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OVERVIEW OVERVIEW  1 R E T P A H C uchevskoi Volcano rising to mately Plateaus, mountain ranges, andfrom peaks about ecology and Geography moisture, but allows for little cultivation of land. permafrost, or eternally frozen ground, which melts on the surface in summer, providing time climate from warming the interior. Almost long, dry, and very cold. The mountains along the Pacifi ccoastline prohibitthe mari- Oblast, and the entire Republic of Summer Sakha. is short but warm. Winter is and because dry strong air masses fl oweast from Siberia. Spring is longand cool. occasional fromheavy rainfall typhoons, particularly in Primorsky WinterKrai. is cold these regions, as monsoon storms blow in from the south. Autumn isand dry warm, with sky and Amur Krais, Basin, and southern Summer ). is humid in Pacifi cand Ocean the Sea of bring a monsoon climate tothe southern Pacifi ccoast, while subarcticconditions persist onhigh mountain ridgesin the south.The break up these zones into irregular fl owsas temperateconditions reach far northalong the ( (– With frigid winters in northeastern the Sakha, coldest point in the northern hemisphere Climate Alaska. or theMore size of two-thirds than the , the Size seaboard of the Korea, Japan, and the separates Chukotka from Together, Alaska. (north of Shanghai), North and South 50 Geographic regions, p. 1 The Russian Far East ( Location Overview 40 . 1 and 71 ) and is bordered by China to the south and North Korea to the southeast (see map 40 A Siberian, or continental, climate defi nesthe interior of Magadan Oblastand western ° c ° c ), climate zones in the percent of the Russian Federation. The Republic of alone Sakha is twice the size of ), and sweltering summers along the Amur and River basins in the south 75 200 percent of the km fromkm Japan, respectively. In the far northeast, the narrow Bering Strait rfe , is more than rfe rfe 13 rfe ). The form Northeast . , the largest city on the eastern ) comprises the eastern third of the Russian Federation (see map rfe . The great volcanoes of areKamchatka still higher with Kly- 4 , 7507 5 range from arctic to nearly subtropical. Mountain ranges rfe 0 m. Plains cover the remaining 9 , ’s Island andSakhalin Primorsky are Krai less than 000 km andkm seven time zones away from Moscow. 75 1 percent of the , 000 rfe to 3 covers , 000 25 m high cover approxi- rfe 6 percent of the region; w e i v r e v O . 63 is dominated by million sq. km, rfe (Primor-  1

. 2 , 3

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW 4   there are four main vegetation belts: along mountain ridges. Broadly speaking, north, and subarctic vegetation extends south zones. Temperate forests reach far into the irregular horizontal fl owsas dothe climate Sakhalin. the shores of Primorsky and Krai southern brings warm ocean currents to northern Japan, and the eastern in the world, is enclosed by the , , perhaps the richest fi shery Kuril Islands. Tucked away like a pocket, the Ocean borders the eastern coast down to the separates the northern coast to the Bering Strait, which most people have settled here. plains are most suitable for growing crops, Bureya, and Ussuri Rivers. Because these , River and its main tributaries—the the most fertile are located along the Amur

The vegetation cover follows the same The Arctic Ocean extends along the and willows ( ( rivers and are interspersed with poplars trees, mostly larch, grow along the major soil, and cold, climate. dry Some large formations, stunted by the wind, shallow ( pines ( ern tundra zones, dwarf Japanese stone for and animals migratory birds. In south- tundra landscape, forming the food base a dense carpet of gray lichen covers the barren, frigid, and desert-dry. In summer, farther south. In winter, this region is tions of Oblast,Magadan and mountains Chukotka and northern por- Kamchatka, thin belt butin Sakha, covering most of Tundra northern regions of and Sakha Chukotka. along the Arctic Ocean coastline in the far and various grasses) grows in a thin belt tundra Arctic Larix gmelini Populus  T S A E R A F N A I S S U R E H T Pinus pumila grows further south, forming a ), chosenia ( g r rfe o w Salix s from The PacifiAlaska. c ) grow in unusual horizontal

(patches of moss, sedge, f ( u p r a t t ). h c ) and Dahurian larch h e Chosenia arbutifolia r e

s s

o o u f

t m h , o

rfe f s o s r ,

m s . The e i d n g g e

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), logical balance in many areas of the RFE. the of areas many in balance logical eco- the of disruption and stocks, of destruction poaching, widespread to led has use resource regulate to agencies government corrupt often and impoverished of failure The resources over control regulatory Increase –45). 39 pp. (see management environmental for responsible agencies government those bolster and system area protected ’s of support their continue to need groups international diffiand more Russian cult. protection such make will tion privatiza- land looming and resources for demand Increasing concern. top a as sustainability ecosystem with developed or protected either be should that fispecialists Russian by ed identi- hotspots biodiversity fi describes fty-eight book This places wild Protect Key and projects issues areas, and may not reduce poverty. poverty. reduce not may and areas, sensitive damage span, life short a have also they but coffers, government for revenue create Magadan in projects mining Gold- crises. energy RFE’s the exacerbate only may projects these ones, gas natural cleaner to stations coal-thermal ing pollut- convert to need the ignoring also while markets, tic domes- neglecting and markets export prioritizing By unlikely. argue, some and, ensured way no in are communities local benefi but to ts investment, large-scale to lead will pipeline) Transneft Siberia-RFE-China pipeline, Yukos Siberia-China Sakhalin, (offshore planned projects oil-and-gas massive The benefidiversifi and economy the society, ts es environment, the protects development resource Ensure extraction. resource for areas new open to pressure reduce could and jobs more create also would It manufacturers. Russian to and government federal and regional the to both revenue increase would processing value-added of amount the Increasing sustainable. mentally environ- nor economically neither is base, manufacturing a developing of expense the at Korea, South and China, Japan, to gas) fi and (timber, oil, materials metals, sh, raw Exporting capacity manufacturing Increase unabated. largely continues and 1990s the in levels peak reached species endangered 2

1 Illegal trade in in trade Illegal 

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW   ka ka coastlines. ofMore the total two-thirds than seabird population of the former jubatus Huge populations of northern seal fur ( Scientists estimate that more ofhalf than the wild Pacifi c salmoncan be foundin the ( the only place with sixall species of Pacifi c salmon:king ( salmon stocks (including king salmon, which reachcan almost arctos for the two thousand remaining Siberian cranes ( ( gulls ( mus Islands in Chukotka boast the highest denning population of polar bears ( Dicrostonyx pex lagopus The Arctic regions provide habitat for the snowy owl ( fauna and Flora A for listings of the major topological features in the Russian Far East. golicus portions of the Island, Sakhalin Moneron Island, and the Kuril Islands. Farther inland, the southernmost Similar mixed forests, composed of a different set of tree species, exist on southernmost  O. nerka Anser caeruleus Kamchatka PeninsulaKamchatka supports the world’s largest population of brown bears ( belt between covered areas of China, Korea, and Japan, but they have largely been destroyed. also support the majority of the ( and medicinal plants, such as the famed ginseng ( rean pine, varieties of maple ( the boreal forest thrive here together with temperate and subtropical species such as Ko- plant and species animal in temperate forests anywhere on the planet. forests in these regions have evolved to become one of the most diverse assemblages of just east of the North Korean and Chinese borders. Escaping the last glacial period, the Amur River. Conifer-broadleaved forests also grow south of range, the Sikhote-Alin River, which fl ows northwestfrom the Mountains and Sikhote-Alin drainsinto the Khabarovsk RussianstheseKrai. call forests the Ussuri Taiga, named after the Ussuri Mountain whichRange, extends along most of Primorsky and Krai into southern Conifer-broadleaved koraensis central and southern regions, ( The north is dominated by Dahurian larch forests that grow well on permafrost. In becomes more complex, although tundra still can be found along the mountain ranges. Eleutherococcus senticosus ), as well as the largest concentrations of ( walrus ), estimated at Larus roseus ), chernozem prairies, and (‘black earth’) steppes of the Amur Valley. See appendix ), and ( , the large mass of boreal forest that forms the heart of the ), coho ( ), numerous sandpipers ( ), reindeer ( ), fi rs ( rfe ) in the world. Most of the world’s population (fithousand) fty of Ross’s 70 O. kisutch ) nest in the northern AbiesA and are covered with broadleaved forests of Mongolian oak ( b 7 i , e 500 s Rangifer tarandus ), and Scots pine ( Enhydra lutris 50 forests grow below the zonetaiga along the Sikhote-Alin . In its rivers and along its shores are the world’s most abundant f degrees latitude. Farther south, the forest composition gradually o r ), pink ( ), combine to form an intricate mix of fl ora.These forests e s t s

Acer g r o rfe Calidris O. gorbuscha w ),) birch ( ) congregate along the Sea of Okhotsk and Kamchat- ,

b ’s rare and endangered species. Similar forests once b Callorhinus ursinus e rfe i ), and many other fauna. Wrangel and Herald l r Picea obovata P. silvestris o c w h ), eiders ( . The Republic of is Sakha a major nesting site

( t Betula h e

), chum ( t Grus leucogeranus a i g ) begin to appear. ), fi r,and lime ( a Somateria Panax ginseng Odobaenus rosmarus

Nyctea scandiaca z , o P. ajanensis n Onorynchus tshawytscha e O. keta ), Steller’s sea lion (

a l o n ), lemmings ( 2 g m in length), and it is

), and masu ( t h ) and eleutherococcus ). w e i v r e v O ), Korean pine (

Tulia rfe e a

n S d ), arctic fox ( i , extends as a broad k

3 e h ) and snow geese ). Southern vines Tree species of l e o Ursus mariti- u t Quercus mon- Lemmus, e t h - Eumetopias A O. masu e r l o i U. ), sockeye n ussr c

o Pinus Alo- c  c rfe u , an ).

s

4 . 5 5

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW 6 least populated regions per capita, and much lower thethan Russian national average of almost influx of prisoners tothe laborlocal camps, the populationgrew from about There are just over Population (pop.Magadan Ussuriisk (pop. (pop.Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk (pop. Yakutsk (pop. (pop. Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky (pop. Komsomolsk-on-Amur (pop. Khabarovsk (pop. Vladivostok (pop. cities Largest species of birds, and more than there are more than the Manchurian fi r ( Eastern leopards ( darin duck ( euptilura fi ( sh-owl include the Himalayan bear ( est cats in the world (see pp. estimated The Ussuri Taiga is home to the of the world’s species of cranes. basins provide habitat for four dreds of species of birds. wolverines ( phus Manchurian wapiti moose ( urus vulgaris ( bears, wolves ( foreststaiga teem with brown Sea of Okhotsk coastlines. The breed along the and sea eagles [ includes remainingall Steller’s estimated Martes zibellina

The Amur and Ussuri River  ), wild boars ( T S A E R A F N A I S S U R E H T 5 Alces alces, americanusA. million. Today, with about ), merganserscaly-breasted ( KetupaK blackistoni 250 4 Haliaeetus pelagicaus]), e . Gulo gulo 5 t ), lynxes ( Aix galericulata u million pairs (which – p Canis lupus 194 a 400 158 115

), squirrels ( b 159 , Panthera pardus orientalis l Sus scrofa 617 613 000 , , a 7

remaining Amur, or Siberian, tigers ( 000 400 ( c , 2 million people living in the AbiesA holophylla Cervus ela- k 800 ), and hun- , , , 500 b Felis lynx i 800 100 s ) i 225 t ) ) e o s ) n

species of plants,vascular almost ), ) h ) 180 , i 200 ), yellow-throated ( o ), ), and endemic Siberian grouse ( Sci- l 0 09 – 106 o Ursus thibetanus , p 309 000 ), ) h 200 y ), l 256 , l 400 ) a species of butterfl iesin Primorskyalone.Krai ) forests in the far south of Primorsky InKrai. all, 1 ). Other endangered species sharing this ecosystem , . Mergus squamatus 000 1 ) inhabitants per sq. km, it is still one of the world’s plant; adult butterfl ies have almost been wiped out by commercial collectors. commercial by out wiped butterfl been adult almost plant; have ies alcinoi Parides ) ), with a population of only about ), goral ( rfe is one of the rarest butterfl ies in the RFE. Its larvae feed on an endangered endangered an on feed larvae butterfl Its rarest RFE. of the the one in is ies . Between Nemorhaedus caudatus Martes fl avigula ), sika deer ( Panthera tigris altaica 100 Falcipennis falcipennis 1928 mammalian species, mammalian and Cervus nippon ), Amur cat ( 1959 ), Blackiston’s 1 , with the . 30 5 ), the larg- million to , inhabit ), Man- ). Far Felis 400

Yuri Shibnev 

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW  Source: fi jure de used. are gures Note: East Far Russian 2000 RFE, the of Population 1.1Table Koryak Autonomous Okrug Autonomous Koryak Okrug Autonomous Chukotka Oblast Autonomous Jewish Oblast Magadan Oblast Kamchatka Oblast Sakhalin Sakha of Republic Oblast Amur Krai Primorsky De facto population fi gures are used for this table, but in some of the regional chapters chapters regional the of some in but table, fithis for used population are gures facto De D Goskomstat, 2001. Goskomstat, G e f o a s c k t o o p m s o t p a t u , 2 l a 0 t i 0 o 1 n fi .

g u r e s a r or, more accurately, Nunavut. equivalent to that of the provinces,Canadian with being Sakha comparable to Quebec, equal, with the exception of the Republic of Their Sakha. degree of autonomy is roughly okrug has tried to reverse the trend toward decentralization. governors enjoy much better working relations with Moscow. President Putin Vladimir tions of a sellout of the example, defi nedhis politicalcareer by defying Moscow’s authorityand launchingallega- ment among the local populace. Primorsky’s former governor Evgeny Nazdratenko, for their problems, eventually creating strong anti-Moscow and even periodic separatist senti- diverse, even though the region is often thought of as a unifi ed whole. the priorities and character of individual areas within the more political autonomy Chechnyathan ever asked for. Since the dissolution of the but are equal members of the Russian Federation. The Republic of now Sakha enjoys Jewish Autonomous Oblast ( government raised the political status of some Yeltsin administration encouraged decentralization. During this period, the Russian Perestroika status Political e u s The In search of greater power, some local governors have routinely blamed Moscow for 1,506,700 7,098,200 e 2,157,700 d f 590,600 378,300 973,800 227,200 997,500 197,500 s 68,900 28,500 Total o , and one republic. Despite different designations, their status is more or less r t rfe

h i s t brought with it a strong movement for greater regional autonomy, in that the b currently includes fi ve a r b o l e u , b g Persons Persons sq. km sq. u 13.1 h per per t i 6.8 5.5 5.3 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.3 2.7 1.9 1.1 t n s

w o i m t h krai e o

Percentage Percentage rural areas rural i t f t living in living

a h 36% 35% 23% 22% 32% 32% 24% 19% 19% 74% ’s land and resources to the Chinese (see p.

e r 7% s jao t e r g o i o n ), for example, are no longer ofparts other n g a oblast l c

m urban areas urban Percentage Percentage h living in in living a o 68% 68% 65% 26% 93% 64% 78% 76% 77% 81% 81% p v t e e s (one autonomous), two r m s e n t

rfe f o r

regions. Chukotka, and Koryakia, the g is urban. however, Koryakia, remains 76 OblastMagadan and Chukotka. About marked in the northern regions, such as Population decline has been particularly Russia, stemming from economic crisis. also to migration back to European ing birth rates throughout Russia but steadily declined partly due to declin- years, the population of the suitable for agriculture. For the last ten climate is warmer and the land is more ( Khabarovsk ( Krai ticularly Primorsky ( Krai in the southern part of the shows, most of the population lives 8 for complete statistics). and most live in areas (seerural p. 90 to a census done in indigenous peoples remain. According primarilylarge settlements rural; of r . 7 e percent of the , a inhabitants per sq. km. tableAs p 000 t e e r r c

r rfe e indigenous peoples in the e n g t i

have become much more o o n f

a t l h 997 krai

a e w e i v r e v O u

rfe t , 500 1 o s, two autonomous 6 , 1989 506 n 143 ’s total population o ), where the m ). , 7007 , there are about y oblast 0 , Other local 2

0 i rfe , n 157 rfe ), and

t h s or , , par- 7007 has a 0 t ussr

0 t rfe,  101 krai h ), 1 e

. 1

, s, 7

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW 8 of Kamchatka. Japan, the Bering Sea, and along the eastern shores waters around the northern Kurils, in the Sea of are distributed in the Sea of Okhotsk, in the coastal urchins (mostly shrimp, scallops, sea cucumbers, seaweed, and sea species include herring ( commercially lucrative species. Other important lion tons. Crab, pollock, and salmon are the most resource asset, with fi sh stocksestimated at mercury, lead, and . located in the of platinum and palladium. Other important metals Khabarovsk regions are emerging as major suppliers deposits are found in southern and Koryakia Sakha. of the world’s second largest reserve of diamonds. Most Amur, and regions.Kamchatka boasts Sakha the in the Chukotka,Magadan, Sakha, Khabarovsk, potential. Gold and silver reserves are found mainly lar, and geothermal energy reserves also have strong offshore along most of the found mainly onIsland andSakhalin andin Sakha, in ferns, ginseng, and other medicinal plants. products ( forests also have many important nontimber forest AmurOblasts). Krais, and TheseSakhalin southern in the southern distribution is uneven, with most timber production however, are heavily overlogged. In addition, forest foreststure; near railroads and population centers, to mountainous landscapes and lack of infrastruc- forty percent of a listing of the forest resources of the thin to be commercially viable (see appendix B for whereSakha, the trees are primarily larch and too reserves in the estimates, there are over and other materials. diminished the bined with raw materials export reliance, have Decades wasteful extraction, of large-scale, com- resources Natural

rfe Marine resources are arguably the There may be as much as  T S A E R A F N A I S S U R E H T reserves (mostly inOil Sakha). and aregas rfe ’s confi rmed ntfp rfe rfe s) such as mushrooms, pine nuts, rfe rfe rfe Strongylocentrotus include tin, antimony, tungsten, , but over ofhalf these are in ’s accessible minerals, timber, (Khabarovsk and Primorsky forests remain inaccessible due 7 According to forest service 4 8 Clupea pallasi . 21 4 billion tons of iron ore billion cu. m of timber rfe b i 19 l l i coastline. Wind, so- o billion tons of coal n

). These resources t o n rfe s rfe ), fl atfi shes,

o f

’s greatest ). About i r o 29 n

mil- o r e

� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW  Soviet planners developed industries in the industries Main town of Nelma on the Sea of Japan to reduce the cost of exporting logs to Japan. and timber companies want to build a road east from the ofvillage Sukpai to the port isNakhodka opening forests up Sikhote-Alin for logging. The Khabarovsk government way throughout the with a growing scarcity of accessible resources, new infrastructure projects are under the greatest obstacle to more investment. Driven by resource demand in Asia and faced maintain it. Many foreign investors, particularly Japanese, believe infrastructure to be Kamchatsky in Kamchatka. (Soviet Haven) in KholmskKhabarovsk onIsland;Krai; and Petropavlovsk-Sakhalin andNakhodka, Vladivostok in Primorsky Vanino Krai; and Sovetskaya-Gavan arein andexpanding.Kamchatka Sakhalin The largest ports in the in winter. The major international airports are in Vladivostok and Khabarovsk. Airports transportation and shipping goods in summer and are used as roads when they freeze over Magadan, and usually travelKamchatka by air. Rivers are also important for passenger construction diffi cultand expensive. When traveling longdistances, peoplefrom Sakha, this railroadhalf; connects to the mainland (through Vanino port) by regular ferry line. to the island’s center, was built by the Japanese when they controlled the island’s southern southern but Sakha, not as far as the capital, Yakutsk. Sakhalin’s railroad, which extends two railroads in Amur Oblast and Khabarovsk Krai, and a spur from the east-west direction. Most industries have developed along these lines. Spurs connect the MainlineTrans-Siberian ( and the Baikal-Amur largely limited infrastructure to the southern Mountainous terrain, severe weather, and low levels of federal capital investment have Infrastructure Regional Product ( Khabarovsk, and Primorsky) combine to produce ofabout the region’stwo-thirds Gross now the era trucks. defense plantsthirty-two into museums of rusting cranes, assembly andhangars, Soviet- Shark attack helicopters, and Sukhoi fighter planes hastransformed many ofthe region’s closely connected to production.military The sharp drop in orders for battleships, Black larger percentage of total industrial production theythan do now. Machine building was the major manufacturing sectors (machine building, light industry, etc.) formed a much 1 rebound in levels in ofall the No longer propped up by federal subsidies and a state-controlled economy, production During the Soviet era, about ofhalf the [coal town] or ment and supply raw materials, constructing entire cities (with names such as . 1 shows the increased reliance of the economy on resource extraction and export. In Existing Existing infrastructure is old, and the Russian government generally lacks funds to The northern regions have no railroads and few paved roads because permafrost makes Mining (nonferrous metallurgy), food (especially fiand shing), power generationare rfe 2000 ’s largest industries. Three of the Neftegorsk . Manufacturing capacity, however, remains at pre- rfe grp rfe industries plummeted between ). . A federally funded highway under construction from Chita to 11 [oil town]) around the extraction of one or a few resources. [ o i l

t o w n ] )

a r o u rfe n d rfe ’s industrial output was related to defense.

t rfe rfe h e primarily to manufacture equip- military

e bam ’s ten administrative regions (Sakha, , where the two major railroads—the x t r a ) —run parallel to each other —run in an ) c 1989 t i o n and

o f

o n 1999 e

o w e i v r e v O r before beginning to

rfe 1980 a

f e are Vostochny, w levels. bam

r e s o Uglegorsk reaches u 10 r Figure c e s .

