Razak, says he will do more to address little access to these public schools as they cater continued harassment during 2008; in September when the Nam Theun 2 project becomes fully the grievances of minorities, rights groups remain mainly for ethnic Malay children, according to Penan women accused loggers working for the operational. sceptical. COMANGO, a coalition of Malaysian NGOs, in Malaysian companies Samling and Interhill of H’mong, the country’s third largest, mainly Minority ethnic Indians, who are among the a 2008 report to the UN Human Rights Council. harassing and raping them; and the government of Christian, ethnic group, continued to suffer persecu- nation’s poorest people, continued to speak out in The report also notes with concern that the state Sarawak announced that it would no longer recog- tion throughout the year. In March 2008, Compass 2008 against the government’s decades-old affirma- obliges teachers to possess a higher secondary school nize elected leaders in some Penan communities. In Direct News, a Christian news service, reported that tive action policy that favours majority ethnic Malay certification on the subject of Islam, which discrimi- an attempt to save what remains of the forest, vil- Laotian officials arrested some 15 H’mong Christian Muslims in education, jobs and business. Indians nates against some pre-school teachers. lagers in the Middle Baram area set up a new anti- families in Bokeo district in February. The Lao continue to face poverty and relatively low levels of Refugee and asylum seeking children, including logging blockade in October. Human Rights Council and others accused Lao education as compared to ethnic Chinese, without those from Burma’s Rohingya and Chin communi- In October 2008 indigenous forest dwellers in security forces of targeting thousands of Laotian and being able to benefit from any of the affirmative ties, also do not fare well under Malaysia’s education Sarawak rejected a proposal to turn 80,000 hectares H’mong Christians and animist believers for arrest, action programmes restricted to Bumiputeras (eth- system. They continue to be barred from govern- of their land into an oil palm plantation. persecution, torture and execution, and ‘brutal eth- nic Malays and indigenous groups). ment schools, despite previous recommendations by In November 2008 there were reports of plans nic cleansing operations’. The US Congress passed Indians have also expressed disquiet at the gov- the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child. for an oceanarium resort near the Sipadan diving a bipartisan resolution in June 2008 calling on Laos ernment’s language policies, such as the exclusive Public schools in Malaysia generally offer Islamic spot off Malaysian Borneo that could spell disaster to cease its attacks on the H’mong people. (See also use of Malay, which creates a tangible barrier for religious instruction, which is compulsory for for the region’s delicate coral reefs, according to Thailand.) employment in the civil service, and the refusal to Muslim children, and non-Muslim students are environmentalists. The plan came under attack from According to Freedom House, gender-based allow Tamil to be used as a language of service, as required to take non-religious morals/ethics courses. the minority Bajau community (also known as ‘sea discrimination and abuse are widespread. An esti- well as the continuing refusal to teach in Tamil in Private schools are free to offer a non-Islamic reli- gypsies’, numbering some 450,000), who depend on mated 15,000 to 20,000 Laotian women and girls, public schools and universities. Education in Tamil gious curriculum as an option for non-Muslims. the area’s fragile ecosystem for their livelihoods. including many lowland Laotians and an increasing usually occurs in private schools which are still not The Orang Asli, or indigenous peoples, consist In late 2007, the government of Malaysia decided number of highland ethnic minorities, are trafficked fully funded by the Malaysian government. There of more than 80 ethno-linguistic groups, each with to resume the controversial Bakun hydroelectric each year for prostitution. are currently about 1,200 Chinese primary schools its own culture, language and territory. Collectively, project in Sarawak. The dam has already destroyed UNESCO’s 2009 Education for All global and 500 Tamil primary schools in the country. Malaysia’s 4 million indigenous peoples are among 23,000 hectares of virgin rainforest and displaced monitoring report found that, although Laos is Throughout the year five Hindu Rights Action the poorest and most marginalized. A 2008 report 9,000 indigenous people. progressing towards Universal Primary Education Force (HINDRAF) leaders remained in deten- to the UN Human Rights Council called for respect for all, teacher shortages in remote areas are holding tion under Malaysia’s Internal Security Act, for indigenous peoples’ customary land rights and a The Philippines back efforts to expand access for ethnic minorities. despite repeated applications for their release and review of existing legislation; and the Bar Council of The rights of the Muslim Moro minority in the A government policy of salary supplements proved pressure from international rights organizations. Malaysia accused the government of clearing ances- southern island of Mindanao continue to be vio- insufficient to outweigh teacher preference for urban HINDRAF’S registration was refused in October tral land occupied or utilized by indigenous people lated in a number of key areas. State schools do not postings. A new programme aims at recruiting and the organization was thus declared illegal. for activities such as logging or palm cultivation, use Moro languages as medium of instruction to any ethnic minorities into teacher training. However, Islam is Malaysia’s official state religion, but the while only offering to pay compensation for loss of significant extent (despite positive efforts such as the UNESCO notes that serious administrative prob- Constitution protects freedom of religion for all. agricultural products. The Asian Indigenous and 2004 Basic Education Assistance for Mindanao), lems have been identified: some students recruited Sharia courts have jurisdiction over religious issues Tribal Peoples Network reports that in February nor do most of the civil service and governmental do not actually come from targeted villages but involving Muslims, and secular courts rule on other 2008, a memorandum containing land claims from positions require fluency in one of these languages,

168 Asia State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Asia 169 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 though they do demand fluency in Filipino. This Indigenous children lag behind majority children Thailand studied a sample group of 192 border villages in language policy continues to create a very real obsta- in terms of academic opportunities and perform- In January 2008 an elected parliament convened Chiang Mai, Chiang Rai and Mae Hong Son prov- cle to the full participation of the Moro Muslims ance. NGOs estimate that up to 70 per cent of in Bangkok for the first time since the military inces, to determine the impact of a person’s legal in the country’s public and political life, and they indigenous youth left or never attended school seized power in September 2006. Yet the calm was status (citizenship and birth registration) on access remain vastly under-represented in categories of because of the discrimination they experienced. The relatively short-lived – political unrest as the year to social services, education, health care, land tenure educational attainment and in civil service employ- Department of Education continues to develop the drew to a close saw a state of emergency declared and agricultural credit. A study of a sample group ment and political representation. This in turn Indigenous Peoples Curriculum, conceived in 2004, in Bangkok, 16 killed and hundreds injured in revealed that 38 per cent of highland minorities do perpetuates the perception of the Moros as a disad- to embody the core values of indigenous people Thailand’s worst anti-government protests in 16 not have Thai citizenship. Compared to highland- vantaged group. while adhering to basic education learning compe- years, suspension of flights from the main airports ers with Thai citizenship, those lacking citizenship Members of this minority have already lost land tencies. as protesters blockaded terminal buildings and the are 73 per cent less likely to enter primary school because of government legislation and policies such At the time of writing a landmark bill was making occupation by protesters of Bangkok’s main govern- and 98 per cent less likely to progress to higher as the extinguishment of their traditional land rights its way through the House of Representatives that, ment complex. In late December opposition leader education. Similarly, highlanders who lack birth and the government-sponsored resettlement of if passed into law, will require the use of the mother Abhisit Vejjajiva secured a coalition within parlia- registration are 64 per cent less likely to enter lower mainly Christian Filipinos on the land they previ- tongue as a medium of instruction from Grades 1 to ment to become Thailand’s prime minister and its primary school and 85 per cent less likely to enter ously owned. Land redistribution programmes, such 6. The bill also provides for the teaching of Filipino fourth new leader in just three months. secondary school relative to highlanders with official as the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program, and English as separate subjects before being used as The highland minorities of Thailand live in the Thai birth registration. which in theory might have returned Moro land to primary media of instruction in high school. mountainous west and north. As many as 20 differ- Highland peoples’ lower rates of participation in members of the Muslim minority, appear to have In the Philippines indigenous land is recog- ent ‘hill tribes’, totalling 1 million people according schooling, are also possibly linked – in addition to mainly benefited Christian settlers. nized by the granting of Certificates of Ancestral to some estimates, live in Thailand and include, poorly equipped and staffed schools – to the almost The year 2008 saw an upsurge in fighting on Domain. At year’s end the National Commission on among the more numerous, the Akha, Karen, Lahu, complete absence of instruction in their mother Mindanao between government forces and the Indigenous People, staffed by tribal members, had Lisu, H’mong and Mien. The government does not tongue in state schools. separatist Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), awarded certificates covering over 2.67 million acres recognize the existence of indigenous peoples in UNESCO research has also identified ‘lack of following the collapse of a peace accord in August. of land claimed by indigenous people. However, Thailand. It maintains that they are migrants and citizenship’ as the greatest risk factor for highland Hostilities resumed after the Supreme Court of the such land can still be lost to development projects, thousands of them continue to be denied registra- girls and women in Thailand to be trafficked, or Philippines placed a temporary restraining order provided a certificate of Free, Prior and Informed tion for an identification card. otherwise exploited. on the Memorandum of Agreement on Ancestral Consent (FPIC) is obtained from indigenous peo- Non-citizen hill tribes are among the most vul- There are some 340,000 refugees in Thailand: Domain. In October the Court went on to declare ples. Many groups claim to have been deceived in nerable groups. Without proper political status, they around 140,000 of them in nine camps along the the agreement between MILF and the Philippines this process. face expulsion when their temporary stay expires. Thailand-Burma border and about 200,000 more government unconstitutional. With fighting spilling Canadian mining company Olympus Pacific Without nationality and treated as second-class elsewhere. Most are from ethnic groups such as the over to the islands of Jolo and Basilan in December, Minerals was found to have not secured FPIC prior citizens, they suffer multiple discrimination, includ- Karen, Karenni and Shan, fleeing the war in Burma. the National Disaster Coordinating Council said to exploration and drilling in the Binongan indig- ing lack of access to land and deprivation of basic Some 40,000 children have been born and raised in that more than 58,000 people remained in shelters enous people’s ancestral domain at Capcapo moun- human rights. refugee camps. Refugees have established a parallel in Mindanao and 163 people had died since August. tain, Abra, and entered into consultations with the In August 2008 the UN Special Rapporteur high- education system in the camps with the Karen and Rights groups called for the authorities to urgently concerned community in April 2008. lighted the case of the Akha indigenous people in Karenni Education Departments acting as de facto find ways of meeting the demand for autonomy of The Subanen, an indigenous people who live in Chiangrai province, whose land was allegedly seized ministries of education. Schools are not accredited, the Muslim community in order to put an end to small agricultural communities and practise shift- in 2003 as a result of the Highland Development which means that students leave school with a certifi- the conflict. ing cultivation in the mountains of the Zamboanga Station Project. The objective of the station was cate that has little value outside of the camps. Indigenous people in the Philippines, who come peninsula of Mindanao, have seen their ancestral purportedly to serve as a ‘centre of knowledge on Recently, the government has considered accredi- from over100 different ethnic groupings, account lands steadily encroached upon by logging and min- agriculture for the hill tribe people’. The Akha claim tation of refugee and migrant schools. This would for approximately 16 per cent of the national ing companies. Frustrated by lack of government that the project has left them with only a few small require an alignment of the current curriculum with population, with over 34 per cent of the total in action, the community invoked their traditional plots around the village, and they have lost their tra- the official Thai curriculum. While accreditation Mindanao. In 2008 many suffered displacement justice authority, the Gukom, which in May 2008 ditional livelihoods. The land seizure was reportedly presents an opportunity, it is also met with some from their homes and forced recruitment to the found the Canadian mining company TVI Pacific accompanied by widespread harassment of Akha resistance by some refugees who fear losing their ranks of the various parties to the fighting. guilty of crimes against the Subanen. The Gukom villagers by members of the military and forestry cultural identity. The education of thousands of minority children ordered that TVI should leave the area and pay personnel. Villagers say they were not consulted, nor In July 2008 the Bangkok Post reported that 11 in Mindanao was seriously affected by the ongoing financial restitution. However, this decision has did they consent to the project, and they have not members of the Padaung community were abducted clashes between government forces and MILF. been ignored by both the government and TVI. The yet been compensated for their loss. The govern- from the northern province of Mae Hong Son. The Classes were repeatedly interrupted as many schools Subanen had taken their case to CERD in February ment has so far not responded to the concerns raised Padaung are refugees in Thailand who fled heavy doubled as evacuation centres for families trying to 2007, calling for a halt to all mining operations in by the Special Rapporteur. fighting in Burma. The women, who tradition- escape the fighting. the area. The recent UNESCO Highland Peoples survey ally wear brass rings around their elongated necks,

170 Asia State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Asia 171 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Left: Children in Ban Pho preschool in Bac Han students with bad learning capacity are of Khmer District in remote Lao Cai Province. The UNICEF- minority; they cannot speak Vietnamese well and supported school promotes child participation and cannot follow the study curriculum.’ other child-friendly activities, and includes classes The Khmer language is also not used in service taught in the children’s indigenous language. Josh provision by state authorities even where the Khmer Estey/UNICEF. Krom are the majority. The 2008 USCIRF report on Vietnam highlight- one of the largest minorities in Vietnam, number- ed government-sponsored harassment, detention ing over 1 million. According to a Human Rights and imprisonment faced by individuals and leaders Watch report the Vietnamese government has been of diverse religious communities and called on the quick to suppress expressions of dissent among US State Department to re-designate Vietnam a Khmer Krom communities and has banned their ‘country of particular concern’. human rights publications. The government also Vietnamese law requires that religious groups reg- tightly controls the Theravada Buddhism prac- ister with the government. The government official- tised by the Khmer Krom, who see this form of ly recognizes six religions – Buddhism, Catholicism, Buddhism as the foundation of their distinct culture Protestantism, Islam, Cao Dai and Hoa Hao and ethnic identity. Five ethnic Khmer Buddhist Buddhism – and also 29 ‘religious organizations’, monks remain in prison in Soc Trang province after which include Theravada Buddhism, recognized in participating in a peaceful protest in 2007 calling February 2008. for greater religious freedom. The Degar, often referred to as Montagnards, are Khmer Krom farmers in the Mekong delta face a group of more than 30 minorities who continue to increasing landlessness and poverty and in 2008 car- be discriminated against since siding with the USA ried out land rights protests. In February police used during the Vietnam War. Frustration at the loss of dogs and electric batons to break up a land protest traditional lands, religious restrictions, threats to in An Giang province. Several protesters were their languages and cultures, as well as poor access injured and nine arrested. to education and health services have combined Many Khmer Krom believe that the state’s in the past to spark large-scale demonstrations. In have been placed in ‘villages’ in tourist hotspots. In Rights groups accuse the elected government, educational policies are specifically designed to April 2008 Montagnard villagers calling for reli- return, they receive a modest monthly income. The which took office in January 2008, of leaving assimilate them into the majority Kinh population, gious freedom were forcefully dispersed by police in UN High Commissioner for Refugees is calling for southern policy to the military. Reports of torture prevent them from accessing higher education, Gia Lai and Dak Lak provinces. In May, Human a tourism boycott of the area. and other ill-treatment at the hands of the security and weaken their culture and traditions centred Rights Watch reported the death in custody of Y Ethnic H’mong from neighbouring Laos continue forces increased significantly between mid-2007 and around the Khmer language. Government policy is Ben Hdok in Dak Lak. Police reportedly refused to to suffer an uncertain future in border area refugee mid-2008. Reconciliation in the region is further to encourage all ethnic groups to learn Vietnamese, allow his family or a lawyer to visit him and labelled camps. During the Vietnam War, the H’mong complicated by a generalized inability to identify and education is not provided in the medium of his death a suicide. (See also Cambodia.) fought alongside United States forces and after the the real leaders of the insurgents. No organization Khmer, though there should be a form of educa- The year 2008 saw the harshest crack-down on war ended many fled Laos. Most entered Thailand is reported to have claimed responsibility for any of tion that would permit the acquisition of functional Catholics in Vietnam in decades. In August, when in 2005. the attacks in the past four years. bilingualism in both Khmer and Vietnamese. But Catholics held peaceful vigils in protest at govern- Around 78,000 Lao H’mong now live in Huai public schools in the Mekong delta conduct the vast ment plans to transform former church sites (seized Nam Khao camp. Following protests by some Vietnam majority of classes in Vietnamese, with at most only during the 1950s) into a public park and library, the 5,000 inmates in June, more than 800 were forcibly Vietnam’s 1992 Constitution affirms the rights of two hours a week for Khmer literacy classes. government defined these as illegal religious activi- repatriated. According to Human Rights Watch the ethnic minorities and a number of positive govern- While the Mekong delta has a higher percentage ties and used tear gas and electric batons to disperse whereabouts of many of the repatriated H’mong is ment initiatives exist to try to respond to the needs of primary and secondary schools than Vietnam’s them, wounding at least three. unknown and Lao authorities restrict international of Vietnam’s minorities and indigenous peoples. Yet seven other regions, it has the second lowest adult According to International Rivers, Vietnam’s larg- aid agency access to the resettlement areas. (See also despite these official programmes the perception of literacy rate and the lowest level of public school est and most controversial development project, the Laos.) discrimination is widespread amongst Vietnam’s enrolments in Vietnam – with one-third of the US $2.3 billion Son La Dam, will displace 91,000 In the Muslim Malay majority provinces of Kala, minorities, who see the majority ethnic Viet or nation’s school drop-outs coming from the delta. A ethnic minority people by the time it is completed Narathiwat, Patanni and Sohgkhla in Thailand’s Kinh population continue to be favoured by current schoolmaster attributed the high drop-out rate to in 2010. A September 2008 study found that the south, the insurgency continued unabated through- development, social and educational policies. financial difficulties forcing students to go to work resettlement programme is facing significant chal- out 2008. Government statistics reveal that just over The Khmer Krom mainly inhabit the Mekong rather than school (70 per cent) and ‘inability to lenges, such as a shortage of arable land and reduced half of those killed were Muslims. delta region in the south-west of Vietnam and are learn’ (30 per cent). A teacher said: ‘Most of the availability of fresh water in the resettlement sites.

172 Asia State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Asia 173 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 East Asia administration in XUAR barred minority children to education and employment have consequently Emma Eastwood Minority rights and fundamental freedoms from participating in religious activities, and pro- been affected. The region saw some positive developments during Deep-seated issues for both the Han majority hibited teachers from publicly expressing their faith, The government reiterated its emphasis on the the year – state recognition for the Ainu in Japan and minorities in governance and the rule of law, and students from attending services and receiving application of minorities’ language policies (of over gave beleaguered minorities in the country some hope employment and social welfare, land seizure and private religious teaching. Following the September 120 spoken languages, both with and without a for an end to years of discrimination and increas- expropriation came to a head in 2008. Central and 2008 local ban on headscarves in Hotan, Muslim written script), while incorporating the mastering ingly empowered Aboriginals in Taiwan continued to local authorities heavily monitored and circum- women were forced to unveil their faces in public, of Putonghua, the official form of spoken Chinese. vociferously clamour for the implementation of their scribed minorities’ activities, disregarding genuine and others were discouraged from fasting during Such policies have worked best to reduce illiteracy customary rights. However, religious minorities in discontent caused by discriminatory national poli- Ramadan. In Sichuan’s Tibetan areas, monks were in communities without a formal writing system North and South Korea continued to suffer discrimi- cies that prevent them from fully enjoying their reportedly removed from monasteries, and hundreds (Dongxiang), or where language use is limited nation and imprisonment for their beliefs. rights. The March 2008 Tibetan protests and riots of children shifted from the attached schools to to some social domains (Zhuang). For others in Lhasa, fuelled by deep resentment towards Han public schools to receive compulsory education. with well-established written scripts (Mongolian, China dominance, spilled over into Tibetan-inhabited The authorities used ‘anti-terrorism’ as a justi- Tibetan, Uyghur and Yi), where minority groups Contributed by Marusca Perazzi areas in Qinghai, Sichuan and Gansu, leading to fication to crack down on all forms of perceived strongly identify with their native language, policies The year 2008 was marked by a spectacular increased tensions, including between Tibetan dissent on the part of minorities in the TAR and that limit their use in school have been met with Olympic Games, intended to promote China’s Buddhists and Hui Muslims. the XUAR. This included prohibitions on language increasing resistance. Minority learners and parents prestige and influence, a devastating earthquake The authorities relied on emergency measures to use, harassment of defence lawyers, forced disap- increasingly perceive formal schooling to be more in western Sichuan province, and a string of social ensure stability, to quell rising dissent and to keep pearances, widespread arrests and sentencing of an about repressing minorities’ culture than promoting instability issues, infringements of rights and denial dormant frustration from escalating in minority- unknown number of Tibetans and the indictment their education and cultural integration. The 2008 of fundamental freedoms, highlighting the chal- inhabited areas in Inner Mongolia, Ningxia, Hubei, of 1,154 Uyghurs charged with ‘endangering state UNESCO Education for All global monitoring lenges the Chinese authorities face in governing a Guangxi, Heilongjiang and Yunnan. Instead of security’. Unaffiliated and unregistered religious report sees this trend as of particular relevance to Han-dominant multi-ethnic China. addressing the underlying institutional factors, the groups, including Christians in the eastern regions, predominantly pastoralist minority communities. state stepped up security in the Tibet Autonomous continued to be subject to government interference For the Daurs, Ewenkis, Hezhen and Tibetans, in Governance and ‘Regional Republic (TAR) and the strategic Xinjiang Uyghur and increased police surveillance, arrests, deten- fact, formal education poses further problems, rang- National Autonomy’ Autonomous Republic (XUAR), home to Muslim tion and torture. In November 2008, the UN ing from accessibility of schools to the availability of In 2008, the government announced its ambitious Turkic-speaking Uyghur and Hui Sunni, and Committee Against Torture (CAT) criticized the bilingual teachers qualified to work with pastoralist goal of attaining democratic social progress by cracked down on protests in Hotan and Kashgar. discriminatory treatment of minority groups in children. Nomadic Mongolian communities also 2020, through its official articulation of the Chinese Some religious minorities were concerned about China and the ‘alleged reluctance of police forces continued to sacrifice their linguistic and cultural ‘nation’. China has never recognized any minority as measures that support atheism in schools; deny the and the authorities to conduct prompt, impartial heritage in education. The government has yet to ‘indigenous’ or as having special rights. The ‘auton- full exercise of rights of belief, freedoms of expres- and effective investigations into discriminatory or balance policy to support linguistic diversity and omous’ regions, districts, and counties where most sion and movement; and fail to tackle discriminato- violent practices’. also take into account minorities’ education needs. minorities live, and that today cover 64 per cent of ry practices in education and employment. The gov- The amended China Compulsory Education Law China’s territory, offer mostly symbolic recogni- ernment continued to subject minority Buddhists, Language policies, identity challenges, and (2006), adopted to ensure attainment of compulsory tion of ‘minority autonomy’, as the Han Chinese Muslims and Christians to a strict regulatory frame- resistance in minority education education in rural areas, increases central govern- increasingly dominate even in those areas. work. It also silenced Tibetan and Uyghur voices, The state’s achievements in its endeavour to provide ment control over teaching materials in minority During 2008 mounting turmoil in minority- by imposing curfews, preventing mass prayers and ‘free’ basic education for all are creditable. However, classes and advanced further the use of Putonghua. populated areas revealed the contradicitons of living impeding international pilgrimages. The public China’s minorities have been mainly treated as a Mongols, Tibetans and Uyghurs in 2008 contin- under national policies that force minorities to forge a security bureau closely monitored minority rights single entity in education reforms, and the cul- ued to suffer disproportionately from unequal or closer identification with the 92 per cent Han major- activists and often equated their peaceful activism tural, regional and developmental differences that restricted access to quality education or the imple- ity. While the government promoted more non-Han with social unrest to be repressed. In the TAR, distinguish them have been largely ignored. The mentation of inappropriate education strategies. In regional governors to work on the implementation of the authorities renewed the ‘patriotic education’ implementation of national education policies has the Tibetans’ case, unwanted assimilation imposed minority policies, it ensured that the CCP (Chinese campaign to convince the masses to ‘fight splittism produced mixed results and additional challenges through exclusionary education policies and prac- Communist Party) remained firmly in control. It also and protect stability’. Across the country, religious for minority groups during 2008. The National tices, including bilingual teaching, neither serves the continued to grant some minorities, including the leaders were targeted for ongoing state indoctrina- Commonly Used Language Law (2000) guarantees aim of communities’ self-development, nor does it Dai and Yao, more freedom to promote their cultural tion and the circulation of religious publications and standard Chinese (Putonghua) as the national com- open the way to better prospects for employment, heritage. Through permitting expressions of ethnic texts was curtailed. mon language in the political, economic, social and housing and adequate standard of living. identity, such as ethnic folklore and music, that do Harassment of minority communities along education spheres. There are no formal restrictions The government’s commitment to invest more not challenge the state’s control over minority affairs, the North Korean border intensified, with local in using Putonghua and minority languages simul- financial and human resources to redress discrimi- the authorities bolstered the country’s self-image as a authorities preventing unregistered children of taneously, but there have been increased limitations natory practices in language use and development tolerant and united multicultural society. mixed ethnic origin from accessing schooling. The on the official use of minority languages and access of disadvantaged minorities, have yet to impact on