 9 1991

9

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW 10 products, annual further complicates the export picture. Taking into account unreported fi shand border timber between Russia and China. Much of the Russian-Chinese trade is by barter, which figures of log exportsare also dubious,with illegal trade prevalent acrossthe shared,much porousas rfe tanker shipments of Sakhalin oil. Of the are climbing rapidly). , Japan, and China are the primary markets, so far, for region’s most lucrative export: marine products (although Chinese imports of that resourcemore doublethan Japan’s annual log import. partner for the of which are made in European Russia) now line most shelves. imported packaged foods, such as butter from , but Russian food products (many to import furniture from places as distant as Finland. The capacity. An underdeveloped wood-processing industry, for example, makes it necessary Imports are primarily manufactured goods, because of the 2001 foreign trade. Trade has more than doubled since South Korea, and the United account States—together for about products), such as Khabarovsk-built jet fighters China, toJapan, China. Four countries— exports a limited quantity of manufactured items (machinery, equipment, processed wood These four categories account for about king crab, pollock, salmon), raw logs, and fuelcoking (high-quality coal and crude oil). precious metals and gems (gold, silver, platinum, diamonds), marine products (especially The trade Foreign tigers in this region. Biologist Dale Miquelle has documented the negative impacts of road infrastructure on hotspot and one of the largest pristine watersheds left in the southern part of the ness. Thelogging Nelma-Sukpai road would bisect the Samarga watershed, a biodiversity and pipelinesgas and roads impactwill salmon rivers and open up new areas of wilder- them to consumers comes with environmental ecologists costs. Sakhalin are concerned oil rfe Khabarovsk, from central to Sakha China, and from Eastern Siberia (Angarsk) across the roads. Oil and pipelinesgas (and roads to build and service them) may be built through next decade as companies expand ports and construct pipelines, plants, and maintenance Oil and gas development sparkwill infrastructure expansion onIsland overSakhalin the tion and enhance the region’s role as a transit point for goods from China and . ture and streamline customs procedures. These upgrades would facilitate resource extrac- ridor project to attract fi nancing to upgradeand expand

Trade statistics underestimate actual trade. Russian customs offi cials confi rm that as Exports have risen sharply but imports have not, remaining at In just the past few years, China has overtaken Japan as the most important trading Building the infrastructure required to access fuel and timber resources and transport Russian policymakers and international associations are promoting the East-West Cor- to South Korea in to . rfe (see fi g.  T S A E R A F N A I S S U R E H T economy today essentially relies on the export of four primary natural resources: u.s.$2 1 . . 1 rfe 5 ). billion of fi sh productsare exportedillegally each year (see p. rfe . Chinese demand for Russian logs is booming, with 12 exports are closer to 2000 , almost 60 percent was crude oil. 80 u.s.$578 $8 percent of all export earnings. – 14 9 But Japan remains the key market for the billion than million in products exported from the 1992 and totaled about rfe rfe rfe $6 rail, port, and road infrastruc- used to rely heavily on ’s limited manufacturing billion (offi cial gures).fi b i l 1992 60 l i o n percent of all levels (

( o f 2002 13 u.s.$6 fi

The c i a u.s.$1 l imports 58

fi billion in

rfe b g ). Offi cial i u rfe l l r rfe billion). also i e o s . n ) .

i n

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW  turnover. reduced funding to the region. Government planners and industry representatives in the unemployed, many of whom resort to poaching and toillegal harvesting secure income. facturing and noncommodity sectors. World Bank have urged Russia to diversify its economy by developing domestic manu- tion, and may exacerbate poverty. extractive industries grow more slowly, tofail employ a significant portion ofthe popula- sustainable development. Indeed, the region supplies evidence that economies based on decades. partner and havewill a huge impact on the development patterns of the China, with its rapidly growing definatural-resource cits, isthe region’s largesttrading for the Soviets, today the crab to sell to canneries in China, Japan, and the United States. Once a resource colony netters and refitted U.S. crabbers now plythe seas to harvest pollock, salmon,and king mined to export coking coal to steel factories in Japan. Foreign-built trawlers and drift- Korean pine, larch, and ash logs to sawmills in China and Japan. Coal deposits are being acrossgas to refiSakhalin neriesin Japanand South Korea. Roadsare being built tocarry ties to European Russia. Asia. The Chinese, Japanese, and South Korean markets now eclipse the region’s economic the region survives by supplying raw materials to resource-poor countries in Northeast (withMagadan its gold industry), retain close economic ties with Moscow, but most of people without heat in their homes. revenue. erraticAn energy supply also hinders steady factory production and leaves many manufacturing and devastated local communities dependent on the industry for jobs and intact. the aging and ineffi cientcomplex military-industrial built bythe Soviets remains largely Despite more athan decade of sweeping privatization and radical political restructuring, outlook General          a number of resources critical to Russia’s economy, including: Although the Federation Russian the in importance Economic

See appendix C for foreign trade by Investment in manufacturing is unlikely to come from Moscow, which has drastically The A few areas in the A growing percentage of Russia’s oil and exportsgas More than Almost About About About About ofall Virtually Russia’s diamonds and tin About 15 High energy and transport costs combined with lack of investment have crippled rfe 14 25 10 50 75 50 ’s present economic reliance on natural resource exports is not the path to percent of Russian platinum percent of coal production and percent of Russia’s fi shand marine products percent of timberall production and percent of the country’s gold p percent of leadall e rfe 90 r c e percent of fl uorspar produces only about n t

o rfe f

c o 16 , such (with as Sakha its strategic diamond industry) and a Pipelines are being planned to transport crude oil and natural rfe l

p is essentially a resource colony for the northern PacifiRim. c r o d u 17 c Both the International Monetary Fund ( t i o n 18 Manufacturing would create jobs for the region’s

rfe 5 a percent of Russia’s total industrial output, it has n d region, and see appendix D for total trade

40 percent of the country’s total reserves 30 percent of log exports w e i v r e v O rfe in the coming imf ) and the 

11

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW 12 be continually championed. in the But the Putin Administration’s recent harassment of mediacertain outlets and many ofparts the of the great successes coming out of the by industry and regional governments fearing the loss of access to natural resources. One tions to claim legal right to their traditional lands, efforts which have often been resisted organizations and individuals across the globe. Indigenous peoples also formed associa- ing from human rights to nuclear pollution, and the collaboration of these groups with governmental organizations ( which may pose the greatest long-term threat to the natural ecosystems of the sian fi rms. Butconsumer countries alsowill have to curb wasteful resourceconsumption, export methods. Consumers, in turn, could then demand imports from certifi ed Rus- would allow certification for businesses practicing and legal sustainableand harvesting Russian regulators by documentation requiring chain-of-custody for resources. This lucrative. agencies themselves. For corrupt offi cials, bribesand illicit business enterprisesare highly regulation. The greatest obstacle to reform, however, may be corruption in the regulatory of government environmental agencies, and the proliferation of small fi rmsin need of proven particularly formidable because of federal budget constraints, the decentralization hinders efforts to environmentally certify responsible fi rms.Combating illegality has ment, drives down resource prices (making it harder for honest fi rms tocompete), and inability also reduces government revenue, discourages domestic and foreign invest- crab, pollock [ control this problem threatens to wipe out species (such as Korean pine, ash [ most intractable problem: illegal resource harvest. The inability of regulatory agencies to overdependence. by international fi nancialinstitutions suchasthe Worldthat Bank counsel against such raw materials. Ironically, most foreign investment projects are subsidized and facilitated creased manufacturing. Instead it has increased industry’s capacity to extract and export know-how. To date, however, foreign direct investment ( rfe

The Importers and government agencies from China, Japan, and South Korea could assist The Russian government meanwhile continues to combat what is perhaps the —Josh Newell —Josh continue to hope foreign investors bringwill the necessary capital, technology, and  rfe T S A E R A F N A I S S U R E H T 1990 serves as a reminder that these civil liberties are by no means assured and must s witnessed remarkable social change in Russia, with the emergence of non- Theragra, Pollacius rfe (the percentage of protected land in the ngo ], and ginseng) in high demand by markets.Asian This s) and independent media championing causes rang- 1990 s was the creation of new protected areas in fdi ) in the region has not in- rfe , however, remains low). Fraxinus rfe ngo rfe . leaders ’s ], 

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OVERVIEW OVERVIEW  not decompose, but rather accumulate, on permafrost. When temperatures melt will permafrost. this Normally, plants do storing water until the next year. Scientists fear that rising vegetation. When winter returns, the top layer again, freezes permafrost thaw, supplying water and nutrients to trees and in winter. In thesummer dry months, the top few meters of rfe or frozen perpetually ground, covers obvioushas importance for the global climate. Permafrost, world’s carbon storage. land-based Russia’s forests may provide as much of as one-seventh the Tatiana Kolchugina and Ted Vinson have estimated that Change (see table according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate forests may hold more carbonother than land ecosystems, abundance of which contributes to global warming. Boreal for methane and gas carbon dioxide, the atmospheric over- significance(see p. timber supply, but because also of their global environmental forests not only because of their global importance to the World haveBank ataken keenrightfully interest in Russian international community and large institutions such as the ing ecosystem function, of particularly the polar arctic. The change, protecting biological diversity, and generally ensur- wildernessThis plays a crucial role in mitigating climate and untouched wetlands, tigers and leopards, pristine beaches, planet: more than some of the most extensive wildremaining onareas the petroleum deposits, andalong areas and near railroads. to urban centers, isolated pockets near strategic mineral and resources. Intensive development in the to muchextract necessary the infrastructure of its natural viet state lacked both the technology and the capital to build sible left of areas, vast areas wilderness untouched. which caused horrendous destruction and pollution in acces- wilderness. Soviet era, and what is Russia’s greatest legacy to the planet: may be the most significant environmentalfrom legacy the by ineffi cient production, scholarshave largely ignored what and, somewhat less, on the wanton waste of resources caused the While focus beenhas on nuclear, air, and water pollution Chernobyl,blights: oil and spills,gas andair water pollution. Western readers are nowwith Russia’s familiar environmental ronmental destruction that occurred under the . Researchers and scholars have written extensively on the envi- Dinets Vladimir and Newell Josh Ecology The health of Russia’s northern ecosystems, therefore, Scientists believe terrestrial ecosystems act as reservoirs Russia, more specifithe cally The sheer ineffi ciency ofthe Soviet command economy, . In some permafrost areas reaches several meters deep 20 percent of the world’s freshwater alone. Baikal in Lake 19 1 20 . 32 2 percent of the remaining forests, ). Oregon State University professors ). rfe 21 and Siberia, contains 75 percent of the vast rfe has beenhas limited 20 The So- largest emitterlargest of CO forest.disturbed as much to estimated carbonone-half one-third as an un- into forest managed storage; plantations generally hold an popular belief, reforestation does not always put carbon back southern of logged forests in the poor forestssecondary and shrubs. loaded temperate and boreal forests into relatively carbon- releasealso large amounts of CO (where clear-cutting trees onall a given plot are felled), can use of heavy machinery. to direct sunlight or by melting it during construction or the cycle, either byfreeze-thaw this disturb exposing permafrost CO with a teneffect warming to twenty times higher that ofthan plant matter and soil. Methane is a powerful greenhouse gas ly decomposes, releasing trapped methane and CO permafrost becomes swampy, however, organic matter quick- Source: 1998. (WBGU), Change Global on Note: Total Tundra Croplands and Deserts forests Temperate Wetlands grasslands Temperate savannas Tropical forests Tropical forests Boreal Biome soils 1mof top and vegetation in stocks carbon Global 1.2 Table ing its logging industry and exporting its resources abroad. seeks to oncapitalize its forests by modernizing and expand- migrating in response to climate Russia, changes. however, while simultaneously providing habitat corridors for animals would help COretain sustainable and asidesetting oflarge tracts forestsRussian semideserts Ensuring Ensuring that mining and logging are environmentally In addition to melting permafrost, logging, in particular 2 Data are derived by the IPCC from the German Advisory Council Council Advisory German the from IPCC the by derived are Data D . Logging, mining, and mining, .other Logging, also industrial activity can Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2000. (IPCC), Change Climate on Panel Intergovernmental I a n t t a e rfe r g r e d o v they loggedare usually selectively. toContrary e e r r n i v m e 23 e d b Deforestation is recognized as the second n t a y t l P (10 2 h after fossilafter fuel combustion. 2 a e I in the permafrost soil and forests, 151.2 rfe n 6 Area sq. km) sq. s 45.5 22.5 16.0 13.7 10.4 e 12.5 P 17.6 l o 3.5 9.5 q C

. k are clear-cut, although inare clear-cut, the C f n C m r o ) l i m t m a 2 h t by transforming carbon- e C w e i v r e v O e G 22 Vegetation More than h e 466 (Gigatonnes carbon, 10 carbon, (Gigatonnes a 212 r n 59 88 66 m 15 g 6 3 8 9 a e ( n A I P Carbon stocks stocks Carbon d C v 2,011 C i s ) 264 295 225 o 100 128 471 216 191 121 Soil , 2 r 90 y C 0 0 percent 2 0 o from the . u n  c 2,477 i 9 l Total tons) t

559 330 304 240 428 199 159 127 131 o n s 29 )

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW 30 Sources: RFE R areas problem and issues environmental Major 1.3 Table e g Sakhalin Sakhalin Kamchatka Koryakia Chukotka Magadan Sakha Amur JAO Khabarovsk Primorsky

i o n  Information was summarized by Josh Newell from the regional chapters. regional the from Newell Josh by summarized was Information I T S A E R A F N A I S S U R E H T n f o r m a t i o n w a f i sheries practices; logging of remaining old-growth forests old-growth remaining of logging fipractices; sheries wasteful development; gas and oil offshore and Onshore development. energy irrational salmon; and crab, king bears, brown of poaching hunting; sport and tourism uncontrolled mining; gold possible stands; forest remaining Logging hunting sport bladders; bear brown fiof illegal mining; gold export and illegal Platinum shing; tundra fragile on vehicles all-terrain ice; Sea Bering of melting development; gas and oil future waste; flradioactive Planned plant; power nuclear oating development oil offshore planned permafrost; melting use; local for logging illegal mining; Gold permafrost melting development; gas and oil planned use; local for logging mining; gold fiand diamond forest from pollution Flooding; res; overfi mining; pollution coal water and fishing open-cast res; agricultural pine, Siberian logging systems; river along mining gold placer exploitation; resource to areas protected up opening China, to export timber development; Hydropower China to export resource natural mining; gold placer cover; forest of Loss pollution. river species; fi and logging Illegal forest endangered shing; poaching res; fi construction road fluse; sea; the pesticide ooding; into waste nuclear dumping species; endangered poaching fi and systems) river along shing; (esp. logging Illegal permafrost of melting corruption; regulation; government of lack areas; protected in illegality species; endangered poaching development; energy inadequate coal, low-grade on reliance fi pollution; water and air res; recycling; and management waste of absence reliance; export material raw equipment; fi and logging, outdated mining, Wasteful methods; shing Issues s u m m a r i z e d b y J o s h N e w e l l f r o m t h e r e g i o n a l c h a p t e r s . mining) (logging, Rivers Pompei and Sutara, Bira, corridor railroad (BAM) Mainline Baikal-Amur valley; Amur basin; River Sukpai pesticides) (poaching, Primorsky Southern pollution); species, marine (poaching coast Primorsky mining); gold (logging, Primorsky Northern zone. permafrost the of edge southern the along regions Sea; Bering and Japan of Sea along regions coastal Okhotsk, of Sea valleys; river major rail; or road by accessible areas lines; infrastructure major along belts Industrial areas problem Notable wilderness (logging) wilderness forest of pockets (logging); Peninsula Schmidt gas); and (oil Sakhalin Northeastern areas) logged from pollution (poaching, River Kamchatka mining); hunting, (tourism, areas protected (energy); regions Sobolevo and fi (logging, Mutnovsky Island” res); “Conifer (fi shelf Okhotsk of Sea shing) Northwestern basin River Ichuveyem Chukotka; offshore towns; Pevek and Bilibino (fi Bays Gizhinsk shing) Tauy and (mining); basin River Kolyma region subtundra northern basins; River Amga and Lena Sakha; southern region; Indigirka Yana- Tuimaada Valley; basin; River Vilyui River Amur basin; River Zeya wetlands; Arkharinskaya River; Bureya 

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW  ags—comprise largest— Forests. microbiota ( ties of endemic plants, such as Russia’s only endemic conifer, and Primorsky’s mountaintops, home to unique communi- urgent protection, such tundra ofas the coastal Magadan logical situation is generally improving, but some need areas marmot ( and Kamchatkan many populations of stone sheep ( During tundra. the degradedhas mining, of large areas Chukotka large-scale reindeer, due tocollective Soviet-era mismanaged andfarms most diverse arctic ecosystems. byOvergrazing domesticated ularly Eastern Chukotka and , are the world’s tundra. and mountain Upland plantworld’s community. single-species-dominant largest forof Sakha, example, bounded by land on sides, all is the form dominate.landscapes The larch forest of the Republic is greater along the inland, where coast than relatively uni- etation many unique. types, Habitat and biological diversity Spanning almost Ecosystems these in challenges detail. its ten administrative regions. The regional chapters analyze 1 impacts of economic and political transition. Finally, table and needs expansion. further 1990 tion. Despite significant additions tothe systemreserve in the public awareness threaten reserve management and protec- that lack of unclearfunds, management andstructures, low tem” Russia’s details system for protecting wilderness, fi nding these terrestrial ecosystems. The section “Protected area sys- tion. Map ordamaged newly threatened as a result of economic transi- documents those that areareas wetlands, and marine—and the forests, region’s grasslands, major ecosystems—tundra, measures being totaken protect it. “Ecosystems” describes the species an unwise proposition. ous, intermittent, logging of or sporadic), large-scale making grows on some form of permafrost (continuous, discontinu- 1 steadily increasing import levels over the past decade. mapAs as a green alternative to tropical luan timber and have been dustry. Plywood manufacturers are promoting larch Russian ture, there is a rising demand from the Japanese plywood in- roadless and unlogged largely because of a lack of infrastruc- . . 3 3 lists major environmental facingchallenges the (p. The section “Economy” focuses on the environmental reviewThis describes the wilderness of the muchWhile of the borealRussian forest today remains s, it remains toofar tosmall protect Russia’s biodiversity 14 The forests of the Russian Federation—the world’sThe forests of the Federation—the Russian ) shows, however, 1 . Microbiota decussata 4 (see p. ( s e e 40

p 22 . 1990 ° latitude, the

14 percent of the Earth’s total forest cover ) shows the geographic distribution of s poaching increased, decimating 98 Marmota kamtschatica Tundra of areas the percent of larchRussian all ). Ovis nivicola rfe has hundredshas of veg- rfe ), brown bear, rfe and the ). The eco- rfe , partic- and 2000 decreased from and over-mature” forests (essentially conifers) in the Applied Systems ( Analysis ingauz. 0 total forest cover in the pine [ spp.], etc.) are replacing mature conifers (spruces [ deciduous forests (aspen [ studies show that forest true, technically the While report isnumerous misleading; year for the a rate of —at increasingare actually in area Organization ( Agricultural Edixes and F for data on timber stock). that total ( m) of the world’s timberstanding volume, with a quarter of In economic terms, representsthis and more than � � � 1997 considerablyhas less frontier forest that estimatedthan in associated with each forest type.” The study revealed Russia sity, including viable populations species of the wide-ranging undisturbed and big enough toof all maintain their biodiver- defitier or intact forests— ned“forestsas whichare relatively remote sensing followed ofby Russia’sground-truthing) fron- Institute ( mental organizations ( 2002 � � � � � . � � � � 8 � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � In another study aimed forestat quantifying quality, in percent per year, according to a study by She- Alexander � � � � � � � � � (see table � � � � , a consortium of andRussian international nongovern- (see fi g. � � � Pinus � � � � � � � � � 27 � � � � � � � � A � � � � � � � wri w � 20 � � � � � spp.], firs [ � � � 2001 r s � 1990 � � � p � � i . � � � ), published a nationwide assessment (using p 4 1 � � � � 1 � . . billion cu. m) in the 57 � � 2 7 � ] . b � � � assessment by the International Institute of . 4 � , � ). – � � i � �

1 percent of its coniferous forest cover. � � l � fi ), revising the figure downfrom � billion cu. m in � � 2000 28 l

� � i � r � � o � s � � � � n

� � [ � � � �

ngo AbieA � � � � c � � rfe period—and in timber volume. period—and � � quality � u � b � � � � i . � Populus tremula �

e � � m � iiasa s), including the World Resources s spp.], larch [ � , for example, at a rate of about fao � � � � ) � � � � �

� � i � � is declining. � n � i ) reports that Russia’s forests � � ) found the stock of “mature � � s

� � � t

� � d h � � w e i v r e v O � � � e 21 1961 e � � � � c �

� � � rfe percent ( l � � � i � � n � � to just � i � 25 � � alone (see appen- � n � � � � Larix The FoodUN and � � ], ], birch [ g � � � � � . � 26 � � � 135 � � � � Second-growth Second-growth � � � � � spp.]) in the 82 � 5 , � � s � � 000 . � � p 5 � � � � billion cu. � billion in p � � � � Betula Picea . � 355 � � ] � ha per ) � � � � rfe

� � million i � � �  n � � 24 � �

� � � spp.], t

� � � h � � e �

31 � �

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW 32 intertwine attributingthese two: waste at logging sites, sparks sider logging and fi re to bethecauses. Some primary studies fi astheres major causes. In the development,extraction, infrastructure and human-induced wri oil and development,gas clearing for agriculture. The inquality logging, fiRussia: res, mining, roadconstruction, forestsnal remain. size, and in Western Europe only about forests in Sweden and Finland to other northern countries. reducedhas Logging old-growth with the exception of those thosedwarf in Canada, found in Russia’s frontier forests are amongstill the world’s and,largest ily roaded forests in the south. cially valuable (larger trees and denser forests) and more heav- northern forests were less fragmented the than more commer- million ha, percent of total forest cover), and then European Russia ( respectively), followed by Western Siberia ( cover, and frontier forest ( frontier forest. Eastern Siberia and the (see fi g. ha to Source: Note: as countries twelve The forest frontier remaining world’s the with Countries 1.4 Table Global rank 10 12 11 percentage of global total global of percentage 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

There are many underlying forcauses the loss of forest study identifi ed logging, followed bymineral resource See text for defi nition of frontier forest. defi for frontier text of See S nition

296.8 World Resources Institute (WRI), 1997. (WRI), Institute Resources World W  e e t 1 T S A E R A F N A I S S U R E H T o Chile Guinea New Papua Bolivia Zaire States United Colombia Venezuela Indonesia Peru Brazil Canada Russia Country . e r 2 x l d R 93 ). t f million ha, or about 9 o 29 percent of total forest cover). In general, Russia’s . e 7 r d Map s million ha or o 112 e u fi r

n c . 31 i e 9 t s I i million ha or 1 o . n o 5 n (see p. s t f i t u r o t e ( n Frontier forest Frontier t (000 sq. km) sq. (000 i W e 38 15 r f 30 R 3,448 percent of total forest cover, 2,284 3,429 I o ) shows the extent of Russia’s Despite the lower figures, rfe ) 26 r 348 540 530 292 255 307 , 1 391 162 172 e 1 s 39 – 9 percent of Russia’s forests t , scientistsRussian con- p 9 . 2 percent of total forest 7 e percent of their original . r c rfe e 1 n percent of the origi- t retained the most Share of the world’s the of Share

58 o f . frontier forest frontier

4 R million ha, m u 90% 26% 25% 17% 3% 3% 2% 2% 2% 4% 4% 1% 1% s i s l i l a i o ’ s n

2002 f

o h r a e 31 , s

t . 25 8 s

cinctly sums up globalthis issue: World whoseBank, media, and international fiinstitutions nancial suchasthe use of Russia’s forests is growing among indigenous livelihoods. Awareness of the need for sustainable mate change, preserving biological diversity, and maintaining but foralso the crucial role these forests play in mitigating cli- only for its impact on the planet’s long-term timber supply, the major reasons for fi res(see text box on p. from logging machinery, and the carelessness of loggers as  include: of large, commercially valuable trees. Other important forests because of their proximity to export markets and the presence Bioregion. Ussuri forests are among the most heavily logged Island, underbasin and theSakhalin term, Amur-Sakhalin includes these forests, along with the lower Amur River the richest in Russia (see map in theand Krais southernKhabarovsk Mountain (Primorskying Range along the Sikhote-Alin In terms of biological diversity, the Ussuri forests taiga grow- Russia’s declining forest isquality of global concern not the maintenance of large undisturbed forest Fragileareas. as the Siberian tiger ( of forests. climax ofThe survival endangered species, such ment is the most serious threat to the unique biodiversity fifrom harvesting, and re, disease inappropriate manage- factor to Russia and the world. Loss of habitat, mostly these forests a tremendously important environmental diversity of their plant life andand habitatsanimal make The sheer size of the Siberian and larch and forests protect rivers containing the conifer Central Kamchatka forests. Central Kamchatka’s brate endemism. communities and ahas high amount of plant and inverte- area this became a climatic refuge for many species and escaped the most recent glaciation period. Consequently, gion signifiis particularly cant because much ofthe region other more temperateBiore- forests. The Amur-Sakhalin and the The unique species assemblages in the Greater Caucasus management. tary outside protected need areas appropriate and complemen- large forested must areas remain undisturbed and forests quirement for attending to these environmental concerns, management activities. and a As harvesting general re- the planning process or not properly addressed in forest considerations are currently inadequately incorporated in questration must not be jeopardized. Such environmental critical and the forests’ large contribution to carbon se- permafrostmust areas be recognized as environmentally rfe surpass thesurpass diversity and endemism found in 1997 Panthera tigris altaica Russian ForestRussian Sector Review suc- 1 . 6 , p. 15 rfe ). The World Bank rfe ngo forests and the ) are considered s, foundations, 81 ), depends on ). 

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW   but others andare natural need protection: rfe Grasslands.     use. These steppes are rapidly being converted for agricultural shishkini amurensis ( globally endangered, such as the Amur mountain weasel ringsouthwest. further Some of are now these animals plants and isolated subspecies ofnormally occur- animals patchesSmall of steppe in Amur Oblast support rare for an explanation of hotspots) portions of these forests, is a forest hotspot (see pp. , which threats. Magadansky protects large Mining fragile. and fi areresthe deforestation primary dra, as the ecosystem in transitionthis area is particularly functions are especially important where forests meet tun- soils and regulate the hydrology of the ecosystem. These forestsLarch larch forestsof Magadan protectMagadan. protection. able pine, larch, and birch forest ecosystems that require Amur and Jewish Autonomous regions havestill valu- Amur River basin forests. Heavily logged in the past, the tosimilar desertification. vent tundra from expanding southward, a phenomenon mitigating climate change. The subarctic forests pre- also Sakha’sConserving massive boreal forests is crucial to Boreal and subtundra forests of the Republic of Sakha. help preserve Sakhalin’s salmon rivers. Siberian grouse depend all on these forests, which also ( ( island. Brown sable,bears, river otters mountainous, biologically diverse forests remain old-growth on this logged in the past, patches of Sakhalin Island forests. HeavilySakhalin cause main of forest destruction. fightingand services res arefi now the the economic fi crisis paralyzes re- 352 forest hotspots on(see p. Kamchatka nifer Island is one of three identifi ed more of half than these Co- forests; years, logging and fi reshave destroyed Conifer Island the and area call locals Kamchatka, on thecontinent Eurasian are on Thebears. easternmost forests taiga feed thousands brownof Kamchatka world’s salmonlargest whichruns, . Some are planted, such as those in southern Primorsky, Lutra lutra Mustela altaica raddei Moschus mosciferus sakhalinensis ). Although logging declined,has Grasslands occupy a relatively area insmall the ), and Manchurian bustard ( ), Manchurian ( partridge ), Sakhalin musk deer), Sakhalin . In the past thirty In the past thirty ), Amur polecat ( ), and Perdix dauurica Otis tarda dybowskii M. eversmanni Kamchatka, the Kuril Islands, and along the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk. Sea of the coast the along and Islands, Kuril the Kamchatka, birch stone plant, A hardy 5 –56 352 ).  important wetlands regions include: like to see more established (see table Sites, ninehas Ramsar although scientistsRussian would impacted other Toareas. help protect wetlands, the are pollutedalso and overfi shed.construction Dam has are the most pressing threats. A number of and lakes rivers Habitat destruction and overhunting on wintering grounds waterfowl and shorebird breeding grounds in Northeast Asia. and freshwater. Wetlands   monachus as Siberian crane ( ( Oriental stork ( goose ( ( endangered or threatened bird crane species: red-crowned These wetlands are crucial for of the survival globally Chinese border, theseare nowareas open to exploitation. Historically preserved because of their proximity to the including the Ussuri River andKhanka. valley Lake Wetland prairies and reed beds of the Amur Basin, andcoast. on mainland localized the Sakhalin ka and the Islands, Kuril they are becoming increasingly brown andbears songbirds. Still widespread on Kamchat- reaching humid of parts the meadows, lands are whichtallgrass inexist particularly Among the world’s most grass- unusual and spectacular They are and fragile sensitive to microclimate changes. vegetationsteppe-like supported by melting permafrost. The Grus Grus japonensis Paradoxornis heudei (Betula ermanii) (Betula alas Anser cygnoides meadows of are relictcentral Sakha patches of m 5 ), use these wetlands as migratory stopovers. m in height, providethese grasslands habitat for e a d o Ciconia boyciana w ), white-naped crane), white-naped ( grows widely in the grass fi grass the in widely grows of elds s G. leucogeranus

o rfe f ). Birds breeding north, further such

c The ), Baer's porchard ( e . Composed of various grasses n t r a rfe l

S a has thehas most important w e i v r e v O k ), and reed parrotbill h ) and hooded crane ( a 1

. 5 a ). Some of the most r e G. vipio

r e Aythia baeri l i c t

p ), swan ), swan a t c rfe h e  s now

o ), G. f

33

Vladimir Dinets

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW 34  2002. Bureau, Convention Ramsar Source: Zeya-Bureya and Bolon Lake and Udyl Lake Island, Karaginsky Khingano- Moroshechnaya Utkholok Khanka Lake Dol Parapolsky Name 2002 March RFE, the in sites Ramsar 1.5 Table Plains Rivers Simmi and Selgon the of mouths Rivers Pilda and Bitki, Bichi, the of mouths Sea Bering Lowland Arkharinskaya River

A large hydroelectric and dam accompanying reservoir has of the river’s sturgeon species are in catastrophic decline. pacted communities dependent on resource. this three All river’s fi shermen,has led to population decline ofmany ofthe tion, combined with overfi shing byand Russian Chinese such andas Khabarovsk those in Manchuria. pollu- This 154–55 The Amur River itself is an ecosystem in peril (see pp. ( such as mammals, the Amur cat and endemic Evoron vole endemic freshwater andclams support populations of rare depends on these wetlands. These rivers containalso Rivers, including those of rapidly declining species, The health of fi sh populationsin theAmur and Ussuri Microtus evoronensis “List of Wetlands of International Importance,” Importance,” International of Wetlands of “List “  L T S A E R A F N A I S S U R E H T i s 150 t o ). It is heavily polluted downstream of major cities, f W fi sh species.The collapse of salmonrunsim- has e t l Established a n d s o 1994 1994 1994 1994 1994 1994 1994 1976 1994

f I n ). t e r n Amur Khabarovsk Khabarovsk Koryakia Amur Koryakia Koryakia Primorsky Koryakia Region a t i o n a l I m p o r t a n 1,200,000 ~200,000 c 220,000 193,597 219,000 310,000 e Size (ha) Size 53,800 , 31,600 57,600 ”

127°39'E 49°55'N 136°05'E 49°35'N 139°51'E 52°09'N 163°52'E 58°50'N 130°00'E 49°10'N 156°15'E 56°21'N 157°11'E 57°40'N 132°30'E 44°53'N 166°30'E 62°00'N Location     facing marine ecosystems of the forfeeding areas gray and bowhead whales. Major problems polar bear,walrus, and other and provide mammals, summer best condition and support the world’s populationslargest of these resources. The surroundingseas Chukotka are in the the Kuril Islands. Seabirds dependand marine mammals on remain in the Sea of Okhotsk, the Bering Sea, and around biologically productive waters on the planet. fi Large sheries use of and trawling, thedriftnets environmentally fi damaging shing methods suchasthe Marine.   industrial industrial activities threaten these rivers, in particular tebrates. pesticides Logging, from rice fi elds,and other them, and endemic mollusks and other aquatic inver- vival of surrounding forests, rare birds nesting alongside The riverssmall of Primorsky are critical toKrai the sur- of its basin have been logged. salmon spawning is areas, routinely overfi shed. areas Large River,The Kamchatka one of the world’s most important and Koryakia’sSakhalin, Parapolsky Dol. coast of Chukotka Peninsula, the northeastern wetlands of numerous waders. Particularly important sites include the adamsii tions of eiders, various geese, theloon ivory-billed ( greenshank ( spoonbill sandpiper ( ingfor areas dozens of bird species, including the endemic and kia, the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk are prime breed- lagoons andCoastal lowland tundra of Chukotka, Korya- the Bureya River (Amur Oblast). into a dying river. Another series of is dams being built on turned the River,Zeya one of Amur’s major tributaries, ern Sakhalin. ern Sakhalin. of sea urchins and sea cucumbers in Primorsky and South- species crashed, including the once plentiful populations vesting. During the from Japanese and other markets led has Asian to overhar- shrimp, scallops, mollusks, and other marine products The demand for sea urchin crab,eggs, sea cucumbers, beds in the Sea of Japan and southern Sea of Okhotsk. Overexploitation of marine invertebrates and seaweed protected monuments. as natural these ecosystems. fragile Adamage can few hot springs are and the tapping of the springs for energy, both of which but Kamchatka, they must compete with growing tourism ing birds use larger hot springs, such as Uzon Caldera in species not yet bydocumented. them—including Winter- species of microorganisms, plants, algae, live and animals Hot springs are scattered throughout the Chukotka, have endemic fauna in need of protection. on Some ancient Elgygytgyn Lake particularly lakes, River. Despite decades of overfiand shing wasteful, ), the ternAleutian ( Tringa guttifer 1990 Calidris pygmaeus s, the populations of numerous ), the world's popula- largest Sterna kamtschatica rfe rfe include: has somehas of the most ) and Nordmann’s rfe . Endemic ), and Gavia 

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW 

Konstantin Mikhailov in Primorsky Krai. Krai. Primorsky in Zapovednik Marine) Eastern (Far Morskoi of Dalnevostochny part Cove, Tilyakovsky pine red Japanese endangered The land area to more than In ter and transform nature to serve the needs of the economy.” to providing an “area in which scientists would learn to mas- theirchanging purpose from protection and scientifi c study land. Stalin, however, thewarped ofinitial aim the reserves, than rapidly, in Europeanparticularly Russia, and by for established, Lenin established and aVladimir formal statute lution, inbeginning order to protect important game populations. the After revo- restrictions on land use or hunting during breeding season in land for hunting reserves. These reserves set temporary back to prerevolutionary nobility, whose members set aside The roots of Russia’s systembe protected-area can traced system area Protected   1952 ecosystems. whichcoastlines, are among the world’s most fragile and Chukotka poses Kamchatka, a threat to arctic Proposed oiloffshore drilling Magadan, of Sakhalin, beenhas tied to overfi shing of pollock. possible explanations. Rapid decline of Steller’s sea lions and Japan, and overfi oiloff Sakhalin, drilling are shing in whaling their illegal wintering grounds off Korea and gray whales in the Sea of Okhotsk are not increasing; Scientists do not know why populations of northern right populations of some species, marine mammal but not all. Protection measures in recent decades have helped restore zapovednik 128 , citing economic need, Stalin’s government dissolved of these reserves protected over 70 1 . percent of thetheir reserves, totalshrinking 5 s on September million ha. Over time, many reserves were 1919 , nature reserves ( 16 , (Pinus densifl(Pinus ora) 1921 . The 12 zapovednik million ha of zapovednik 1951 grows along the coast of coast the along grows more s) were s grew World Biosphere an initiativeReserves, set up by the United possible under system.this servation Union ( protected area in Russia, breeding or wintering grounds. The most important of type and, taiga) lesstral frequently, to protect species’ a particular samples of ecosystem ora particular landscape (steppe, cen- . andparks, Territories of Traditional Nature Use ( protected include areas monuments, natural regional nature tant tool in protecting Russia’s biodiversity. Other forms of tional fiparks, rst established in being “paper parks” because of inadequate protection. Na- area in Russia than different purpose. reach again otherwise degraded. Only in the mid- reestablished, but not before many were logged, mined, or to small-scale tourism. Reports of toand logging, othersmall-scale grazing, due to declining budgets, some research station. Economic activity is strictly forbidden, but ing status. this Zapovednik in the Republic ofis activelyalso Sakha pursu- Zapovednik in Primorsky Ust-Lensky Krai. Sikhote-Alinsky two in the title means greaterusually protection in Russia, and there are establish a worldwide network of biosphere reserves. Such a Nation’s Man and the Biosphere program, which toaims Since the There are numerous forms of protected each areas, with a Many but not all rfe 12 1970 Zapovednik million ha, as in : Kronotsky Zapovednikand in Kamchatka iucn s, a few Zakaznik zapovednik Eastern Eastern Marine. Kedrovaya Pad, Ussuriisk, and the Far by the AcademyRussian of Sciences: three in Primorsky are managed Krai are twenty-three of Ministry Natural Resources). There Environmental Protection of(part the the jurisdiction of the State forService zapovednik Management Division most managed (Goskomekologia), the Nature Reserve mittee on Environmental Protection Formerly ofpart the State Com- extraction. resource natural forms of large-scale butareas, not logging or clear-cut other and fi shingis permittedusually in these the regional administration. Hunting have a of the Soviet Union. Most have increased since the disintegration industrial activity on zapovednik ) Category zapovednik s were primarily created to protect zapovednik 2 s (wildlife protectrefuges) more km bufferkm zone controlled by s, but suffer the reputation of s, but now they are under 1951 s have a permanent scientifi c zapovednik 1985 I w e i v r e v O a, the strictest designation . , are becoming an impor- s fall sunder fall World Con- s have been designated as zapovednik 1980 zapovednik s have opened up s did the figure zapovednik s in the ttp lands s). l a  n

d rfe s s

35 ;

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW 36 and Natural monuments protect between usually areas, small them, caves,waterfalls, bird rookeries, and scenic landscapes. objects. These include alakes, unique tree or a group of prirody monuments. Natural iucn process thatdisrupt can conservation underefforts. They fall istrative duties to an entirely new government agency—a are established in their place, effectively transferring admin- tion because some are not renewed, or other protected areas every fithisis veproblematic years; for conserva- long-term restrictions. Unlike zakaznik the Hunting Administration (hunting licenses). Federal ofthe Ministry Natural Resources (timber allocations) and znik zakaznik that, in principle, protect about network. Russia morehas than ones, and they form the core of the regional protected-area zakaznik botanical, landscape, and geological. preserve Categorieswildlife. of have been established to regulate commercial hunting to activities are often limited most toseasons; certain ecosystems species.or particular Restrictions on economic permanently, some forms of economic activity to protect Zakazniks. more flexible forms of protectedareas. lish, leading government bodies and world’s strict scientifi c nature ( reserves potent legacy, as they comprise more than percent of the Federation.Russian total land area protected under the arearea, by managed the AcademyRussian of Sciences. The nik including scientifi cand research law enforcement. byrun one director and two deputy directors who oversee bystaffed forty to eighty people, to secure tofunding payand continue staff research. Usually tional contacts, ecotours, organize and pursue other avenues responsibilitymanagerial and many actively seek interna- individual sive management program for the andunderstaffed ally equippedill to provide a comprehen-

The bodiestwo main leasing Both federal and regional governments establish can Zapovednik ofAs The Nature Reserve Management Division was perpetu- s, totalling s protect fauna; 500 Category IV.  ) protect interesting or unique or natural man-made ha, and therefore cannot protect entire ecosystems. T S A E R A F N A I S S U R E H T 2001 s usually staff rangers to sstaff ensureusually that land users obey s total s. There are morefar regional 65 zapovednik Zakaznik , 000 , 41 s in some are becomingareas harder to estab- 101 11 , sq. ofkm marine Sixarea. of these . 124 5 zapovednik million ha. About zapovednik Natural monuments ( 12 s are created to limit, temporarily or sq. km, including s s, therefore, have incurred increased q percent protect fl ora. .

k m ,

i s protected n s, zakaznik c 1 44 l , zakaznik zakaznik u zapovednik 000 zapovednik 32 d million ha. The m zapovednik These i n ngo i regional g l 70 l

iucn zakaznik i 630 o s include zoological, percent of the 340 n s to create other, land to users are s must be renewed l

Pamyatniki 40 a zapovednik h km ofkm marine n Category Ia). s are commonly a , percent of the d s. Directors of 000 . system is

zakaznik s T t y s than sfederal than o h s

sq. km, t u e e

zakaznik s m 69 e zapoved- r

s are a s federal i

s a zaka-

s 1 r . e 100 6

s not protectsystematically unique geological features or beau- U.S. counterparts, however, most national inparks Russia do the national park structure in the United States. Unlike their activity, and a core zone forbidding such activities, to similar are divided into zones allowing tourism, some commercial are parks expected to fillthis role. Usually, national parks ties. educational, recreational, scientific,and activi- cultural heritagecultural sites, national allowparks for controlled parks. National Category III. even signs to indicate their location. underThey fall monumentsnatural without to local staff protect them or the manages monuments, but lack of oftenfunding leaves monuments.natural ofThe Ministry Natural Resources now zakaznik other protected because ofareas their with sizes. As small important conservation tool. They are easier to establish than a Some are combined to create a larger protected area such as the Wild Bird Society of Japan, and the Amur branch of A joint effort between the International Crane Foundation, Naturevyovsky Park, was created in Amur Oblast in reserves. nature Private (see p. designations. There are suchmore inparks thirty Russia than protect ecosystems. Unlike national theseparks, are regional protected territory designed to provide recreational and areas law decreeing nature ( parks parks. Nature ttp such lands and their importanceincrease will in the future. such in areas Russia, but regional governments are creating indigenous peoples. There are nostill comprehensive forrules ttp nature use ( use. nature of traditional Territories Natural Resources. underThey fall andService are now under the jurisdiction of ofthe Ministry Most sky Krai. national wereparks byrun the Federal Forest the several mostplans; advanced are for inparks the Primor- territory. No national inexist parks the an area totalling of Russia. Parkaverage staffs about 1983 industrial activity.of land fromIntroduced large-scale in are parks large and thus important in preserving sizable tracts within a bioregion, to similar butlandscapes, tiful instead protect representative ecosystems zakaznik As ofAs s fall sunder fall s) were created in , national are parks a relatively new form of protection in Zapovednik 123 2000 s, land users are responsiblelegally for protecting ). or o territorii traditsionnogo prirodopolzovaniya r

In March zapovednik, , there were Created to protect ecosystems andnatural iucn s are not designed for tourism—national 7 Category VII. million ha, or 1991 Russia’s first private reserve, Mura- 1995 making natural monuments natural making an to protect the traditional lands of 35 national inparks Russia, prirodniyep parky , the government passed a federal r zapovednik i r o 120 d n Territories of traditional i 0 iucn y people. . e 6

p percent of Russian p rfe a s. Most national e Category II. r r k c y yet, but there are e ) a new form of n t

o f

R u iucn s 1993 or s i a n .