174 Asia State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Asia 175 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 the structural and institutional limitations. The The state does not recognize the Okinawa as the northern part of the country. Refugees claim that steps on issues of concern, such as trafficking of per- 2007–8 increased level of governmental funding has indigenous peoples in domestic legislation and fails religious prisoners are given the most dangerous tasks sons, prostitution, violence against women and child not led to the educational development of minority to provide special measures to protect, preserve and while in prison and are subject to constant abuse from labour (including minorities). communities. Additional investment is required to promote their cultural heritage and traditional way prison officials in an effort to force them to renounce The state of Mongolia is committed to provide help remove gender-based discrimination towards of life, and recognize their land rights. their faith. When they refuse, they are often beaten general education free of charge to all, and the minority girls affected by power relations in the The UN Human Rights Committee urged Japan and sometimes tortured to death. scheduled 2009 visit to Mongolia by the Special community and family commitments, including to provide adequate opportunities for both Ainu Rapporteur on the right to education is indicative early marriage, and changes in institutional educa- and Okinawa children to receive instruction in or of Mongolia of the positive stance of the authorities. But in 2008 tion policies that do not respect their traditional their language and about their culture, and include Contributed by Marusca Perazzi the government still lacked the capacity to keep roles. Gender awareness advocacy pilots in Guangxi education on Ainu and Okinawa culture and history As a parliamentary democracy, Mongolia has pace with the educational needs of all groups. The and education initiatives in the Gansu significantly in the regular curriculum. embraced political and economic reforms since the amendment of the Mongolia Education Law (2006) increased the enrolment of minority girls in schools Japan’s large populations of Brazilian, Chinese, 1990s and gradually expanded its international ties has contributed to improving the existing system. by providing financial support, teacher training to Filipino and Korean permanent residents – many to foster national development. Steps have also been taken to ensure that local minority women and community participation in of whom were born in Japan – also face discrimina- The country has a small population spread over provinces and education authorities create envi- school planning. But commitments such as training tion. They are viewed as ‘foreigners’ and as respon- vast areas, administratively divided into provinces ronments that are gender-sensitive and free from of minority teachers and improved school manage- sible for most of the crimes committed in the and three autonomous municipalities (Ulaanbaatar, discrimination against minority children, through ment in minority areas still have some way to go. country. The media fosters this perception although Darhan and Erdenet). Most Mongolians’ cultures school management, non-formal education and Ministry of Justice statistics showed it to be false. are based on nomadic or semi-pastoral tradi- native-language learning arrangements. The decen- Japan Ethnic Korean private schools in Japan are cat- tions. Khakha Mongols constitute the dominant tralization of public administration through joint In a major positive development in East Asia, the egorized as vocational schools and do not receive group, along with other Mongol minorities (Barga, initiatives with the UN also proved beneficial for Japanese House of Representatives passed a resolu- any government subsidies, depending on tuition fees Bayad, Buryat, Chantuu, Durbet and others). minorities, leading to better-trained local authorities tion in June 2008, which officially classified the and private donations. The schools are also excluded Non-Mongolian communities, such as the Muslim with autonomy responsibilities, and greater use of Ainu people as ‘indigenous peoples’. Activists from tax exemption or deduction for donors. These Kazakhs inhabiting the western regions, include minority languages. claimed it as a ‘momentous victory’ for the Ainu, discriminatory practices have led to Korean schools smaller groups such as the Dukha, Evenk, Tuvan The remarkable progress in education legislation who number some 50,000, and can now claim more suffering economic difficulties in 2008. and Urianhai, all with distinct languages and dia- was not fully matched by clear government language rights as a people, since the UN Declaration on the lects, and clusters of Chinese, North Korean and policies on mother tongue and bilingual education Rights of Indigenous Peoples is mentioned in the Republic of Korea (South Korea) Russian migrants. for all minorities. The almost exclusive use of the resolution as a standard that the government should The Republic of Korea is a very homogeneous In Mongolia, minority groups have coexisted Mongolian language (Khalka), to the exclusion of ‘work toward[s]’. country in linguistic and ethnic terms. There is quite peacefully in the context of tolerant societal other minority languages, demonstrates the need for An expert panel has since been set up to discuss only one small Chinese minority of perhaps as few attitudes. Traditionally, however, there has been a more concrete efforts to address the lack of qualified the indigenous rights of Ainu and future policies con- as 20,000 people. Religious minorities are how- tendency to deny or ignore the existence of non- bilingual teachers and provide textbooks, teaching cerning them; however Ainu will only hold observer ever significant. As of September 2008, there were Mongol minorities, and they suffer marginalization materials and tailor-made curricula in other tongues. status and are pressing for full representation. Some 408 Jehovah’s Witnesses in prison in South Korea from political life. The authorities, though gener- While in 2005 the government adopted the Tuva Ainu viewed the recognition as merely symbolic, with because of their conscientious objection to military ally supportive of human rights and diversity, have Language Study Programme to support the Tsaatan unclear benefits in terms of their social and economic service. Legislation does not permit any exemption been criticized by international bodies for taking minority in preserving their cultural and linguistic marginalization, and highlighted the absence of any or alternative service for those who have a religious only limited actions to respond to ethnic minori- heritage, in 2008 policies continued to be pursued apology for past policies of land theft, cultural repres- objection to serving in the country’s armed forces. ties’ needs. As a result, the government’s legislative to the detriment of other reindeer-herding minority sion and forced assimilation. Others noted that offi- South Korea accepts all North Korean asylum seek- arm in January 2008 approved the ‘Comprehensive communities. For example, the Evenk still cannot cial recognition could lead to increased pride within ers as citizens, under its constitution that defines the National Development Strategy based on the learn in their mother tongue in schools, and, like the Ainu community, and a greater desire to preserve entire Korean Peninsula as South Korean territory. Millennium Development Goals’ to assess minori- other nomadic peoples, would benefit from the re- Ainu culture. Despite their change in status, the Ainu ties’ needs and to better implement cultural rights’ establishment of ‘seasonal’ schools. language is unavailable in compulsory education and Democratic People’s Republic of Korea reforms. textbooks do not feature Japanese history from an (North Korea) Reports confirmed the persistence of official Taiwan Ainu perspective. The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea is one of harassment of some religious groups with limita- Taiwan has a fairly progressive record on indigenous Furthermore, rights organizations continued to the world’s most homogeneous countries in linguistic tions on churches’ registration (in the vicinity of rights. Thirteen Aboriginal tribes have been offi- assert in 2008 that the constitutional and legislative and ethnic terms and officially there are no minorities, Ulaanbaatar, Tov province), and in acquiring land cially recognized, each having its own language and framework in Japan still lacks remedies for discrimi- though there are reportedly about 50,000 Chinese- to build mosques. Unlike in the previous year, customs. The indigenous population, numbering nation experienced by persons belonging to minor- speakers and 1,800 Japanese-speakers. Freedom of no strict monitoring of groups allegedly involved 484,000 people and representing about 2.1 per cent ity groups, such as returnees from China, Okinawa, religion is severely curtailed. An estimated 6,000 in separatist activities (namely the Kazakh) was of Taiwan’s total population, lives mostly in eastern Koreans and Buraku, as well as Ainu. Christians are incarcerated in Prison No. 15, located in reported. Instead, the government took concrete Taiwan and mountainous areas, and often faces

176 Asia State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Asia 177 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 more economic difficulties than majority Taiwanese. Right: Taris Wagilak, 8, an Aboriginal student Taiwan reserves six of its 113 legislative seats for at school in Ramingining, Northern Territory, Aborigines and maintains a cabinet-level Council Australia. Polly Hemming. of Indigenous Peoples, which works in conjunc- tion with other ministries to raise living standards were made in terms of provision of education for in Aboriginal regions through basic infrastructure Maori students in order to try to address inequali- projects. The council also provides emergency funds ties faced by indigenous people in almost all areas and college scholarships to the indigenous popula- of life. Australia’s Aboriginal population welcomed tion. the government’s admission of guilt for the ‘stolen Indigenous groups were increasingly visible in generations’, but one year after the historic apology 2008, attempting to pressure central government are still waiting for compensation and real change to formally recognize their customary land rights. for the country’s 0.5 million indigenous peoples. Groups claim that although the Indigenous Peoples Meanwhile many of the previous government’s dra- Basic Law of 2005 has been approved, indigenous conian measures against child abuse in the Northern people’s rights are still disregarded, especially when Territories remain in place and there has been a their culture is in conflict with national laws. For controversial move to abolish the use of indigenous instance, on 31 December 2007 several Puyuma language as a medium of instruction in the area. hunters participating in the Grand Hunters’ Festival Ethnic tensions between Indo-Fijians and indig- – an event that the county government had been enous Fijians persisted on the Pacific island and informed of and had approved – were chased down increased migration of Chinese citizens to island and body-searched by the forest police. states such as Papua New Guinea, the Marshall On a positive note, in March 2008, the govern- Islands and Tonga continued to create friction ment agreed to grant the Thao, who number only between communities. 600 and are facing extinction, the title to 165 hec- tares beside Sun Moon Lake, with a further 1,700 Australia hectares to be co-managed by the Thao and the On every index of human needs Australia’s 0.5 government. million indigenous people continue to fare worse More than 98 per cent of the educational materi- than other Australians. In 2008 the indigenous rate although many expressed disappointment that the promises of investment in communities would not als used by Aboriginal children in Taiwan are based of imprisonment was 13 times higher than for the apology was not accompanied by compensation. be honoured. on a non-Aboriginal viewpoint. According to a non-indigenous. Life expectancy for indigenous citi- Rudd announced a series of measures intended There were a number of significant land rights 2009 UNESCO report, the languages of all 14 of zens was 59 for males and 65 for females, compared to close the 17-year life expectancy gap between cases during 2008, with differing outcomes for Taiwan’s officially recognized indigenous groups with 77 and 82 respectively for non-indigenous; Aborigines and other Australians. However, these Aboriginals. In April the federal court overturned a are threatened with extinction. Aboriginal groups indigenous persons were twice as likely to be hos- included maintaining the Howard government’s 2006 decision by a federal court judge recognizing are demanding that the government enact an indig- pitalized as other citizens; indigenous citizens were draconian measures (the Northern Territory native title of the Nyoongar Aboriginal group over enous languages development law to better protect more than twice as likely as their non-indigenous Emergency Response – NTER) against child sexual a large portion of south-western Western Australia, tribal languages, and ease accreditation requirements counterparts to die from alcohol abuse; and the abuse in the Northern Territory, introduced in June including the state capital of Perth. The state and for tribal language teachers so that more people indigenous infant mortality rate is three times high- 2007. Some Aboriginal leaders decried the policies federal governments had appealed the original deci- speaking indigenous languages can be allowed to er than the Australian national average. as racist and, in June 2008, threatened to block sion. The case was referred back to a federal court teach Aboriginal children their mother tongue at Despite an Aboriginal woman becoming the tourist access to Uluru, which is on Aboriginal judge for another hearing. The High Court of elementary schools. highest-ranking indigenous member of government lands. Later in the year the NTER Review Board Australia recognized the Yolngu people’s exclusive in the country’s history when she was appointed called for the legislation to be made consistent with possession rights over the intertidal zone along Oceania Northern Territory (NT) deputy chief minister in Australia’s Racial Discrimination Act and for the 80 per cent of the Northern Territory coastline. Emma Eastwood 2007, Aboriginals remain generally under-represent- act’s protections to be re-instated immediately. Rights groups praised the decision, which will give The Pacific states are some of the most ethnically ed among the political leadership. In October 2008 the federal government agreed Aboriginals a stake in the development of a sustain- diverse in the world and differing trends in minority In February 2008, the Rudd government car- to make resources available for job training for able commercial fishing industry. and indigenous rights were observed in the region ried through on its promise of a formal apology to Aboriginals under an ‘Australian employment cov- In May 2008 the government announced it during 2008. Aboriginals for the ‘stolen generation’ of indigenous enant’ signed by business and Aboriginal leaders, would review the Native Title process, with a view New Zealand’s Maori continued to receive children snatched from their parents, passing an with a goal of creating 50,000 jobs for indigenous to reducing its complexity and ensuring that royal- significant compensation payments and land title apology motion through parliament unanimously. citizens. However the global economic downturn ties indigenous communities received from the min- through the Waitangi Tribunal, and some advances Aboriginal leaders welcomed the development, has sparked fears among Aboriginal leaders that ing industry were used beneficially.

178 Asia State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Asia 179 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Violence against Aboriginal women remains a ues to be violated in Australia. Indigenous literacy availability of modern weapons. However, Radio leave school with upper secondary school qualifica- serious problem. According to the Australia Bureau outcomes are directly related to Aboriginals’ access Australia reported that in October 2008, at least 30 tions, and are also less likely to possess formal or ter- of Statistics they were 40 times more likely to be to their own culture, history and languages, and warring hill tribes from the Southern Highlands had tiary level qualifications than other New Zealanders. victims of family violence compared with non-in- books in indigenous languages for students whose signed a peace agreement. In an attempt to combat these inequalities the digenous women. This figure is thought to be arti- first language is not English, are rare. The Northern Chinese investment in the country’s mining, for- government has adopted an educational strategy for ficially low; domestic violence in indigenous com- Territory government recently announced a move estry and fishing sectors has increased dramatically 2008–12 emphasizing the notion of ‘succeeding as munities is widely believed to be under-reported due towards a more ‘English-only’ form of education, recently, and a steady stream of Chinese migrants Maori’, including increasing Maori children’s partic- to mistrust of the authorities and the remoteness of which represents a patent breach of the right of has followed. The immigrant community tends to ipation in early childhood education; strengthening Aboriginal settlements. On 13 June 2008, the Court indigenous peoples to some form of education in occupy positions of relative wealth within Papua their literacy and numeracy; ensuring young Maori of Appeals upheld the Queensland state attorney their own languages where practicable. New Guinea’s impoverished society and this has led are effectively engaged in secondary school and general’s appeal against the sentences imposed by a Some Muslim leaders claimed that anti-Islamic to increased tensions between the indigenous popu- enabling Maoris to access Maori-language education lower court on nine defendants who pleaded guilty sentiment in the country was increasing in the wake lation and the Chinese. Attacks on ethnic Chinese options. A companion document to the school cur- to the 2006 gang rape of a developmentally disabled of public debate about the integration of Muslim and their businesses have become more frequent, riculum has been written in the Maori language and 10-year-old indigenous girl in her community of immigrants into society. Groups questioned the and rights groups reported a crack-down on illegal from an indigenous perspective. Aurukun in the Cape York area. None of the nine motivations for refusing planning permission for Chinese migrants during the year. Approximately 24 per cent of the Maori popula- defendants originally received prison sentences. As two Islamic schools by local councils in New South tion can speak Maori, of which 10 per cent use a result of the appeal of the original sentences, the Wales and Queensland. New Zealand their Maori language skills on a regular basis. In Court of Appeals sentenced five of the nine defend- In February 2008 the family of a Sikh youth Considerable progress has been made in 2008 his August 2008 report the UN Special Rapporteur ants to prison terms. filed a complaint with the Queensland Anti- in resolving land and resource disputes for New on the situation of human rights and fundamental Discrimination Commission. The student was Zealand’s Maori people, who make up 15 per cent freedoms of indigenous people reported a number of Education barred from enrolment in a Brisbane private school of the country’s population. Additionally, Prime positive developments in the use of Maori language. Current statistics show worrying disparities in edu- because his turban violated the school’s dress code. Minister Helen Clark publicly endorsed a national Although Maori is an official language of New cation indicators for indigenous and non-indigenous Statement on Race Relations in August. The state- Zealand, it is not used in all state institutions. Court students. High levels of disadvantage in indigenous Papua New Guinea ment reaffirmed the government’s commitment proceedings continue to be in English – at most an children’s early childhood years are associated with In Papua New Guinea the indigenous population to human rights and equality among the country’s accused may get an interpreter, but not be heard by poorer outcomes in health and education. Without is almost entirely Melanesian, though there are racial and ethnic groups, and it set out 10 funda- a judge who understands Maori – and most govern- preschool learning opportunities, indigenous Polynesian outliers north of Bougainville. There mental rights to guide government policies toward ment departments have limited bilingual ability. students are likely to be behind from their first are significant ethnic distinctions between popula- racial and ethnic minorities. In the November 2008 general election the Maori year of formal schooling. While most indigenous tion groups in different parts of the country. The The Waitangi Tribunal continued to hear Maori Party maintained its four seats out of seven allocated students in metropolitan and regional areas meet country is unusually fragmented, by terrain, history, claims to land and other resources during 2008. In to the indigenous people in the 120-seat parliament, the minimum reading standards, the percentage of culture and language. About 840 distinct languages June the government and seven indigenous Maori and also won Te Tai Tonga from the Labour Party. students achieving at least the minimum standard of are spoken in Papua New Guinea, around a quarter tribes negotiated a settlement that included a pay- Pacific Islanders, who make up 7 per cent of the literacy and numeracy skills decreases as the level of of the world’s stock, reflecting enormous regional ment of NZ $420 million (US $252 million) and population, also experienced societal discrimination remoteness increases. In 2007, only 42.9 per cent of and local cultural variety. transfer of 435,000 acres of forestland to the tribes. in 2008 according to reports. The Ministries of indigenous 17-year-olds attended secondary school, Although the government of Papua New Guinea The agreement is the largest single deal to date Justice and Pacific Island Affairs have a programme compared with 65 per cent of non-indigenous is involved in the provision of services and education between the government and these groups. to identify gaps in delivery of government services 17-year-olds. Research suggests that students who in a variety of languages, it also relies on international The deadline for submission of historical claims to Pacific Islanders. p do not complete this level of education will have religious organizations for education in indigenous was 1 September following which new claims much reduced levels of employment and economic languages. For instance the Summer Institute of could still be filed and existing claims amended. In independence. Compared with the general popula- Linguistics (SIL) partnered with the Department August, further claims were settled with two addi- tion, unemployment among the Aboriginal popula- of Education and local communities in linguistic tional tribes for NZ $25 million (US $15 million) tion is three times higher than for non-indigenous research, literacy, Bible translation, Scripture use and NZ $7 million (US $4.2 million), respectively. Australians. and training, and produced translations of the Bible Figures for 2008 put Maori unemployment at Kevin Rudd’s government allocated A$98 million for government-sponsored religious instruction in 7.9 per cent compared with the national average to add 200 teachers to the Northern Territory by schools. According to reports, as of June 2008, SIL of 3.8 per cent; Maori constituted approximately 2011. However, observers noted that the initiative had translated the New Testament into 166 of the 50 per cent of the prison population and there is falls far short of the measures necessary to bring country’s indigenous languages. continuing disparity between Maori and non-Maori Northern Territory indigenous education to main- In the last few years, the number of deaths result- in terms of educational achievement. Maori are less stream standards. ing from conflicts between isolated groups has likely to attend an early childhood education facility The right to education in mother tongue contin- continued to rise; this is thought to be due to the before entering primary school, are far less likely to

180 Asia State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Asia 181 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 ICELAND

AT L A N T I C FINLAND OCEAN NORWAY SWEDEN RUSSIA

ESTONIA

LATVIA IRELAND UNITED DENMARK KINGDOM LITHUANIA Kaliningrad (Rus.) BELARUS NETHERLANDS GERMANY POLAND BELGIUM LUXEMBOURG CZECH REP. UKRAINE

SLOVAKIA

LIECH. MOLDOVA FRANCE SWITZERLAND AUSTRIA HUNGARY SLOVENIA ROMANIA CROATIA BOSNIA GEORGIA ANDORRA SAN MARINO SERBIA PORTUGAL AND HERZE. BL AC K SEA MONACO MONTENEGRO AZERBAIJAN

Kosovo SPAIN BULGARIA ARMENIA MACEDONIA AZER. ITALY ALBANIA TURKEY GREECE

CYPRUS

MEDITERRANEAN SEA Snježana Bokulic´Snježana Europe

t is estimated that more than 100 million new European Union (EU) member states. There ernment policies to improve the living conditions In the course of the year, CEDAW examined Europeans, approximately every seventh person are reports in Latvia of neo-Nazis attacking Roma and end the segregation of Roma in certain public several European states, highlighting a number of I in Europe, belongs to a minority. Yet in spite with increasing regularity. In France, ‘visible minori- schools are subverted and defied by local authorities issues affecting the position of minority women. of Europe boasting the most robust instruments and ties’ are twice as likely to be stopped by police for responsive to local prejudices, but their effective- CEDAW expressed its concern about the continu- mechanisms for the protection of minority rights, questioning. ness also comes into question given the prejudicial ing discrimination against immigrant, refugee and minority communities continued to face discrimina- Disaggregated data collection, which would attitudes of the officials in charge. During a meeting minority women, who suffer from multiple forms tion, hate crimes, segregation, intolerance and other enable systematic monitoring, and the articulation with the United Nations (UN) Independent Expert of discrimination on the basis of sex and ethnic violations of their minority rights throughout Europe of effective policies to tackle discrimination, social on Minority Issues (IEMI), one official said, ‘The or religious background, both in society at large in 2008. Minority women also continued to face mul- exclusion, hate crimes and other types of violations, Greek state would like to integrate Roma fully, and within their communities in Belgium. On the tiple forms of discrimination, on the basis of their gen- remains lacking. Data protection legislation is often but they don’t like that a different style of life is other hand, it welcomed the amendment of the der and their membership of an ethnic and religious cited as the legal barrier to collection of data about imposed on them.’ On a positive note, however, Penal Code in Portugal that criminalizes female group, including in access to education, employment an individual’s ethnic origin. Bodies such as the CEDAW noted the increased supportive measures genital mutilation. Finland was encouraged to and health services. Violence motivated by religious Advisory Committee to the Framework Convention in Finland for Sami women regarding social and ensure that the representation of women in politi- intolerance continued to be reported in many coun- for the Protection of National Minorities of the health services, and the implementation programme cal and public bodies reflects the full diversity of tries, and a rise in racist and xenophobic violence was Council of Europe (FCNM) and the EU Agency drawn up by municipalities together with the Sami the population and includes migrant and minority noted. The conflict which broke out between Georgia for Fundamental Rights (FRA) have continuously council, although difficulties in accessing adequate women. Stressing their particular vulnerability to and Russia in the summer of 2008 provided an warned against this deficiency. Their monitoring health care persist. poverty, CEDAW was concerned about the high extreme example of a situation in which the violation efforts are hampered by the fact that member states The international standard of the minority right rate of unemployment among immigrant women of minority rights plays an important, though by no often do not have official or even unofficial data and to participation benefited from its further elabora- in Finland and the difficulties they face in obtain- means exclusive, role in sparking conflict. statistics in a variety of relevant fields, and where tion by the Advisory Committee to the FCNM ing employment commensurate with their level of As the continent plunged into economic reces- data do exist they are not comparable because a uni- in the Commentary on the Effective Participation education, experience and qualifications. In the UK, sion, the crisis contributed to the strengthening of form data collection methodology across member of Persons Belonging to National Minorities in ethnic minority women are under-represented in all the far right discourse, further marginalizing minori- states does not exist. Likewise, the UN Committee Cultural, Social and Economic Life and in Public areas of the labour market, in particular in senior or ties and increasing their vulnerability. In Russia, on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Affairs, published in February 2008. Reliable and decision making positions; they have higher rates of migrants already facing xenophobia and violence Women (CEDAW) has repeatedly regretted the easily accessible data and comprehensive legislation unemployment and face a greater pay gap in their from extremist groups have also been singled out lack of gender disaggregated data in a range of areas, prohibiting discrimination have been cited as essen- hourly earnings compared to men. Women of dif- as scapegoats by the government in reference to the such as the prevalence of female genital mutilation tial preconditions for developing measures ensuring ferent ethnic minority communities are also greatly global economic crisis. According to some reports, on women and girls and access to health services for effective participation. As regards political participa- under-represented in political and public life. in November 2008 alone, 18 persons suffered racist migrants, asylum seekers and refugee women living tion, several developments took place. For the first The European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) violence in Russia, causing three deaths. Similarly, in Germany; access to employment, health care, time, a member of the Roma minority became a appears to have started to develop a better under- in Ukraine, several foreigners have been murdered education and social benefits of ethnic and religious member of parliament in Croatia. Discussions were standing of discrimination, in particular as regards because of the colour of their skin, while there has minority women in Armenia; and the participation ongoing in Macedonia regarding the adoption of racial discrimination (see Box, p. 188). However, been a marked increase in attacks on members of migrant and minority women in political and a new elections law which would reserve seats for unlike the ECtHR, the enforcement of whose judg- of ethnic and religious minorities. The majority public life, as well as in academia in Finland. smaller minorities accounting for less than 20 per ments remains highly problematic, the European of victims have been of African and Asian origin. Where laws and policies are in place, often the cent of the population. (Ethnic Albanians do not Court of Justice (ECJ) made a significant contribu- Violence against Jews also persisted and some mem- local authorities show limited commitment to enjoy special protection in the area of parliamentary tion to the interpretation of what constitutes direct bers of Roma communities, according to reports, their implementation or actively obstruct it. In representation because of their sheer number, which discrimination on racial grounds and the shifting have been fingerprinted and photographed by the Austria’s federal state of Carinthia, which has a enables them to gain significant representation of the burden of proof in the Belgian case Centrum police apparently because of their ethnic identity. right-wing government, the 2001 Constitutional through regular procedures.) The proposal has met voor Gelijkheid van Kansen en voor Racismebestrijding Attacks against migrant workers have also been Court’s decision on bilingual signposting is still not with fierce disapproval from the opposition parties v. Firma Feryn. The ECJ ruled in July 2008 that reported in the United Kingdom. In Germany, implemented. Also in Carinthia a far-right party as well as the ethnic Albanian political parties, who the fact that an employer states publicly that it will members of Turkish communities faced harass- presented a draft law designed to prohibit ‘unusual’ claimed that minority representatives would be sub- not recruit people of a certain ethnic or racial origin ment and violence in many parts of the country buildings that fail to fit in with traditional archi- ject to manipulation by majority parties. Unwilling constitutes direct discrimination, as this is likely to and immigrant-run businesses came under attack. tecture. This would make it impossible to erect to disrupt its long-standing effective bipartisanism, dissuade certain candidates from applying for certain Members of minorities are routinely referred to mosques and minarets in Carinthia, home to some Hungary has to date failed to meet its legal obliga- jobs, and thus hinder their access to the labour mar- as Ausländer (‘foreigner’) regardless of their actual 11,000 Muslims. The law was adopted in February tion to secure minority political representation in ket. The ECJ held, moreover, that such statements citizenship status. In Ireland, the most significant 2008. In Hungary, efforts of central authorities parliament. In Finland, Sami politics continues to are sufficient for a presumption of the existence of victims of racist violence were black African males, in the fields of education and housing are often lack a gender perspective and the political represen- a recruitment policy which is directly discrimina- followed by persons of Asian origin, members of the hampered by the way in which local authorities put tation of Sami women in their communities, as well tory, in which case the burden of proof shifts to the Traveller community and migrant workers from the the relevant measure into practice. In Greece, gov- as at the national level, remains inadequate. employer to prove that there was no breach of the