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW  Source: Note: RFE Region RFE the in forests III and II, I, Group 1.6Table availableretically for commercial logging (see table Group III, the category,largest represents those forests theo- need to be restored for environmental or industrial reasons. heavily logged, near are majorusually industrial centers, and and limited industrial functions. Most have already been and timber companies. Group II forests serve both protected often permitted and widely abused by both the Forest Service ging (logging of forests diseased or to reduce fi redanger) is forests. Commercial logging is forbidden, but log- sanitary or are important are seedoften banks classifi edas Group I grounds, serve as buffer zones for rivers or other water bodies, greenbelts for cities, help mitigate erosion, protect spawning scientifitural, c,and recreational values. Foreststhat as serve are strictly protected to preserve essential environmental, cul- is divided into three groups (I, II, and GroupIII). I forests stricted forests ofpart the protected area system. The system forests. Restricted sustainable agriculture). benign industry in the region (recreation, ecological tourism, environment while simultaneously encouraging ecologically the park gives power to the local community to protect the for sustainable development. prohibitRather than land use, the reached with various land users. It is currently by managed was leased from the local government agreementafter was Unionthe Socio-Ecological ( Chukotka Magadan Amur Sakha Khabarovsk JAO Sakhalin Primorsky Kamchatka seu , a Moscow-based Institute of Economic Research, 1998. Research, Economic of Institute permitted logging —Commercial III Group permitted exploitation —Limited II Group prohibited largely I—Exploitation Group Some considerspecialists Russia’s re- 26.3 29.0 18.8 12.2 12.5 12.8 17.6 (%) 8.2 4.0 5.1 I ngo seu . The park is a modelRussian 13.4 17.9 ), this (%) 6.1 8.4 3.2 – – – 1.5 1.4 II 5 , 000 64.5 65.3 85.7 85.8 86.0 96.0 94.9 67.8 67.8 87.8 -ha reserve -ha (%) III 1 . 6 ). 1985 for the reserve system droppedhas to less than mated that, in real (constant price) terms, fi nancial support itwildlife protects. A to the ecosystems and world’s largest—and system—the protected pose areas the greatest threat to Russia’s reserve in the system. Weaknesses continued protection at federal and local levels. tourists and encouraging the governmentRussian to ensure protection, they do draw attention to the region, bringing in tioned previously. these While designations do not offer legal Islands. The proposals for two more sites, Commander Islands and Kuril ha. World Fund Wildlife ( ing a buffer) a total andof Goraly Zakaznik, about 2001 million ha. The was createdsecond, in Central Sikhote-Alin, in Heritage sites. The first, the Volcanoes created Kamchatka, of designations. International “Each (which was responsible for two of the territory’s Committee onnow-defunct Environmental Protection Chukotka preserves have been left defenseless.” ment, fi eld gear, etc.In the effect, most valuable spots ofthe track-lubricating parts, materials, communication equip- suffer from chronic lack of water and land transport, spare gist Gennady Smirnov in Chukotka, “All the protected areas zakaznik to lack of andfunds mounting pressure from poaching, the better in the nearby Jewish Autonomous Oblast, where due construct an office orliving quarters.”The situationis no ing boreal forest, “there are no staff, scientists, or tofunds north in Zapovednik,Dzhugdzhursky a huge reserve protect- incomplete ranger staff, and insuffi cient nances.” fi Further endangered Siberian tiger, “nohas scientifi c workers,an Zapovednik, forest a critical old-growth ecosystem for the Ecological Problems found(Khabarovsk) that Botchinsky by Analysis ofscientists affairs. at the Institute of Water and poaching, and mining within reserve boundaries. lations in Russia, ledhas to an escalation of logging, illegal extreme poverty and the current disregard for laws and regu- to patrol the reserve. Lack of law enforcement, coupled with for scientifi c andresearch, inadequate equipment andfuel staff, but somefull-time have crumbling facilities, no funds they are protectedrealize areas. some living locals alonginfrastructure: their edges do not by found that forfunding forms all of protected dropped areas third of the national inparks a critical state. 1996 60 According to Mikhail Bibikov,According to Mikhail former head of Primorsky’s Both anecdotal evidence and studies confirm this sad state Many levels—leaving at ofleast half the andzapovedniks one- levels—leaving and includes the Sikhote-Alinsky Zapovednik and (includ-includes the Sikhote-Alinsky – zapovednik and expanded in 80 a s no longer function effectively. According to ecolo- n zakaznik percent from d

e rfe x p a also has ahas also number sites, of Ramsar men- n in Russia only receives about i d s have no full-time staff and lack s staff basichave no full-time n e

d R 1996

u i n s 1992

s 2001 i a study by the World esti- Bank The Budget cuts for forms all of wwf w s

t o w levels. u n d , encompasses more than f l y y ) is planning to submit rfe Zapovednik

r b e y w e i v r e v O c 34 has two has

e t h i v e e

s W

a o b r s generally have o 33 l unesco u d A t

B

20 35 u.s.$10 zapovednik 1998 a n percent of k 406

World study e s  t , 000 i , 4

- 000 s), 37

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW 38 allows logging to secure revenue. The Hunting Administra- The Forest most manages Service of the national andparks and generally prioritize ecosystem conservation and research. ofthe Ministry Natural Resources administer government bodies. The AcademyRussian of Sciences and plan. There is generally poor communication between these unifi edmanagement and structure biodiversityconservation their management; problemthis hinders the development of a confl icting priorities ofthe government bodiesinvolved in protected areas. and the regions complicates administrationthe ofsuccessful regional to the federal level. jockeyingThis between Moscow jurisdictionshift of the newly created nature fromparks the debate where inrages Kamchatka the Forest wantsService to ed from future ecotourism to remain in the region. A similar from the local National (Sredne-Ussurisky) Park in Primorsky is resistance funding. Aobstacle primary to creating the Middle-Ussuri the area generates revenue or is a magnet for international be protected on a federal or regional level, when particularly Conflalsoarise icts over whether a proposed reserve should that money delivered to the regions is not spent properly. marked for the region never arrives, while Moscow complains regional governments: the latter complain that money ear- electricity,gas, for[and] salaries rangers.” my mind, are radios, computers, fi re preventionequipment, andexchanges, from on their own, via international fund agencies, scientifi c enough food. Many reserve directors only can pay to salaries keep withtheir staff ments for each mittee’s environmental fund. However, the budget require- came fromthis annually; the federal budget and the Com- Krai. Primorsky mouth, River Samarga the near wilderness Expansive

A problemsecondary facing the reserve system is the Lack of ledhas funds to squabbling between Moscow and  T S A E R A F N A I S S U R E H T zapovednik governor, who revenuewants tax generat- zapovednik ngo support. The most urgent needs, in are estimated at a r e

e s directors are raising money d t i i m r e a c t t e o d r s

a

a 36 t

r $130 e

r a zapovednik i , s 000 i n g

. Most m o n e s y

research, not tourism. Many citizens considerstill them public. In Soviet times, wcmc cent and too low to protect Russia’s biological diversity. The would bestill lower the than current global average of considerably. Nonetheless, the percentage of protected forests which would have theraised percentage of protected forests Russia appear to exclude regional forests areto similar those in Russia. But calculations for of country’s forests protected. contrastsThis with the protection forests were the least protected, with just tion Monitoring Centre ( A global study of protected forests by the World Conserva- yet suffi ciently representedin the protectedarea network.” to conserve large, unprotected wilderness that areareas not ditions. Effective action must be intaken the next few years tion for biodiversity, the systemrequire will significant ad- Russia’s protected area network is to provide adequate protec- A World expansion: “If studyBank for called large-scale to adequately protect Russia’s biodiversity and ecosystems. and conservationiststhe currentrealize reserve system fails coverage. Inadequate fi shing: Most seeRussians theas taiga a common resource. area for activities suchpicking mushrooms,as relaxing, and public, however, generally resists the concept of a designated enous people, private andparks, regional national parks. The developing new forms of protected areas: rfe been slow to expand (there are nostill national inparks the national park system in ing recreational use until the Soviet government created the commercial use. There was no form of protected area allow- reserves for the scientifi c eliteand resentthe loss ofland for 18 ). To broaden support, the government and . 8 highlighted the need to conserve Russia’s boreal forests percent of the forests in North America, where many A rapidly growing number of scientists poorly understood by the Russian The protected area system remains development. mission to improve management and and set up an interdepartmental com- Specially Protected Nature Territories, administration adopted a new law, On Autonomous Oblast, for example, the the park departments. In the Jewish to increasetrying cohesion among several administrations in the nature parks. To address problem,this the manage administrations) usually Regional bodies ( and logging licenses, respectively. legal right to issue hunting permits of the federal ture) and Forest controlService most tion of(part ofthe Ministry Agricul- zapovednik 1983 wcmcw c . The park system, however, has m c ) in zakaznik s were for scientifi c 1997 zakaznik found that Russia’s krai- 1 ttp . 9 s and nature parks, percent of the s for indig- or s and have the o r ngo

raion s are rfe -level 8 per- are 37 

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW  expansion of Russia’s protected area system. but toalso provide the foundation for necessary continued these problems is critical not only to protect reserves, existing to prevent a unifi edand strong protectionsystem. Resolving among government agencies the reserves managing continue continue to Meanwhile,be curtailed. confl icting priorities ing proliferate. Scientifi cand research monitoring programs patrol reserve boundaries, logging, and mining, poach- illegal equipment, or to purchase gasoline. Due to their inability to to pay reserve rangers properly, to purchase and fi xtransport fectiveness remains lack of fi nancing: areFunds not suffi cient new ones. Nonetheless, the biggest obstacle to the system’s ef- the most important reserves and existing for the creation of key role in providing fi nancingand equipment for several of agencies, and agencies of foreign governments have played a the system. International ments and oped, on particularly the regional level, giving both govern- of that decade. New forms of protected haveareas been devel- expansion is often seen as one of the environmental successes the fl aws,the Russian systemreserve expanded remarkablyin Conclusion. but onalso the species represented. the amount of area covered or the ecosystems represented, p. and FederationRussian were left completely unprotected (see listed landin theanimals and categories I–III) 55 within Khabarovsk, the boundaries of these protected areas, system. Although the reserve system covers about the assess effectiveness of Krai’sKhabarovsk protected area lems took a species rather an ecosystem than approach to steppe, unprotected. are virtually systems within the Jewish Autonomous Oblast, researchers found that two eco- Although the protected area system covers salmon onruns, the other hand, remain largely unprotected. conifer forests, essential to fl oodcontrol and ensuring healthy consists of rocks and ice. Kamchatka’s most important upper elevations of the peninsula’sarea—the volcanoes— isof protected, Kamchatka for example, but much of that an effective protected area system. impressiveAn pressures increase. nity to protect theseresources natural before development The government,Russian therefore, ahas fleeting opportu- to industrial development due to the lack of infrastructure. of the boreal forest is indeed intact, with portions inaccessible able populations of the large carnivores found there.” because of the huge of areas forest to necessary “support vi- percent of the 155 Scientists at the Institute of Water and Ecological Prob- aReaching percentage,target however, does not guarantee 1990 ). An ). effective An protection system depends not only on s. Driven by fear that land would be privatized, this ngo Despite inadequate and funding structural s the fl tofurtherexpandexibility necessary 212 oblast rare species of plants vascular ( 36 percent of the p , the Amur lowlands and Dahurian

ngo e Red Data Book t h r c e e

A n s, charitable foundations, UN t m

o u f

r t

h l o e w

50 l a s of the species of vertebrate n 9 d percent of the s

a n d iucn 20

6 D percent of iucn p percent a 38 e h , r Much u ussr c e r i n a t n

, o

f

at the hotspots (see text box below). ria and developed a stakeholder-based process to select these scientists and planners, identifi FoE–Japan ed scientifi ccrite- in January Gardens of the AcademyRussian of Sciences, was organized gent support. The first conference, assisted bythe Botanical hotspots: of areas great ecological importance requiring ur- wetland, andtundra, arctic ecosystems, thereby establishing brought together to identify threatened in areas the forest, offiand cials, Hotspot Study in Spring to(FoE–J) initiate the of the Earth–Japan in Russia and in the international community led Friends unprotected and largely tounknown decision makers both Concern that key wilderness in areas the Newell Josh Biodiversity hotspots conservation in each region. on fi ve to seven priority territories(hotspots) for biodiversity scientifi cinstitutes, industry, and from regional administrations, nature protection agencies, period in istrative regions of the same criteria, regional roundtables in each of the ten admin- procedure for identifying the hotspots was refi ned. Usingthe Study. secondThis study was a larger endeavor and the tion Union ( in Primorsky.Zakzaznik as Vostochnyand the Shufan in PlateauSakhalin Zakaznik and the government to create new protected territories such ence, FoE–Japan workedhas steadily with Russian In total, fi hotspots werefty-two identifi ed anddescribed In 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. hotspots biodiversity the determine to Criteria 1997 1995 Poorly studied areas meeting criteria 1, 2, 3, or 4. 4. or 3, 1, 2, criteria meeting areas studied Poorly peoples. indigenous by use land traditional for Importance fragility. ecosystem of Level development. industrial from threats projected and Existing species. animal and plant endemic or endangered and rare of Presence 1997 , FoE–J joined forces with the World Conserva- Vladivostok Conference. Since that first confer-

1995 F iucn o ngo E – in Vladivostok. Consulting with Russian – 1998 J ) to complete another Biodiversity Hotspot s from ten all administrative regions were

j o i . At these roundtables, representatives n e rfe d

1994 f o were held over a twelve-month r c e . scientists,Russian government s

w i ngo t w e i v r e v O h

t h s identifi edand agreed e

W rfe o rfe r were both l d Biodiversity

C o n ngo s e  r v s

a - 39

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW 40 peoples live ain huntingAgzu, and salmon fi shing outpost. roadless wilderness in the ofheart the Ussuri Taiga. Udege spared from commercial remains a logging, Samarga nearly (forest). basin 1. River Samarga Krai Primorsky ngo government offi scientists,cials, industry representatives,and information). Appendix G is a complete list of the Russian updated for publicationthis (see regional chapters for this threats, and recommendations for these hotspots have been and mapped on pp. protected and areas, developing sustainable economic models. tool for establishing new protected supporting areas, existing protect the ecosystem. The hotspot concept is an evolving couldThis provide a local economic base and simultaneously River region (Primorsky home Krai, to the Udege people). forest product industry within toa call develop ecotourism and a sustainable nontimber mended actions for several hotspots. For example, there is development programs in these regions is among the recom- be developed to protect biodiversity, fora call sustainable that Recognizing sustainableareas. economic practices must Hotspot List, of almost half which protectedare existing these hotspots. political and will the fi nancial resources required to protect inputcal blends the ofexpertise scientistsRussian with the already been conducted. Theof mixture scientifi andc politi- importance of protecting a forest or wetland ecosystem has In manysuffi cases, cient scientifi cresearch to determine the essential step toward creating new reserves. sion makers—an process geared to build consensus and support among deci- prioritytify territories, the roundtables providealso a political andnized held the region’s hotspot roundtable. the Krai, Khabarovsk Commission on Protected orga- Areas now developmentguides protected-area in the region. In 139 Protection, used the roundtable results to write Resolution of the Amur Committee onthen-chairman Environmental roundtable coordinators Dr. Yuri and Darman A. T. Koval, developmenttected-area plans. In Amur Oblast, for example, roundtables were integrated into regional government’s pro- fi nal approval by roundtable participants. to seven hotspots receiving the most votes were put forth for suited the criteria. Finally, selections were and tallied the fi ve the list. Then nominatedspecialists fi theyveareas felt best and supported the inclusion of one or more territories on withbegan presentations by invited whospecialists, described

, which was signed by the governor on April These hotspots are briefl y describedin the following pages territoriesFifty-eight are identifi –J/ edin the FoE the While hotspot process uses scientifi c criteria to iden- In manythe cases, recommendations from these hotspot The procedure for reaching consensus at these roundtables s involved in the hotspot selection process.  T S A E R A F N A I S S U R E H T (see map 1.7, map 16)(see p. 6–21 16 . Most descriptions, environmental 800 Sparsely settled and largely , 000 ha in the Samarga 1 , 1998 iucn , and esque. The UdegeIman fi shand hunt here. magnificent vegetationthe make regionespecially pictur- (forest). Park National Sredne-Ussursky proposed basin; Iman River 3. Middle to logging, poaching, pine-nutand harvest. illegal road Nakhodka opens the lower-middle section of the Bikin per basin in remaining Korean pine stands. andforestswestern-slope the largest along the Sikhote-Alin of the Udege and Nanai peoples, contains the intact,largest tershed, habitat for the Amur tiger and traditional homeland (forest). basin River Bikin and Upper Middle 2. 2001 logging nouncedmoratorium, a two-year effective October resistance from andlocals environmentalists, Terneiles an- corporation) won rights to log the basin.widespread After tiger. The Matai basin is an ecological corridor between the ha of forests, breeding ground for and ungulates the Amur (forest). Zakaznik Mataisky 2. lower thebasin; River. park would include much of the middle and upper Anyui (forest). 1.Park National Anyui Krai Khabarovsk ing their great population decline in the rivers in the of the Ussuri River, one of the andlargest most important (forest). Park National Verkhne-Ussuriysky proposed basin; River Ussuri 5. Upper the area’s timber posesstands a future logging threat. hunting, poaching, and uncontrolled tourism; the value of vostok, and ) Nakhodka, ledhas to widespread and brackish lagoons. a isolated Amur tiger population. The Tumen Delta includes the remaining largest habitat for the outside The Borisovskoe the PlateauSikhote-Alin. provides Primorsky’s most important area for biodiversity conservation border, from the to the River,Razdolnaya Most ecologistsRussian consider the lands along the Chinese and wetland). (forest region Primorsky Southwestern 4. 40 Threats: Logging. Threats: Hyundai CorporationThreats: planned to log the up- In Threats: Threats: TheModel Gassinsky Threats: Forest Project logs the and Logging poaching. Threats: Proximity Threats: to major population centers (Vladi- , . 000 -ha wetland with-ha freshwatermore thirty lakes than 1992 rfe 2001 . The Amur tiger inhabits the region, surviv- 1996 , but permission was denied. The Chita- (see map 1.8, p. 16) p. 1.8, map (see , Terneiles (Primorsky’s timberlargest fi shing isban not enforced. fi Clean alpine rivers, and rocky cliffs, The park would protect the headwaters

s h i n g

b This This This proposedThis a n

i s

zakaznik n rfe o t

e ’s leopards and an 1930 n f o r protects c p s and The wa- Bikin e 882 r d o t . e , c 000 1940 t s

121 -ha -ha s. , 300 

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW  1. Pompeevsky area (forest and wetland). and wetland). (forest area 1. Pompeevsky 2. Kuldur Nature Park (forest). Park Nature Kuldur 2. deposits. forests. Small ( eagles owls ( mergansers, ducks, salmon. mandarin eagle Scaly-breasted the westernmost spawning grounds for the autumn chum of the Pompeevka River protect endemic species and form Oblast Autonomous Jewish tions. lin shelf. Unregulated hunting tourism impacts popula- bear mals. species, mammal including thirty some rare marine mam- forests, and mountain Thetundra. islands support more than Okhotsk unusually has complex plant communities, larch fifteen mountainousarchipelagothisislands, in the Sea of ecology). (island Zakaznik Islands 6. Shantar lowlandthis terrain. In the northwest,and burns coverclear-cuts larly sensitive to disturbance. here at their northern distribution limit and thus are particu- including several very rare and riverine). (forest Zakaznik 5. Gur-Khoso ofpart the territory, the Pikhtsa River basin. TheModel Gassinsky Forest Project rightshas to the eastern cent of the territory; uncontrolled hunting and fi shing occur. the Siberianautumnal salmon. tortoise and one of the few remaining spawning grounds of zakaznik and wetland). (forest Dom Zakaznik Pikhtsa-Tigrovy 4. biodiversity. have degraded habitat, resulting in a of the birdmain migration routes in Asia. East the hilly forests The ofregion the Khakhadyan. lies on one tect meadows, wetlands, the relict Nedostupnye and Lakes, along the middle Amur lowlands, this and wetland). (forest Zakaznik Lakes 3. Nedostupnye and poaching, reducing the number of ungulates. south. range and the RiverBikin northernbasin to Sikhote-Alin the Threats: FutureThreats: foreign and local attempts to log these Oil and Threats: developmentgas on the northern Sakha- forest fi large-scale Logging, Threats: andres, poaching. and Logging fiThreats: reshave degraded about Hunting,Threats: fiand shing, frequent forest res fi road increasedhas logging The Chita-Nakhodka Threats: Bubo bubo Aquila chrysaetos protects the northernmost habitat of the Far Eastern p r o t e artels c t ), ospreys ( s

t h are mining the estimated a e r

e n

o m ) nest in the fl oodplain. r t i n h Red Data Book Pandion haliaeetus e i n r n g This parkThis specieshas from four

m (see map 1.9, p. 17) p. 1.9, map (see t h o e s

t e

s h 40 t a i m zakaznik b – i t a 50 The headwaters a species, are found t s t e p

d Many species, percent loss of o e

A group of 20 f c 200 ), and golden

i t e h percent of would pro- s w e ,

o -kg gold-kg a F u r 30 a e Located l r d

f This This per- E

o p u a r s n o t d e - r

n

here. famous Komarov’s lotus ( fowl, shorebirds, and a number of rare fi sh species.The (wetland). region Zabelovsky 4. gathering illegal of rare plants. to control and prevent fi res,and poaching, the widespread plays an important role in protecting water and soil. may neststill in River thebasin. Bastak The preserve also in the River Glinyanka basin, and the Blakiston's fi sh-owl cranes nest in the river the valleys, Oriental white stork nests include , musk deer, andbear. Himalayan Hooded (forest). Zapovednik 3. Bastak incentives to mine and log the region. waste. kan, and Manchurian. biogeographic zones: Okhotsk-Kamchat- boreal, Angarian, administration, fi rewood dachagarden logging, expansion, animals. and other fur-bearing ( to nesting cranes and storks, dense populations of snow deer an important stopover point for migratory birds and a home wetlands, as well and as fertile pasture lands. Itagricultural is tively untouched fl oodplainhasmarshes, abundantand lakes, (wetland). Plain of the Zeya-Bureya part 2. Southern spawning grounds in the Urin, Uril, and Birya Rivers. andcoal cast gold mining creates wastelands and threatens fiunregulated rewoodcollection, and salvage logging. Open- nesting grounds for storks and cranes. species, including the Komarov lotus. The lowlands include species, fi species,andmammal fty thousand a plant vascular Oblast Amur threaten nesting birds and grass-burning habitat. forests with some rare plants. ( wetlands, the region Mongolianhas also oak, Daurian birch (wetland). region 5. Stolbovsky creating fi thatres often burn out ofcontrol. Grass is burned each spring toand fall prepare for crops, ed local rivers and Birdlakes. and fi sh poachingis increasing. wetland). and (forest Range Khingan and Maly Lowlands 1. Arkhara Capreolus pygargus Betula Betula davurica Threats: Lack ofThreats: proper equipment and suffi cient staff Recommendations: Develop ecotourism to reduce forestMining, Threats: fi res,and poaching, industrial Threats: InadequateThreats: protection by the regional hunting fi Agricultural Threats: resin late springand autumn, overgrazing, Hayand uncontrolled Threats: harvesting, PhenolThreats: pollution from the Amur River has affect- These wetlands are home to three hundred bird (see map 1.10, map 17)(see p. ), elm ( ), raccoon dogs ( Ulmus Nelumbo nucifera komarovii Mammals living in theMammals area ), and hawthorn ( Predominantly steppe and The region protects water- w e i v r e v O Nyctereutes procyonoides Crataegus This rela- ) grows 