184 Europe State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Europe 185 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 principle of equal treatment. Right: A Roma child from the Peje/Pec region The ruling in Firma Feryn was made possible shows off a drawing he made to mark International thanks to the strong articulation of the general pro- Roma Day, part of an event organized by the OSCE hibition of racial discrimination in EU law. The EU Mission in Kosovo, April 2008. Hasan Sopa/OSCE. considers itself to have one of the most advanced non-discrimination legal frameworks in the world. Lisbon Treaty gives some indication that this tide Yet surveys show that almost two-thirds of EU citi- is turning: Article 2 states that respect for human zens see discrimination on the ground of ethnic ori- rights, including the rights of persons belonging gin as being widespread. Moreover, 15 per cent said to minorities, is one of the values on which the they experienced it personally in the last year and 29 EU is founded. The EU’s Charter of Fundamental per cent said they witnessed it. In the conclusions Rights prohibits discrimination on the ground of of its first Annual Report, the FRA highlighted the membership of a national minority, among others, patchy implementation of the EU’s anti-discrimina- and obliges the EU to respect cultural, religious and tion legislation and the vigour with which the leg- linguistic diversity. Upon ratification of the Lisbon islation is applied. Recognizing the gap in the legal Treaty, the Charter will become legally binding. framework, the European Commission presented a The ratification process, however, was not com- proposal for a directive prohibiting discrimination pleted by the expected deadline of January 2009 as on grounds of age, disability, sexual orientation and it was rejected in the Irish referendum; it is not clear religion or belief outside the employment sphere. at this time what its fate will be. Nevertheless, the This proposal is currently pending before the impact of the references to minorities in the Treaty Council of the EU and the European Parliament. and Charter are not expected to bring about any In line with the Council Regulation establishing the significant improvements in minority protection in FRA , which recognized the importance of engage- EU law as the EU continues to lack the required ment with civil society, the FRA facilitated the crea- competence to develop legal instruments in areas tion of the Fundamental Rights Platform, the main significant for minorities. channel of communication between the FRA and Europe’s premier minority rights treaty, the in their national legislation and policies, in practice summit, a high-level meeting on Roma. In his civil society. Regrettably, minority rights organiza- FCNM of the Council of Europe, the only legally sufficient measures have not been taken in order to opening speech, Commission President José Manuel tions are virtually absent from the Platform. binding instrument for the protection of minority end discrimination against Roma and promote their Barroso acknowledged the exclusion, discrimination With the exception of the prohibition of discrimi- rights, celebrated the 10th anniversary of its entry integration. A number of countries like Denmark still and racism faced by Roma communities. But when nation, EU law does not protect minority rights. into force with a review of its impact on minority refuse to recognize the Roma as a minority; in Greece it came to taking on responsibility for bringing As proponents of the view that minority rights fall protection. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) they are considered a vulnerable social group. Roma about change, he was very eager to qualify the role exclusively within the domain of domestic law and working on minority protection throughout the communities continue to face particular difficulties of Brussels: ‘The dramatic situation of the Roma,’ policy point out, the EU lacks competence in areas Council of Europe area articulated their views on the and discrimination in their access to employment, he said, ‘cannot be solved from Brussels.’ The sum- important for the protection of a community’s effectiveness of the FCNM in an NGO Declaration: education, housing, health and social services. And mit concluded without any firm commitment to identity: mother tongue education; use of minority the FCNM contributed to awareness-raising and anti-Roma racism is pervasive: in an EU-wide survey, concrete action, but its conclusions were at least language in public; culture and media in minor- internal discussions of the international standards for a quarter of respondents stated that they would feel endorsed by the European Council in December, ity languages; and participation in political, social, minority rights protection, and in some cases it was uncomfortable if their neighbour was a Roma. including calling on the Commission and member economic and cultural life. While this is indeed the also successful in ensuring change in state minority This situation came under close scrutiny of a states to take account of the situation of the Roma legal reality, adopting such a position on minor- policy and practice. Yet in eight European countries, range of international human rights instruments when designing and implementing policy. ity rights has had a significant negative impact on minority populations remain excluded from the and mechanisms. The OSCE High Commissioner In the meantime, the reality described by Barroso the EU’s standing as a global champion of human benefits of the FCNM: Andorra, Belgium, Greece, on National Minorities found that: ‘The Roma continues unabated. Like Italy, Hungary has seen a rights. The double standards the EU applies to France, Iceland, Monaco, Luxembourg and Turkey in Europe have to a large extent fallen outside the sharp rise in racism in public discourse, and attacks minority protection, whereby it requires non-EU have not ratified it. Nevertheless, some of the worst new security and prosperity in Europe.’ The UN on Roma, some of which have resulted in deaths. states to adopt and respect minority rights standards violations of the rights of minorities in 2008 took Special Rapporteur on racism and the IEMI issued Anti-Semitic articles are regularly published in which it does not require of itself and its member place in states party to the FCNM. a joint statement urging Europe-wide action to end the press and anti-Roma hate speech has become states, are indicative of its approach. The effect has the violence against the Roma. The FRA commis- widespread. Given the high level of constitutional been that the EU is losing credibility in external Roma sioned a report on the violent anti-Roma incidents protection afforded to freedom of expression, the relations, in particular with states that are candi- The Roma are generally acknowledged to be the most in Italy in May 2008 and held consultations with government has been legally unable and politically dates or potential candidates for EU membership, marginalized minority in Europe. While many coun- civil society to set out the FRA’s contribution to the unwilling to address this issue. The creation and but also in international human rights fora. The tries have set objectives for the inclusion of Roma work on Roma. The EU organized an EU Roma increasing visibility of one extremist right-wing

186 Europe State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Europe 187 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 group in particular has caused great concern, not considered that reliable statistics can constitute The applicant Roma children were placed into only because of the group’s openly anti-Roma and A challenge sufficient prima facie evidence of discrimina- separate classes, allegedly because of their inad- anti-Semitic discourse, but also because of its para- tion, which shifts the burden of proof to the equate command of Croatian. However, most military organization and uniforms. At least one act to segregated respondent, without the need to prove discrimi- of them had good marks in Croatian language. of racist violence appears to have been linked to the natory intent. The Court found that although Surprisingly, the European Court did not find a racist discourse of this group. The public prosecutor the objective of the special school system was to violation of the applicants’ right to education. It has taken steps to ban the group. In the Czech city education: meet children’s special educational needs, the accepted that the selection criteria had been lan- of Litvinov, the right-wing extremist Workers Party selection process and criteria were disadvantag- guage skills, not ethnicity. Although the Court organized a march in the Roma neighbourhood three ing Roma. The Court placed special emphasis was concerned about the lack of adequate tests of Janov, presenting it as an act of self-defence of on adequate, culturally adapted testing methods, and procedures for transfer of children, it accept- ‘white Czechs’. Following the Ministry of Internal landmark cases and found that the tests the applicants had taken ed the domestic authorities’ judgements as to Affair’s proposal to ban the party, another dem- were racially biased and caused even Roma chil- which children were in need of special attention. onstration was held, which resulted in riots and By Jan Fiala dren with above-average intellect to be placed It also considered that education in the separate fights between the extremists and the police force. in special schools. Lastly, the Court rejected the classes was not of lower standard than in the Subsequently, Litvinov’s mayor announced that the argument that placement was justified by the regular classes, therefore the children were not city would relocate ‘problematic’ Roma from Janov Segregated education has been long rec- applicants’ parents’ consent, holding that it is harmed by it. The applicants decided to refer to accommodation outside the city, where they ognized as one of the greatest obstacles unacceptable to waive one’s right to be free from the case to the Grand Chamber of the European would live under police supervision. to social integration of Roma in Europe. racial discrimination. The Court thus concluded Court. They pointed out various factual inaccu- In the Czech Republic cases of coerced steriliza- International and domestic bodies have crit- that the practice of placing Roma children in racies of the judgment, and also argued that the tion of Roma women continued to be registered icized the practice in a number of European special schools amounts to racial discrimination. judgment failed to properly apply the principles in 2008. The country’s Universal Periodic Review countries, but so far to little effect. Recently, In the case of Sampanis and Others v. Greece established in D.H. and Sampanis. before the UN’s Human Rights Council highlighted the European Court of Human Rights has (application no. 32526/05, judgment 5 June The three decisions have a huge potential to that the government failed to take adequate action decided three landmark cases, which repre- 2008), the applicant Roma children complained influence educational policies. D.H. declared against this practice. Courts remain inaccessible to sent important steps in achieving access to about their exclusion from the Aspropyrgos illegal a practice that has been long condoned victims for a variety of reasons – language barriers, education for Roma children. primary school. After their enrolment in 2004, by European societies. It firmly established cost and discrimination, and the expiry of statutes In the case of D.H. and Others v. the local non-Roma parents protested and prevent- the importance of statistics; lack of intent, of limitation – so they are left without effective legal Czech Republic (application no. 57325, ed their own children from attending school. shifting the burden of proof; and appropriate remedies. NGOs have requested that a compensa- judgment 13 November 2007), applicants The education authorities responded by moving testing methods in education discrimination. tion scheme based on an administrative procedure challenged the practice of placing Roma the Roma children to an annex school, housed These elements make it virtually impossible for be set up, which would enable victims not to have pupils in special schools for children with in prefabricated containers, allegedly as prepara- authorities to maintain special schools in their to initiate individual court proceedings, but these mental disabilities. They argued that such tion for integrated education. The European current form. However, as MRG pointed out alternative forms of remedy have not yet been placements were the results of inadequate Court found that placement in the annex in its submission at the D.H. case, segregated provided. Similarly, in Slovakia, an independent testing methods and administrative bias. school was not based on adequate testing, which education can take different forms. Whether commission to provide compensation and apology They submitted detailed statistics showing also undermined its declared objective. It also the governments respond with genuine integra- to victims, as proposed by the Council of Europe’s that Roma children were 27 times more emphasized that, given the vulnerable position tion, or replace special schools with other, more Human Rights Commissioner in 2003, has still likely to end up in special schools than of the Roma community, it cannot be accepted covert forms of discrimination, will depend on not been instituted. In Hungary, the Public Health non-Roma. The Grand Chamber of the that exclusion was based on their consent. The how the Grand Chamber of the European Court Act was amended in 2008 to require that special European Court found a violation of the Court concluded that the applicants were dis- deals with the appeal in the Oršuš case. It will be information be provided to patients who were to be applicants’ right to be free from discrimi- criminated against in their right to education on up to the applicants, and their sympathizers in subjected to the sterilization procedure, to ensure nation under Article 14 of the European the grounds of race. other European countries, to make courts and informed consent. The government, however, refus- Convention on Human Rights, and The case of Oršuš and Others v. Croatia (appli- governments understand the harmful impact of es to provide compensation to victims of coerced expressly confirmed some important princi- cation no. 15766/03, judgment 17 July 2008) segregated education on Roma, so that all of its sterilization as recommended by CEDAW in 2006. ples of indirect discrimination. The Court concerned segregation within primary schools. forms are outlawed and eliminated. p In 2008, CEDAW expressed concern that in Slovenia Roma women and girls remain in a vulner- able situation and subject to discrimination, includ- ing with regard to education, health, housing and Minorities and education although education is included in some treaty provi- (EC Directive 77/486/EEC) on the education of employment. A high unemployment rate and multi- The minority right to education is enshrined in sions, it is not a field of EU competence and as such the children of migrant workers, which obliges ple forms of discrimination continue to be faced by the FCNM and protected to different degrees does not allow for harmonizing action at EU level. EU member states to take appropriate measures to Roma women in Finland. by domestic legislation. Within the EU context, Nevertheless, there exists the Council Directive promote teaching of the mother tongue and culture

188 Europe State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Europe 189 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 of the country of origin for the children of migrant Minorities warned of the negative consequences that rights as they are met with the resistance from fields of employment, education, as regards the workers. Although the directive deals only with the increasingly segregated education will have on the schools to accepting them. Even if they are accept- right to profess and manifest one’s religion, as well education of children of migrant workers who are society. Another problem, faced often by Egyptian ed, frequently they do not have access to adequate as in hate speech. In the Netherlands, a Christian EU citizens, a declaration attached to the Directive (as in Roma, Ashkali and Egyptian – RAE) children assistance in learning the Hungarian language. The comprehensive school was found guilty of religious includes a commitment by the Council to avoid any is their poor school attendance due primarily to absence of a national integration strategy to assist discrimination by the Equal Treatment Commission discrimination based on a pupil’s nationality. This extreme levels of poverty, which forces children to them in participating fully in society further exacer- for rejecting an applicant for the temporary position Directive is said to be one of the least implemented seek work instead of attending school. The govern- bates their situation. of mathematics teacher because of his Muslim back- pieces of EU legislation. ment’s response has been to impose high penalties As the Advisory Committee to the FCNM pointed ground. Plans to build mosques or their opening A number of issues in the education of minorities on parents, which is highly counterproductive and out, in Sweden the authorities have undertaken have met with public demonstrations against what arose in the course of the year, the most pervasive has discriminatory effects. commendable reviews of textbooks and launched the protesters called the ‘Islamization of Europe’ being the discrimination against the Roma in educa- Unavailability of mother tongue education in web-based initiatives devoted to minority languages. in Austria, Belgium, Germany and Switzerland. tion. In the words of the Council of Europe Human Roma language poses another obstacle to the edu- However, the availability of minority-language teach- In Italy, Muslim prayer in public during a protest Rights Commissioner: cation of Roma children and runs counter to the ing remained too limited in the public education march against the Israeli offensive in Gaza was international human rights obligations of European system, and there is a need for the authorities to openly condemned by right-wing politicians, who ‘A significant number of Roma children do not have states. For example, in Denmark, mother tongue strengthen the pertinent regulations and bolster sup- regarded this as ‘threatening and intimidating acts access to education of a similar standard enjoyed by education, previously supported by the government port for bilingual education. Similarly, in Switzerland towards the Italian people’. other children. This not only prevents the Roma from has been relegated to the local authorities, which there have been commendable efforts to move In the Czech Republic, the TV Nova television participating effectively in the social and political life of has resulted in cuts and lack of instruction in Roma towards a coordinated inter-cantonal development of station was fined by the Council for Radio and their home country but also negatively affects the future language. language teaching in compulsory education. However Television for having broadcast xenophobic and of the latter’s society.’ Minorities in other countries were also faced the overall situation of Italian- and Romanche- Islamophobic content in a report which stated that with a variety of problems. The quality of teaching speakers who live outside their traditional areas of Sharia law allows a husband to kill an unfaithful He sees the deeply ingrained prejudices against the in Turkish-language schools remains a concern for settlement has not significantly improved with regard wife. Roma, at all levels of societies, as one of the major the Turks in the Western Thrace region of Greece. to access to language teaching and opportunities to The debate on whether Muslim women and girls causes of inequality in the sphere of education. In Norway, in spite of some positive developments enjoy cultural and linguistic support. should be allowed to wear a headscarf while on As outlined in the box (p. 188), the practice of resulting in the establishment of the Kven language The ban on headscarves in schools, in the view of duty in a government job or in schools continued, segregation in education is of particular concern. council, which is working on the standardization CEDAW, may increase the discrimination faced by and hijabs are banned in a number of countries. Segregation may take various forms, such as the of Kvenish and making available a Kven language girls from ethnic and religious minorities and may Various arguments are put forward in favour of the establishment of segregated schools in segregated and culture course at the University of Tromsø, impede equal access to education. CEDAW recom- ban, however the women most likely to be affected settlements, or a clear, unjustified over-representa- there exists no structured policy for the protection mended that Belgium promote a genuine dialogue by the decisions are rarely consulted. The German tion of Roma children in classes for children with and promotion of the Kven language and teach- with and within ethnic and religious communities state bans religious symbols and clothing for teach- special needs. The system of financial incentives in ing materials for all levels of education are lacking. aimed at the formulation of a common approach ers and other civil servants. In Ireland, where there a number of countries has been highlighted as one In Slovakia, the issue of textbooks in the language to the ban of headscarves in schools. The low level is no state-wide regulation, the government leaves of the causes of the problem, since the per capita of the Hungarian minority made headlines in of Roma women’s formal education and the school the decision to individual schools. In Norway, the allowances for children placed in special educa- 2008. Newly published geography textbooks in the drop-out rates remained a concern in Slovenia, Ministry of Justice first decided to put forward a tion can be double the regular allowances. As a Hungarian language included toponyms in Slovak according to CEDAW. Girls of foreign origin con- proposal to permit Muslim women to wear the result, a growing number of ‘special classes’ in language, instead of Hungarian. In spite of vocal tinued to face unequal access to quality education at hijab as part of the Norwegian police uniform, ordinary primary schools have been set up, which protests, the ministry refused to change the text- all levels in Luxembourg. but then withdrew it. The move, if implemented, constitutes discrimination. Hungary has attempted books. Resolution seemed in sight following the would have allowed a broader recruitment to the to tackle this problem and remove the financial proposal by the Party of the Hungarian Coalition Islamophobia police. In France, the government’s anti-discrim- incentive for segregation by introducing financial of a legislative amendment which would allow for The extent of anti-Muslim sentiments in Europe ination agency ruled that it was acceptable to ban incentives for regular primary schools which enrol the use of toponyms in the minority language in continue to be a cause of concern. In France, women wearing the burqa and niqab, clothes that children from what are described as ‘disadvan- minority-language textbooks. Although the amend- Poland, Spain and the UK, attitudes towards cover the body and face, from state-sponsored taged backgrounds’, which is often a reference to ed version of the proposal also gained the support of Muslims are said to be notably more negative in French language classes for immigrants. The the Roma. the ruling party, the president’s refusal to sign the comparison to 2005, though in Spain and Danish government introduced a proposal to ban In Macedonia, disproportionate placement of law and subsequent hurdles make it unclear how the Germany, the two EU countries with the most neg- judges from wearing headscarves and other reli- Roma in special schools continues. Although Roma issue will be resolved. ative perspectives, unfavourable views have declined gious apparel. account for only 2.6 per cent of the population in In Hungary, children of refugees and asylum since 2006. France and the UK, on the other hand, Macedonia, in 27 special schools 30–70 per cent of seekers, while entitled in theory to benefit from the have seen a steady increase in unfavourable opinions France students are Roma. During his visit to Macedonia same rights to compulsory education as Hungarian of Muslims. Throughout 2008, allegations of French police ill- the OSCE High Commissioner on National children, in practice have difficulty exercising their Discrimination against Muslims persists in the treatment of minorities were made by civil society.

190 Europe State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Europe 191 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 cent had access only to primary education, 38 the age of 16). Early marriage entails girls Improving per cent have graduated from lower secondary dropping out of school in the vast majority education (grade 8), while only 4.3 per cent of cases. In 2008 Romania adopted legisla- access to have graduated from upper secondary education tion prohibiting marriage of girls before the (grade 12), as compared to 42.4 per cent of the age of 18 (such prohibition existed in past non-Roma population. These gaps between the legislation for boys). education for Roma and non-Roma population actually wid- Within the education system a range ened during the last 20 years of transition. of measures has now been introduced to Roma children Anti-segregation policies in the education enhance access to quality education. A system have been adopted starting in 2005. system of County School Inspectors for in Romania However, based on a survey conducted by Roma children’s education was introduced. UNICEF Romania and Romani CRISS (a Starting in 2001 the system of Roma Roma NGO), in 2008 in schools in nine coun- School Mediators was gradually introduced By Eugen Crai ties and Bucharest Municipality, in 63 per in Roma communities. A strategy for the cent of the investigated schools segregation was training of Roma unqualified teachers present in some form. Indicators of the quality has also been launched and implemented Above: An African family on their balcony in a Romania has the largest Roma minority in of education indicators (including infrastructure, with UNICEF support. Early education back street of the La Chapelle district in the 18th Europe, estimated at between 1.8 million and facilities and qualifications of teachers) are worse programmes in Roma communities were arrondissement, Paris. They are watching a parade of 2.5 million (with almost 50 per cent of this or much worse in the schools displaying segrega- introduced with UNICEF support such as Hindu gods during the annual Ganesh festival. population being under the age of 19). The first tion as compared to the other schools. the ‘Summer Kindergarten’ or ‘Bilingual Mark Henley/Panos. steps towards improving access to quality educa- While the percentage of Roma without birth Kindergarten in Roma Communities’. tion for Roma children date back to 1990 when certificates seems to be decreasing, almost 11 per Different safety nets (such as the The government was keen to point out that the the Romanian Ministry of Education established cent of the Roma population above 14 years of Education Priority Areas model, and Second situation has improved and that French companies a position of General Inspector for Romany age did not have an ID card in 2002. In a limited Chance Education programmes) have been are hiring more people from deprived neighbour- Language Education. Then in 1992 there were 2004 survey covering vulnerable Roma families in tested and introduced gradually into the hoods. Others, in particular the residents of such established special and additional places for Bucharest it was found that as many as 26 per cent system. Intercultural education programmes neighbourhoods, said little had changed. In particu- Roma students in the Faculty of Sociology of did not have an ID card. The lack of a legal iden- have been scaled up at national level. Early lar, Muslim women who wear headscarves are less Bucharest State University. tity thus excludes tens of thousands of Roma from marriage and early pregnancy in Roma com- likely to get jobs in spite of the degrees they may Major efforts were launched in 2001, after every right that citizenship entails, including social munities were tackled through community- hold. France has the largest Muslim community in the adoption of the Governmental Strategy for assistance, social security, formal employment and based campaigns with formal and informal Europe. A significant segment of the population, the Improvement of the Roma Situation in the minimum income guarantee scheme. leaders and with school authorities. moreover, is of African and Caribbean origin. Romania, but the challenges are still present. Among the majority Romanian population, As Romania has a historically established In December 2008, Yazid Sabeg, of Algerian Unfortunately there is no baseline data regard- the Roma are sometimes perceived as skilful at system of education in the languages of origin, was nominated as the government’s diversity ing the current participation in education of certain jobs, but this rouses fears based on eth- national minorities, efforts have been made and equal opportunities commissioner. One of his Roma children at national level, partly because nic stereotypes. In 2003 the Committee on the since the early 1990s for the introduction of main objectives is to find the appropriate way of of reluctance of the authorities to collect data Rights of the Child expressed concern over the Romany language education and currently collecting information on diversity and disaggre- disaggregated by ethnicity. negative attitudes and prejudices among the gen- approximately 260,000 Roma students are gated statistics. Since 1978, legal barriers have been Based on the most recent survey conducted eral public, in political discourse and the media. taught Romany in schools throughout the put in place banning the collection of data referring by the Open Society Foundation in Romania, in The education of Roma girls is also obstructed country (although there exists only one to racial or ethnic origin. President Nicolas Sarkozy 2007 almost 21 per cent of the Roma popula- by early marriage and early pregnancy. Several school with Romany as the language of recognized publicly that the lack of data on ethnic tion below the age of 40 have not accessed any surveys concur in finding more that 70 per cent instruction for grades 1–4). Educational minorities was hampering the ability to measure ine- level of education (as compared to 0.8 per cent of Roma women marry before the age of 18 materials in Romany or bilingual materials quality and deal with it (see chapter by Zoë Gray). of the non-Roma population). Another 23 per (approximately 35 per cent being married before have also been developed. p In December 2008, the ECtHR ruled that the French school ban on headscarves was not a viola- tion of the ECHR. In the cases of Dogru v. France and Kervanci v. France, the ECtHR unanimously A 2009 Amnesty International report said that brought to justice. Although the victims of ill- minorities or foreign nationals. held that there had been no violation of Article 9, unlawful killings, beatings, racial abuse and excessive treatment and other human rights violations include A major grievance during the 2005 riots in the which protects the freedom of thought, conscience use of force by law enforcement officials are rarely men and women of all age groups, the vast majority Paris suburbs was discrimination against young and religion. The applicants were expelled from investigated effectively and those responsible seldom of complaints concern French citizens from ethnic people of Arab and African origin in employment. school for wearing headscarves during physical