) ), 41

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW 42 enous people herd reindeer here. The region is poorly studied, fronted goose ( birds,Rare such as the Siberian crane and lesser white- 100 line forests grow entirely on permafrost and extend in a and tundra). Tundra2. (forest woodlands station reservoirs. million cu. m of timberland were fl ooded to create power exploration; hydroelectric power projects. Between of the river basin remain pristine, particularly in the north. have been severely affected by industrial activity, but portions this basin of rolling hills and valley landscapes. River fi sheries and wetland). (forest basin 1. River Vilyui Sakha of Republic in the region. Thereeagles. andare white-tailed therapeutic mineral springs shrub communities, musk deer, Manchurian wapiti, ospreys, onionthe Altaian ( pinelands contain many species,Mongol-Daurian including (forest). and the Pinelands Amur Ridge 6. Nyuzhinsky ers with silt. of Gold forests. clear-cutting mining, createwill a reservoir flthat will ood vast forestsand clog riv- sea ( eagles hundred bird species, including golden white-tailed eagles, south migration route. They are home to more two than mountain forests and river basins form an important north- (forest). Reservoir Zeisky surrounding 5. Mountains halved). tion, poaching and(the animal deer population beenhas resulting river pollution. poaching ofAlso fi sh by electrocu- deer. cygnus cies include moose, hooded cranes, whooper ( swans corridor, a variedof mixture ecosystems. Migratory spe- wetland). and (forest Rivers and the Nora Between 4. recreational activity, and untreated sewage. churian fl ora.andMineral thermal springs attract tourists. north of Blagoveshchensk are home to many species of Man- (forest). area forest 3. Mukhinka Zone threatens important wetlands. fiand agricultural Freeres.TheEconomic Sino-Chinese

Threats: Diamond,Threats: gold, oiland mining; coal and gas selective logging, gold Clear-cutting, Threats: mining. The Gilyui Threats: Hydroelectric Station, if completed, PlacerThreats: gold open-pit mining, and mining, their PoorlyThreats: controlled construction, unregulated -km-wide belt across -km-wide the northern ofpart the republic.  ), and the world’s migratorylargest population of snow T S A E R A F N A I S S U R E H T Three hundred vertebrate species live within this Haliaeetus albicilla Anser erythropus Alnus altaicus) (see map 1.11, map (see 18) p. ), ospreys, and Siberian grouse. ), nest in the region. Indig- Thesepine natural forests and Japanese stone pine These tree- fragile Larch forests cover These 3 Cygnus Cygnus and These 8 1. Magadansky Zapovednik (wetland, forest, and marine). forest, (wetland, Zapovednik 1. Magadansky of Sakha’s total itarea, of contains plant one-third all species is the Bolshoe Tokko region: Lake comprising only including many rare and endemic species. note Of particular There Sakha. are more than converge here, resulting in high biodiversity, in particularly The Far Eastern and Eastern Siberian biogeographical regions and forest). (arctic and Rivers Uchur the Aldan Between 4. reserve exploitation. fi rewood, roadconstruction, intensive and cattlegas grazing, rivers. endemic to the area grow amid birch forests between the two meadow, meadow-steppe, andplantsecosystems. Rare taiga A unique and wetland). (forest Rivers the and Lena Amga 3. Between exploration. the ecosystem and cause a global climate shift. but scientists fear that permafrost melting could damage for commercially valuable fi sh, mollusks,and crabs. bay is one of the most plentiful in areas the Sea of Okhotsk of rare plantsall in the region grow on nearby islands. The permanently inhabit or migrate to region.this percent Thirty the rare and endangered species list of the northeastRussian fi sh, Taui2. and Bay wetland). (marine continue unabated in the zapovednik. and halibut fialong shing withand bear snow sheep poaching reserve) and a gold mine near the Olsky region. crab Illegal River (whichkan feeds into one of therivers primary in the andpairs), a of variety (forty-eight marine mammals. Blackiston’s fi peregrine sh-owl, falcon, Steller’s sea eagle in the northern Pacific. Endangeredfauna includes osprey, This Oblast Magadan unique steppe ecosystems. and swamps. Yakutsk, is located here. There are meadows,also steppes, and burned the forests to livestock.raise Sakha’s capital, percent of the forest cover remains, as early settlers cleared 5. Tuimaada and wetland). Valley (forest of reserves. thecoal Elginsky tion of the Uchursky hydroelectric station, and development in the region. Indigenous Evenki rely on the region. Threats: ForestsThreats: cleared for agriculture, logging for tin, Logging, goldThreats: and mining, diamond Threats: ProposedThreats: coalfi eld development onthe Burgagyl- and urban andLogging, industrial sprawlThreats: destroy andCoal goldThreats: amining, new railroad, construc- 84 zapovednik percent of birds, all and p e alas r c e n -taiga region -taiga composed of lake-marsh, t

o protects the marinelargest bird colonies p f

r a o (see map 1.12, map 19) (see p. l t l

e b c i t r s d

t s h ,

e a

850 n l a d r

g species ofplants, vascular 75 Forty-fi ve percent all of e s percent on of mammals all t

m a r Only about i n e

b i r d

c o l o 3 9 percent n i e s

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW  golden eagle, andloon. ivory-billed species include peregrine falcon ( reindeer and snow sheep breed near thebird lake. Rare round lake, which hosts three endemic species.char Wild species of alpine plant grow around beautiful, this nearly and wetland). (arctic 1. Elgygytgyn Lake 1.13, map 19)(see p. (Chukotka) Okrug Autonomous Chukotsky lands. Overfiancestral industrial shing, mining. pollution is forcing indigenous people to move from their degraded huge beyond areas restoration. Severe localized ing grounds. forests of the Ola River basin protect salmon natural spawn- (forest). basin 6. Ola River borders. golden and Steller’s eagle, and white-tailed sea eagles. and goosebean ( whooper swan, greater white-fronted goose ( ValleyKavinsky ( and southwestern have higherAlaska brown densities.bear individuals per more a than hundred live within the refuge’s boundaries ( tem. Odyan ( Both and wetland). (forest Valley Zakazniks and Kavinsky 5. Odyan fl ictwith the needs ofindigenous peoples. nearby waters. Commercial fiand shing hunting oftencon- fiarea. shing and other marinea this resources,prime making commercial of Okhotsk, hugehas populations of herring, salmon, crab, most biologically productive and diverse territories of the Sea and Bay (wetland marine). Gizhiga 4. towns in andthe villages basin havefacilities.sewage sanitary where there is a railroad and a highway. Only two of the seven onmining) the ecosystems in the middle and upper basin, for Pacifi c salmon. Basin riversnortheastern are Khasyn spawningAsia. grounds unique and natural economic community unparalleled in (wetland). basin River 3. Khasyn extraction is a future threat. Gertnera toBays residents.are harmful Potential oil and gas ecosystems. affected The polluted waters of Nagaeva and routes, and heavy exploitation of biological resources have Threats: PoorlyThreats: designed industrial development has ThereThreats: are attempts to mine within Odyan’s A minecoal Threats: on the shores of the bay pollutes Industrial pressureThreats: (logging, hunting, and coal High populationThreats: density, intensive transport zakazniks 72 are linchpins of Magadan’s protected area sys- 10 a , 000 r A. fabalisA. sq. onlykm); southeastern Kamchatka 320 e

l i n ha) was created to protect brown bears: , 000 c h p Just ofeast city, Magadan the larch i ha) includes nesting grounds of the ), as well as endangered osprey, n s

o f

This basinThis represents a M Falco peregrinus a g Gizhiga Bay, one of the a d a Relic and endemic n ’ s

p r Anser albifrons o t e c ), gyrfalcon, ), gyrfalcon, t e d

a r e a

2 s y . ), 5 s - on the salmon. Indigenous peoples rely on the area. migrating gray whales ( Northeastwhales killer ( Seals, Asia. include one of the stockslargest of chum salmon in marmots frequentKamchatkan the Thearea. fi sheries bear, moose, ermine ( and wetland). zone (arctic riparian 3. Meinypilgyn construction, and land and water pollution. Overfi shing. salmon, migrating calico breeding grounds in the is oneAvtatkuul Zakaznik of the remaining largest goose wetlands here are critical for nesting and migratory birds; and wetland). (arctic lowlands Anadyr Lower 2. populations. and waste dumping salmon affect and wild reindeer uncontrolled archeological illegal mining, excavations, grazing. grazing. sites. forrefuges rare arctic plants and serve as reindeer calving Chosenia and poplar groves, reaching and wetland). (forest monuments 7. natural Botanical Sable and wolverine poaching. including the projectKubaka in adjacent Oblast. Magadan reach record population densities here. rusticolus ( support seavalleys eagle, taiga gyrfalcon white-tailed and forest). (arctic Zakaznik 6. Omolonsky Oil and development.gas ( valuable stocks of humpback salmon and dolly varden paradisaea include Bewick's( swans nestand hills plains inand coastal wetlands. Other birds and wetland). (marine Inlet 5. Chaun low-elevation plane and helicopter fl ights. for their and tusks, uncontrolled tourism, illegal particularly rookeries, staying for up to six months. of half than the world’s population walrus visits these six and marine). (arctic rookeries Walrus 4. illegally.eggs aroundgarbage tosettlements; are locals starting collect Salveninus malma Threats: Largely thepristine; problem primary Threats: is FutureThreats: oil development may lead to road Although the Threats: area is remote, overfi shing, Threats: UncontrolledThreats: logging for fi rewoodand reindeer Upstream Threats: and downstream gold mining, fiMining, Threats: and shing, reindeer localized grazing. PolarThreats: and brown poaching attacks, bear of walrus ), wild reindeer, brown bear, and wolverine. Moose ), and Ross’s The gulls. rivers have commercially ). Mustela erminea Eschrichtius gibbosus rfe Cygnus Cygnus bewickii nelma . The rivers are important for , other whitefi shes,and smelt. w e i v r e v O Geese and shorebirds Orcinus orca ), snow sheep, and 18 In some years, more m in height, are ), arctic terns ( Tundra and ) visit to feed The vast ), and Brown  Falco Sterna

43

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW 44 local indigenous peoples here. Upwelling currentsocean pro- Fish are andthe food marine primary mammals sources for (marine). Koryakia near Shelf Continental 6. Sea of Okhotsk oil and development,gas mining. coal tion from andsewage industrial wastewater, possible offshore the rivers. Salmon and other commercial and rare fi sh species spawnin the Moroshechnaya and Utkholok Rivers are now and feeding grounds for migratory birds, the lower basins of and (wetland forest). region of the Tigilsky 5. Rivers pollution from andsewage untreated waste. okhotensis northernmost habitat for Okhotsk fi mbristilis ( formedhas around nearby hot springs, which includes the tence of indigenous peoples. unusual thermal ecosystemAn and migratory birds. Salmon are important for the subsis- clude snow sheep, wild reindeer, marmot,bear, Kamchatkan (wetland). Zakaznik Palanskoe Ozero 4. development,gas mining. appraisal of its biological potential resources; offshore oil and the island an area of traditional nature use without a full crabking chatka ( the shelf contain commercially valuable species, such as Kam- Salmon spawn in Thestreams. almost all shallow waters of populations, and other rare but unprotected fl oraand fauna. marine bird colonies, rookeries, marine mammal white fox (marine). Zakaznik Karaginsky 3. Ostrov ofdrainage thermokarst lakes. for the Belaya River, irrigation projects and the consequent road. The hydropowerAmetistovo-Manily plant proposed andalong poaching, particularly the route of the proposed ing. Future gold mining may lead to increased pollution importantalso for nesting and migratory birds. thermokarst highly productiveThis lakes. reindeer pasture is by many riverssmall and dotted with numerous and glacial hilly tundra swamps anddominate grassy the drained area, Dol (valley) and (wetland arctic). Parapolsky 2. cut for fuel. on the Penzhina River fiand affect sh populations. Woodis cludes lichen cover and important winter pasture for reindeer. the Kayanderlargest larch forests in Northeast andAsia, in- and (wetland arctic). 1. Ayanka Zakaznik Severnaya 1.14, map 20) (see p. (Koryakia) Okrug Autonomous Koryak

Threats: IntensifiThreats: edcommercial and illegal shing, fi pollu- Increased Threats: salmon roe poaching and overfi shing; Increased Threats: poaching aby proposal locals; to make PopulationThreats: growth, geological poach- surveys, ForestThreats: fi andres causeloggingdisastrous oods fl  T S A E R A F N A I S S U R E H T ), a Red Data Book Paralithodes kamchatica plant. p l a n t . Notable fauna in- Created to protect ). Sedge-covered Sedge-covered FimbristilisF i m zakaznik Nesting Protects b r i s t i l i s

s. ter levels in the RiverKamchatka basin and protecting valu- (forest). Island Conifer 2. larly hunting. the negative of effects largely tourism,unregulated particu- the Shanuch River nickel and copper deposit, forest fi andres, marmot, chatkan andPacifi all c salmon species. to brown bear, snow sheep, sable, rare wild reindeer, Kam- the Volcanoes Worldof Kamchatka Heritage site. It is home practice subsistence activities in park,this which is a ofpart well as non-Native residents— mens, and Koryaks—as (forest). Park Nature 1. Bystrinsky Oblast Kamchatka development. whales ( other species, including halibut, herring, gray whales, beluga vide a major reproduction area crabforking and Kamchatka fi economic shing; local crises. are found here. ( tiwake include theperegrine gyrfalcon, falcon, kit- and red-legged andAmerican bird Eurasian species; important habitat and migratory stopover for areas both suffer lifestyle, al extreme economic hardship. It provides The indigenous to Aleuts, preservestruggling their tradition- most of the Commander Islands and surrounding waters. (marine). Zapovednik Komandorsky 4. such as Uzon Caldera. in the Valley of the Geysers, but toother affect starting areas salmon. Kronotskoe, home to endemic andchar freshwater sockeye zone, a dense network of rivers and creeks, and the huge Lake Conifer Island), alpineglacial marine alandscapes, coastal includes of large areas wetlands, forests (including ofpart other unique phenomena such as the Valley of Death. It also the world-famous Valley of the Geysers, Uzon Caldera, and Worldofcanoes Kamchatka Heritage site, the reserve boasts wetland). and forest, (volcanic, Zapovednik Biosphere 3. Kronotsky logged), frequent forest fi res, poor forest regeneration. the only source of timber on the peninsula and are widely been preserved. and Dahurian larch) on Inaccessible Kamchatka. forests have almost the only stands tall of coniferous forest (Ayan spruce able salmon spawning grounds, the Conifer Island forests are Threats: CommercialThreats: logging (these forests are almost Threats: DevelopmentThreats: of the goldAginskoe deposit and CommercialThreats: fi shing, proposed andoil gas Threats: PoachingThreats: of fiand sh,driftnet mammals, birds; PoachingThreats: and poorly planned tourism, mainly Larus Larus tridactylus Delphinapterus leucas The most important protected area within the Vol- (see map 1.15, map 20) (see p. ). All northern). All Pacifi cmarine fauna Vitally important for regulating wa- ), and seals. Indigenous Evens, Itel- Red Data Book The reserve includes species s p e c i e s

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW  use. ing, collection of nontimber forest products, and recreational that crosses three rivers; all increased fi shing, hunting, poach- popular for recreation and tourism. rivers grounds.are important Increasingly salmon-spawning peregrine falcon, whooper swan, andduck. mandarin All tovegetation. Asian East Home musk todeer, Sakhalin logging, and Sceneryaccess. varies from and waterfalls cliffs fi andr spruce forests, preservedin the absence of forest res, fi (forest). basins River and Bakhura Sima, 3. Anna, other overfi sources; shingin the Sea of Okhotsk. oil and projects;gas pollution from oil existing industry and pipeline construction and infrastructure related to offshore summer here.pastures fi sh onthe baysin summer;Ulta and Evenki herd reindeer on summer in waters.the coastal Indigenous Nivkhi live and taimen ( salmon species, the rivers are home to the endangered Nordmann’s The greenshank. bays support eight waterfowl and a nesting site for sea ospreys,eagles, and the land and marine). (wet- Sakhalin of bays Northeastern and wetlands Coastal 2. (Japan). Friends of andthe theEarth–Japan, Pronatura Foundation on Environmental Protection, Environment Sakhalin Watch, Marine Geology and Geophysics, Committee the Sakhalin in additional plans to log by helicopter. of the territory and is building roads and loading sites, with with tourists. In addition, the picturesque mountainous area is popular ground for wild reindeer, and a spawning ground for salmon. important nesting area for sea aeagles, rutting and calving one of Sakhalin’s last large frontier forests, regionthis is an (forest). basins and River Vengeri 1. Pursh-Pursh 1.16, map (see 21) p. Oblast Sakhalin anchored at base. the military possible radiation from leakage nuclearaging submarines marinefl and coastal oraand fauna. transportation and is home to southeast all Kamchatkan mountain Itranges. is an important bay for recreation and populationmain centers, as well as by picturesque volcanic harbor,natural Avacha Bay is surrounded by Kamchatka’s and Bay 5. Avacha (wetland marine). 1999 Threats: Logging and Logging intensifiThreats: ed access byhuman a road transportation,Seismictanker Threats: drilling, testing, Update: Vostochny ( Zakaznik ALogging. local timberThreats: company leasedhas part Industrial, Threats: household, pollution;and agricultural through the joint Institute ofefforts theof Sakhalin Hucho sakhalinensis An importantAn migratory stopover point for ), and endangered gray whales 65 A world-renowned , 386 ha) was established h Red Data Book a )

w a s Supporting Old-growth Old-growth

e s t a b l i s h e d

climatic havechanges fl affected oraand reducedanimal ing osprey sea eagle. and white-tailed plant species and twenty 1920 forestsous-broadleaved remain theafter Japanese logging of andsubzone. botanical Fragments of old fi andr conifer- the is warmest ofapart distinct geographical Sakhalin, (forest). Peninsula 5. Krilon ing, and attempts to toxicbury chemicals. construction, planned tourism,unregulated mining, poach- enterprises want to log the spruce. Other threats include road medirostris rivers and bays have pink salmon, green sturgeon ( ermine, wild reindeer, sea eagle, and Siberian grouse. The found much south. further Fauna includes brown bear, sable, ecosystem, including Yeddo spruce ( peninsula ahas warm microclimate and an unusual forest (forest). Peninsula Schmidt 4. the Uncontrolled hunting, encouraged by a road constructed in local administration approvedhas logging and mining. ( many rare insects. The rare poppyendemic Sakhalin East petroglyphs. Alpine fl oragrows and at mid-elevations shelters tion, Vaida Mountain, uniquehas caves with andstalactites 7. (forest). Vaida Mountain poaching. reduced water levels and increased sedimentation. Year-round the andlake the near sea. theLogging lake’s tributaries has the railroad dike cuthas off thechannel between natural ters, and inadequate food sources for fi sh, because primarily in the buffer zone of Poronaisky Zapovednik. feed near the shores. The eastern ofpart the islake included hica migrating ducks, waders, Muskrats and( gulls. filled with fi thissh, is an important stopover point for (wetland). Lake 6. Nevskoe the fi shingindustry is irresponsible. fi areres threata with the increasing number ofvisitors, and populations. is Logging planned in the Basin,Uryum forest Papaver valpoli Threats: ErosionThreats: loggingafter siltedhas rivers and With declining timberThreats: reserves elsewhere, timber Threats: Breaching monument natural Threats: regulations, the SpreadingThreats: swampland, increasingly shallow wa- 1980 ), red foxes, river otters, brown andbears, raccoon dogs – 1940 s, destroyedhas wild reindeer populations. ), andsturgeon kaluga ( . Species diversity fiis high: ve hundred vascular ) grows Perevalnoenear Lake to the south. Red Data Book Sakhalin’s forma- rift largest A large, shallow, brackish lagoon The southwestern peninsula, Sakhalin’s northernmost w e i v r e v O Huso dahuricus Picea glehni bird species, includ- b i r d

s p Ondatra Ondatra zibet- e ), normally c i ). e Acipenser s ,

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OVERVIEW OVERVIEW 46 capital to build a competitive base—have manufacturing technology, management and marketing expertise, and ing, and boat couldrepair. provide Foreign investors—who entire were villages founded on logging, hunting,fi coastal sh- strongly the affected economies of many decline of processing in the timber and fi shingindustries has government investment because of budget constraints. obsolete due to lack of reinvestment by industry and lower for machine building and timber and fi sh processingis but capacity manufacturing not.has theshifted region’s economic ties to Northeast Asia. economic bonds combined with the lure of hard currency former Soviet command economy. The breakdown of old Russia, severing the interdependent economic bonds of the portation costs effectively isolated the region from the rest of the andogy ineffi cient production), crippledthe mestic and international markets (due to outdated technol- domestic demand, and lack of competitiveness on both do- federal subsidies, combined with high fuel costs, declining attract foreign investment to retool industries. But shrinking opportunity to export to the PacifiRim,and c the chance to their newfound control over local resources, unprecedented in the perestroika outside the region. rfe European Russia or abroad. Today more of half than the been highly dependent on processed goods imported from not nearly enough to local needs. satisfy The milled lumber, ficanned sh,andequipment—but military the production of occurred—notably also manufacturing ineffi ciencyand high levels of wasteallinindustries. Some Soviet economy, centralized however, resulted in tremendous producerlargest of raw materials by the mid- in other of parts Russia, the plans. Although production costs were generally higher than set quotas for specifi c enterprisesunder a series of ve-year fi port. To increase production, economic ministries in Moscow enterprisesstate-owned ensured steady production and ex- toals the rest of the Soviet Union. federal Large subsidies to fi sheries,and timber suppliesand exported these raw materi- came before, exploited the region’s precious minerals, metals, the region’s development. planners in Moscow, not regional administrators, dictated supplier of raw materials for the rest of Russia. Until recently, 1682 Since the era of the Petertsar the Great (who ruled from Newell Josh Economy