192 Europe State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Europe 193 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 education classes. In the ECtHR’s opinion, the Right: A memorial to the two young Roma sisters, purpose of the restriction on the applicants’ right to 11-year-old Violeta and 13-year-old Cristina, who manifest their religious convictions was to adhere to drowned at Torregaveta beach in Naples in July the requirements of secularism in state schools. 2008. Their bodies lay on the beach for three hours while holidaymakers continued to sunbathe. Georgia Robin Hammond/Panos. In August 2008, conflict broke out between the Georgian military and the breakaway South Ossetian breakaway republics of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. forces aided by the Russian military. The origin of Proponents of their independence cited the prece- the conflict is attributed to one of myriad minority– dent of Kosovo. In the words of the Abkhaz Deputy majority disputes that accompanied the break-up Foreign Minister Maxim Gunjia: ‘We use the same of the Soviet Union. As nationalist leaders gained arguments as those used by the West with regard to power throughout the successor state, claims for Kosovo: All other possible means were exhausted.’ autonomy and, ultimately, independence followed. Clashes between the Georgians and Ossetians in Greece 1989 erupted into war from 1990 to 1992, in the Greece has been an EU member state since 1981, but midst of which Georgia declared its independence has not ratified the FCNM and does not recognize from the Soviet Union. Ossetia, in turn, declared its the existence of ethnic minorities on its territory. own independence and the conflict remained frozen. Only a ‘Muslim minority’ in Western Thrace, pro- August 2008 saw a series of shooting incidents in the tected by the terms of the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne South Ossetian conflict zone. concluded with Turkey is officially recognized as Georgian President Mikhail Saakashvili declared a religious minority, but its predominantly ethnic his intention to offer unlimited autonomy to the Turkish members are denied recognition as an ethnic region, but ultimately he launched a massive artillery minority. The non-recognition of the ethnic Turkish Roma in housing and employment, education and ommendations of domestic and international bodies attack on Tskhinvali, the regional capital. Russian and Macedonian minorities has profound ramifica- denial of justice. dealing with Roma. ‘Execution of the judgments of forces occupied sections of Georgia proper by 12 tions for the ability of these minority communities to However, the Greek state reaffirmed its position the European Court for Human Rights and compli- August and took control of access to the west of exercise their rights. The persistent refusal of Greek that ‘any recommendation by UN treaty bodies and ance with the observations of other jurisdictional Georgia, Gori and other areas. Within a day of the courts to register minority associations has constituted by other monitoring mechanisms, on the protection organs,’ they stressed, ‘is an obligation and not an conflict breaking out, separatist forces in Abkhazia a violation of their right to freedom of association, as of rights of persons claiming to belong to a minor- option.’ launched an offensive against Georgian troops in the the ECtHR has found in four separate cases – to no ity cannot determine the existence of a minority Finally, concerning minority religions, the IEMI Kodori gorge area, the only part of their territory avail, as the courts still refuse to grant registration to group or impose on States an obligation to officially noted the considerable influence of the Greek remaining under Georgian control, with Russian all of them. It has also been detrimental to the pro- recognize a group as a minority’, as articulated in Orthodox Church in Greek society and political support. Human rights activists reported that tection of minority identities, making it impossible the government’s reply to the report of the High life, and that the Church receives state funding; that Georgian villages were looted and burnt. As a result to institute adequate arrangements in areas such as Commissioner for Human Rights. There was a there is no specific domestic law to protect freedom of the offensive the Georgian troops left the territory minority language use or education. similar reaction to the report of the IEMI. of religion; and that members of other religions face and some 3,000 ethnic Georgians were forced to The state of minorities in Greece prompted both The National Commission for Human Rights verbal and sometimes physical aggression, as well as leave their homes, some of them for the second time. the High Commissioner for Human Rights of the (NCHR) reviewed the results of the implementa- restrictions on places of worship and burial sites. In The conflict caused much suffering for the civilian Council of Europe and the IEMI to undertake tion of the ‘Integrated Action Plan for the Social addition, in 2008, the ECtHR in the Alexandridis population in South Ossetia, home to both ethnic country visits in 2008. The High Commissioner Integration of Greek Gypsies 2002–2008’. The v. Greece judgment ruled that the fact that the Ossetians and Georgians, numbering some 75,000 was primarily concerned with minorities and the report, co-signed by the Deputy Ombudsman for applicant had had to reveal that he was not an inhabitants, about one-third of the population. It right to freedom of association, the denial of citizen- Human Rights, assessed the housing initiatives as Orthodox Christian while taking an oath of office caused a significant displacement of civilians, ethnic ship to some members of minorities under former ‘rather modest’. It emphasized the negative attitude before a Greek court in order to take a non-religious Georgians as well as minorities. A number of ethnic legislation, and issues affecting the religious freedom of local authorities and communities towards such affirmation had interfered with his freedom not to Armenians sought refuge in Armenia. Several thou- in particular of the Turks in Western Thrace as programmes: ‘The municipalities are very reluc- have to manifest his religious beliefs and therefore sand Georgians who fled from the Kodori gorge have government-appointed Muftis have been reported tant to attempt any form of registering the Roma constituted a violation of Article 9 of the European not been able to return home. The inhabitants of the to apply Sharia law in family and inheritance mat- residing in and/or passing through their areas; they Convention. area are almost exclusively Svans, a Georgian ethnic ters, in contravention of international human rights invoke the fact that any record based on “racial” sub-group with their own distinctive language. standards. The IEMI raised a variety of issues, criteria is prohibited by law’, the report stated. The Italy In a move strongly condemned by EU leaders as including the protection of minority identity, NCHR and the Deputy Ombudsman urged the Events of 2008 mean that the focus of this section contrary to international law, Russia recognized the minority religions and discrimination against the Greek state to change the way it responds to the rec- must overwhelmingly consider the plight of the

194 Europe State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Europe 195 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Roma in Italy. Expressions of racism and xenopho- Right: Crowds in Silvan, Turkey, during a Newroz bia against that community increased dramatically celebration in March 2008. Newroz is celebrated by over the year. An EU-wide survey revealed that Kurds throughout the country and is the celebration Italy is the most intolerant towards Roma of all of the coming of spring. Aytunc Akad/Panos. the 27 member states: almost half the respondents in Italy would feel uncomfortable having Roma Lombardia. The most controversial measure was a neighbours, twice the EU average, while only 5 per census operation conducted in a number of munici- cent of them had Roma friends, a third of the EU palities in June 2008, which involved various meas- average. Mainstream politicians at local and central ures for the identification of Roma, including fin- level became the champions of hate speech and gerprinting. Following an international outcry, the intolerance. Crimes perpetrated against the Roma census operations were modified to include certain went unpunished: perpetrators have yet to be held safeguards and were extended to the entire popula- legally accountable for at least eight incidents of tion in Italy in order to avoid allegations of discrim- anti-Roma pogroms, leading to the razing of Roma ination. Moreover, on some issues the government camps with Molotov cocktails. Research from a has been forced to back down under pressure from coalition of organizations – including the Open the EU. These include a provision for the expulsion Society Institute, the Center on Housing Rights of EU citizens that was devised for Romanian Roma and Evictions, the European Roma Rights Centre, and judged to clash with European rules on free Romani CRISS and the Roma Civic Alliance in movement. The provision was withdrawn after the Romania – reported that as a result of statements European Commission threatened to start infringe- from high-ranking Italian politicians fuelling anti- ment proceedings. Roma sentiment, instances of physical and verbal abuse of Roma in Italy have increased dispropor- Kosovo tionately in frequency and seriousness since April On 17 February 2008, Kosovo declared its inde- 2008, when the new government was elected. pendence from Serbia, a move immediately recog- The election campaign was dominated by the nized by a number of EU member states and the issues of security and migration. Roma were often United States but vehemently opposed by Russia. portrayed by politicians as irregular migrants or By the end of the year, the number of recognitions criminals, suggesting that their mere presence was reached 53. The EU has failed to reach unanimity a security threat. The Council of Europe Human on the issue as Cyprus, Greece, Romania, Slovakia Rights Commissioner criticized Italy’s criminalizing and Spain have not recognized its independence. of immigrants, hate speech by public figures and Kosovo’s Constitution, which according to the EU served to worsen their situation. A number of laws their schooling systems and have no knowledge of the media, where racist attacks against Roma have is in line with international standards guaranteeing adopted in the course of 2008 have been problem- the Albanian language. The Kosovo school system become a standing feature of the public discourse. full respect of individual and community rights, atic for minorities. The new law on local self-gov- offers no mechanisms to accommodate their needs, Italy’s Court of Cassation, the highest court of came into effect on 15 June. ernment lacks the provision ensuring proportional in particular as regards language instruction. appeal, overturned the conviction of the mayor of The declaration of independence was legally chal- representation in the civil service that had existed Verona and four other members of his Northern lenged by Serbia, which requested that the matter be previously. Likewise, the new law on local elections Turkey League party for racially discriminatory propaganda. sent to the International Court of Justice. In March, does not provide for guaranteed political participa- Contributed by Nurcan Kaya The mayor had stated publicly that wherever Roma violence erupted in Mitrovica, leaving at least 80 tion of ethnic communities. The performance of the ruling Justice and arrived, there were thefts. The court held that ‘dis- Serb civilians and 63 members of the international The problem of the lead-contaminated camps Development Party (AKP) in 2008 has failed to crimination based on diversity is different from dis- security forces injured. in which Roma internally displaced persons have meet the expectations of minorities, as well as aca- crimination based on somebody’s criminality’, effec- In spite of Prime Minister Hashim Thaci’s prom- been accommodated since 1999 has still not been demics, human rights activists and the EU. Instead tively ruling that to imply all Roma were criminals ises of a democracy that respected the rights of all resolved. Forced repatriations of Roma, Ashkalia of focusing on the EU accession process and further is acceptable discrimination. The case was returned ethnic communities, minorities in Kosovo are left and Egyptian refugees, who were granted protection democratization as promised, ‘combating terrorism’ to the lower court, however, which in its October very much on the margins. Human rights advocates in several countries of western Europe, continues in occupied the government’s agenda after the AKP 2008 decision confirmed the conviction. point out that neither the Constitution nor the 2008. Families are returned even though no hous- came into power and during the local elections of The new government instituted a series of meas- new laws provide adequate protection for the small ing, welfare support or employment opportunities March 2009. Moreover, civil society has not yet ures aiming to remedy the security issues identified minorities in Kosovo (Bosniaks, Croats, Gorani, are provided for them. The returns have a particu- been able to have any input into the draft revised in the campaign, including the declaration of a state Montenegrins, Roma, Ashkali and Egyptians, and larly negative impact on children who have grown constitution the government has been preparing. of emergency in the regions of Campania, Lazio and Turks among others) and, in some cases, have up in the countries of asylum, were integrated into Turkey’s policy on minority rights and the legal

196 Europe State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Europe 197 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 The day after they arrived in Istanbul, Dilan human rights activist Hrant Dink and the Christian is no clear legal prohibition against giving such talks No dreams started to work as an apprentice at a small tex- staff of the Zirve Publishing House in Malatya are in languages other than Turkish. tile factory. She worked from 08.30 to 19.00. still pending, and the lawyers representing the fami- The property rights of minorities are still not ade- for Dilan She was still just nine years old. Her Turkish lies of the victims and many human rights organiza- quately addressed. The Law on Foundations (Law was not good and she was frequently harassed tions, including Amnesty International, argue that no. 5555), adopted by parliament in November for that in Istanbul. She was never enrolled at a investigation is not being carried out effectively. 2006 and vetoed by then-President Ahmet Necdet By Nurcan Kaya school in Istanbul, as she had to work and con- The public officers who were accused of negligence Sezer, was adopted again by parliament on 20 tribute to the family income, and she did not for failing to take protection measures for Dink, February 2008. The new law allows non-Muslim even have an ID card to register at a school. despite having received intelligence information on Foundations to apply to recover their properties Dilan Kılıçaraslan was displaced in south-east The whole family was too scared to have any the murder plan, remained in their posts and no seized by the state in the 1970s, but only if they Turkey during the armed conflict between contact with the officials. All they wanted was case was brought against them. Dink’s family and are still in the hands of the state. It does not guar- the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK) and the to survive. Like other displaced families, they the lawyers representing them are still subject to antee return or compensation for the properties of Turkish army in 1993. She wanted to become never received any financial or other sort of harassment and threats by the perpetrators and their non-Muslim foundations that were seized and sold a doctor, but displacement and discrimination support from the state. lawyers. to third parties. The European Court of Human mean her dreams have been put on hold for Dilan dreamed of enrolling at a school in In December 2008 some intellectuals organized Rights (ECtHR) found a violation of Article 1 of more than 20 years. Istanbul for many years. After getting an ID a petition for an apology to the Armenians for their Protocol No. 1 to the European Convention on Dilan’s ID calls her ‘Sibel’; the authorities some years later, when the family decided to massacre in 1915; it was supported by thousands. Human Rights in the case Fener Rum Patrikligi won’t let her be known by her Kurdish name. enrol her, security forces raided their flat and However, in January 2009, the Federation of the (Ecumenical Patriarchate) v. Turkey (July 2008) on And though ‘Dilan’ means ‘festival’ in Kurdish, detained some family members for aiding the Osmangazi Culture Associations in Eskişehir organ- the basis that Turkish authorities had deprived the her life has been far from happy. PKK. Neither Dilan, nor any other children of ized a press conference to condemn the campaign. owner of the property without providing for appro- Her mother was the first wife of a violent the family ever went to school in Istanbul. Members of the Federation carried placards stating priate compensation. The Law on Compensation man, and Dilan was the youngest of 14 children. Dilan is 25 years old now. She still lives with ‘Dogs can enter but not Armenians and Jews’. A for Losses Arising from Terrorism and the Fight She also has six step-siblings. Studying in pri- some family members in Bağcılar and still works criminal investigation has been brought against the against Terrorism (Law no. 5233) ensured compen- mary school in her village, Dilan said she wanted in a textile factory, now as an adept-expert. She president of the Federation. sation for the properties of displaced people; how- to become a doctor, work, take her mother and earns very little money and works without hav- However some positive steps were taken by the ever, the compensation was usually far from meeting start a new life, where they would be free and ing any insurance. Dilan says that if she had not government in 2008 and as a result, TRT 6, a new ‘just satisfaction’ criteria. Return of displaced people would not face any humiliation. been displaced, or if she had ever been assisted public channel broadcasting around the clock in and their integration in the places where they have But her village was set on fire by the Turkish by the state to continue her education, probably Kurdish (Zaza and Kurmanci dialects) was launched settled remained crucial issues to be addressed in security forces in 1993. She says that the whole she would be in her fourth year at university in January 2009. Turkey’s Prime Minister Recep 2008. house, including their goods, animals, farm and today. Tayyip Erdoğan congratulated Kurds in Kurdish The education rights of minorities is one of the memories, were burned down. The family spent As she tells her story, Dilan bursts into tears. for the opening of this new channel. Although the areas in which the government is most reluctant the night in the neighbouring village. The fol- She says this is not the life she wanted. She channel was welcomed as a groundbreaking step by to progress. Issues including lack of ethnic data for lowing day they went to the town of Tatvan, hopes that one day the state might offer her a a large proportion of civil society, including Kurds, the most disadvantaged groups, including child and the day after to Istanbul. They stayed with a different option, such as vocational training or the government was criticized for not lifting the seasonal workers (see Box, p. 198), regional dis- relative in Bağcılar, a quarter in Istanbul which a different job. If that happened, she says, she restrictions on private broadcasters. While TRT 6 parities in literacy rates that reveal inequality along was home to a large number of displaced Kurds. would feel better and make a new start. p has been allowed unlimited broadcasting in Kurdish, ethnic and gender lines, and problems in registra- private national and regional broadcasters are still tion, that particularly affect the Roma, are explored subject to restrictions which make it almost impossi- in greater depth in MRG’s 2009 report: Forgotten ble to broadcast in Kurdish or other local languages. or Assimilated? Minorities in the Education System of framework has not changed. The only instrument Yezidis out of Lausanne’s protection. Furthermore, Moreover, using Kurdish is still prohibited in some Turkey. The report also looks at the importance of Turkey will refer to when it comes to protection Turkey has limited the property and education areas. Article 81/c of the Law on Political Parties mother tongue education, which is guaranteed to of minorities is the Treaty of Lausanne, which rights of Armenians and Rums, in violation of the prohibits election campaigning in languages other Lausanne minorities only, and the difficulties and was signed between the new Republic of Turkey Lausanne Treaty. Other ethnic minorities, includ- than Turkish. In January 2009, six members of the restrictions communities face in setting up their own and the allies of the First World War in 1923. ing Caucasians, Kurds, Laz and Roma, are not pro-Kurdish Democratic Society Party (DTP) were schools. Discrimination exists in the system; the It guarantees specific rights only to non-Muslim recognized as minorities and are therefore not fully charged under this provision for issuing posters in government has done little to reform the contents of minorities. Turkey, moreover, has been and still guaranteed a number of rights, inter alia broadcast- Kurdish in May 2008. When Ahmet Türk, the pres- the mandatory religion class, which focuses on Sunni is violating the Lausanne Treaty by applying it ing and education in mother tongue. ident of the DTP gave a speech in Kurdish at the Islam, despite a ruling by the ECtHR that the class is only to Armenians, Rums (Greek Orthodox) and In 2008, racist propaganda and attacks were on DTP group meeting at the parliament in February in violation of the right to education under Article 2 Jews, leaving other non-Muslim groups, such as the rise. The cases brought against the perpetrators 2009, TRT 3, the parliament broadcasting channel, of the 1st Protocol to the Convention (See Hasan and Assyrians, Baha’is, Chaldeans, Protestants and of the racist murders of the Armenian journalist and cut its broadcast after a few minutes, although there Eylem Zengin v. Turkey.) p

198 Europe State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Europe 199 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 LEBANON SYRIA

ISRAEL/OT/ Palestinian Authority

EGYPT JORDAN

IRAQ

KUWAIT IRAN Middle

SAUDI ARABIA BAHRAIN QATAR

U.A.E . East Kate Washington

OMAN YEMEN

ARABIAN SEA he Middle East is arguably one of the al activities can only further threaten, challenge and years younger than me. It was too bad and they most ethnically, religiously and linguisti- marginalize minorities throughout the Middle East. ‘They put me were too bad with me. I cried for three days. My T cally diverse areas of the world. Ancient father said I didn’t have to go any more. When I languages, ethnic groups and religious sects have No future: the situation of minority IDPs in a class with was a small girl I thought that I would be a doc- survived the creation of modern nation states, and Iraqi refugees tor or maybe an engineer when I was older. My but find themselves under constant threat from Within Iraq an estimated 2–3 million Iraqis are father is a doctor and my mother is an engineer. generalized viole nce and local identity politics. internally displaced (IDPs). Detailed statistics girls five years It looked kind of easy. But that was when I was Throughout the region in 2008, conflicts over both suggest that between 8.6 per cent (International very small … I don’t think I’ll be a doctor any resources and identity have continued. Organization for Migration) and 12 per cent younger than more.’ The US-led invasion of Iraq, in particular, has (Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre) of IDPs had serious effects on neighbouring governments are from Iraq’s smaller minorities – similar propor- me’ Imad, 14, a Mandaean, says: bearing the weight of a large-scale refugee crisis tions to the general population. ‘I like school and I am a good student. Everyone that has put great strain on resources from water IDPs face considerable obstacles to ensuring that Two young Iraqi refugees in Jordan tell in my class is nice and my teacher is a good to health and education provision. Small minority their children receive regular schooling. Not only do Kate Washington their stories teacher. They don’t mind that I am an Iraqi and communities have been forced to flee and are being economic constraints and security concerns affect everyone is quiet about me being Mandaean. dispersed worldwide. Minority communities inside school enrolment, but families also face difficul- Ruwaida, 15, says: Most of the students don’t know what that Iraq continue to suffer targeted attacks because of ties transferring official school documents. Schools ‘When we were still in Iraq a group of men means. One of the boys said I was a Kafir their identities. The conflict has also contributed in areas with large numbers of IDPs are becoming came into my school and shot our teacher. [Unbeliever] but the teacher told him he was a to security concerns in neighbouring countries and overcrowded. Nobody knew why. I liked that teacher very donkey and didn’t know anything. That made borders have become more solid. Members of some minority groups, particularly much, she was always really kind. everyone laugh and he didn’t say it any more. In recent history, the elements of cultural dif- Mandaean-Sabeans, have fled their home areas in large ‘After that I didn’t want to go to school any ‘I think they think we are Kafir. My father ference – language, religion and ethnicity – have numbers, and find their culture and future endan- more. My father said I didn’t need to, he would went and spoke to the head of the school about become dominant issues in the evolution of national- gered by their status as IDPs or refugees. Others, like teach me at home. I think he meant to, but he the religion class. He didn’t tell me why. ism in the region. Being one of the most important Yezidis and Chaldean and Assyrian Christians, are was busy and sad and my mother was crying ‘Some of my friends at school are Iraqi too, vectors for the transmission of cultural identity, divided, and face ongoing violence in their home areas a lot. That was about five years ago, I think. but you can’t see it. Now they speak with education provision, particularly for minorities, has as well as the challenges of displacement. Maybe a year after that we came to Amman. Jordanian accents. It is easier to be here if you suffered as a result. The US Commission on International Religious My parents decided it was too scary in Baghdad have that accent. When I first got here I didn’t Language has played a pivotal role in the crea- Freedom (USCIRF) and others have warned and my brother couldn’t leave the house at that understand everything the teachers said because tion of Arab, Persian and Kurdish national identi- that the number of Iraqi religious minorities that time. One of our neighbours was kidnapped and they have that accent. It is OK now I under- ties, and for much of the region has been the most are fleeing — including Christians, Yezidis and we didn’t see him any more. When we came to stand everything. important marker of ethnicity. The relationship Mandaean-Sabeans – could threaten the existence of Jordan people told my parents that there were ‘The hardest thing about going to school is between language, ethnicity and the concept of the these faiths in Iraq. The Mandaean population has no schools for Iraqis unless you paid lots of the boys on the way to school. The bus doesn’t ‘nation’ has meant that minority language issues decreased from more than 60,000 in the early 1990s money. go all the way to the school and I have to walk have become increasingly politicized and sensitive. to an estimated 4,000–5,000 today. ‘We didn’t have lots of money so my parents for 10 minutes. A lot can happen to you in 10 Increasingly, throughout the region, states have It is difficult to estimate how many Iraqis have sent my two brothers to school. I didn’t mind, minutes. One day one of my friends got beaten put considerable energy into creating uni-lingual fled their country. Currently, the UNHCR has reg- I didn’t want to go to school anyway. It made by a group of boys when he was walking alone. public spaces. The results of this for linguistic and istered approximately 300,000 Iraqis, primarily in me feel sick. Two years ago the King said Iraqis He doesn’t come to school now. ethno-linguistic minorities have been dramatic. As Syria, Jordan and Lebanon. Early estimates suggest- could go to school and my parents were really ‘Now me and my friends wait for each other such, minority groups throughout the region have ed there might be more than 2 million Iraqi refugees pleased. They made me promise that I would try near the bus and walk together. We are four been targeted and in some cases violently repressed in total, but efforts to locate or provide aid to them and go to school. I was really nervous. Actually boys and that feels a bit safer. I can’t tell my for campaigning for the right to mother tongue have yielded little result. Among those known to be it didn’t matter, the school couldn’t take me. father what happened – I don’t want him to education – the lack of which is widely considered displaced, UN and other figures suggest that 20–25 We had the wrong papers from my old school stop me from going to school too.’ p to be detrimental to students’ achievement of their per cent come from Iraq’s smaller ethnic or religious and I was too old for my class. This year they potential. In most cases, of course, it is rural com- minority groups. Christians and Mandaean-Sabeans tried again. They put me in a class with girls five Names have been changed munities and women and girls from minorities who are particularly heavily represented. suffer most from educational exclusion. Many Iraqi refugees lack legal status in their host The continuing trends of forcibly adopting major- countries, have limited access to basic services, and ity-language education, providing fewer resources for face challenges in accessing education – and few although both Syria and Jordan now give Iraqi chil- Lebanon released 200 Iraqis who had previously the education of minority groups, and actively perse- opportunities for employment. Lebanon, Syria and dren access to schools and some public health facili- been detained, as part of a move for the ‘regulariza- cuting those who try to maintain minority education- Jordan have tended to treat Iraqis as illegal migrants, ties. In 2008, Human Rights Watch reported that tion of foreign nationals’.