Since With the devolution thatof came with decision-making ’s energy, and consumer foodstuffs, products are made 1990 to  rfe 1725 T S A E R A F N A I S S U R E H T s, reducing production insectors. all High trans- 1999 hoped to strengthen the regional economy—using , however, entrepreneurs and government offi cials ), the , overall industrial production increased,has rfe 40 has beenhas outpost a military and 39 Soviet industry, like that which rfe had become the country’s 41 Existing equipment Existing rfe regions, where rfe rfe 1980 economy in has alwayshas s. The 42 The tization as “spontaneous”efforts since institutional and legal Joseph Stiglitz, and others often refer to Russia’s early priva- corruption and capital fl ight.The World economist Bank, by the year accounts and real estate amounting to about a month during the Capital fl ight totalled a staggering businesses exportof half the fi shcaught in Russian waters. GovernorSakhalin Igor Farkhutdinov estimates illegal operates in the shadow and is controlled by capital. illegal estimates between revenue to avoid taxation is widespread. The World Bank corruption and capital fl ight. impededhas foreign investment and, more critically, fueled complicated, burdensome, and unpredictable in the world,” Theregime, tax Russian recognized as “one of the most regulation. and weak government privatization, Corruption, (see pp. chosen instead to develop resource natural extraction projects President Putin triedhas to reduce confusionthis by gradu- governments, are marred by jurisdictional inconsistencies. use, and forest management, aimed at empowering regional allocation. A number of federal decrees on privatization, land which muddies lines of jurisdiction over resource use and foreying power between federal and regional governments, augmenting their meager salaries. these agencies use also their positions to enrich themselves, to fi shingcompanies. Some unscrupulous offi cials within it receives for determining sustainable fi levels sh-harvesting thefi primary sheries institute, research the sells shfi quotas tinro selves, disguising their as illegal harvesting salvage logging. timber operators and more timetimber them- harvesting ( commercial activity. branches Local of the forestry service To supplement their budgets, some agencies have resorted to funds to effectively monitor the rising number of businesses. Committee. swelled to companies were registered in the mining. In fismall rms in many sectors,especially shing, fi forestry, and ties, together with trade deregulation, led to a fl urry of new privatized firms to createcompletely new rms. fi Theseactivi- the businesses. Others appropriated equipment from newly enterprises under their charge rather continuing than to run short-term personal enrichment, sold offof assets state-run personalgain control over them. stripping formerly public and assets initiating schemes to frameworks were not in place to prevent opportunists from leskhoz But regulatory agencies have chronically lacked suffi cient Some that argue privatization helped set the stage for Government regulation beenalso has weakened by jock- (Pacifi cInstitute of Fisheriesand Oceanography), es), es), for example, now spend less time regulating 6–99 – 86 1 , 1990 2000 600 47 ). for example, , according to the Federal Fisheries . 45 40 1990 to 50 s, with capitalRussian in offshore percent of the economyRussian 43 306 The practice of concealing 46 rfe fiand shing sh-processing fi fi Some seeking managers, u.s.$1

s h ; by i n g billion to

2001 a n d u.s.$150

fi , fithis gure

s h - p $2 r o billion billion c e s s 44 i n g

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW  issues have focused on lines similar of inquiry. D. J. Peterson, The few academics to consider environmental post-Soviet vestment, reduction of subsidies, and continued deregulation. The amake can real difference in improving the environment.” ing in projects that reduce and wastage pollution, the pollute the atmosphere, land, and water resources. By invest- continue to use energy and materials very ineffi cientlyand report concludes:of the“[M]any region’s industrial plants ment equipment, energyand andwasteful material use. ing the use of obsolete equipment, lack of pollution abate- stance, focuses on continued ineffi ciencyin industryinclud- ebrd struction and Development ( and energy use. Reports by the European forBank Recon- economy is positively or negatively pollution affecting levels conditions today, and ( ( Those that have, essentially focus on two lines of inquiry: theof effects transitionthis on theenvironment. natural and economic development. But toofar few have considered and measures to move Russia toward stable political, social, privatization and liberalization and to consider future policies researchers with a wealth of data both to debate theof effects More ten than years of transition in Russia have provided poordynamics, government regulation, and weak rule of law. investment, corruption, capital fl ight, power federal-regional production, decline of of types foreign manufacturing, Soviet economic and political trends as lower industrial World andBank ics, research institutes, and fiinstitutions nancial suchasthe on the environment. transition of economic Effects priorities were often ignored, a practice that continues today. munist leaders.Party Laws that confl ictedwith government judges were appointed or removed at the whim of Com- because there is no independent judiciary. In Soviet times, applied in practice.” but guidelines for action, subject to endless variation when the said,rules and … most wererules not atrules really all, ness law: … Who you knew was more important what than lawyer BlockKevin found Russia was governed by “lawless- tion, is ofpart the problem. living in After the ence for “situational” law, which is more open to interpreta- Russia’s traditionally low regard for written law and prefer- simply lack the orexpertise to will enforce and fulfillthem. offiwidely cial accused ofcorruption. Nazdratenko, then governor of Primorsky who Krai was an Pulikovsky, who helped orchestrate the removal of Evgeny rfe fordistricts Russia. The presidential representative for the representatives, or “super-governors,” to oversee seven federal federalrecentralizing ally control. He appointed presidential 1 ) how the Soviet environmental industrial legacy affects Some regional laws and responsibilities are cials clear—offi federal district is the former general Konstantinmilitary ebrd ’s’ s

2001 then offers a prescription of increased foreign in- publication, imf 48 have analyzed athave length suchanalyzed post- Existing laws Existing are poorlyalso enforced 2 ) whether the transition to a market Environments in Transition ebrd ) typify both approaches.) typify rfe Academ- for years, , for in- ebrd 49 The leading to temporary closures of fiandareas shing severe and salmon. decimatedhas This stocks of some species, demand by export markets, namely crab, pollock, sea urchin, Commercial fi shing, for targets instance, only speciesin species and thesystems natural upon which they depend. to process many harmful plant and animal resources—a pattern intensifithe es and natural of harvest certain localizes what resources are extracted, where, and at what rate. This theenvironment? natural and rise in raw materials exports to markets affected Asian to explore. industrial effi ciency.There are otherequally important angles environmental problems to the study of pollution levels and of these studies restricting risks the consideration of complex to blame. such as pollutioninfrastructure, abatement equipment, are nomic effi ciencyandinvestment falling in environmental industrial output)than and concludes that reduced eco- more pollution-intensive (pollution levels have dropped less for exploresinstance, why the economyRussian becomehas regulations, and hide profits. Collusion betweencorrupt interestsrights, avoid toseeking land-use gain environmental developedalso close ties with timber, and mining, fi shing Oblasts. Amur andBut Kamchatka these governments have set aside oflarge tracts land as protected in particularly areas, however, have been mixed. Some regional governments have stewards of local resources Muscovites. than The results, regionalalded theresidents change, thinking would be better environmental decisions. Environmentalists in the governments unprecedented responsibility for economic and ment. The breakup of the former Soviet Union gave regional and regional power ondynamics resource use and manage- musk deer, black and brown andbears, ginseng. the Siberian by-products,affecting particularly (Amur) tiger, have led to a fl trade ourishing in endangered speciesand their borders for export and poor domestic economic conditions water levels, which lead can to fl ooding.The opening of logging does occur along protected river systems and affects amurense yew ( loggingprotected targets Illegal species, such as Korean pine, government to close crab beds and greatly reduce quotas. Russia’s most lucrative marine export, forcedhas the Russian methods illegal to fl kingof harvesting crab, ourish.Illegal tion and corruption encourages such overharvest and allows diverse region (see pp. on forests in the southern due to loss of subsidies) are increasingalso logging pressure geography of new markets and rising transport costs (largely forests and subsequently threaten the global climate. The logginglarch mayof leadnorthern to permafrost large-scale restrictions.harvest In the timber industry, demand Asian for How, for thehas instance, Another subject requiring study is the ofeffect federal Taxus cuspidata ), and quota-restricted species, such as ash. Such 50 Although useful and Although necessary,useful the narrow focus ), and Amur cork tree ( 9–70 69 51 rfe Asian markets nowAsian largely dictate , Russia’s most biologically ). Weak government regula- rfe ’s drop in manufacturing w e i v r e v O Phellodendron 52 rfe  her-

47

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW 48

lin, Kamchatka, and in the gold-rich Kolyma River basin in in basin River Kolyma gold-rich the in and Kamchatka, lin, Sakha- Vladivostok, Khabarovsk, — East Far the throughout built were Camps camps. other the at disobeyed who those for compounds punitive (3) and mining, and logging for camps (2) colonies, agricultural and factory (1) developed: camp of types Three State.” the against “crimes petty for up rounded were people as safe was citizen Russian No labor. slave provide to system gulag tsarist the perfected Stalin drive, massive this future.” the to way the led and targets production smashed who workers elite the were priests its cathedrals, its were Factories faith. new the was “Industrialization complex. industrial huge a into economy agrarian primarily a from Siberia transforming by West the to up catch to sought Stalin fi plans, of series a ve-year Through 1924. in power to came who Stalin, under momentum gained industry of control State community. c Asian-Pacifi the with ties broke and control state under industries all brought leaders communist as investment, foreign to halt abrupt an brought Revolution Bolshevik The Red the of Rise The East. Far the to equipment agricultural of types all supplying was Company Harvester International and fi were ventures companies nancing gold-mining British 1910, by and railroad, the along developed centers Industrial century. the of turn the by thousand thirty about of population a with port trading and military bustling a into grew quickly East) the of Lord as translates (which 1897. in Vladivostok completed was Oblast Amur in Blagoveshchensk and vostok civilization.” and trade to world new a open and Asia, Northern of depths obscure the penetrate to was enterprise commercial which by channel destined “the was River Amur the To Collins, Ocean. Pacifi the to Amur c the of headwaters western the connect to railroad a proposed and potential Amur’s the saw Collins McDonough Perry millionaire American 1857, the as early As RFE. entire the in basin richest the was it as importance, primary of was basin River Amur the Developing export. and use domestic for materials raw extract to centers industrial develop to and China, and Japan of powers military growing the from shores eastern Russia’s protect to supplies and troops of transfer allow to colonization, facilitate to built was railroad The Vladivostok. to Moscow from km 9,000 than more spans today which 1905, and 1891 between Railroad Siberian Trans- the of building the with began really East Far the and Siberia industrialize to effort government great The region. the inhabited peoples native 1850, to Prior resources. new of search in east moved gradually who traders fur by spurred ago, years 150 just began RFE the in development Industrial Railroad Trans-Siberian the Building  Convicts built the railroad, and the fi rst leg between Vladi- fi the and between leg rst railroad, the built Convicts T S A E R A F N A I S S U R E H T 53 54 55 To fuel To fuel system persisted even under President Mikhail Gorbachev, Gorbachev, Mikhail President under even persisted system exile.” of places Russian traditional the of fi to one to two for years ve exiled be could month a than more for job proper a had not had who “anyone that stipulating by 1961 in system gulag the of version smaller a revived chev Krush- Nikita President dissent, increasing and economy ing ail- an with Faced 1956. in prisoners political so-called million one than more held still camp Kolyma-Magadan the but ers, one-fifth. about claimed camp Basin Kolyma the camps, labor by killed 15 12 million to estimated the Of year. a percent 25 was rate death the as — full camps the keep to exiled were citizens million 7 estimated an Terror, Great of year 1937, in the labor; slave on dependent completely almost economy an created had Stalin prisoners. million 21 than more held Archipelago gulag the 1930s, the in peak its At Komsomolsk-on-Amur. and Magadan of cities the built laborers Camp Oblast. Magadan ecological costs. costs. ecological project’s the of reminder painful a is construction line’s the by fi massive caused from res earth scorched The line. the along cities mining and logging planned originally the building fore be- money of out ran Moscow as disaster, economic an been has railroad fi The was later in 1989. billion nished U.S.$25 and again began project the 1974, In track. the up ripped Russia, European in war the for iron of need desperate in ment, govern- the II, War World of onset the with but project, the began Stalin places. many in border the hugs which Siberian, Trans- the than invasion Chinese possible to vulnerable less be to supposed also was It exploitation. for forests and deposits mineral vast up open would and Krai, Khabarovsk in terminating before Trans-Siberian, the to parallel and of north run would which Mainline, Baikal-Amur the railroad, them. embraced Russians all fi not grounds, destroyed shing and peoples, indigenous and local displaced forests, of fl hectares of dams millions ooded faith.” Communist the of article the are they and nature over conquest man’s embody They rockets. and troops as just might, Russian symbolize “Dams day. the of order the became dams hydroelectric huge and — Sakhalin to Stait Tatar the under tunnel railroad half-built the as such abandoned, were some although — continued Stalin by initiated projects development large-scale Many centers. industrial as cities extraction resource ex-gulag the using labor, free tensibly system. gulag Stalinist the horrifi of the scale c reached never it but Stalin’s death in 1953 brought the release of many prison- many of release the brought 1953 in death Stalin’s — JN — new a of dreamed planners Soviet dams, to addition In os- to largely returned empire Soviet the Stalin, After 56 57 The prison camp camp prison The 58 However, as as However, 

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW  tial revenuetial from valuablethis national resource. In sum, and bribes for fi shing quotashave led tothe loss of substan- ity toward foreign involvement in the industry. Capital fl ight over rights resourceto shrinking this and by growing hostil- unprecedented public confl theicts between ties. The current decreasing fi sh quotasare accompanied by the economic health of the fi andshingindustry itscommuni- tion system that havetransparency lacks undermined further if stockthis continues to dwindle. and the end of government subsidies, face economic disaster with rising input costs, international market competition, key fi sheries. Many combined fiwith illegal thishas shing, depletedthe stockin bypervised foreign interests, ledhas toovercapacity; harvest internationally. Fleet modernization, fiand nanced often su- for the Soviet domestic market, to higher-value products sold tion. Fishing fromshifted lower-value species, bound mostly ized during the shipments are included. all Fish and fi sh products may account for of roughly one-half activity in many andsuch areas, Koryakia. as Kamchatka industrial sector. It is the only significant form of economic transport, and related activities, is probably the t. allison Fishing the banks, the regional chapters. The roles of international development culture because the latter are morediscussed extensively in timber are longer those than on energy,mining, and agri- each industry are provided. The sections on fiand shing greater below.detail Basic economic and resource data for timber, and mining, agriculture industries are indiscussed ronmental and economic developments in the fi shing, energy, mental management and control (see p. nated the two major federal bodies responsible for environ- is in charge of resource natural extraction, effectively elimi- Forest intoService ofthe Ministry Natural Resources, which tion of the Committee on Environmental Protection and the of industrial enterprises. President Putin’s recent consolida- power might insteadweaken further environmental oversight corruption resourceand illegal use, but reconsolidation of ects in the sessments and is required for proposed all development proj- versionscaled-down of environmental U.S.-style impact as- the orrigging avoidance of the regional offiand cials businessmenis evident in frequent rfe Ineffective fi sherymanagement and a shing fi alloca- quota The economicThis overview of the 1992 rfe export revenues, if estimated unrecorded high-seas ngo are evaluated in “Toward Sustainable Development.” rfe Law on the Environment, the —Fishing, which includes fi—Fishing, sh processing, storage, rfe fi shingindustry was andprivatized commercial- s, and foreign investment in the development of .Stronger federal control may help to reduce 1990 rfe s, spurring widespread fleet moderniza- fi shing enterprises already struggling 60 expertiza rfe process. Mandated by p r is a backdrop. Envi- o expertiza c 0 06 – 103 e s s . krai

M rfe a process is a s and ). p n r d o ’s largest a c t e e oblast s d s

b i s y 59

a

s compromise the fi shingindustry’s long-term Howhealth? developments crucial raise questions. Why did privatization widely opposes the auction system, as does industry. the new head of the Fisheries Committee in March Primorsky Governor Evgeny Nazdratenko was appointed administrator, the Federal Fisheries Committee. The former Economic Development rather the than industry’s traditional valuable species. systemThis is supervised by ofthe Ministry ed with a controversial quota auction system for the most rfe inactive and dilapidated. formerly hubs of Soviet fi shing eetfl activity, are increasingly for repairs, supplies, and transshipments.cargo activities abroad, where in vesselsRussian foreign call ports Russia for vessel operators drivenhas much of the industry’s Meanwhile, the burdensome and regulatory tax regime in quotas within those limits to domestic and foreign operators. biologicallysetting sustainable fi shinglimits,and allocating plagued the key fi shery management tasks of gathering data, bureaucratic infighting, lack andoffunding, corruption have well below that of other fi shing nations. on vessel tonnage per unit of output, appears to have been However, the economic effi ciency ofthese vessels, based to more than to Japan. filargest shing eet fl andwas second marineinharvestonly the Pacifi c Ocean. at the end of the volumesAnnual atpeaked a level of almost a million tons in less long).Soviet Annual grew marinefrom harvest less than built hundreds of smaller oceangoing vessels (ships the large autonomous catcher-processors, while yards Russian ish, German, andshipyards later fi Ukrainian rst constructed deploying fi shing throughoutvessels the world’s oceans. Pol- mid- stable protein supply for the population. in Beginning the structure designedhierarchical to procure an inexpensive and the Soviet Union by was managed a highly centralized, roots lay in the Soviet period. The fi shingunderindustry for the fi shingindustry crisisevolved in the fiof the Soviet Heritage industry. shing rfe these questions, we theexamine current impasse within the and management models might be considered? To explore and what are the prospects for otherWhat success? measures forming the industry, so crucial to the well being of the capital fl ight? Finally, howis the PutinAdministration re- ussr arrangements in the industry evolved since the collapse of the last decade contributed to theHow crisis? have institutional thehas widespread involvement of foreign interests over the These trends constitute a widely proclaimed crisis in the fi shingindustry. The PutinAdministration has respond- fi shingindustry. and how overfi have they facilitated large-scale and shing 1950 a n d

63 h s, the Per capita seafood consumption in the o w 20

h ussr a kg, three times kg, higher U.S. than levels. v 1980 1950 e 62

By time,this the t began abegan massive shipbuilding program, h b to more than s, with roughly e e y g

a f a n c

a i l

i m t a a t e s d s i w e i v r e v O

v l e a 6

r million tons in 65 The economic reasons s ussr m g h e percent caught in i 65 i - p l Although some s l b i c had the world’s o h u a n 10 1990 l a i e l

d d t

million tons o o

i t n v rfe n h e s, but its g s e r

ussr

i fi p w ports, n

50 2001 r s 61

o o h 1970 These m or r  g i grew l n r g d rfe 64

a g r and ’ s m e

.