202 Middle East State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Middle East 203 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Minorities are disproportionately represented in Muslims to say they cannot or will not go back to the forcible closure of Nobel Peace Prize Laureate ing the Ahwazi flag and giving their children Sunni the poorest segments of the refugee population, and Iraq, even if the security situation improves. Dr Shirin Ebadi’s Centre for Human Rights names. In April 2008, dozens, possibly hundreds, of some are significantly less likely to have their chil- Defenders (CHRD) in December. According to Ahwazi were detained in advance of the anniversary dren enrolled in school than other Iraqis: in early Migrant workers Amnesty International, its closure ‘threatens the of riots in Al Ahwaz, which had erupted after a dis- 2007, only 15 per cent of Mandaean-Sabean fami- Migrant or ‘guest workers’ are present in many entire country’s human rights movement’. puted letter was leaked from the government detail- lies said their children were enrolled. This may have Middle Eastern countries in their millions. They ing plans to reduce the province’s Arab population. changed, since in 2007–8 the Jordanian government face a variety of problems because of legal and Education Azeris make up nearly 25 per cent of the coun- opened public education to all children, regardless administrative rules, and lack of protection by their A policy of assimilation seems to be embedded in try’s population. While a number of key estab- of nationality or legal status. host governments. In many countries in the Middle Iran’s approach to education. The Unrepresented lishment figures are Azeri and they may be more Given access to education, many Iraqis appear to East, ‘sponsorship’ laws typically tie workers to Nations and People’s Organization (UNPO), an generally accepted than other minorities, Azeris are have taken advantage of it (24,650 Iraqi children their employers and restrict their freedom of move- international group that advocates for stateless nevertheless denied rights to be educated in their were in school in Jordan in 2007–8) but most ment, making them vulnerable to workplace abuse. minorities around the world, claims that Iran has an own language. On 21 February 2008, hundreds have no formal opportunities for higher education. However, many foreign workers in the region face official policy of ‘Persianization’ which puts at risk were arrested in connection with a peaceful dem- They can receive some health care at moderately aggravated vulnerability because they are also reli- rights to cultural and linguistic heritage. onstration on International Mother Language Day, discounted rates, and aid from the UN and NGOs. gious and linguistic minorities. The Iranian Constitution states that all school demanding the right to use their own language in Many work illegally; most are under-employed and Foreign workers are often from countries with textbooks must be in Persian, and while literacy schools. vulnerable to exploitation. Buddhist, Hindu or animist religions, which are rates in Iran are generally good, children from UN Special Rapporteur on the independence of Child labour remains an issue for families strug- not recognized by Middle Eastern governments or minority communities forced to learn in Persian/ judges and lawyers Leandro Despouy issued appeals gling to survive, and there are many anecdotal by many members of the population. This makes Farsi have high rates of illiteracy and often drop out early in 2008 on behalf of an activist arrested for reports of survival sex among Iraqi women, par- the workers more vulnerable to formal and informal of school early. campaigning for greater rights to use the Azeri ticularly minorities who may have been victims of abuse. Since a large number of foreign workers are The government requires all heads of schools or mother tongue, and on behalf of a journalist who gender-based violence in Iraq. There continue to women who travel to work in the domestic sector, institutes to identify students and staff affiliated and wrote in and taught Azeri. Arrests of minority jour- be reports of Iraqi women (from majority as well these issues particularly affect minority women. belonging to ‘subversive and non-subversive sects’ nalists, activists and intellectuals continued through- as minority communities) being forced to wear the Throughout the region, there are numerous and to report on them. out the year and into early 2009. Islamic hijab in Iraq, Syria and Jordan. reports of overwork and physical, psychological Teachers in Iran have been particularly vulner- Baha’is, Iran’s largest religious minority, have In Syria, the problems of Iraqi refugees are and sexual abuse against foreign domestic workers. able to arrest, torture and even execution, because of about 300,000 members. Their situation may be similar. There are about 200,000 Iraqis registered In accounts from Saudi Arabia, foreign domestic state intolerance of minority-language education. In worsening as they face state-sponsored persecution, with the UNHCR, and only 46,642 Iraqi children women workers report being regarded as less than February 2008, Kurdish teacher Farzad Kamangar, personal threats, restrictions on employment, expul- enrolled in school. human by their employers. superintendent of high schools in Kamayaran, was sion from university and high school, and continued Living off dwindling savings, it is easy for Iraqi Foreign workers face harsh treatment from police sentenced to death for ‘endangering national secu- defamation in the media. In 2008 the government refugees to develop a sense of hopelessness about and in detention, can be made to stand trial or sign rity’. According the US State Department Human arrested more than a dozen leading Baha’is. their future. The shortfalls in education for children confessions in languages they don’t understand, and Rights Report on Iran, the Supreme Court upheld Ethnic Baluchis constitute about 2 per cent of and employment for young people risk creating a can even face the death penalty. Foreign workers who the sentence in July. the population and practise Sunni Islam. They live generation of Iraqis that feels it has no future at all. run into legal problems and do not have financial or This policy of discrimination in education in the county’s poorest region. MRG has reported Displaced minorities suffer particular problems from legal support can languish in detention indefinitely. extends into severe restrictions on freedom of that since 2005 a Sunni organization based in losing their community links. Mandaean-Sabeans in speech, opinion and the press, summarized by Baluchistan, Jondallah, claimed responsibility for Jordan have no religious authority and are unable Iran Human Rights Watch in its 2008 World Report: attacks against Iranian government targets. In to practise their religious rituals, which demand Iran’s minority communities – both ethnic and reli- ‘Most journalists arrested in 2008 were targeted August 2008, a Tehran-based Baluchi newspaper the presence of bodies of water. With their com- gious – make up nearly 50 per cent of the popula- for covering ethnic minority issues and civil society journalist, Yaghoub Mehrnehad, was arrested and munity scattered, and becoming more so through tion. But they are subject to human rights violations activities.’ According to Iranian Minorities Human executed for associating with Jondallah. resettlement, they risk the loss of their way of life by the state, such as intimidation, arbitrary deten- Rights Organization (IMHRO), ‘Any type of free Around 7 per cent of Iran’s population is altogether. tion, confiscation of property, denial of education media in ethnic minority languages is banned and Kurdish. Clashes between the Partî Bo Jîyanî Azadî Other minority groups have been actively trying to and inequality in legal matters. Large numbers of the use of ethnic languages in any arts form is also la Kurdistan (PJAK), the militant Kurdish group, promote and save their distinct languages and social both Iranian Kurd and Azeri activists have been prohibited.’ and the Iranian government continued in 2008. and religious practice. In Amman, Jordan, Iraqi detained for reasons of ‘national security’. In 2008 The state has also engaged in numerous arrests, Assyrians have established their own informal school the use of security, educational, press and anti- Minorities by group detentions and executions of Kurds this year, which teaches Assyrian language classes, religion dissident laws increased dramatically, according to Ahwazi Arabs make up about 3 per cent of Iran’s including at least one Kurdish juvenile. Kurdish classes and computer classes. The school is funded by Human Rights Watch. population. In January 2008, the government newspapers have been closed, and journalists have charitable donations from the community. A dramatic rise in repression of political and executed four Ahwazi political activists. The charges been detained or executed. Displaced minorities are also more likely than minority activists throughout 2008 culminated with against them included ‘identity crimes’, such as rais- Minority women have also been targeted: Hana

204 Middle East State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Middle East 205 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Abdi and Ronak Safarzadeh were arrested in 2007. areas singled out by hard-line Islamist movements been particularly opposed to the inclusion of Kirkuk unsafe and their future is bleak. Thousands of They were members of Azarmehr Association of the for murder or forced conversion. Their religious under Kurdish authority. Palestinians now inhabit three harsh desert camps Women of Kurdistan, organizing literacy courses buildings, shops and homes were also targeted. The political participation of minorities in on the Iraq-Syria border. In March 2008, UNHCR and other capacity-building workshops in the Mandaean-Sabeans, members of an ancient Gnostic government has been a major issue in 2008, and appealed for the immediate relocation and resettle- Iranian Kurdish areas, as well as participants in the sect whose prophet is John the Baptist, were tar- is intimately connected with this kind of identity ment of Palestinians suffering from acute medical wider Campaign for Equality for an end to legal geted in Baghdad. The Mandaean Human Rights politics. Early drafts of the crucial provincial elec- conditions. As of September 2008, 306 had been discrimination against women in Iran. Abdi was Group Report of 2008 states that forcible conver- tions law included quotas for minorities, including resettled: 116 were accepted by Chile, 174 by released in February 2009 after 16 months in jail; at sions and confiscation of property and businesses are Assyrian Christians and Shabak, but these were Sweden and 16 by Switzerland. the time of writing Safarzadeh is awaiting trial and taking place, and the Mandaean Associations Union removed in September 2008, when a last-minute could face the death penalty. reported the killing of nine Mandaeans in Al-Kut revision of the bill allowed a resolution of the Israel and the Occupied City in Iraq on 26 March 2008. status of Kirkuk to be postponed until early 2009. Palestinian Territories Iraq Regarding both Iraq’s many internally displaced The decision sparked protests in some Iraqi cities, Palestinian citizens of Israel, or ‘Israeli Arabs’, who Iraq has been home to a wide cross-section of the people (IDPs) and the general population, UN and international condemnation. In November, constitute 20 per cent of the Israeli population, Middle East’s ethnic and religious communities, agencies and NGOs continue to express con- following an advocacy campaign by minority continue to be marginalized socially and politically, some for more than two millennia. The majority cern over access to schooling and the quality of organizations and MRG, the parliament restored and divided into sub-groups that receive different of its population, about 60 per cent, are ethnically education. UN Office for the Coordination of minority representation, but offered minorities far treatment from the state. In October 2008 extremist Arab Ithna’ashari (‘Twelver’) Shia. This group Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) stated in February fewer quota seats than recommended by the UN: Jewish rioters attacked Arab homes and property in was kept out of positions of power under Saddam 2008 that access to regular schooling has been ham- only six out of 440. Akka; in November outgoing Israeli Prime Minister, Hussein, but today has the greatest share of political pered due to continued security fears, school clo- Shabak are ethnically and linguistically distinct Ehud Olmert, admitted that Palestinians in Israel power. Perhaps 20 per cent of the population are sures and the exodus of teaching staff. School enrol- from Kurds, but Kurdish militias in some areas suffer from ‘deep-seated discrimination’. Most of Arab Sunnis (though this figure is widely disputed) ment rates are thought to be as low as 46 per cent, of the north have harassed them, insisting that the Israeli Palestinians are Sunni Arabs, but they and15–20 per cent are ethnic Kurds, a majority with the highest drop-out rates noted in Nineveh they are in fact Kurds in order to consolidate land also include Christian Arabs, Circassians, Druze, of whom are Sunni Muslim. There are numer- Governorate – an area where many minorities live. claims. According to a July 2008 report from Samaritans and Bedouin. Other minority communi- ous smaller ethnic and religious groups, including As the country has become more ethnically seg- the Iraq Ministry of Human Rights, the Shabak ties, such as Jews from the Arab region and migrant Christians (Chaldeans, Assyrians and Armenians), regated, struggles have been exacerbated by resource minority had suffered the worst internal displace- workers from the Horn of Africa, have also faced Baha’is, Dom (a people related to the Roma), Jews, conflicts. Iraq’s oil resources are concentrated in ment, reporting 3,708 families (about 16,000 peo- systematic social and political discrimination. Faili (Shia Kurds), Mandaean-Sabeans, Palestinians, north, including the Kurdish-governed areas, and ple) displaced. Repressive treatment of the Israeli Arab minority Sarliya-Kakaiya, Shabak, Turkmen and Yezidis. in the Shia-majority south. This has led to disagree- Yezidis, members of an ancient pre-Islamic faith, is typically justified by the government referenc- Under Saddam, many of these communities were ments over the level of federalism Iraq will have, are particular targets. Though they did not occur at ing Israel’s identity as a Jewish state or by invoking ethnically cleansed under a policy of Arabization. and how resources will be shared, controlled and the disastrous levels of 2007, attacks against Yezidis security concerns. To this day, the country contin- Some were given favourable treatment, however. distributed by the government. Final agreement on continued in 2008, including the killing of seven ues to be torn between its Jewish identity and its In December 2008, the USCIRF called for Iraq issues such as Iraq’s oil law continued to be delayed members of one family by armed militants and a claim to full democracy, and political parties that to be designated ‘a country of particular concern’ in 2008. car bombing in the predominantly Yazidi town of deny that Israel is a Jewish state are banned. under America’s International Religious Freedom One result of these disputes has been ethno- Sinjar, near Mosul, that killed several people and Arab students in Israel are taught in their own Act. The reason for this, according to the State political groups using identity politics and forced wounded more than 40 others. language, but it was only in 2007 that parliament Department report, was particularly because of migration to assert their dominance over strategic The situation of Iraq’s Christian communities approved a textbook that included Arab views on the situation for Iraq’s smallest religious minori- resources or population areas. Kurds have fought for continued to be a concern during 2008. In March the expulsion of Palestinians at the founding of ties, including Chaldo-Assyrian Christians, other increased territory for their semi-autonomous region 2008, one of Iraq’s most senior Chaldean Catholic Israel as a ‘Nakba’, or catastrophe. In 2008 the Arab Christians, Mandaean-Sabeans, Shabaks and Yezidis. in the north, and minorities have been the targets of clerics was abducted in the same city. In April, Pedagogical Council was founded to research and Commission chair Felice D. Gaer said: ‘The lack of violence and intimidation as a result, particularly in an Assyrian Orthodox priest was murdered in offer policy recommendations connected to the effective government action to protect these com- and around the oil-rich cities of Kirkuk and Mosul, Baghdad. In October 2008, the UNHCR reported Arab education curriculum. However, the Ministry munities from abuses has established Iraq among which Iraqi Turkmen, Christians and Yazidi com- that targeted attacks against Christians in Mosul of Education has been reluctant to cooperate with one the most dangerous places on earth for religious munities consider their homeland. In those cities, caused 13,000 people to flee. According to the the council. minorities.’ some groups, including Arabs and Kurds, have tried UN Assistance Mission for Iraq, many have now In July 2008, Israel’s Citizenship and Entry Law, In the sectarian violence following the US-led to co-opt others, force them to leave, or consolidate returned. which prevents Palestinian spouses of Israeli citizens invasion of 2003, minority groups were dispro- power through violence; 2008 saw an increase of The situation of Palestinian refugees in Iraq from receiving status and living together in Israel, portionately the victims. Palestinian refugees, who such inter-ethnic conflict. Kirkuk is currently under remains grave. After the fall of Saddam Hussein’s was extended for another year. Land confiscations, received favoured status under Saddam, became the political control of Kurdish authorities; decades regime, many were threatened, kidnapped, tortured the withholding of building permits and the dispro- targets of attacks. Christians, who under Saddam of ethnic cleansing have shaped the mutual distrust or killed. Many tried to flee to neighbouring coun- portionate destruction of Israeli Arab homes and vil- were permitted to trade alcohol, were in several among different ethnic groups and Turkmen have tries, but Syria will not admit them, Iraq remains lages have also long been problems for Israeli Arabs,

206 Middle East State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Middle East 207 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Left: A Bedouin child shepherds his sheep, close Lebanon to the desert mosque of al Nabi Musa, West Bank. The long-standing ethnic tensions in Lebanon that Ahikam Seri/Panos. were stirred by the 2005 assassination of former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri, and the 2006 Israel tlements, roads, military zones and nature reserves as –Hizbullah conflict, came to a head in 2008 with all presenting obstacles to the livelihood of Bedouins a series of violent confrontations between formal and herders. and ad hoc militias and the Lebanese military. A A 2009 report form the Health Ministry in the core issue was how different ethnic groups would Negev region found infant mortality rates among be represented in Lebanon’s confessional system of the Bedouin to be three times above the national government, which attempts to strike a balance in average – although since 2004 there has been a 5.5 a country that is essentially populated entirely by per cent decline in the infant mortality rate among minorities. Lebanon is 60 per cent Muslim (Sunnis, Bedouin. Shia, and Druze and Allawi, who only sometimes The military attacks on the Gaza Strip that com- identify as Muslim) and 40 per cent Christian menced in December 2008, and Hamas rocket (divided again into a huge number of sects). fire into Israel, further increased existing tensions Approximately 400,000 Palestinians, mostly between Arab and Jewish Members of the Knesset Sunni, live in Lebanon, many without identity (MKs). During the conflict, Israel’s Central Election papers. About half live in 12 UNRWA camps. They Committee banned two Arab parties from field- continue to face severe discrimination, are barred ing candidates in elections for the Knesset. The from 70 professional vocations and cannot own Supreme Court declared the ban illegal and Arab property or travel freely. UNRWA usually allows parties gained one seat in the 2009 elections, but non-ID holding children to attend school, but they two Arab Labor MKs lost their seats. cannot register for examinations and so many drop The 2008 report by the Association for Civil out. In March 2008, UN news agency IRIN quoted Rights in Israel report found that Ethiopian immi- UNRWA representative Hoda al-Turk as saying grants to Israel were still experiencing discrimination that new identification papers were ‘imminent’. It and marginalization. It also highlighted that only is hoped that this will prevent arbitrary arrests and 39.1 per cent of Ethiopian students graduated from ensure access to school and medical facilities. high school. In July 2008 an investigative commit- Latent conflict between different Lebanese fac- tee was set up in the Knesset to examine the situa- tions has lasted for years. In the first half of 2008, a tion of Ethiopians in the areas of education, hous- socio-economic alliance composed mostly of south- ing, employment and welfare. ern Shia with loyalties to Hizbullah, and Maronite Throughout 2008 Israel appeared to continue its Christians, shut down the government because they efforts to annex parts of the West Bank and East felt under-represented. A shaky political compro- particularly for the Bedouin of the Negev. or sewerage services to these settlements, and often Jerusalem. There was a significant increase in settle- mise was eventually reached but there were reports The Israeli government and media maintain an destroys them completely. There has been some ment construction: 1,257 new constructions in 2008 in the aftermath of seriously increased tensions explicit concern that land must remain under Jewish progress on this issue: at the end of 2007, a gov- as opposed to 800 during 2007. Concerns have been along Sunni–Shia lines. The fear of large-scale con- ownership. In 2007 and 2008, for example, there ernment commission recommended that as many raised over the implications of continued illegal set- flict between Sunni and Shia (as was recently seen in was a continuing effort by the Jewish National Bedouin villages as possible should be recognized tlement for the future of any peace initiative. Iraq) did not materialize, but the situation remains Fund (JNF) and the Israeli Lands Administration by the state. However, the report did not call for Settler violence against Palestinians continues to tense. to ensure that the JNF does not have to sell land to an end to all demolitions, which continued in 2008 increase. In 2008 the OCHA reported an increase In February 2008 the Ministry of Interior Arabs. and early 2009. of settler violence against Palestinians from 243 announced that Lebanese citizens would be able The land issue is of particular significance to the In July 2008, the International Committee of incidences in 2007 to 290 in 2008; approximately to remove their religion from Civil Registry Bedouin, a cultural minority of nomadic herders the Red Cross (ICRC) warned that the estimated half of those injured since 2006 were women and Records. The international community commended who have traditionally inhabited Israel’s southern 50,000 Bedouins and herders of the West Bank children. the move as a small step towards ameliorating desert, the Negev. For more than 40 years, they were ‘on the brink of an emergency’ after three Although house demolitions were halted after Lebanon’s sectarian divisions. have faced a policy of forced urbanization, under years of drought and cold winters. The ICRC stated an agreement between the Israeli government Violence and conflict have disproportionately which their settlements in the desert have been con- that Israeli policies had aggravated the problem by and the Quartet (the USA, Russia, the EU and affected the most marginalized groups. In 2007 sidered illegal and ‘unrecognized’. The government preventing herds from being moved to water sources the UN) in May 2008, in late 2008 demolitions conflict between Fatah al-Islam and the Lebanese has routinely refused to provide water, electricity and fresh grazing land. The ICRC cited Israeli set- resumed. army led to the destruction of Nahr al-Bared camp

208 Middle East State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Middle East 209 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Left: Tamara Chaya and her family are Iraqi Christians. Her uncle was kidnapped and ‘We have to murdered in 2006, and after threats against her immediate family they have fled to Lebanon. Tamara teach them dropped out of school to work in a supermarket. J.B. Russell/Panos. to lie’

piloted in 40 schools. A Shia man from Saudi Arabia The year 2008 also appears to have brought lit- speaks of the difficult impact that tle progress towards the screening out of extremist discrimination, especially in the teachers, which the Saudi government promised in school system, has on young and 2007. The USCIRF report said some screenings old in Saudi Arabia. By Preti Taneja had taken place, but also mentioned ‘multiple inci- dents’ in which teachers ‘promoted intolerant views in the classroom without being disciplined’. This ‘Religious textbooks are one main problem. general intolerance intersects with issues specifically From elementary schools they teach kids facing minorities. In 2008, there were incidents of how to classify people: that Muslims go to Shia students being called unbelievers, infidels or heaven and kafirs go to hell. It’s very dan- polytheists. Ismailis also continued to be defamed in gerous. Children believe they are kafir and textbooks as polytheists or infidels. will go to hell. USCIRF highlights widespread government dis- ‘The teachers tell all children, “You are crimination against Shia working in education. Shia not Muslim, you are Shi’ite. You don’t academics comprised only 2 per cent of professors believe in God.” When exams come they and the pace of reconstruction continues to be slow. against the organization, according to USCIRF. at one university in Al Ahsa, and only 1 per cent of ask Shias what they know about Shias. More than a year after the fighting and the displace- However, the report stated, ‘the government primary and secondary school teachers in an area [They] have to write: “They are kafir”, and ment of 30,000 residents, only a small number of allowed unprecedented media coverage of the trials that is nearly 50 per cent Shia. Shia teachers were if [they] don’t [they] will fail the exam. families have been able to return. of mutawwa’in involved in these incidents, and pub- also barred from teaching certain subjects, including ‘We have to correct their thinking at lic protests were not met with further harassment.’ religious studies. home, and say if they get the question in the Saudi Arabia USCIRF also maintains that non-Muslims, or While most Shia ‘co-exist with their Sunni neigh- exam they should answer. It creates confu- In 2008, state and societal intolerance of minorities Muslims who do not adhere to Sunni Wahhabism, bors in relative peace’, they still face discrimination in sion and double feelings for them – we have in general has continued to be the norm, with few continue to face significant legal, political, economic many areas, according to USCIRF. In 2008, the gov- to teach them to lie! signs of progress being made in the limited reforms and social discrimination while at the same time ernment arrested at least one prominent Shia religious ‘We are afraid for the future of our chil- that were instituted in previous years. Saudi Arabia being unable to conduct religious practice publicly – leader, detained others, and closed Shia mosques. dren. Our hopes are very low.’ p has a population of about 28 million people; 5.5 or in some cases, privately. In May 2008, 15 Indian There is limited evidence of official attempts to million are non-nationals, while 2–2.5 million are Christians were arrested for private worship. The improve relationships with the Shia communities in Shia Muslims and 700,000 are Ismailis, with small UN Human Rights Council advanced similar con- the Eastern Province, where the newly established numbers of resident Christians and other faith cerns in its 2008 report. Human Rights Council conducted public outreach. larly in the field of aviation. Students have instead groups, according to the USCIRF. All Saudi public school students receive manda- Ismailis have faced similar issues. Early in 2008, gone to study in Jordan, but have few prospects of Issues of concern in the kingdom include state tory religious instruction, and the textbooks used there were also reports that Saudi authorities were employment upon their return. and social intolerance of minorities in general, the promote the killing of apostates and polytheists, attempting to settle Sunni Yemeni tribesmen in the Saudi Arabia’s recently established Human Rights lack of guarantees of religious freedom, and the situ- according to the Becket Fund for Religious Liberty, Ismaili-majority Najran Province, in an attempt Council has made limited progress. The Council’s ation of Shia (see Box: p. 211). Women in Saudi a non-profit organization. Following international to dilute and further marginalize the Ismaili com- vice-president, Zeid Al-Hussein, attributed all Arabia do not enjoy full human rights and are sub- protests that the textbooks were in contravention of munity. When Ismaili leader Shaikh Ahmad bin acknowledged human rights violations to ‘individual ject to strict Sunni interpretations of Sharia law, a the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, ‘the Turki Al Sa’b complained to King Abdullah in April practices’, rejecting any indictment of government situation that is exacerbated for minority women. Saudi Government claimed it had revised the texts 2008 about the official treatment of Ismailis, he policies or social norms. On the other hand, Saudi Muslims who do not share in the official, highly and released new versions, but the USCIRF found was arrested. However, King Abdullah removed the dissident Ibrahim al-Mugaiteeb said that the Council conservative Wahhabi interpretation of Islam still evidence that large sections of the sample “revised” governor of the province, Prince Mishaal, after local has begun to have some effect by making people face problems with the mutawwa’in (religious textbooks were not edited, but simply torn out residents petitioned him to stop the resettlement. aware of human rights as a concept. The Council has police), and there continued to be numerous accu- or covered by correction fluid’. According to the Routine discrimination is experienced by Ismaili also launched a website, which will allow it to take sations of ‘harassment, abuse and killings’ levelled USCIRF report, a more moderate curriculum was students, who complain of unfair rejection, particu- complaints online and raise awareness.