a w n 49 , ,

d

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW 50 six havechairman: held the post since accompanieda by frequent ofchanges the Committee’s stocks instead of exploitation. Reduced authority was authoritya reducedwas also to management of fi sheries cut from CommitteeRussian of Fisheries, was and staff Fisheries. In state suchindustrial structures ofas the Ministry commandc economy led to the abrupt decline of powerful of government. role The changing the Soviet systemto ceased exist. of the industry itself, whenquicklychanged and drastically and its involvement in the fi shingindustry, thelike structure the regions. However, the scope of the government’s power administrative power resolved complaints between or from were not allowed to develop, and Moscow’s all-encompassing regions and the center over control of the allocation process in the activities of enforcement agencies. Disputes between in establishing andquotas allocating and only role a marginal of personal by gain regulatory offi cials playedalmost no role long-term participants that suggests corruption in the form capable of enforcing limits. evidenceAnecdotal harvest from regional leaders and individual enterprises, and thus largely allocation system was relatively resistant to infl uence by capacity.with harvest Also, the entrenched Soviet centralized was underutilized, and thus available to fi shingcompanies today,unlike most on fiallocations. shing However,throughout the Soviet era, enterprise and region ultimately depended (and depends)still both regionally and in Moscow, because the output of each of determining quotas was controversial and infl uenced towns, whose fates are now Thehighly uncertain. process created artifi enterprises, cially successful communities, and ofcase the tant provider of during social services the Soviet era. In the the enterprise was the employerlargest and the most impor- of these fi shing enterprises were locatedin remoteareas where Unfortunately for many employees and theirmost families, often involving or perish.layoffs or nonpayment of wages— process painful open markets, had to quickly transform—a entered enterprises that, when exposed to lower subsidies and quence of Soviet policies was that large numbers of employees consumer purchasing power. importantAn social conse- subsidized and product prices were set within the range of behind international Fuel standards. and capital were highly and the ofquality output, acceptable domestically, lagged tem refl ectedan emphasis on volumerather than effi ciency, growth of other Soviet industrial sectors: the industrial sys- to domestic consumers. tionally: of almost all it (over roe, and crab, most seafood was not highly valued interna- productshigh-value were exported, such as salmon, pollock, t u c o o c m t

c This enormousThis buildup of fi shing powerthe paralleled h o k m m o

r i  p a n i t n a s y T S A E R A F N A I S S U R E H T t n d

1 e w

, i a e e 200 rfe a d c d s 1991 o

o b a n fi shingindustry, the Soviet economicsystem to f y l o

s e

m o f , the ministry , became thethe ministry x r

400 p e r y rfe e q l

o l d u e i u employees. t d e and accessible foreign fi shery stock a c n

66 t t e t i o d

o c

n t h t h o . a

e

R n 90 m

a g e b a e d percent by tonnage) was sold r The end of the n s u 67 u

a o c p The ministry’s g e f t

e d t

m d h

1991 a e e e u c

n C t l i h t n . o

o o e m r f

i

o t fi m

f y s

p i h w t ussru o t e a s e r w s s e i e

r e ’ s s ’ r

s

f

u l

the data on which quota decisions are based, because of the before.than Concerns have been aboutraised the veracity of conduct local scientifi c work moreindependently from Moscow. The various institutes, regional-level however, now InstituteResearch of Fisheries and Oceanography and then recommendations makes to the FederalRussian vostok, collects scientifi cdata from its regional branches tosimilar those of Soviet times: earnings. with substantial hard-currency other bureaucratic agencies to obtain control over an industry including an effort to curb corruption and the eagerness of tives for additionalinserting controls into the quota system, intouncertainty issuance. Observers point to a ofvariety mo- with other government bodies, introducing serious delays and mittee was forced to coordinate the quota allocation system eroded the committee’s authority; by the late map committee, which licenses vessels and fi shingcompanies (see overalllevels harvest remainedhas chiefl withy the Moscow Walleye or Alaskan pollock pollock Alaskan or Walleye their importance as an employer and social providerservice are the vessel operator’s record andin wage tax payments, criteria explicitly considered by each company as well as historical catch levels. Additional vessels, is based on ofthe type vessel owned or operated by andtas, the subsequent issuance of fi shingtickets to specifi c industry association. distributionThis of long-awaited quo- between companies, sometimes through an intermediary recommendations. the prime minister must approve entirethis set of harvest Resources. Once any questions or objections are resolved, of Natural Resources, and second to ofthe Ministry Natural from various national institutes appointed by the Ministry government Commission of ichthyologists mainly Experts, word, the committee’s recommendations are first sent to a istrative region ( Committee then quotasallocates to each respective admin- every level. declinedrastic in federal forfunding scientifi c research at Formally, the steps in determining quota allocations are function ofThe andall-important setting allocating The In an increasingly politicized process, the Fisheries 1 . 17 oblast ). Other government bodies, however, have gradually - krai oblast administrations then distribute the quotas a d m ,

krai i n (Theragra chalcogramma) (Theragra i s ). Instead of having the fi nal t r a t i oblast o tinro n s

t h and a e , located in Vladi- n n d

d 68

krai i s t r 1990 i governments b g u o t v e e s the com- (

. t r vniro v h n n e m i

r q tinro e o u n o ) in t s t

a s

FAO 

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW  ment officers in everycountry may encounter suchhazards, violations. Although seagoing fi sheries scientistsand enforce- the rigor of scientifi c shing fi programs, orsimply ignoring able seafood products in records,return for easing falsifying enforcement officers are often offeredalcohol,cash, or valu- for fi sheriesis weak. Underpaid (orunpaid) scientistsand Weak enforcement. Hdix for a listing of the quotas for major species in reduceinas discussed theharvest, sidebar; illegal see appen- highest bidder in an effort to increase taxation revenue and tobegan auction off many of the most valuable quotas to the criteria described above. In panies based on theofmix changing objective and subjective oblast their interests. confl Local icts ofinterest also occur when months each year in Moscow to protecttrying and enhance the heads of surprising that the top executives of fi shing enterprisesand to heavy lobbying in the allocation process. Thus, it is not tive use of the criteria and forrules each category, have led egories or even creating new special quotas, and the subjec- Russia’s own fleet. were reduced as pressure on stockRussian grownhas from years, in exchange for reciprocal fi shingrights. These quotas hatcheries or scientifi c vessels) or, frequentlyless in recent exchange for payment in orcash kind (for example, salmon waters. These quotas are provided to foreign governments in ies agreements allowing foreign vessels to fi shin Russian In addition, separate quotas are set aside for bilateral fi sher-     there were four forbasic types domestic users: system. Prior to the introduction of auctions in late without vessels. awarded from Moscow to individual firms, including rms fi Special quotas of considerable value are periodically also from ties family to political toleanings outright bribery. formal Less criteria, according to industry observers, range to the The possibility of moving allocations between quota cat- Different of types quotas complicatealso the allocation other functions needed by the industry. fi sheries science,and enforcement, search-and-rescue, cies in(usually Moscow). The fees ostensibly support Paid (commercial) quotas, sold through designated agen- speciescertain to establish an industrial quota. devised by scientists to exploresystematically an area and The scientifi c quota: shing according fi to a program scientist on board to monitor the catch. and analyze sensitive generally areas closed to fi shing, requiring a The quota, control-catch located typically in biologically free quotas; usually of charge. The industrial quota, constituting the majority of all and a krai n d

or krai o r oblast

oblast administrations divide quotas between com- a 69 d m and a Monitoring and enforcement of quotas , and any record of fi sheriesviolations. i

n n a d n i s

d krai t r

a a t n i fi shing departments spend several y o 2001 fi

n r s e h s

c i d n o , the governmentRussian i r g v d

i d d

o e e f p

q fi a

u r s o t h m t e a r e s i e n

b s t

e s v

t s i w o p l e e a e n 2000 t 2001 n i d o

c n s o e s v m . . ,

e r - a l

its economic zone from 16,000 in 2000 to 12,000 tons tons 12,000 to 2000 in 16,000 from zone economic its fi for in quota salmon Japan’s shing lowered also Russia fi to 2000. in 17 allowed be versus sh will ships Chinese 12 only tons; metric 9,500 to 2000 in tons 17,000 from pollock. and shrimp, crab, species: demand highest the for ily primar- quotas, all of percent –10 5 off auctioned ment govern- the 2001, In quotas. government-to-government resource. the from, revenue and over, control of loss a fear who companies, and associations, fi governors, shing RFE from resistance uniform with met was quotas auction to decision The accountability. industry increase also will system the maintains ernment gov- federal The revenue. itself guarantees government Russian the fi from quotas, for payment rms initial ing species. select of fi quotas foreign for bid rms and Russian whereby auction, quota the for guideline a 1010, No. decree adopted Moscow 2000, December In fi auctions Moscow quotas sh auctions are unlikely to protect fi protect to sheries. unlikely are auctions categories. quota other in crab king for allocation total the of 15percent tons, metric 6,500 almost was 2001 in allocation quota ( golden and ( red For cucumber. sea and urchin, sea crab, king particularly species, some for high unusually are Scientifiquotas c confl interest. of obvious an ict poses This revenue. earn they which from scientifi quotas, c receive also agencies enforcement and monitoring Many product. export and to scientifisimply fi the cial body by c sh fi used or rms commer- to sold often are quotas The abused. widely are quotas, year’s following the determine and levels stock research to institutions and agencies to given quotas, signifi These cantly. allocations quota these cut government the 2002, in system; auction new the under unloaded. is illegal) it of (much catch the where ports, foreign at made then repayments with backers, foreign from loans with fi quotas Russian buying some are rms that surfaced tons. 260,000 at less, percent 9 nearly held meanwhile companies Russian year. previous the than higher percent 20 tons, 241,000 to 2001 in quotas of share their increased companies foreign increase; companies foreign individual for quotas while continue to expected are countries for reductions These 2001. in The auction system seems destined to replace replace to destined seems system auction The — JN — the enforcement, and monitoring vigilant Without reduced be may quotas Scientifiresearch and c 71 Paralithodes kamtschaticus Paralithodes Russia reduced the Chinese quota for pollock pollock for quota Chinese the reduced Russia 74 P. brevipes P. ) king crab alone, the scientifi the c alone, crab king ) w e i v r e v O ), blue ( blue ), 73 Reports have have Reports 75 P. platypus P. 70 By requir- By  ), ), 72

51

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW 52 1990 of independent firms in the shing exploded fi industry in the industry. of private and struggles The emergence quotas. other for markets, fi nancing sources, and,vessels aboveall, constituents now openly and aggressively compete with each rights between fi shingcompanies in different regions.These ever, regional meetings are marked by confl icts over shing fi krai marked by common positions and actions by each made up of government and industry representatives from resource, and the enforcement of fi rules.shingCouncils are ScientifiCouncil includec-Industrial quotas,the status ofthe borderlands with little recompense. asked ally to serve in difficult and remoteareas ofthe Russian of bribes to appease the Border whoseService, troops are usu- as an effort to fi nd a source ofunoffi revenue cial in the form deed, some industry participants have portrayed the takeover evidence corruptionsuggests nothas signifieased cantly. In- and motivation remain,still and anecdotal fi sheries enforcement.Issues ofcompetence into the Border unitsService involved in bvod personnel have been integrated recognized, however, and many Glavry- guards’ inexperience seems to have been was only generally Thefamiliar. border authority over an activity with which it ofcases an outside entity receiving decisive Fisheries Committee and one of several impingingfurther on the power of the transferred to the Federal Border Service Glavrybvod’s enforcement functions were violators, leading to confusion. In zations tobegan compete for capture of alongside Glavrybvod. The two organi- gia), tobegan patrol and pursue violators Environmental Protection (Goskomekolo- sion of Committee the onnow-defunct Inspectorate (Spetsmorinspektsia), a divi- Another organization, the Special Marine ports and unpunished fi shingviolations. during the Glavrybvod faced has growing criticism cow, the traditional enforcement agency, aseriousthis makes particularly problem. be achieved by violating the formal rules, and their employers that onlysuccess can widely held view of fiRussian shermen doned by the government, along with the the citizens’Russian sense of being aban-

Central Central topics at sessions of the biannual Far Eastern toSimilar the Committee in Mos- s in support of regional industry. More recently, how- s. Not only did former state enterprises and fi shing oblast  T S A E R A F N A I S S U R E H T and 1990 a n d krai k s for ex- unregulated r a i . Previously, council meetings were often 1998 , rfe The number oblast s and kolk- � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �   ful, is credited to several factors: many enterprises, many of them at least temporarily success- in order to survive. The formation and transformation of so to adopt new products, production techniques, and markets and transformed old ones. In either they case, were forced tive control, Cut loose from subsidies as well as from central administra- 598 data from firms activein the “incomplete assessment” that found more one than thousand but a myriad of new ventures appeared. One source cites an hoz � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � infrastructure weakness. infrastructure problems otherplaguing businesses,Russian such as ments to foreign ports sheltering the enterprise from Economic activity mostly on the high withseas, ship- forproduction. high-value appropriated from state concerns and quickly modernized Key moveable (vessels), assets either imported or easily enterprises were active, a tenfold increase since es break free from their controlling umbrella associations, � � � � � 1999 � � � � � � � � � � � rfe � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � indicateOblast alone that in Sakhalin some � � � � � � � � � � industry participants formed new companies � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � rfe � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � fi shingindustryin � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 1996 � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � . � � � 76 � � � � � � � Offi cial � � � � � � � � 1990 � � � � � � � � � � � � � � . � � 77 � � � � � � 

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW  home to newseveral successful companies, many large fi shing active,fully and relatively free of legal confl icts. On Sakhalin, former state enterprise in Primorsky, byor legal actionsparalyzed and lack of quotas. One large and in havescandal either been divided into smaller firms companies, over vessel ownership and charters. The Primorskylargest highest degree of violence, shareholder disputes, and scandal open confl ictallocatingin regional quotas. Primorskythehas on the fi shingindustry, has shown moreand stability less oblast of large former maintaining state fi shing enterprises foran of newthe successful companies. local, federal, and foreign connections have headed up most world. Previously industry executives well-known with useful tory attention,and tax as well as attention from the criminal Lower company profi alsoles helped avoidRussian regula- could tailor their workforce to their firm’s developing needs. offering better compensation and greater independence, and couldalso hire the most talented frommanagers older firms, and distraction of supporting They a social infrastructure. least in the first years of reform. firms were often advantageousin foreign attracting credit, at enterprises. Finally, the familiarity, visibility, and size of these force, and broad connected base typically tax to former state favorable terms were large work-the social infrastructure, allocation. Additional arguments for receiving quotas under for their huge outmoded fl — amajor criteria for quota eets companieshad a typically long history of receiving quotas Quotas were easier to obtain, because these particularly Moscow bureaucrats and especially among regional offi cials. enterprises and their executives was likely to be higher among over their smaller new competitors. The infl uence ofthese the close of the decade as at the beginning. regions the almost all same atfor seafood production—were leading est companies in Primorsky and Kamchatka—the and inchange the industry, it is ironic that foreign participation, alongside nies emerged as industry leaders at an early stage, often with however, On Sakhalin, Kamchatka. newly formed compa- dominated the industry in the former state enterprises and large proliferation of newsmall companies in the industry, large Although every maritime   It is difficult to themeasure and advantages disadvantages However, new firms werefree from the nancial burdenfi The large former state enterprises held advantages certain seafood seafood products to international markets. limited infusions of capital and expertise, high-quality Foreign fi nancing foranthatindustry could deliver,with ods and markets. least passing knowledge of international production meth- Cadres of experienced fi shermenand executives with at or o r

krai vbtrf . Kamchatka, the . Kamchatka, and Dalmoreproduct, became snarled rfe oblast oblast 1990 kolkhoz kolkhoz s in Primorsky and and most heavily dependent a m nbamr n d o es. Given the upheaval

s krai organizations t o

h r ceo g e , remains intact, has seenhas a a a h v n a i i s of the larg- l s z y

a s

e d t i e e o n p n

e a s n

d e n t

� � � region in the is apparently more ubiquitous in than any other in Sakhalin mostly by operatorssmall secretly delivering crab to Japan, unhappilylocal fi affecting shingcommunities. Illegal shing, fi kolkhoz � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � es have defaulted on debts and declared bankruptcy, � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � rfe � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � . � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � w e i v r e v O � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �  � � � � � � � � � � � �

� � � � 53 � � �

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW 54 ( for the most abundant commercial species, Walleye pollock reflan ectsincreasingly severe resourceconstraint, especially foreign capital and redirected operations. The latest trend tion in the early continued to in fall the catch dropped by again about of chartered European ships and modernized vessels,Russian million tons duringannually the next and lack of capital. recovering After to a catch of almost products, but fromalso the combined of effects flan aging eet of Soviet demand and the need to reorient the fleet to new (see fi g. from fl ectedin levels.harvest declining The transformation and growing crisis in the fi shing sector was re- levels. harvest Declining Theragra chalcogramma

(both legal and illegal) to Japan and the United States. States. United the and Japan to illegal) and legal (both harvest crab King entire the almost exports Russia year, Each prohibited. were subzone Kamchatka-Kuril the throughout catches when 1950s, the with situation the compare TINRO in experts that dramatically so fallen have populations better; no faring are crab King 1999. to 1985 from catch RFE overall of terms in catch pollock the shows 1.3 Figure whole. a as dustry the of in- fi also but Sea shing fi Bering and sheries, Okhotsk of Sea the of only not lifeblood the tonnage total pollock—by species. for scientifi of quotas c allocation the in evident is seas these in species marine of multitude and diversity The Japan. and Korea, China, in popular cies ( ( cucumber for also high is Demand salmon). pollock, (sturgeon, roe of variety a and salmon, crab, pollock, ( sardines ( saira as such market, Soviet the for harvested traditionally species than rather export for species high-demand supply fi now Russian companies shing waters. fi these in States heavily sh United the and Korea, South China, Japan, of major fi other nations The shing fi productive shery. most world’s the remains Seas, Yellow and China, East China, South the as well as seas these encompasses which Pacifi region, c northern the exploitation, extensive Despite Japan. of Sea and Sea, Bering Okhotsk, of Sea the RFE: the of seas major the in harvest annual its of percent 70 to 60 catches fi Russia largest nation, shing seventh world’s The resource A global Cucumaria japonica Cucumaria 4  . 6 Data for salmon harvest indicate relatively stable popu- stable relatively indicate harvest salmon for Data Walleye for quota the reduce to continues government The 1 T S A E R A F N A I S S U R E H T million tons in . m 3 ). declineThis resultedfrom thepartially collapse i l l i Sardina, Sardinops Sardina, o Apostichopus japonicus Apostichopus A n 1990 p

t o o s n t 2000 i s c s was temporary and correctable with

h i n o ), and other endangered sea delica- sea endangered other and ), During the ). Meanwhile, the harvest annual p

1990 and u s

j a p to 2001 ), resulting in the overharvest of of overharvest the in resulting ), o n i 2 c 350 . u 3 . trepang s million tons in 82 1990 ), football sea cucumber cucumber sea football ), The initial catch reduc- , Cololabis saira Cololabis 000 4 rfe years with the help y e s, the chaotic , or Japanese sea sea Japanese or , tons in a catch plummeted r s

w i t h

1999 t ) and and ) h 1994 e

h and e 3 l p 79 80 78

Russian, Japanese, and U.S. waters, making the sustainable sustainable the making waters, U.S. and Japanese, Russian, poaching. salmon of exposé an for 69, – 11, 368 pp. chapter See declines. stock to lead will this believe fi and specialists problem, sheries huge a remains roe, for especially poaching, Widespread vest. har- total of percentage small a represents salmon Hatchery worldwide. caught salmon wild all of percent 25 roughly for accounting salmon, wild primarily harvests Russia harvests. salmon king and chum, coho, for true is degree, lesser a to pattern, same This year. the for harvest RFE entire the virtually sockeye, of tons metric 16,354 imported Japan 2000, In king. and chum, coho, sockeye, on focus fi operations driftnet shing domestic and foreign Both remainder. the up making king and coho, sockeye, chum, with catch, salmon total the of percent 75 about for account salmon Pink tons). metric (185,374 1996 in than higher and 1998, and 1997 in as same the about tons, metric 244,076 was harvest salmon 1999 The lations. operating at only in mid- materials from a Fisheries conference Committee–sponsored almost declined even more precipitously fl than eet production—by most blatant signs of trouble. Production by shoreside plants crab stocks, and andan aging decrepit fleet are onlythe other of areas the more than tion of vessels, more than deteriorate. In Primorsky, the area with the concentra-largest crab vessels, most of the expected to continue. 1996 of the other major commercial species, crab,king inpeaked fi same the for zones. shing quota crab 2001 the shows 57) 1.18 Map (p. Sea. Bering western the and Okhotsk of Sea northern the for are quotas overall largest The Pacifi region. c northern the of portion Russian the fi in 2001 for zone shing activities. illegal own their curtail to work and seas these protecting in Russia assist must Pacificountries c Northern birds. sea and lions, sea whales, smaller of host a do fi the as on depend sheries, Sea, Bering and Okhotsk of Sea the throughout feed and breed which whales, Gray concern. economic and ecological global of fi of use resources sheries A sharply declining overall catch, overfi shed pollockand With the exception of imported or refi t pollockand Both Alaskan pollock and salmon migrate to and from from and to migrate salmon and pollock Alaskan Both -JN by quotas cephalopod and pollock shows 1.1752) Map (p. (see fi g. ( s e 60 1999 e

fi percent between

g 17 . , shoreside plantsfacilities are and ship-repair

years old in 1 . 4 ) and saw a steep decline in 20 rfe – . 30 percent of capacity. Fishing ports, rfe 1999 65 1990 fleet continuedhas toageand percent of the fi shing ships were . 83 and The situation is in similar 1994 . 84 According to 2002 , which is 81 