210 Middle East State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Middle East 211 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Left: Children play a game at the Beir Dukhan after an agreement was reached in July. However, Mobile School for nomadic Bedouin children, news sources reported bloody clashes in 2008, and about 25 km north of the city of Raqqa in the USCIRF itself speculates that in 2008 the Yemeni north-eastern Raqqa Governorate, Syria. Shehzad government kidnapped Zaydi leader Mohammad Noorani/UNICEF. Ahmad Miftah. USCIRF also expressed concern over the arrest two Kurds who decided to teach Kurdish to some of in 2008 of nine Christian converts and a number their friends, were arrested by Syrian security serv- of Bahai’s, who were arrested for proselytizing ices. Their case is still pending. Muslims. Converting from Islam to another religion Kurdish cultural activities are also firmly restrict- is a crime in Yemen, as is encouraging conversion, ed, and there are reports of Kurds being arrested and both are potentially punishable by death. for wearing the colours of the Kurdish flag. Decree Also of concern is the situation of the No. 49 also requires government approval for those Mohamashin, or ‘Akhdam’, a quasi-racial and wishing to sell, rent or lease land near the Turkish ethnic minority said to be a remnant of the caste border, which Kurdish groups say is discriminatory. system that existed under the Yemeni Imamate. The In October 2008, seven Kurdish parties demonstrat- Akhdam are thought to make up around 2–5 per ed against the decree and 187 people were arrested. cent of the Yemeni population. A 2008 article in the New York Times describes a group facing severe Yemen social, economic and political discrimination. Access Religious and ethnic minorities in Yemen have gen- to education remains limited for the Mohamashin, erally enjoyed reasonable levels of protection by the but the story also highlights how, after years of eco- state. The population is predominantly Arab; but nomic discrimination, many among the group no Afro-Arabs, South Asians and Europeans are also longer seek education, seeing no opportunities to Syria Tensions between the government and Kurdish present. The majority are Muslim, including Shafi better themselves in Yemeni society. Syria is home to ethnic minorities including Kurds groups, heightened by the US invasion of Iraq, (Sunni) and Zaydi (Shia), though there are small A little-known linguistic minority of about and Palestinians. The state, while exercising some continued in 2008. In 2007, Syrian security services numbers of Christians, Hindus and Jews. 45,000 people exists on the Yemeni island of tolerance, has been repressive of groups such as responded with force to major protests by Kurdish Yemen’s most noted minority is a few tiny com- Socotra. Arabic is the official language on Socotra Kurds forming what could be political alliances. groups in the town of Qamlishi, near the Turkish munities of Jews, who remained after the majority and is taught in schools. The indigenous popula- Human Rights Watch has reported that in 2008 border. In March 2008, security services again of the population emigrated to Israel. These com- tion, however, speaks Socotri, an unwritten language Syria’s multiple security services ‘continue to detain opened fire, this time apparently on civilians during munities, comprising little more than 300 members, of pre-Islamic origins. Reports suggest that many people without arrest warrants … in effect forcibly a celebration of the Kurdish New Year, leaving three have generally been well integrated with the popula- teaching staff at Socotri schools are Saudi Arabian disappearing them’. dead. tion, have enjoyed government protection and been Wahhabi teachers, who have no understanding of Syria also has a large number of minority religious There have also been a number of arrests of Kurds viewed positively by the public and in the media. the local language or customs. Local families are groups, including Allawi, Christians (including in 2008. One well-known Kurdish leader, Osman However, they have also been a target for extremists. concerned that children attending school are losing Assyrians and Armenians), Druze, Ismaili Shias Mihemed Sileman Heci, died on 18 February after In 2008, the Jews in Amran Governorate, in the their distinct identity and language. and Yezidis. The state has a history of reasonable several months in prison, according to the NGO the north, endured a series of threats from a group of Similarly, children who often have to stay away religious tolerance; all these groups appear able to Institute for War and Peace Reporting (IWPR), and their Muslim neighbours, culminating in the mur- from home during the school term are not involved practise their religions. Kurdish rights groups. ders of two community members. in the local communities and are losing local The official language in Syria is Arabic, however Syria bans political parties other than the rul- The government has offered to relocate the Jews environmental knowledge. One project to try to a number of religious minorities in Syria, such as ing Baath party, and Kurdish parties are outlawed. to Sana’a, ostensibly for their protection. However, combat this loss of local knowledge and culture Aramaic, Armenian and Assyrian speakers, have The Syrian government has linked a number of the in 2007 a group of Jews from Saada was targeted by is funded by the Darwin Initiative, which is sup- their own schools offering instruction in their arrests or detentions of Kurds to individuals par- an extremist imam associated with the Al Houthi ported by the UK government’s Department for mother tongues. ticipating in banned political parties, or seeking a rebels. They were moved to Sana’a and as a result Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. The project The most marginalized group appears to be separate state. However, there is also a clear element they lost their property in Saada. The Jews of aims to ensure that future generations of Socotrans Syria’s Kurds. Of Syria’s estimated 1.7 million of identity-based discrimination against Kurds. Amran fear the same will happen to them. are able to sustainably manage the island’s unique Kurds the UK government’s human rights report Kurdish is an officially prohibited language and The Al Houthi rebels themselves are members flora, fauna and heritage. However, the project has states that 300,000 continue to be denied citizen- there are no Kurdish schools in Syria. Kurdish stu- of the Zaidi Shia minority. They wish to return to be taught in Arabic, and has to be developed ship. These Kurds have been denied Syrian pass- dents are forbidden to learn in their native tongue, to Zaidi clerical rule, and have been involved in a in line with the Yemeni Ministry of Education’s ports and nationality, and their identity papers are and even studying it is illegal. In summer of 2008, four-year conflict with the government. USCIRF national curriculum. p stamped ‘alien’. Darwish Ghalib Darwish and Zaki Ismail Khalil, suggests that that conflict has died down in 2008,

212 Middle East State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Middle East 213 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Results in 2009 Peoples under The highest five states in the table in 2009 are unchanged in position from last year: Somalia, Threat 2009 Iraq, Sudan, Afghanistan and Burma/Myanmar. In By Mark Lattimer each of them violence against minorities of a wide- spread or systematic character is ongoing, as it is Based on current indicators from authoritative in a number of other states near the top of the list, sources, Peoples under Threat seeks to identify including the Democratic Republic of Congo. those groups or peoples around the world most The most significant risers in the table in 2009 under threat in 2009. This is the fourth year that include (rise in rank in brackets): Pakistan (+1), Minority Rights Group International has compiled Ethiopia (+1), Israel and the Occupied Palestinian the Peoples under Threat table, presenting an index Territories (+46), Zimbabwe (+9), Yemen (+3), of risk of genocide, mass killing or other systematic Guinea (+8), Georgia (+19), Eritrea (+4), Niger violent repression. (+12), Kenya (+6), Guinea Bissau (new) and Fiji (new). Note that where indicators are now separate- How is the Peoples under Threat ly available for Israel and the Occupied Palestinian table constructed? Territories, it is the latter that have been used for Recent advances in political science have enabled the first time this year (causing a disproportionate quantitative researchers to identify the main ante- rise in rank). cedents to episodes of genocide or mass political Pakistan and Yemen have risen significantly in killing over the last half century. Current data the table in each of the last three years, and Ethiopia Reference from authoritative sources is then used to approxi- and Zimbabwe in each of the last two. mate those factors. The resulting index can aid Pakistan’s rise to the sixth position in the table civilian protection by anticipating potential situa- is due to a dangerous combination of a rapidly tions where minorities or other groups will be in escalating conflict against different Islamist groups grave danger. in North-West Frontier Province and the Federally The overall measure is based on a basket of ten Administered Tribal Areas, the existing use of vio- indicators. These include indicators of democracy lent repression to suppress dissidents in other areas or good governance from the World Bank; conflict of the country, and growing violence in national indicators from the Center for Systemic Peace and politics. In Yemen, media attention is focused on other leading global conflict research institutes; the growing role of extremist Islamist groups, but an indicators of group division or elite factionaliza- unresolved sense of grievance among the Zaydi Shia tion from the Fund for Peace and the Carnegie population and the continuing Al Houthi insurgen- Endowment for International Peace; US State cy in the north also combine to threaten stability. Failure Task Force data on prior genocides and Ethnic aspects of the crisis in Zimbabwe have politicides; and the country credit risk classifica- again not been widely reported, but given rising tion published by the Organization for Economic political violence and the country’s previous history Cooperation and Development (as a proxy for of mass ethnic killing, the threat level has increased. trade openness). For citations and further infor- Both Ethiopia and Eritrea have also risen in the list mation, see the notes at the end of the table. For this year. Border tensions between the two states a fuller discussion of the methodology, see www. remain after the expiry of the mandate of the UN minorityrights.org mission last year, with a concomitant threat to Afar In last year’s listing in 2008, the most significant communities. Both states also continue to support risers in the table were Central African Republic, different sides in the war in Somalia, another impor- Chad, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Iran, Kenya, Lebanon, tant factor in the growth of identity conflicts. Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Uzbekistan, Yemen and Zimbabwe. During the following year (2008–9) new, increased or continued violence was experi- For further information and analysis of Peoples under enced in at least 10 of those 12 states, perhaps most Threat 2009, please see www.minorityrights.org devastatingly in Pakistan and Sri Lanka.

State of the World’s Minorities Reference 215 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Country Group Conflict indicators Indicators of group division Democracy/governance indicators Total

A. Self- B. Major C. Prior genocide/politicide D. Massive E. Legacy of F. Rise of G. Voice and H. Political I. Rule of law J. OECD Table 1 determination armed conflict movement – vengeance factionalized accountability stability country risk conflicts refugees and – group elites classification Peoples under threat 2009 IDPs grievance

Somalia Darood, Hawiye, Issaq and other 4 2 1 9.8 9.5 10 -1.89 -3.01 -2.64 7 23.30 clans; Ogadenis; Bantu; Gabooye (Midgan) and other ‘caste’ groups

Iraq Shia, Sunnis, Kurds, Turkomans, 5 2 1 9 9.8 9.8 -1.29 -2.82 -1.89 7 22.14 Christians, Mandaeans, Yezidis, Shabak, Faili Kurds, Baha’is, Palestinians

Sudan Fur, Zaghawa, Massalit and others 5 2 1 9.6 10 9.9 -1.73 -2.3 -1.33 7 21.65 in Darfur; Dinka, Nuer and others in the South; Nuba, Beja

Afghanistan Hazara, Pashtun, Tajiks, Uzbeks, 4 2 1 8.9 9.5 8.8 -1.17 -2.37 -2.00 7 20.95 Turkmen, Baluchis

Burma/Myanmar Kachin, Karenni, Karen, Mons, 5 2 1 8.5 9.5 8.7 -2.16 -1.22 -1.41 7 20.62 Rakhine, Rohingyas, Shan, Chin (Zomis), Wa

Pakistan Baluchis, Hindus, Mohhajirs, 5 2 1 8.6 9.5 9.8 -1.05 -2.44 -0.93 6 19.82 Pashtun, Sindhis, Ahmadiyya, Christians and other religious minorities

Dem. Rep. of the Congo Hema and Lendu, Hunde, Hutu, 2 2 1 9.2 8.8 8.6 -1.46 -2.26 -1.67 7 19.70 Luba, Lunda, Tutsi/Banyamulenge, Twa/Mbuti

Ethiopia Anuak, Afars, Oromo, Somalis, 5 2 1 7.5 7.8 8.9 -1.19 -1.72 -0.54 7 18.86 smaller minorities

Nigeria Ibo, Ijaw, Ogoni, Yoruba, 5 2 1 5.1 9.4 9.3 -0.54 -2.07 -1.2 6 18.53 Hausa (Muslims) and Christians in the North

Israel/OPT Palestinians in Gaza/West Bank, 5 2 0 8.1 9 8 -1.28 -2.07 -0.84 8 18.37 Israeli Palestinians

Chad Black African groups, Arabs, 3 2 0 9.2 9.7 9.8 -1.43 -1.96 -1.4 7 17.95 Southerners

Sri Lanka Tamils, Muslims 5 2 1 9 9.8 9.5 -0.39 -1.96 0.06 6 17.76

Zimbabwe Ndebele, Europeans, political/ 2 0 1 9 9.5 9.3 -1.54 -1.3 -1.67 7 16.52 social targets

Iran Arabs, Azeris, Baha’is, Baluchis, 5 0 1 8.7 7.3 9 -1.52 -1.33 -0.84 6 16.11 Kurds, Turkomans

Central African Republic Kaba (Sara), Mboum, 0 2 0 8.8 8.9 9.4 -0.93 -1.78 -1.52 7 15.62 Mbororo, Aka

Lebanon Druze, Maronite Christians, 4 1 0 9 9.4 9.4 -0.45 -2.09 -0.66 7 15.46 Palestinians, Shia, Sunnis

Côte d’Ivoire Northern Mande (Dioula), 0 1 0 8.3 9.5 8.9 -1.26 -2.12 -1.54 7 15.00 Senoufo, Bete, newly settled groups

Burundi Hutu, Tutsi, Twa 0 1 1 8.2 6.7 7.8 -0.8 -1.42 -1.16 7 14.79

Philippines Indigenous peoples, Moros 5 2 1 5.7 7 7.8 0.18 -1.38 -0.59 4 14.71 (Muslims), Chinese

Nepal Madheshis (Terai), Dalits, 2 1 0 5.5 9 8.3 -0.89 -2.13 -0.64 7 14.09 indigenous peoples (Janajati) and linguistic minorities

Angola Bakongo, Cabindans, Ovimbundu, 4 0 1 6.9 5.9 7.5 -1.11 -0.46 -1.35 6 14.05 Pastoralists, San and Kwisi

Uganda Acholi, Karamojong 1 1 1 9.3 8.3 7.8 -0.47 -1.15 -0.54 6 13.89

216 Reference State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Reference 217 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Country Group Conflict indicators Indicators of group division Democracy/governance indicators Total

A. Self- B. Major C. Prior genocide/politicide D. Massive E. Legacy of F. Rise of G. Voice and H. Political I. Rule of law J. OECD Table 1 Cont... determination armed conflict movement – vengeance factionalized accountability stability country risk conflicts refugees and – group elites classification Peoples under threat 2009 IDPs grievance

Russian Federation Chechens, Ingush, Lezgins, 5 1 1 5.4 7.5 8 -1.01 -0.75 -0.97 3 13.84 indigenous northern peoples, Roma, Jews

Indonesia Acehnese, Chinese, Dayaks, 4 1 1 7.3 5.9 7 -0.17 -1.13 -0.71 5 13.75 Madurese, Papuans

Yemen Zaydi Shia 0 2 0 7.2 7.3 8.9 -1.06 -1.48 -0.94 6 13.63

Bosnia and Herzegovina Croats, Bosniak Muslims, Serbs, 4 0 1 8 8.5 8.6 0.14 -0.56 -0.52 7 13.50 Roma

Syria Kurds 0 0 1 9 8 7.7 -1.77 -0.61 -0.55 7 13.42

Serbia Ethnic Albanians, Bosniaks, Croats, 4 0 1 7.3 7.9 8 0.2 -0.77 -0.57 7 13.38 Roma, Serbs and other minorities in Kosovo

Equatorial Guinea Bubi, Annobon Islanders 2 0 1 2 7 8.5 -1.89 0.16 -1.16 7 13.18

Guinea Fulani, Malinke 0 0 0 7.4 8.5 8.6 -1.23 -2.02 -1.47 7 13.18

Colombia Political/social targets, Afro- 3 2 0 9.2 7.4 8.3 -0.28 -1.65 -0.57 4 13.15 descendants, indigenous peoples

Haiti Political/social targets 0 1 0 4.2 8 8.9 -0.77 -1.34 -1.542 7 12.79

Georgia Adzhars, Abkhazians, South 5 1 0 6.8 8.1 8.3 -0.19 -0.7 -0.44 6 12.70 Ossetians, Georgians in autonomous regions

Laos Hmong, other highland peoples 4 0 0 5.7 6.8 8.6 -1.66 0 -0.96 7 12.51

Bangladesh Ahmadiyya, Hindus, other religious 3 0 0 7.1 9.7 9.6 -0.563 -1.44 -0.81 6 12.46 minorities, Chittagong Hill Tribes

Algeria Berbers, Saharawi 2 1 1 6.8 7.2 6.2 -1.01 -1.18 -0.72 3 12.40

Rwanda Hutu, Tutsi, Twa 0 0 1 7 8.5 7.8 -1.24 -0.19 -0.65 7 12.34

Uzbekistan Tajiks, Islamic political groups, 1 0 0 5.4 7.1 9.2 -1.91 -1.42 -1.06 6 12.26 religious minorities, Karakalpaks, Russians

Turkey Kurds, Alevis, Roma, Armenians 5 2 0 6.2 7.6 7.5 -0.19 -0.78 0 4 12.02 and other Christians

Eritrea Afars, Saho, Tigre, religious 0 0 0 7.1 5.6 7.2 -2.15 -1.04 -1.1 7 11.98 minorities

Azerbaijan Armenians 4 0 0 7.8 7.3 7.5 -1.13 -0.69 -0.83 5 11.54

Cambodia Cham, Vietnamese, indigenous hill 0 0 1 5.7 7.5 7.2 -0.87 -0.43 -1.06 6 11.51 tribes (Khmer Leou)

Niger Djerema-Songhai, Hausa, Tuaregs 3 0 0 6 9.2 6.7 -0.38 -0.55 -0.89 7 11.35

Djibouti Afars 3 0 0 6.4 5.5 6.9 -1.06 -0.05 -0.51 8 11.25

Kenya Borana, Kalenjin, Kikuyu, Luhya, 0 1 0 8.5 7.6 8.4 -0.06 -1.1 -0.98 6 11.22 Luo, Muslims, Turkana, Endorois, Masai, Ogiek, other indigenous groups

Congo, Republic of Lari, M’Boshi, Aka 0 7.7 6.8 7.2 -1.11 -0.83 -1.26 7 11.19

Tajikistan Uzbeks, Russians 0 0 0 6.1 6.5 8.6 -1.26 -0.87 -1.13 7 11.17

Kyrgyzstan Uzbeks, Russians 1 0 0 5.8 6.8 7.5 -0.64 -1.11 -1.19 7 11.17

China Tibetans, Uyghurs, Mongols, Hui, 4 0 1 5.1 7.8 7 -1.7 -0.33 -0.45 2 11.05 religious minorities

Ecuador Afro-descendants, Indigenous 2 0 0 6 6.5 7.9 -0.23 -0.91 -1.04 7 10.96 peoples

218 Reference State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Reference 219 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Country Group Conflict indicators Indicators of group division Democracy/governance indicators Total

A. Self- B. Major C. Prior genocide/politicide D. Massive E. Legacy of F. Rise of G. Voice and H. Political I. Rule of law J. OECD Table 1 Cont... determination armed conflict movement – vengeance factionalized accountability stability country risk conflicts refugees and – group elites classification Peoples under threat 2009 IDPs grievance

Moldova Trans-Dniester Slavs 4 0 0 4.7 7.3 7.7 -0.38 -0.22 -0.66 7 10.92

Cameroon Westerners 2 0 0 7.1 7.1 8.2 -0.94 -0.39 -1.09 6 10.90

Thailand Chinese, Malay-Muslims, Northern 5 2 0 6 7.7 7.7 0.61 -1.07 0.06 3 10.84 Hill Tribes

North Korea Political/social targets, religious 0 0 0 6 7.2 7.6 -2.31 0.35 -1.03 7 10.83 minorities

Liberia Dan, Krahn, Ma, other groups 0 0 0 8.4 6 7.9 -0.35 -1.15 -1.06 7 10.65

Bolivia Indigenous Highland, Indigenous 2 0 0 4.2 7.3 8.5 0.02 -0.99 -0.96 7 10.64 Lowland, Afro-Bolivians

Guatemala Indigenous peoples, Garífuna 0 0 1 6 6.9 6 -0.3 -0.76 -1.11 5 10.45

Turkmenistan Uzbeks, Russians, Kazakhs, religious 0 0 0 4.5 6.2 7.9 -2.07 -0.08 -1.33 6 10.33 minorities

Belarus Poles 0 0 0 4.3 6.7 8.5 -1.8 0.2 -1.09 7 10.32

Venezuela Indigenous peoples, Afro- 0 0 0 5 6.8 7.5 -0.58 -1.23 -1.47 6 10.25 descendants

Vietnam Montagnards (Degar), other 2 0 1 5 5.3 6.9 -1.61 0.31 -0.53 4 10.20 highland peoples, religious minorities

Togo Ewe, Kabre 0 0 0 5.6 6 7.5 -1.16 -0.52 -0.94 7 10.18

India Assamese, Bodos, Nagas, Tripuras, 5 2 0 3.2 7 6 0.38 -1.01 0.1 3 10.11 other Adivasis, Kashmiris, Sikhs, Muslims, Dalits

Nicaragua Indigenous peoples, Creoles 3 0 0 5.7 6.5 7.1 0.1 -0.26 -0.84 7 10.09

Cuba Political/social targets, Afro-Cubans 0 0 0 4.7 5.5 7 -1.93 0.11 -0.79 7 9.85

Guinea Bissau Balanta, Fula (Fulani), Manjaco, 0 0 0 6.5 5.4 7.1 -0.51 -0.41 -1.36 7 9.82 Papel, Diola

Sierra Leone All groups incl. Krio, Limba, 0 0 0 7.4 6.9 7.5 -0.33 -0.3 -1.13 7 9.77 Mende, Temne

Bhutan Lhotshampa, Nepalese 2 0 0 7.5 7 7.7 -0.88 0.67 0.49 8 9.42

Papua New Guinea Bougainvilleans 3 0 0 3.5 8 6.7 0.12 -0.76 -0.85 5 9.15

Fiji Indo-Fijians, Indigenous Fijians 0 0 0 4 7.5 8.2 -0.51 0.09 -0.37 8 9.07

Compiled by Marusca Perazzi

Notes to Table Self-determination conflicts in 2008 were ranked on p Indicators of group division: Failed States Index, of 8 was accorded. Sources of the indicators are as follows: a scale of 0–5 as follows: 5 = ongoing armed conflict; Fund for Peace and the Carnegie Endowment for 4 = contained armed conflict; 3 = settled armed con- International Peace, 2008. Indicators were rebased as necessary to give an equal p Conflict indicators: The base data used was Monty flict; 2 = militant politics; 1 = conventional politics. weighting to the five categories above, with the G. Marshall, ‘Major episodes of political violence Major armed conflicts were classified as 2 = ongoing p Democracy/governance indicators: Annual exception of the prior geno-/politicide indicator. As 1946–2008’ (Center for Systemic Peace, 2009) in late 2008; 1 = emerging from conflict since 2005 Governance Indicators, World Bank, 2008. a dichotomous variable this received a lesser weight- and, for self-determination conflicts, Monty G. or ongoing conflict with deaths under 1,000. ing to avoid too great a distortion to the final rank- Marshall and Ted R. Gurr, ‘Peace and conflict p OECD country risk classification: Organisation ing. Resulting values were then summed. 2005’ (CIDCM, University of Maryland, 2005), p Prior genocide or politicide: Barbara Harff, US for Economic Co-operation and Development, updated for 2008 using figures from Center for Political Instability Task Force (formerly State ‘Country risk classifications of the participants to the The full formula is: Systemic Peace, MRG and the Heidelberg Institute Failure Task Force). 1 = one or more episodes since arrangement on officially supported export credits’, (A/2) + (B × 1.25) + (C × 2) + (D + E + F)/6 + (G for International Conflict Research. 1945. April 2009. Where no classification is given, a value + H + I)/-1 + (J × 0.625)

220 Reference State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Reference 221 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 International International International International Convention Convention ILO 111 ILO 169 International ICC Rome African African Convention Convention Covenant Covenant on on the on the Rights Discrimination Convention Convention on Statute of the Charter on Charter on on the on the on Civil and Economic, Elimination of of the Child (Employment Concerning the Protection International Human and the Rights and Prevention and Elimination Political Rights Social and All Forms of 1989 and Indigenous of the Rights Criminal Peoples’ Rights Welfare of the Punishment of All Forms 1966 Cultural Discrimination Occupation) and Tribal of All Migrant Court 1998 2003 Child 1990 of the Crime of Racial Rights 1966 against Convention, Peoples in Workers and of Genocide Discrimination Women 1979 1958 Independent Members of 1948 1965 Countries Their Families 1989 1990

Status of Africa Algeria p pu p1 p p p p p P p p ratification Angola p1 p p p p P p p of major Benin p p1 p p p p P p p p international Botswana p p p p p p p p and regional Burkina Faso p p p1 p p p p p p p p Burundi p p p p p p p p p instruments Cameroon p p1 p p p p P p p relevant to Cape Verde p p1 p p p p p P p p minority and Central African Republic p p1 p p p p p P P indigenous Chad p p1 p p p p p p p Comoros p p P P p p p P p p rights Congo p p1 p p p p P p p p as of February 2009 Côte d’Ivoire p p p1 p p p p P p p p Ratification, accession Democratic Republic of the Congo p p p p p p P or succession. Djibouti P p1 p p p p p P P P Signature not yet Egypt p p p p p p p p P p p followed by ratification. Equatorial Guinea p p1 p p p p p p

Eritrea p p p p p p P p p pu Ratification of Ethiopia p p p p p p p p p ICERD and Declaration p p p p p p p P p p p on Article 14. Gabon p p p1 p p p p p p p pU Ratification of Gambia ICERD and Signature of Ghana p p p1 p p p p p p p P Declaration on Article 14. Guinea p p p1 p p p p p p p p p1 Ratification of Guinea Bissau P P p p p p P P p p ICCPR and Optional Kenya p p p p p p p p p Protocol. Lesotho p p p1 p p p p p p p p p! Ratification of p p p! p p p p P p p p ICCPR and Signature of Liberia Optional Protocol. Libyan Arab Jamahiriya p p p1 p p p p p p p P! Signature of ICCPR Madagascar p p1 p p p p p p P and Optional Protocol. Malawi p p p p p p p p

Mali p p p1 p p p p p p p p

Mauritania p p p p p p p

Mauritius p p1 p p p p p p p p

Morocco p pu p p p p p p P

Mozambique p p p p p p P p p

Namibia p p p1 p p p p p p P

Niger p p1 p p p p p p p

222 Reference State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Reference 223 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 International International International International Convention Convention ILO 111 ILO 169 International ICC Rome African African Convention Convention Covenant Covenant on on the on the Rights Discrimination Convention Convention on Statute of the Charter on Charter on on the on the on Civil and Economic, Elimination of of the Child (Employment Concerning the Protection International Human and the Rights and Prevention and Elimination Political Rights Social and All Forms of 1989 and Indigenous of the Rights Criminal Peoples’ Rights Welfare of the Punishment of All Forms 1966 Cultural Discrimination Occupation) and Tribal of All Migrant Court 1998 2003 Child 1990 of the Crime of Racial Rights 1966 against Convention, Peoples in Workers and of Genocide Discrimination Women 1979 1958 Independent Members of 1948 1965 Countries Their Families 1989 1990

Status of Nigeria p p p p p p p p p Rwanda p p p p p p p p p ratification Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic P P of major São Tomé and Príncipe P P! P p p p P P p international Senegal p pu p1 p p p p p p p p and regional Seychelles p p p p p p p p P p p Sierra Leone p p p p p p P p p p instruments Somalia p p p P p P P relevant to South Africa p pu p1 P p p p p p p minority and Sudan p p p p p p P p p indigenous Swaziland p p p p p p P P Togo p p p1 p p p p P p p rights Tunisia p p p p p p p P P as of February 2009 Uganda p p p1 p p p p p p p p p Ratification, accession United Republic of Tanzania p p p p p p p p p p or succession. Zambia p p1 p p p p p P P P Signature not yet Zimbabwe p p p p p p p P p p followed by ratification. American Additional Convention on Protocol to Human Rights the American pu Ratification of 1969 Convention on ICERD and Declaration Human Rights in the area of on Article 14. Economic, Social pU and Cultural Ratification of Rights 1988 ICERD and Signature of Americas Declaration on Article 14. Antigua and Barbuda p p p p p p p1 Ratification of p pu p1 p p p p p p p p p ICCPR and Optional Argentina Protocol. Bahamas p p p1 p p p P p! Ratification of Barbados p p p1 p p p p p p ICCPR and Signature of Belize p p p P p p p p p Optional Protocol. Bolivia p pu p1 p p p p p p p p p P! Signature of ICCPR Brazil p pu p p p p p p p p p and Optional Protocol. Canada p p p1 p p p p p

Chile p pu p1 p p p p p P p P

Colombia p p p1 p p p p p p p p p

Costa Rica p pu p1 p p p p p p p p

Cuba p p P P p p p

Dominica p p p p p p p p

224 Reference State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Reference 225 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 International International International International Convention Convention ILO 111 ILO 169 International ICC Rome American Additional Convention Convention Covenant Covenant on on the on the Rights Discrimination Convention Convention on Statute of the Convention on Protocol to on the on the on Civil and Economic, Elimination of of the Child (Employment Concerning the Protection International Human Rights the American Prevention and Elimination Political Rights Social and All Forms of 1989 and Indigenous of the Rights Criminal 1969 Convention on Punishment of All Forms 1966 Cultural Discrimination Occupation) and Tribal of All Migrant Court 1998 Human Rights of the Crime of Racial Rights 1966 against Convention, Peoples in Workers and in the area of of Genocide Discrimination Women 1979 1958 Independent Members of Economic, Social 1948 1965 Countries Their Families and Cultural 1989 1990 Rights 1988

Status of Dominican Republic P p p1 p p p p p p P Ecuador p pu p1 p p p p p p p p p ratification El Salvador p p p1 p p p p p p p of major Grenada p p p p p p international Guatemala p p p1 p p p p p p p p and regional Guyana p p1 p p p p P p Haití p p p p p p P p P instruments Honduras p p p1 p p p p p p p p P relevant to Jamaica p p p1 p p p p p P p P minority and México p pu p1 p p p p p p p p p indigenous Nicaragua p p p1 p p p p p p P Panamá p p p1 p p p p p p p rights Paraguay p p p1 p p p p p p p p p as of February 2009 Perú p pu p1 p p p p p p p p p p Ratification, accession Saint Kitts and Nevis p p p p p or succession. Saint Lucia p p p p P P Signature not yet Saint Vincent and the Grenadines P p p1 p p p p p followed by ratification. Suriname p p1 p p p p p p

Trinidad and Tobago p p p1 p p p p p p pu Ratification of United States of America p p p P P P P P ICERD and Declaration p pu p1 p p p p p p p p on Article 14. Uruguay p pu p1 p p p p p p p P pU Ratification of Venezuela ICERD and Signature of Declaration on Article 14. p1 Ratification of Asia ICCPR and Optional Afghanistan p p p p p p p p Protocol. Bangladesh p p p p p p p P P p! Ratification of Bhutan P p p ICCPR and Signature of Brunei Darussalam p p Optional Protocol. Cambodia p p p! p p p p P p P! Signature of ICCPR p p P p p p p and Optional Protocol. China Democratic People’s Republic of Korea p p p p p

India p p p p p p p

Indonesia p p p p p p P

Japan p p p p p p

Kazakhstan p p p! p p p p

Kyrgyzstan p p p1 p p p p p p P

Lao People’s Democratic Republic p p P p p p

226 Reference State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Reference 227 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 International International International International Convention Convention ILO 111 ILO 169 International ICC Rome Convention Convention Covenant Covenant on on the on the Rights Discrimination Convention Convention on Statute of the on the on the on Civil and Economic, Elimination of of the Child (Employment Concerning the Protection International Prevention and Elimination Political Rights Social and All Forms of 1989 and Indigenous of the Rights Criminal Punishment of All Forms 1966 Cultural Discrimination Occupation) and Tribal of All Migrant Court 1998 of the Crime of Racial Rights 1966 against Convention, Peoples in Workers and of Genocide Discrimination Women 1979 1958 Independent Members of 1948 1965 Countries Their Families 1989 1990

Status of Malaysia p p p Maldives p p p1 p p p

ratification Mongolia p p p1 p p p p p

of major Myanmar p p p international Nepal p p p1 p p p p p and regional Pakistan p p P p p p p Philippines p p p1 p p p p p P

instruments Republic of Korea p pu p1 p p p p p relevant to Singapore p p p minority and Sri Lanka p p p1 p p p p p indigenous Tajikistan p p1 p p p p p p Thailand p p p p p P

rights Timor Leste p p p p p p p

as of February 2009 Turkmenistan p p1 p p p p p Ratification, accession Uzbekistan p p p1 p p p p P or succession. Viet Nam p p p p p p p P Signature not yet � European Framework followed by ratification. � Charter for Convention for � Regional or the Protection � Minority of National � pu Languages Minorities Ratification of 1992 1995

ICERD and Declaration Europe on Article 14. Albania p p p1 p p p p p p p pU Ratification of p pu p1 p p p ICERD and Signature of Andorra Declaration on Article 14. Armenia p p p1 p p p p P p p p1 Ratification of Austria p pu p1 p p p p p p p ICCPR and Optional Azerbaijan p pu p1 p p p p p P p Protocol. Belarus p p p1 p p p p p! Ratification of Belgium p pu p1 p p p p p P ICCPR and Signature of p p p1 p p p p p p P p Optional Protocol. Bosnia and Herzegovina p pu p1 p p p p p p P! Signature of ICCPR Bulgaria and Optional Protocol. Croatia p p p1 p p p p p p p Cyprus p pu p1 p p p p p p p

Czech Republic p pu p1 p p p p P p p

Denmark p pu p1 p p p p p p p p

Estonia p p p1 p p p p p p

Finland p pu p1 p p p p p p p

France p pu p1 p p p p p P

Georgia p pu p1 p p p p p p

228 Reference State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Reference 229 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 International International International International Convention Convention ILO 111 ILO 169 International ICC Rome European Framework Convention Convention Covenant Covenant on on the on the Rights Discrimination Convention Convention on Statute of the Charter for Convention for on the on the on Civil and Economic, Elimination of of the Child (Employment Concerning the Protection International Regional or the Protection Prevention and Elimination Political Rights Social and All Forms of 1989 and Indigenous of the Rights Criminal Minority of National Punishment of All Forms 1966 Cultural Discrimination Occupation) and Tribal of All Migrant Court 1998 Languages Minorities of the Crime of Racial Rights 1966 against Convention, Peoples in Workers and 1992 1995 of Genocide Discrimination Women 1979 1958 Independent Members of 1948 1965 Countries Their Families 1989 1990

Status of Germany p pu p1 p p p p p p p p Greece p p p1 p p p p p P ratification Holy See p p of major Hungary p pu p1 p p p p p p p international Iceland p pu p1 p p p p p P P and regional Ireland p pu p1 p p p p p p Italy p pu p1 p p p p p P p instruments Latvia p p p1 p p p p p p relevant to Liechtenstein p pu p p p p p p minority and Lithuania p p p1 p p p p p p indigenous Luxembourg p pu p1 p p p p p p P Malta pu p1 p p p p p P p rights Monaco p pu p p p p P as of February 2009 Montenegro p pu p1 p p p p P p p p p Ratification, accession Netherlands p pu p1 p p p p p p p p or succession. Norway p pu p1 p p p p p p p p P Signature not yet Poland p pu p1 p p p p p p p followed by ratification. Portugal p pu p1 p p p p p p

Republic of Moldova p p p1 p p p p P P p pu Ratification of Romania p pu p1 p p p p p p p ICERD and Declaration p pu p1 p p p p P P p on Article 14. Russian Federation p p1 p p p p p p pU Ratification of San Marino ICERD and Signature of Serbia p pu p1 p p p p P p p p Declaration on Article 14. Slovakia p pu p1 p p p p p p p p1 Ratification of Slovenia p pu p1 p p p p p p p ICCPR and Optional Spain p pu p1 p p p p p p p p Protocol. Sweden p pu p1 p p p p p p p p! Ratification of p pu p p p p p p p p ICCPR and Signature of Switzerland Optional Protocol. The former Yugoslav Republic p� pu� p1� p� p� p� p� p� P� p of Macedonia P! Signature of ICCPR p p p! p p p p p and Optional Protocol. Turkey Ukraine p pu p1 p p p p P p p

United Kingdom of Great Britain p� p� p� p� p� p� p p� p� p and Northern Ireland

Middle East

Bahrain p p p p p p p P

Iran (Islamic Republic of) p p p p p p P

230 Reference State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Reference 231 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 International International International International Convention Convention ILO 111 ILO 169 International ICC Rome Convention Convention Covenant Covenant on on the on the Rights Discrimination Convention Convention on Statute of the on the on the on Civil and Economic, Elimination of of the Child (Employment Concerning the Protection International Prevention and Elimination Political Rights Social and All Forms of 1989 and Indigenous of the Rights Criminal Punishment of All Forms 1966 Cultural Discrimination Occupation) and Tribal of All Migrant Court 1998 of the Crime of Racial Rights 1966 against Convention, Peoples in Workers and of Genocide Discrimination Women 1979 1958 Independent Members of 1948 1965 Countries Their Families 1989 1990

Status of Iraq p p p p p p p Israel p p p p p p p P ratification Jordan p p p p p p p p of major Kuwait p p p p p p p P international Lebanon p p p p p p p and regional Oman p p p P Qatar p p p instruments Saudi Arabia p p p p p relevant to Syrian Arab Republic p p p p p p p p P minority and United Arab Emirates p p p p p P indigenous Yemen p p p p p p p P rights as of February 2009 Oceania p Ratification, accession Australia p pu p1 p p p p p or succession. Cook Islands p p p P Signature not yet Fiji p p p p p p p followed by ratification. Kiribati p p

Marshall Islands p p p pu Ratification of Micronesia (Federated States of) p p ICERD and Declaration on Article 14. Nauru P P p p pU Ratification of New Zealand p p p1 p p p p p ICERD and Signature of Niue p

Declaration on Article 14. Palau p p1 Ratification of Papua New Guinea p p p p p p p ICCPR and Optional p p p p Protocol. Samoa Solomon Islands p p p p P p! Ratification of ICCPR and Signature of Tonga p p p Optional Protocol. Tuvalu p p

P! Signature of ICCPR Vanuatu p p p p and Optional Protocol. Compiled by Marusca Perazzi

Sources: http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/docs/RatificationStatus.pdf http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/Statusfrset?OpenFrameSet http://www.iccnow.org/?mod=romesignatures http://www.achpr.org/ http://www.oas.org/juridico/english/Sigs/b32.html http://www.cidh.oas.org/ http://conventions.coe.int/

232 Reference Reference State of theState World’s of the Minorities World’s State of the World’s Minorities Reference Reference 233 and IndigenousMinorities Peoples 2009 andMinorities Indigenous 2009 Peoples 2009 Lack of education represents an absolute barrier 8. The recommendations are phrased in broad to minorities should not be treated differently Recommendations to their progress and empowerment. terms and can be implemented in countries in the field of education solely on the basis of with diverse historical, cultural and religious their particular ethnic, religious or cultural of the UN Forum 4. Bad education strategies can violate human backgrounds, with full respect for universal hu- characteristics, unless there are permissible crite- rights as much as good strategies enhance rights man rights. ria to justify such distinctions, including criteria on Minority Issues and freedoms. Unwanted assimilation imposed set out in specific instruments on minority through the medium of education, or enforced II. Core Principles rights. National and local contexts are impor- (15 and 16 social segregation generated through educa- tant in the detailed application of educational tional processes, are harmful to the rights and 9. Every person is entitled to accessible, free and responsibilities and Governments enjoy a mar- December 2008) interests of minority communities and to the high-quality primary level education. States gin of appreciation in applying the principles to wider social interest. should take reasonable legislative and other particular contexts. I. Education measures to achieve the progressive realization 5. In the context of rights and obligations recog- of this right with respect to secondary education 12. Principles of equality and non-discrimination 1. Education is an inalienable human right, and nized at the level of the United Nations and and for higher education on the basis of capac- permit the taking of special temporary meas- is more than a mere commodity or a service. regionally, education should serve the dual ity. The right to education for all is grounded ures. Such measures are mandatory when the Furthermore, education is a human right that is function of supporting the efforts of communi- in universal and regional human rights instru- conditions for their application are satisfied. crucial to the realization of a wide array of other ties to self-development in economic, social ments, including instruments on minority Special measures or affirmative action should be human rights, and an indispensable agency for and cultural terms while opening pathways by rights. The core principles of international hu- used, for instance, as a means for Governments the expansion of human capabilities and the en- which they can function in the wider society man rights are fully applicable to the right to to recognize the existence of structural discrimi- hancement of human dignity. Education plays and promote social harmony. education and should be faithfully implemented nation and to combat it. The case of special a formative role in socialization for democratic by States. These include the principles of measures or affirmative action should not be citizenship and represents an essential support 6. The present recommendations, while framed equality and non-discrimination, as well as the confused with minority or indigenous rights for community identity. It is also a primary as recommendations for Government action, principle of equality of women and men in the to existence and identity that subsist as long means by which individuals and communities are intended for a wider readership of not only enjoyment of all human rights and fundamental as the individuals and communities concerned can sustainably lift themselves out of poverty Governments but, in the terms of the Universal freedoms. The principle of non-discrimination desire the continued application of these rights. and a means of helping minorities to overcome Declaration of Human Rights, ‘every individual includes all persons of school age residing in the Measures taken in the field of education for mi- the legacies of historical injustice or discrimina- and every organ of society’, including interna- territory of a State, including non-nationals, norities should not constitute a programme of tion committed against them. tional organizations and agencies, civil society and irrespective of their legal status. coerced or artificial assimilation. in the widest sense, all educators and those who 2. The right to education is not in practice enjoyed learn from them. 10. School policies or practices that, de jure or de 13. Education for all students should have an in- equally by all. Minorities1 in various regions of facto, segregate students into different groups tercultural approach that recognizes and values the world suffer disproportionately from unequal 7. The range of issues included in the recommen- based on minority status violate the rights of cultural diversity. There must be a development or restricted access to quality education and inap- dations is not exhaustive. They represent only minorities and also rob the entire society of of intercultural and anti-racist capacity within propriate education strategies. Lack of educa- minimum requirements for an effective educa- its best opportunity to foster social cohesion educational institutions at every level and in- tion leads to denial of civil and political rights, tion strategy for minorities, without prejudice and respect for a diversity of views and experi- forming all policies. including rights to freedom of movement and to further efforts made by individual States to ences. Students and societies gain the greatest freedom of expression, and limits participation address the needs of individuals and groups educational advantage when classrooms have a 14. Minorities have a right to participate in the life in the cultural, social and economic life of the concerned. The recommendations should be diversity of students, ethnically, culturally and of the State and in decisions affecting them and State and in public affairs, such as in the exercise interpreted in a generous spirit in cooperation economically. their children’s future. In the field of educa- of voting rights. Lack of education also limits with the communities concerned, in the light of tion, this right implies input by minorities into the enjoyment of economic, social and cultural the demand that human rights instruments be 11. The principle of equality does not imply uni- the design, implementation, monitoring and rights, including rights to employment, health, interpreted and standards applied to be effective form treatment in the field of education regard- evaluation of education programmes and the housing and an adequate standard of living. Lack in practice, so that they can make a real differ- less of circumstances, but rather that differential administration of educational institutions. It of education results in reticence to engage with ence to the lives of human beings. In the event treatment of individuals and groups is justified also means that an alternative to mainstream law enforcement authorities, inhibiting access to of doubt or contestation with regard to their when specified circumstances warrant it, so curricula may be considered in order to meet remedies when human rights are violated. potential application, the principles should be that the right to equal treatment is also violated the needs, aspirations and priorities of minori- interpreted in favour of members of minorities when States, without permissible justification, ties. 3. Women and girl members of minority commu- as bearers of rights but also as potential victims fail to treat differently persons whose situations nities suffer disproportionately from lack of ac- of educational deprivation. are significantly different. The principle of non- 15. The responsibilities of the State to fulfil the cess to education and from high illiteracy levels. discrimination implies that persons belonging rights to education and to non-discrimination

234 Reference State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Reference 235 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 are not diluted on account of the complexities concerned, and on the basis of their self-identi- transparent the targeting of special measures for as should technical and vocational education, on of political structures: the responsibilities extend fication as members of groups concerned. minority girls and minority boys. a basis of equality with other learners. in principle to the whole of the State territory. Governments must make strenuous efforts to III. Essential Requirements for an 24. Programmes for the education of minorities, as IV. Equal Access to Quality Education ensure that national policies are not subverted Effective Education Strategy well as teachers and appropriate teaching and for Minorities or defied by local authorities in States with reading materials, including books, must be domestic constitutional arrangements, such as 19. States should approach the education of mi- made available in the mother tongues of the 29. The principle of non-discrimination is a key to decentralized authority or devolution of powers. norities in a positive spirit. Measures should be minorities. securing equal access to education, and ensuring taken by States to implement education rights ongoing participation and completion of qual- 16. States should take appropriate measures so that, actively to the maximum of their available re- 25. Educational services should be arranged in ity education for members of disadvantaged and wherever possible, persons belonging to minori- sources, individually and through international order that they reach minority communities minority groups. ties may have adequate opportunities to learn assistance and cooperation. throughout the national territory, and should their mother tongue or to have instruction in be adequate to address the needs of such com- 30. Members of minorities must have realistic and their mother tongue. These measures are most 20. States should review, enact and amend their munities. States must ensure that educational effective access to quality educational services, critical in preschool and primary schools, but legislation where necessary to affirm the right to services for minorities are delivered at a quality without discrimination, within the jurisdiction may extend to subsequent stages of education. education for all, eliminate discrimination and that is comparable with national standards. of the State. Accessibility has three overlapping School curricula must encourage knowledge guarantee quality education for all members of dimensions: non-discrimination on prohibited among all students of the history, traditions, minorities. 26. States should recognize that the adequate grounds; physical accessibility; and economic language and culture of the minorities existing recruitment, training and incentivization of accessibility. within their territory and also ensure minorities 21. States should create conditions enabling institu- teachers to work in areas inhabited predomi- adequate opportunities to gain knowledge of tions that are representative of minorities to nantly by members of minorities are factors of 31. Barriers to accessibility may be the result of single the society as a whole. participate in a meaningful way in the develop- utmost importance in the delivery of adequate or multiple factors, whether physical or social, ment and implementation of policies and pro- educational services, and should arrange teacher financial or pedagogical. States should address all 17. In the field of education and minorities, there grammes relating to education for minorities. training programmes accordingly. such factors in order to promote effective access, is a compelling need for accurate data that are especially in cases where barriers to access are qualitative and quantitative, disaggregated by 22. Budgetary policies are crucial to a State’s imple- 27. State or local policies or practices that, de jure compounded, as in the case of girl pupils, result- sex, race, ethnicity and disability status in order mentation of its obligations to respect, protect or de facto, result in separate classes or schools ing in a vicious circle leading to severe educational to assess the necessary requirements in the de- and fulfil the educational rights of minorities. for minority pupils, or schools or classes with exclusion. The existence of local customs that re- velopment, institutionalization, implementation In the drafting of budgets for education in the grossly disproportionately high numbers of strict the free movement of girls and women does and monitoring of targeted education policies. case of minorities, clear criteria that are tailored minority pupils, on a discriminatory basis, are not relieve the State of its responsibility to guaran- Data should also be gathered on poverty status to the special needs of the minority group are prohibited, except in limited and exceptional tee access to education for minority girls. and on the access to education and progress of required. The costing and financing of educa- circumstances. In particular, the misuse of children who do not speak the dominant lan- tion policies should be based on a holistic ap- psychological or learning ability tests for enrol- 32. Special attention to education is called for in guage. Indicators and benchmarks are necessary praisal of minority needs and on the basis of the ment of children in primary schools must be the context of emergencies, armed conflicts and for the accurate appraisal of education policies, State’s immediate and non-derogable obligation subjected to close scrutiny with respect to their natural disasters when children of minorities or including assessments of the extent of discrimi- to guarantee that the right to education will be potential to engender discriminatory outcomes. vulnerable populations do not have access to so- nation against minorities and the success or fail- exercised without discrimination and on the The creation and development of classes and cial protection and essential services, including ure of policies to eliminate discrimination. Such basis of the principle of equal treatment. The schools providing education in minority lan- education. Measures should be taken to avoid data should include research into causes of poor principle of equal treatment entails the alloca- guages should not be considered impermissible discrimination and favouritism during these school enrolment and drop-out rates where tion of extra resources and efforts to advance segregation, if the assignment to such classes periods and during periods of recovery and re- applicable. Disaggregation of the data accord- the right to education among minority groups and schools is of a voluntary nature. However, habilitation. ing to sex will expose the barriers that prevent that have been victims of historical injustices or where separate educational institutions are es- girls and women from accessing education and discrimination in realizing their right to educa- tablished for minorities for linguistic, religious 33. Authorities should remove direct and indirect learning. All data should be made accessible to tion. or cultural reasons, no barriers should be erect- institutional barriers to education for minori- the public on a regular basis. ed to prevent members of minority groups from ties, and address cultural, gender and linguistic 23. Budgetary allocations for education should be studying at general educational institutions, barriers that may have equivalent access-deny- 18. Data-gathering exercises concerning minorities transparent and amenable to external scrutiny. should they or their families so wish. ing effects. should take place in a culturally sensitive man- Budgets should be presented in a form that al- ner, on a voluntary basis, with full respect for lows assessment of the allocations disaggregated 28. Education should be available at all levels for 34. In order to ensure effective access to education the privacy and anonymity of the individuals according to minority status and sex, rendering minorities, from preschool to tertiary education, for members of minority communities, authori-

236 Reference State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Reference 237 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 ties should take immediate and positive steps may have a disproportionate impact, and who targeting minorities and policies to eliminate ities of the State and to ensure the religious and to remove impediments resulting from poverty may be subject also to aggravated discrimina- such incidents should be developed in school moral education of their children in conformity and child labour, homelessness, low nutrition tion, including in extreme cases violence, on the systems. with their own convictions must be recognized. levels, poor health and sanitation among the basis of culture, gender or caste. Such alternative institutions must comply, how- communities, as well as impediments that result 49. Disciplinary actions taken against students ever, with the ‘minimum education standards from a policy of historical discrimination or 41. Affirmative action in education for members of should be proportionate, fair and immune as may be laid down or approved by the State’.2 injustice in realizing the right to education. minorities that have been subject to a policy of from any perception of bias against minority Any State financing of non-State schools must historical discrimination or injustices in real- students. Positive disciplinary practices that do be provided to all such schools on an equal 35. Difficulties in school enrolment and retention izing the right to education should extend to not conflict with the primary goals of student basis. States should ensure that all parents are for displaced persons, members of nomadic or higher education, where the cumulative impact retention and educational outcomes should be informed about the right to choose alternative semi-nomadic groups, migrant workers and of discrimination at the lower levels of educa- employed. Disciplinary actions must respect the educational institutions. their children, both girls and boys, should be tion often results in low levels of representation rights of parents to be fully informed, to partici- addressed in a proactive and constructive man- of members of minority groups in the later pate in the decision making process and to seek 56. With regard to the right to manifest religion in ner. Lack of documentation should not prevent stages of education, whether as pupils or educa- outside mediation. schools or educational institutions, forums for pupils from enrolling in schools. tion professionals. continuous dialogue should be developed where 50. States should act to remedy situations where necessary between members of religious mi- 36. Enrolment and registration formalities and 42. Programmes of adult education or ‘second there is a lack of trained teachers who speak mi- norities and educational institutions that serve cost burdens should be eased to facilitate the chance’ schools should be encouraged and in- nority languages. them with the view to better understanding and admission of minority pupils into schools; such creased for members of minorities who have not accommodating their religious needs within inhibiting factors may be a matter of deepened completed primary education levels. 51. States should actively strive to recruit and train schools. concern in relation to the admission of girl pu- teachers from minority communities, both men pils. V. Learning Environment and women, at all levels of education as a key 57. In cases where members of minorities establish aspect of a strategy to develop a multicultural their own educational institutions, their right to 37. Resources should be sufficient to guarantee that 43. Education should work actively towards the ethos in schools. do so should not be exercised in a manner that the education of their children is a financially elimination of prejudices among population prevents them from understanding the culture viable proposition for minority families. groups and the promotion of mutual respect, 52. School management and administration should and language of the national community as a understanding and tolerance among all persons actively involve representatives from minority whole and from participating in its activities. 38. The impact of residential patterns on school residing in the State, whatever their ethnic, reli- communities. enrolments should be carefully assessed and ad- gious or cultural background or sex. 58. States should provide adequate opportunities to dressed to avoid disparate social and educational 53. States should promote and systematize active persons belonging to minorities to learn their outcomes. Authorities should pay attention to 44. Human rights education for all should be made consultation and cooperation between parents mother tongue or to learn through the medium the location of schools so that minority pupils an integral part of the national educational ex- of children of minorities and the school author- of the mother tongue, alternatives which should are not disadvantaged with respect to physical perience. ities, including, where appropriate, through the not be understood as mutually exclusive. Spe- access to school buildings or the quality of edu- employment of mediators to improve parent- cific forms of such opportunities should be cho- cational outcomes. 45. Teaching staff should be provided with initial school communication, and interpreters where sen in consultation with persons belonging to and ongoing training preparing them to re- parents do not speak the language of the school minorities and taking into account their freely 39. States should carefully monitor and take posi- spond to the needs of pupils from a variety of administration. expressed wishes. tive and effective steps to reduce high rates of backgrounds. exclusion and drop-outs among minority stu- VI. Content and Delivery of the 59. School language regimes for the initial stages dents and to, de minimis, align them with rates 46. Teacher training, including training of teachers Curriculum of education in State schools should ideally of the majority population, in cooperation with from minority communities, should include employ the language of the child as the pre- parents, associations and communities. States anti-discrimination, gender sensitive and inter- 54. The form and substance of education, includ- dominant medium of instruction, with a should take effective steps to bring down any cultural training. ing curricula and teaching methods, must be gradual introduction of the State language or barriers to education, be they cultural, social, acceptable to parents and children as relevant, dominant local language, if different from that economic or of any other nature, that lead to 47. States should strive to ensure that the school culturally appropriate and of a quality equal to of the child, at a later stage, where possible by high drop-out rates. learning environment for members of minori- national standards. bilingual teachers sensitive to the cultural back- ties is welcoming and receptive to their needs grounds of minority children. 40. States should ensure equal access to education and concerns. 55. The liberty of parents or legal guardians to for women and girls from minority groups, choose educational institutions for their chil- 60. Education should be able to adapt to the situ- upon whom poverty and family responsibilities 48. Systems of recording racist or similar incidents dren other than those established by the author- ation of changing societies and communities

238 Reference State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Reference 239 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and be responsive to the needs of students in a community or names not freely chosen by the diverse social and cultural settings. A diversity individual or community concerned. Educa- Who are of learning systems should be considered so that tional curricula taught to non-minority groups quality formal and non-formal education that within the State should include materials de- minorities? is contextualized, culture specific and relevant signed to reduce stereotypes and racist attitudes within an integrated system of education may towards minorities. Minorities of concern to MRG are disadvantaged be delivered. ethnic, national, religious, linguistic or cultural 67. Members of the general population should have groups who are smaller in number than the rest of 61. Curricula should adequately reflect the diversity the opportunity to learn minority languages the population and who may wish to maintain and and plurality of society and the contribution of and thereby contribute to the strengthening of develop their identity. MRG also works with indig- minorities to society. tolerance and cultural interchange within the enous peoples. State. 62. Curricula should promote the preservation and Other groups who may suffer discrimination are of defence of minority languages, and identify and Notes concern to MRG, which condemns discrimination equip members of minorities with the educa- on any ground. However, the specific mission of tional tools necessary for their full participation 1. The term ‘minorities’ as used in the present recommendation MRG is to secure the rights of minorities and in- should be understood as it is used in the Declaration on the in the society concerned. Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious digenous peoples around the world and to improve and Linguistic Minorities (General Assembly resolution cooperation between communities. 47/135), the commentary of the Working Group on 63. Curricula relating to minorities should be devel- Minorities to the Declaration (E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.5/2005/2) oped in cooperation with bodies representative and the first annual report of the Independent Expert on Minority Issues (E/CN.4/2006/74). It encompasses the of minorities, and members of minority groups persons and groups protected under the International should, ideally, be in positions of influence in Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination from discrimination based on race, colour, education ministries or other authorities decid- descent (caste), national or ethnic origin, citizen or non- ing upon curricula. citizen (General Assembly resolution 2106 (XX)).

2. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural 64. State education authorities should ensure that Rights, art. 13, para 3.

the general compulsory curriculum for all in 3. This provision is in accordance with Article 2, paragraph 5, the State includes teaching of the history, cul- of the Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to ture and traditions of the minorities from the National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities. perspective of the minorities themselves. States should take measures to teach the community narratives of minorities to other groups.

65. The promotion of the cultural rights of minori- ties is necessary to further the fulfilment of their educational rights. These rights include access to written, audio and visual media materials in their own language in order to enrich the cul- tural lives of minorities. There must also be the free exchange of books and other educational materials and access to universities run by mem- bers of their national group in other States.3

66. Educational curricula should not include mate- rials that stereotype or demean minorities, in- cluding compounded stereotyping of minority girls and women on the basis of both their na- tional or ethnic belonging and their sex. Teach- ers and other education personnel should avoid the use of offensive names for an individual or

240 Reference State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Reference 241 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 OHCHR – Office of the High Commissioner on she has been involved in education programmes Selected Human Rights Contributors with indigenous peoples, particularly Quechua, OSCE – Organization for Security and Co- Aymara and Guaraní. Since 1988 she has been abbreviations Operation in Europe Madeeha Ansari (Contributor, Asia) is currently working with UNICEF in several countries, includ- PRSPs – poverty reduction strategy papers pursuing a BSc in Economics at the London School ing Bolivia, Cambodia, Kosovo and Venezuela. SADC – Southern African Development of Economics and Political Science, where she is ADP – African descendant populations Community involved in student journalism. She has worked as Emma Eastwood (South East Asia, Oceania) spent ADRIP – American Declaration on the Rights of UDHR – Universal Declaration on Human Rights Publications Intern at MRG and has had experience over a decade working in the field of human rights Indigenous Peoples UN – United Nations working for Dawn News channel in Pakistan, as protection in Latin America, as an international CEDAW – UN Committee on the Elimination of UNDM – UN Declaration on the Rights of Persons well as volunteering for local development projects. observer in Guatemala and Communications Officer Discrimination Against Women Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and with Peace Brigades International Colombia Project. CERD – UN Committee on the Elimination of Linguistic Minorities Snježana Bokulić (Central Asia, Europe) is Director She is the Media and Events officer at MRG and a Racial Discrimination UNDP – UN Development Programme of Programmes at MRG. She has worked on sup- contributor to State of the World’s Minorities for the CESCR – UN Committee on Economic, Social and UNDRIP – UN Declaration on the Rights of porting minority organizations to advocate for past three years. Cultural Rights Indigenous Peoples their minority and human rights and engaged in CRC – UN Convention on the Rights of the UNESCO – UN Educational, Scientific and international advocacy at the UN and the European Sophie Elmhirst (Africa) is a freelance writer and Child Cultural Organization regional fora for more than a decade. researcher. She has worked at Prospect and the DfID – Department for International Development UN Forum – UN Forum on Minority Issues Guardian and has written for the Daily Telegraph (UK) UNRWA – UN Relief and Works Agency Maurice Bryan (Americas) is a Caribbean-born and the New Statesman. She has also worked at Save ECtHR – European Court of Human Rights UNHCR – UN High Commissioner for Refugees writer and communications consultant who has the Children UK as a policy researcher where she EFA – Education for All USCIRF – US Commission on International worked in a variety of countries in Latin America, researched and co-authored a number of reports EU – European Union Religious Freedom the Caribbean, Asia and Africa. including the Child Development Index and Saving FCNM – Council of Europe Framework Children’s Lives: Why Equity Matters. Convention for the Protection of National Eugen Crai (Contributor, Europe) is the Social Minorities Policy and Advocacy Specialist for UNICEF Karen Emmons (Contributor, Gender) is FGM – female genital mutilation Romania. She has worked for the Romanian a Bangkok-based freelance journalist who FRA – EU Fundamental Rights Agency Government Department for Local Public writes for UNICEF, the International Labour HRC – Human Rights Committee Administration and the EU PHARE Programme for Organization and People magazine. IACHR – Inter-American Court of Human Rights the Improvement of Roma Situation in Romania. IBE – intercultural and bilingual education She is a human rights lawyer with an MA in Law Jan Fiala (Contributor, Europe) has served as MRG’s ICCPR – International Covenant on Civil and from McGill University, Canada. Europe and Central Asia Officer since January Political Rights 2009. He is an ethnic Hungarian from Slovakia, ICESCR – International Covenant on Economic, Mark Curtis (A world of discrimination) is an inde- native in both languages. Jan holds degrees from law Social and Cultural Rights pendent author and consultant. He is currently a and international relations from Slovakia, and an IDP – internally displaced people Research Fellow at the University of Strathclyde and LLM in International Human Rights Law from the IEMI – UN Independent Expert on Minority Issues is a former Research Fellow at the Royal Institute of Central European University, Budapest. ILO – International Labour Organization International Affairs. He has worked in the field of IMF – International Monetary Fund international development for 16 years, as Director Zoë Gray (The importance of ethnic data for pro- IP – indigenous peoples of the World Development Movement and Head moting the right to education) worked on advocacy IRIN – Integrated Regional Information Networks of Policy/Advocacy at Christian Aid and ActionAid. projects at MRG for five years, on a range of regions MDG – Millennium Development Goals He has written several books on development issues and themes, specializing in promoting minor- MLE – multilingual education and British and US foreign policy. ity rights within development. Recently based in MONUC – UN Mission in Democratic Republic Phnom Penh she worked for the Centre on Housing of Congo Anna Lucia D’Emilio (Contributor, A positively Rights and Evictions as project officer for Indonesia, NGO – non-governmental organization plurilingual world; Americas; online) is currently Burma and Cambodia. She has an academic back- OCHA – UN Office for the Coordination of the Senior Advisor on Education and Excluded ground in social science and development studies. Humanitarian Affairs Population at the UNICEF Regional Office for ODA – Official Development Assistance Latin America and the Caribbean. She conducted John B. Henriksen (Foreword) Is Chairperson- OECD – Organisation for Economic Co-operation ethnographic research with Candoshi people, in the Rapporteur UN Expert Mechanism on the rights of and Development Peruvian Amazon basin. For more than twenty years indigenous peoples.

242 Reference State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Reference 243 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Friedrich Huebler* (Contributor, online) is a She was previously a member of the UN Sub- previously worked at the Human Rights and Social Vanessa Sedletzki (Fulfilling the right to educa- Statistics and Monitoring Specialist at UNICEF, Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Justice Research Institute. She has field experience tion for minority and indigenous children: where New York. He concentrates on the analysis of Human Rights and UN Special Rapporteur on in Orissa, India where she worked with a grass- are we in international legal standards?) is a child household survey data, with an emphasis on educa- the issue of systematic rape, sexual slavery, and roots NGO in assessing human rights violations rights specialist, presently coordinating research tion, child labour and the Millennium Development slavery-like practices in armed conflict. She holds within fisher communities. She holds an LLM in on ombudspersons for children at the UNICEF Goals. He holds an MA in Business Studies and honorary Doctor of Laws Degrees from Georgetown International Law. Innocenti Research Centre. She previously worked Economics from the University of Bremen and a University Law Center and the City University of at UNICEF headquarters on policy advocacy for PhD in Economics from the New School for Social New York Law School. Pascale Paulin (Contributor, Africa) is Coordinator children’s rights, with specific attention to legislative Research. of the UNICEF project ‘The sub-regional analysis reform and multicultural issues. In that capacity, she Marta Medusa (Researcher, A positively plurilingual on the issue of “Indigenous people” in Central acted from 2001 to 2007 as UNICEF’s focal point Nurcan Kaya (Turkey) is a lawyer specializing in world; Disaggregated data; South East Asia), was Africa’. She is finishing a PhD in Ethnolinguistics on indigenous issues. human rights – in particular minority rights, equal- Publications Intern at MRG. She has lived and at the University of Lyon, on the Baka hunter- ity, anti-discrimination remedies under international worked in East and West Africa, and South America gatherers of Gabon. She has taught courses on Murtaza Shaikh (Researcher and contributor, Asia) human rights and European Union law – and coordinating community development projects. She (Anthropological) Linguistics, Methodology and has an LLM from Essex University and is a PhD violence against women. She has been working as holds an MA in Gender Analysis of International French as a Foreign Language at the University of candidate at SOAS. He sits on the International the Turkey Programme Coordinator at MRG since Development from the University of East Anglia. Lyon (France) and at the Omar Bongo University Human Rights Committee of the Law Society and January 2006. She holds an LLM in international (Gabon) and is the author of various publications. until recently was interning at MRG. human rights law from the University of Essex. Farah Mihlar (Asia) has worked as a journalist covering South Asia for over ten years. Since 2004 Marusca Perazzi (China and Mongolia) is Inge Sichra* (Contributor, A positively plurilingual Mark Lattimer (Peoples under threat) is Executive she has worked on human rights including at the Programmes Officer at MRG, specialized in Chinese world; online) is a national adviser of PROEIB Director of Minority Rights Group International. UN Office for the High Commissioner of Human language and Oriental cultures, international rela- Andes (Program in Intercultural Bilingual Formerly he worked with Amnesty International. Rights. She currently works as media officer/Sri tions and global governance. She lived and worked Education for the Andean Region) and academic Recent publications include (as editor) Genocide and Lanka Programmes Coordinator at MRG. She holds with ethnic minority communities in north-west coordinator. She is a professor in the PROEIB Human Rights (Ashgate 2007). an MSc in Social Policy from the London School China. Andes Master’s Program at the Universidad Mayor of Economics and is researching a PhD in religious de San Simón in Cochabamba, Bolivia. She teaches Daniel J. Losen J.D., M.Ed. (Case Study: Using studies at the School of Oriental and African Studies. Kathryn Ramsay (The gender dimension of minority Linguistics and Sociolinguistics and is responsible racial data to improve education for minority chil- and indigenous education) is Gender Coordinator at for the research area Indigenous Languages and dren in the USA) is a Senior Education Law and Maite Onochie* (Contributor, online) is a Social MRG. She has an MA in the Theory and Practice Cultures in Urban Areas in the Andes. Policy Associate at the Civil Rights Project (CRP) Development Programme Manager at UNICEF. of Human Rights from the University of Essex. at UCLA (formerly at Harvard Law School). His She previously served as an Assistant Programme Juan de Dios Simón (Contributor, A positively work concerns the impact of US law and policy on Officer and as a Technical Assistant at UNICEF Adán Pari Rodríguez (Contributor, Americas) is plurilingual world) is an education specialist work- minority students including revealing and redressing in Venezuela. She is a graduate of the School of an Education Officer for UNICEF Bolivia. He ing for UNICEF. He is coordinating a regional the ‘School to Prison Pipeline’, and protecting the Oriental and African Studies, University of London holds a degree in Andean Linguistics and Bilingual programme for bilingual and intercultural education rights of minorities to equal educational opportu- and the University of Sussex. Education from the Universidad de Cuenca, in Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru. Has also worked in nity. Ecuador and a Masters in Intercultural Bilingual the Guatemala’s Ministry of Education and at the Amina Osman (Education challenges in policy Education from the Universidad Mayor de San Organization of American States in Washington DC, Victor Mboungou (Contributor, Africa) is and practice: pastoralists and nomadic peoples) Simón, Cochabamba, Bolivia. USA. He holds an MA from Harvard University in a Research Professor, Child Development is Education Specialist at UNICEF HQ, New the field of International Education Policy. Psychologist and Head of the Department of York. She worked with UNESCO and the Yusuf Sayed (Overcoming exclusion in education) Psychology, University of Congo. He studies the Commonwealth Secretariat in London and has con- is an education policy specialist with a career in Preti Taneja (Commissioning Editor) is commission- development, cognitive and behavioural functioning ducted research and led education programmes for international education and development research. ing editor at MRG. She is the author of the report of children and adolescents, including children with educators and stakeholders on various issues includ- Previously he was Senior Policy Analyst at the Assimilation, Exodus, Eradication: Iraq’s Minority disabilities and indigenous children, within the fam- ing policy planning, managing diversity within an EFA Global Monitoring Report, UNESCO, Team Communities Since 2003 (MRG 2007) and of a ily and educational institutions. integrated system of educational provision, peda- Leader for Education and Skills and the Department follow-up report on Iraqi refugees from minority gogy and multilingualism. She holds a doctorate in for International Development UK and Head of communities (2009). She is a regular contributor to Gay J. McDougall (Foreword) is UN Independent Humanities and Social Science from the University Department of Comparative Education at the Open Democracy, Reuters Alertnet and Guardian Expert on Minority Issues. She served as the of Paris, France. University of the Western Cape, South Africa. He Unlimited. She holds an MA in Theology from the Executive Director of Global Rights, leading the is based at the University of Sussex and is a Senior University of Cambridge and PGDip in Journalism development and implementation of programmes Leena Patel (Researcher, Middle East; Contributor, Research Fellow at the Human Sciences Research from City University, London. in Africa, Asia, Eastern Europe and the Americas. Gender), was Publications Intern at MRG. She Council, South Africa.

244 Reference State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Reference 245 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Claire Thomas (A positively plurilingual world) has been Deputy Director of MRG since 1996. She is Acknowledgements the mother of two bilingual children and a founding member and Secretary of a local organization that A report of this size involves contributions from supports parents in London raising their children a large number of people – including MRG staff. bilingually. She is the editor of a forthcoming book Special thanks to Kristen Harrison for picture in which adults raised bilingually remember and research and production coordination and Sophie reflect on incidents and feelings about speaking sev- Richmond for additional editing and copyediting. eral languages as children. We wish to gratefully acknowledge the following individuals who have contributed their thoughts, Fay Warrilow* (Contributor, Africa; online) is a comments, advice and expertise to this edition of journalist and researcher specializing in develop- SWMIP. ment issues in the Great Lakes Region of Africa, and is author of MRG’s 2008 report on access ACI (Action Concertée Incitative), Dmitri to education in Batwa communities. She holds a Alechkevitch, Ilona Alexander, ANR (National first class Bachelor’s degree from the University of Research Agency), Anya Azaryeva, P.K. Cambridge, and a Master’s with merit from the Balachandran, Daniel Balint-Kurti, Fareda School of Oriental and African Studies, London. Banda, Susan Bissell, Patrick Bodenham, Sandra Brunnegger, David Bull, CENAREST Kate Washington (Middle East) is an independent (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique researcher, affiliated with the French Institute for et Technique), Paile Chabane, Chris Chapman, the Near East and based in Amman, Jordan. Her Chizom Ekeh, Lucy Claridge, CNPN (Centre recent research interests have focused on female National des Parcs Nationaux), Ermes Donati, experience of education in the region and on the Graham Fox, Free University of Bolzano, Geoff experiences of Iraqi refugees in Jordan and Syria. Gilbert, Hubbie Hussein Al-Haji, Jane Hindley, She holds an MSc in Development Studies from the Wanjohi Kabukuru, Samia Khan, Sarah Kleiner, School of Oriental and African Studies, London. Steve Lamony, Le Anh Lan, Todd Landman, Elise Legault, Mark Anthony Leopold, Ricky Lowes, * Exclusive and further contributions by these Maria Lundberg, John MacLeod, Lena El-Malak, authors can be found online at: Sabine Malknecht, Innocent Mawikizi, Roberta www.minorityrights.org Medda, Patricia Moccia, George Mukundi, Áron Németh, Asayo Ohba, Francisco Panizza, Nadine Perrault, Isabel Pinaud, Helen Pinnock, Nitya Rao, Kalie Sillah, Korir Sing’oei, Tove Skutnabb-Kangas, Farrah Tek, Molu Tepo, Leon Tikly, Vakhtang Vakhtangidze, Fernand De Varennes, Lolke van der Veen, Cream Wright, Sonia Yeo, Zhou Yong

246 Reference State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Reference 247 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 and Indigenous Peoples 2009 Right: A group of Chakma children in Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh. Din Mohammed Sibly/UNICEF. State of minority rights the World’s group Minorities and international Indigenous Peoples 2009 Events of 2008

‘Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world.’ Nelson Mandela

Education for all is a goal that has been reaffirmed examples of what works and why. It describes efforts by states the world over many times in the last to overcome exclusion so that education is available, decade. It is meant to be achieved by 2015. But as accessible, acceptable and adaptable for minorities this book clearly shows, a quality education is not and indigenous peoples, and shows how far there is reaching the world’s most vulnerable communities: still to go. It includes: minorities and indigenous peoples. In Central Africa, the great majority of indigenous p An analysis of available statistics that show that Batwa and Baka have not had access even to primary minorities and indigenous peoples are the most education. In South Asia, Dalit girls are prevented likely to suffer discrimination and exclusion in from pursuing their education not just because of education worldwide poverty, but through discrimination and sexual vio- p First-hand accounts of the difficulties and chal- lence. In many countries in Europe, Roma children lenges facing minority and indigenous children in continue to be placed in segregated classes or in every major world region special schools for those with learning disabilities, p Coverage of the key issues for promoting the right just because of their ethnicity. In Latin America, mil- to education, including overcoming the double lions of indigenous and African descendant children, discrimination faced by minority and indigenous instead of being in school, work in fields and planta- girls, the need to collect data by ethnicity, and the tions, in the mines, or at home. importance of bilingual or plurilingual education In a unique collaboration with UNICEF, p A unique statistical analysis and ranking of Minority Rights Group International reports on Peoples under Threat 2009. what minority and indigenous children around the world face in their struggle to learn. State of State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2009 is an invaluable reference for policy makers, academ- profiles the programmes that are being developed ics, journalists and everyone who is interested in the to help them – from better bilingual education to conditions facing minorities and indigenous peoples meeting the needs of nomadic populations – giving around the world.