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW  elements in the fi shingindustry crisis. interests, and becomehas this one of the most controversial pointedalso torole the harmful allegedly played by foreign earlier.discussed Many government and industry leaders have corrupt system of quota allocations and fi sheries enforcement fi sheries scienceand the inefficonfusing, cient, and sometimes Additional difficulties have included the underfunding of quotas for some key species, especially pollock and crab. to shore plants), and, by the late system,catory tax outdated technology (this applies especially of problems:fundamental lack of domestic capital, a confis- interference in attempts to stem capital fl ight. foreign fiand nancing, additional scrutinyand bureaucratic dercapitalization, increasedunderutilized assets, reliance on mortgaged) contributedhas to the downward spiral of un- and pollock vessels, many of which were chartered or heavily the lack of capital investment in the industry (outside of crab represents a fractionsmall of the industry. Most importantly, aged to accumulate substantial wealth in overseas this banks, and pollock boom years of the early and mid- that suggests some entrepreneurs who participated in the crab creditors, and bankruptcies. Although anecdotal evidence ofvessel arrears, cases by arrests well-publicized tax unpaid try’s fi nances, however, has beenbydramatized frequent and catches, revenues, and profits. The fragile state ofthe indus- difficult to obtain,given the ubiquitousunderreporting of shore plants, and powerful newer vessels. pensive foreign and, cars much less often, new or refurbished transformation is the fi shing rms’ fi luxuriousoffi ces ex- and residents, the only obvious physical evidence of the industry’s well as the industry’s burden. Besides employing many local grossly distort measures of fi nancial flows to government, as scrutiny. Unoffi cial payments to regulatorsandcollectors tax seamen, placetaken has offshore or is otherwise hidden from activity, including substantial amounts of compensation to governments is difficult to quantify. Much ofthe industry’s formation in the Kamchatka. industry, as was of the population in Primorsky was employed by the fi shing the second of half the fairly constant throughout the maritime of areas the ers employed by the fi shingindustry has remainedandlarge 1990 in the number of employees in all in thefall however, must be seena backdropagainst of an cent of its workforce between ment, have seen ship turnover by curtailed a factor of three. formerly bustling centers for repair, supply, and transship- In summary, during the Reliable data on company profits theduring The economic significance ofthe shing fi industry’strans- aAs result, the and 1996 rfe 88 population and a roughly . 87 28 Considering thethis, percentage of work- 1990 rfe percent and in Sakhalin, s to local communities and regional fi shingindustry lost roughly 1990 s, for example, roughly 1990 1990 s the industry faced a range 1990 rfe and s, lack of adequate industries between 1996 26 percent decrease p . 50 e 86 1990 r This decline,This c percent in e 1990 8 n percent t 18 s man-

d 30 percent s is also rfe e c per- r e . In a s e 85

States, were more active in the fi shingindustry in the ments, especially from Japan, Korea, China, and the United interests. of foreign The role reliance on foreign credit. For numerous reasons, much of industry are almost nonexistent, resulting in widespread at ceased many.virtually fiRussian nancial sources forthe the ing. Numerous shoreside plants, which operated throughout ment of products; thus, portsRussian are inactive and decay- foreign ports for repairs, crew and changes, even transship- use large volumes of quotas to be economically viable. debt loads meanthas they must be operated effectively and however, coupled with the vessels’ higher operating costs and cient those than of the Soviet fleet. The removal of subsidies, most these newcases, and refitted arevessels much more effi - States for crabbing, shrimping, operations.and long-lining In vessels have been refitted in Korea, and China, the United declined, by shipowners.Russian Dozens of Russian-built bought from the United States, where crab stock sharplyhas crab catcher-processors have been waters. State-of-the-art through long-term bareboat havecharters, appeared in shipyards of Norway, Spain, and Germany, and fi nanced ing vessels. Enormous modern trawling fleets, builtin the rfe North America, and Europe. fi shfrom the as end markets. Crab, salmon, pollock, scallops, and bottom- centers for reprocessing and transit of Russian seafood, and on import market, the largest in the world, has been dependent supply of provisions for vessel operations. Japan’s seafood to joint ventures, seafood trading, fl eet modernization,and has ranged from fi shingwith foreign fl eets inRussian waters anythan other sector of the Foreign interests have been key in transforming the The flRussian eet, both oldand new,comehas to rely on rfe fi shingindustry, especially its most valuedasset, sh- fi rfe — capabilities. own our on rely we basically fi to profi alternatives, trying mutually table nd investors, foreign with work to continue we although And security. food Russia’s in so less and villages, our of life the in or resources, our of preservation the in interested least the in not are foreigners this doing In market. tional interna- the to products seafood supply and resources biological marine Russia’s to access get to goal: one with fi Russian industry the shing enter investors eign for- that shown has years recent of experience The output for several decades. China and Korea serve as Regional Press Regional ( 2001. March in Committee Fisheries Federal the of head appointed was Nazdratenko 1999. 9, fi December on hearing sheries, government a at speaking Krai, Primorsky of Governor then Nazdratenko, Evgeny in Soviet times, have deteriorated, and work has rfe areto familiar importers throughout Asia, , December 1999 –January 2000.) –January 1999 December , Foreign companies and govern- rfe Digest of Fishermen’s News and and News Fishermen’s of Digest economy. w e i v r e v O 89 This activity 1990  rfe

s 55

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW 56 operatorsRussian over the terms of these transactions. atic and led to confl withicts foreign entitiesand between Payments of loans and charter fees have often been problem- in of these new and chartered vessels have operated successfully with the new vessels and their technology. Although many are satisfi edandas the Russian fi shermengainexperience tended to revert to the sideRussian as fi nancial obligations orchartering mortgage obligations. Operational control has vessel, and foreign entities firetain control nancial through pany. Foreign occupy typically keyspecialists positions on the operational management and marketing by a foreign com- erate them. Arrangements, however, commonly include some companiesRussian based in the vessels of tovarious types and Korea sold or chartered a large number of smaller used tween their than counterparts,Russian entered catcher-processors, with capacities roughly three times greater under conditions. similar Approximately fifteen large crab A fleet twelveof new longliner arrivedvessels from Norway infusionlargest of foreign capital the industry had ever seen. from Norwegian, Spanish, and German shipyards—the pollock supertrawlers were delivered under bareboat charter ment. In the first half ofthe Foreign-built vessels brought the greatest foreign involve-      factors to peculiar the industry: tional marketabrupt was particularly and widespread due to change, thesimilar fi shingindustry’s moveinto the interna- foreign technology. Although other industrial sectors saw reorientation toward foreign markets, foreign fiand nancing, fi shing rms fi in earlythe in the the profi t theduring boom years of craband pollock shing fi rfe

These foreign flvessels typically they Russian ag, and fl particularly hungry forhungry particularly new product sources. to waters,Russian and international seafood marketers of their ships, or enthusiastic particularly to send vessels fi sheriesand therefore eager forparticularly new buyers Foreign businesses by affected the decline of productive States. foreign Korea, partners: Japan, Europe, and the United comprising the throughout much of the world, including those countries The decline of productive fi sheriesand access to fi sheries international markets. The established value of many riers inhibiting foreign involvement in other industries. Insulation, for particularly export activities, from the bar- other business conducted in the past. United States, forged during joint fi shing operationsand Close international contacts, especially with Japan and the  waters, their combined impact depletedhas resources. 1990 1990 T S A E R A F N A I S S U R E H T s ended up offshore. The proliferation of new and 1996 rfe from the United States. Japan Likewise, f r fi shingindustry’s major potential o m 1990 rfe

t h 1990 e fi shingcompanies. s was accompanied by a radical

U rfe n s, approximately fi fty new rfe i t e effectively own and op- d seafood products on

S t a rfe t e s . fi sheries be-

L i k e w i s e ,

J a p a n

control over flcash ow,and therefore increase security forthe marketing rights to fi sh products.These rights confer some and provisioning beenhas closely connected with obtaining version of Brighton Beach’s commercial strip. fiRussian shermenand shuttletraders and resembles aKorean one entire area of town near “ delegations of fiRussian shingindustry entrepreneurs,and ofdocks are dry full vessels,Russian business hotels host ties, comehas to resemble an offshore portRussian city: the 1990 be delivered directly to the flRussian eet at thesea. During then stock up with provisions from these foreign ports to ports. Russian-flag vessels orthose deliveringtheir product export seafood products directly from the tohigh seas foreign sian ports between voyages, but almost uniformly ship their locations.vessels are more Russian-built likely toin Rus- call Even crew havechanges often been done at sea or in foreign sian operators to keep foreign-built vessels out of tions and ineffi cient port procedures,have ledmany Rus- indicate the trends: revenues from export shipments roughly reported export shipments. Offi cial gures, fi however, clearly in the measure the true quantities of seafood exports from the and crab. king pollock export: and illegal Legal seafood. widely through accessed as wellillegal, as legal, exports of were close at hand. Unfortunately, these markets have been of sales proceeds difficult. Fortunately, PacifiRimmarkets c sian buyers. The business environment made the collection to offer the extended terms of sale required by most Rus- Soviet marketing channels. Producers lacked the fi nancing consumersRussian was accompanied by a breakdown of old longer viable. The steep decline in the purchasing power of simply had no alternative since the domestic market was no a preferencecalculated for higherproducersRussian returns: eign themarkets after collapse of the subject to and harsh taxes currencyRussian controls. and other methods, a mechanism to accumulate notfunds ners. arrangementThis offers,also through transfer pricing directly, and toalso check on the sales of other foreign part- to learn about these markets firsthand before enteringthem to a foreign partner is amarkets, rights-of-sale assigning way seafood executive, initially inexperienced in international sia and the dangers of For taxes. Russian the aspiring Russian whichstake, the ofcarries vagaries shareholder rights in Rus- profitability usually substitutes for a moretraditional equity gins or commissions on the sale of product. approachThis to helpalso the fi nancing entity to make a profithrough mar- t er legal instruments lack suffi cient power. Marketingrights fi nancing entityin an environment whereand mortgages oth- Foreign fi nancing of vessel acquisition, refi ts, repairs, and High duties,taxes along with burdensome regula- The of dramatic shift s, Pusan, Korea, nearby and with good capabili- service 1990 s because of the extent of unrecorded and under- rfe seafood producers toward for- ulitsau l i t s a (street) Texas” caters to ( s t ussr r e e t ) did not represent

d T i e d x It is difficult to

a n s o ” t rfe

c r a e t p ports. e r r e s s

rfe t e o n rfe

t

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW  bers and large rectangular berspots inand thelarge rectangular early forcanned European markets. With theof arrival U.S. crab- conical pots. Most Japanese-style small of catchthis was to shipments, fi illegal and shing, underreported revenues. Prior export sales, and the one most associated with unrecorded ing a higher return to the vessel owner. to their product, the trawlersRussian are potentially provid- cessing the frozen fillets onboard,and thereby adding value supplier of relatively pollock high-value fillet blocks. By pro- blocks of frozen fillets, hasmade Russia a majorinternational of several large trawlers,Russian which primarily produce ofarrival the European supertrawlers, along with the refi tting the value of pollock, the most abundant percent since low-value species, a significant part ofthe Soviet catch. was achieved in bypart terminating or decreasing fi shing of rise in export revenues in the face of declines large harvest and another 40 by doubled from the late percent decrease in volumesharvest during the fi rst period, 1990 1996 King crab King is the other major vessels’Russian pollock catch fallen byalso has about � � � � � � � � � � , the few � . � � 90 � � � This shouldThis be viewed in the context of a roughly � 10 0 1988 � � � percent drop during the second. The sharp � � � � � rfe � � � � , but dropthis beenhas offset by a rise in � � � � � � � companies fi shing forking crab used 4 � 1980 2 0 k m � � s to � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 1992 � � � � � � � � � rfe � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � seafood contributing to , and then doubled again � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � rfe � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 1990 � � � � species. The � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � s, alongside � � � � # � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 50 � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � estimate for red and blue crabking may represent the most used to avoid income reporting or quota limitations. This fer pricing, misidentification of species, or other techniques not account for the underreporting of revenue through trans- map from implied value of shipments illegal of red and blue crabking overharvest fiand illegal shing. Based onthese estimates,the crab) caught in the most abundant and lucrative crab species (red and blue king data shows that about rather from than the officatch cial and export data. and the United States, the two major importing countries, levelsharvest by extrapolating from the import data of Japan been very high. thus incentive for fi illegal and shing unrecorded exports has compared to operations involving pollock and other species; livered live, chilled, or frozen and is potentially very lucrative fi g. more than from about catcheslegal and illegal quickly increased. The catch rose the deterioration of monitoringRussian and enforcement, � � � � � � As aAs result, informed observers estimate crabking Russian � 1 . 1 4 1996 . 18 ). Using a relatively boat,small crab king be can de- �� ������ ��� ���� � �������� ������� ����� ��������� ���������� ����� �������� ��� ���� �������� ����� ����� ). fiThis gure represents overharvesting only; it does to t 70 o 15 � � � � � � � �

� � � � � � � � � � � � � � 2000 , , � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 000 000 � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � metric tons per year in the late metric tons per year in the late � � is about � � � rfe � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 43 � � � � � � � between � � � � � � � percent of catchthe ofactual the � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � u.s.$180 � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 1996 � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � w e i v r e v O � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � million per year (see � � � � � � � � � � and � � � � � a � � � � � � � � n � � � � � � � � � � � � d � � � � � � � � �

� � � � 2000 � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � represents � � � � � � � � � � 1980 � 1990 � � 91 � � � This This � � � � � �  � � � � s to � s (see � � �

� 57

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW 58 international transactions, including unreported product de- control of operations, especially of marketing channels. But fiRussian rms have led tomany cases of substantial foreign stock into decline. Furthermore, the fi nancial obligations of with ineffective monitoring, pushedhas pollock and crab greatly improved quality. But effi harvest ciency,combined effisharply harvest raised ated by foreigners—has ciencyand installed, and often temporarily oper- technology—financed, terests in the complex and sometimes roleparadoxical of foreign in- resources and to who all rely on it. represents a serious threat to one of the crab exports from Russia. Such overharvesting, however, have benefi tedgreatly in the short termfrom live illegal Japan’s northern ports, processing plants, and entrepreneurs situation with exists other crab species, but on a smaller scale. significant exportsseafoodfrom illegal the

Developments in the crabking and pollock fi sheries reflect suspected of corruption, including Dalmoreprodukt President President Dalmoreprodukt including corruption, of suspected daily Russian the articles, investigative of series a In Russia. in fiindustries shing corrupt most the of one claiming region a and Sakhalin of capital the Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, in directorate Service Border Federal the of head Gamov, Vitaly of 2002 May in sination assas- the for responsible “mafi This believed is a” violence. even and forgeries, document sophisticated schemes, zling embez- fi complex use that established rms of composed “fi a to refer mafi sh offi and increasingly a” cials researchers, region. Kuril northern the in poaching of suspected trawler Russian a sank and shot guards border Russian 2000, In Korea. South and Japan in waters territorial Russian from catch illegal their sell and regulations, tax and quotas ignore Russians. are rules antipoaching country’s the violate who those of percent 95 Service, Border Federal the of department tion protec- marine the of fi chief deputy Serzhanin, rst Vyacheslav to fi foreign according blame to rms, efforts Russian crafted sea. open the on fi the traded with illegally sh place takes usually which export, illegal for reason major a is ports Russian in times clearance long and dues harbor high to leading tape red Bureaucratic alone. Japan fito exports sh unrecorded in million U.S.$500 estimates Committee, ies billion. U.S.$2.5 top annually zone economic fi exclusive illegal its in from shing losses Russian estimates forces, marine Service’s Border Federal the of commander Naletov, Innokenty Admiral fiIllegal export and shing  These operations appear well-organized: journalists, journalists, well-organized: appear operations These T S A E R A F N A I S S U R E H T rfe fi sheries generally. New shing andfi processing 94 Russian trawlers often operate without a license, license, a without operate often trawlers Russian 92 Evgeny Nazdratenko, chairman of the Fisher- the of chairman Nazdratenko, Evgeny Izvestia named individuals in the industry industry the in individuals named rfe ’s most valuable rfe 93 . A similar Despite well- Despite 95 illicit, trade arrangements. arrangements. trade illicit, sometimes unusual, for way the paved have Russia and States United the between arrangements lease boat and Charter ing. poach- for revoked licenses salmon their fi had vessels shing fi Japanese illegal seven for and million shing U.S.$2 mated fi were Japanese esti- shermen an alone, ned fi 2000 June In permitted. than larger much were that volumes harvest concealing to admitted ships three of captains the after Okhotsk of Sea the in poaching for million U.S.$2.5 pay to fi Korean South shing large a agreed rm 2000, fi May In caught. fi been U.S. and also have rms Korean, Chinese, Japanese, levels. highest the reached has corruption that lation fi largest specu- RFE’s shing the of raising one is rms, fi produkt problems.” some “resolve him help to Committee Fisheries Federal and government the in people” of “group a to bribe million U.S.$1 a gave allegedly who Didenko, Yury The United States, Japan, and Korea have seen all major lessons from the region’s neighbors are important to consider. reform. Industry ment of fi sheries resources. foreign interests and reformingfundamentally the manage- ing the facilities. It is no surprise that proposalsRussian for improv- and regulatory practices, along with deteriorating and markets. It is largely the result of customs, taxes, Russian is exports, shift notthis stimulated by the logic of geography crew rest, and recreation) to foreign ports. Unlike theto shift activities (shipbuilding, repair, provisioning, transshipment, to the edly greaterfar rents, both public and private, have been lost abroad, and reduce governmentRussian rents. Undoubt- to hide income, accumulate personal and corporate wealth liveries to foreign ports, have allowed entrepreneursRussian made. been have arrests Some documents. export offi inspecting customs cials Japanese by vigilance increased in resulted has example, for Sea, at Security for Department Japan’s and Service Border Federal the between efforts ing antipoach- on cooperation of memorandum A bilaterally. problem the address to efforts limited been also have There are.” there corruption of sources more the are, there crats bureau- more “the it, put cynically Stepashin Sergei Chairman Chamber Audit Duma State As agencies. enforcement within corruption faces and manpower and money both lacks but The Russian government has tried to address the problem, problem, the address to tried has government Russian The companies: Russian to fi limited Illegal not is shing — JN — rfe rfe through the wholesale of shift industry support fi shingindustry ofteninvolve the recasting role of As Russia As grapples with its fi sheries crisis, 96 99 Dalmore- rfe 97 98 port 

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW  efforts, efforts, but such attempts could burden further an already The fi shingindustry appears to be a goodcandidate forthese ties, especially those that Russia’sharm national interest. establishing the rule of law action and taking on activi- illegal future of Russia’s fi sheries. weak monitoring and enforcement are so troubling for the isThis one reason why the unreported catches allowed by maya stressedaffect stock more areadily than healthy one. andchange fi shing pressureinteract; thus, climate change are inexact sciences, most environmental maintain experts insharp the key area of westernin Kamchatka) more than In response, the government reduced quotas for crabking by average size of crabs caught, according to industry observers. tonnage through catch inpeaked while fi shingis tightly controlled, The asAlaska. Russian in is driven below level,a certain its recovery may be weak even son may be the essential one for the downturn are understill debate. Just such an irrevocable les- change, and other factors play in dramatic andthis enduring former level. The that part overfi shing, environmental sharply in the early fi shingin impactlasting unless the government reigns in uncontrolled United States may benefi tRussian stocks, buthave will no Adopting management successful techniques from the a moratorium on pollock fi shingin the Sea of Okhotsk. decline, Nazdratenko with andChairman othersfor calling able quotas. Meanwhile, Russia’s pollock stocks continue to cooperative fi shing, vessel and programs, buy-back transfer- sea through management measures, including limited entry, tions and increased the value of pollock products produced at United States signifihas cantly resuscitated pollock popula- tinue regionally and in Washington, D.C. In recent years, the Political battles over the fi shing quotas forthese speciescon- of these species have caused ferocious debate as to the cause. economic importance, in dramatic changes the abundance region, where pollock and crabking have held a similar and viability of the species, therefore, largely will determine the future health and unrecorded exports are included. revenue earned from the region’s fi sheries, if illegal shing fi past decade, pollock and crabking have delivered most of the ies is how to ensure long-termOver sustainable theharvests. national, political, and economic change. lems at all once while simultaneously confronting dramatic of these countries, however, have had to address these prob- users, and arguments over the role of foreign interests. None declines bitter in seafood harvests, confl icts between resource The Putin Administration is explicitly committed to Although stock assessment and fi sheriesmanagement Alaska’s once enormous crabking population declined The key ecological and economic question for rfe 40 percent in waters by andRussian foreign operators. 1996 2000 rfe 1980 , declining slightly in metricannual , but with a significant drop in the fi shingindustry. In the U.S. Pacifi c s, and remains at a fraction of its 2001 , with another cut (especially rfe 100 The status of these : once crabking stock 2002 rfe . fi sher- 101      as follows: summarized consistently advocated fi certain sheries policies, whichcan be in the Fisheries Committee, the Putin Administration has fiing illegal shing orcorruption. Largelythrough top offi cials harsh and complex regulatory regime without reduc- actually  policies: and the region. Following is a short critique of the proposed of the political and economic problems facing the industry policy measures and the deep, recalcitrant nature of many ness stems from a combination of and unrealistic ill-informed the problems they were designed to address. ineffective- This and thus have donebe—implemented, little to ameliorate Some of thesecannot policies have not been—indeed  Reform the quota system by each allocation tying to a shipyards.Russian quotas to those companies buying fi shing fromvessels Stimulate shipbuildingRussian by offering guaranteed sels in Streamline other regulations to avoid costly delays for ves- back to portsRussian for repairs and other services. Reform and customstax law to draw the flRussian eet the domestic market as opposed to the export market. or delivering to shoreside facilities or otherwise selling to mies, and reward, through quotas, those firms establishing increasing employment and other benefits to econo- local Encourage inshore,fi small-boat sheries development,thus countries to offset current resource shortages in the fiIncrease open-ocean and shing shing fi in zones ofother input costs (such as fuel). In any the case, systemaccess subsidies and are even potentially givendisastrous, current such operations are unprofitable for shipownerswithout in Soviet times, experienced industry participants say and foreign-zone fi returning to open-ocean as shing, Although some Moscow and regional offi advocate cials product for export, especially crab. port mayclearance be introduced for vessels all carrying approved electronic systems. transmitting Mandatory ship locations; vessels are required toand operate install and Murmansk tolovsk-Kamchatsky track catches and government introducedhas a system based in Petropav- Crack down on fi illegal and exports.shingThe illegal pay for quotas prior in full to fi shing. auctions of many valuable quotas, obligating the buyer to pursuing its goal of intransparency uct to the market.Russian The government began also available only to shipowners agreeing to deliver their prod- shipyards,Russian with quotas. Indeed, quotas certain are product to the marketRussian or by ordering vessels from benefi thet Russian economy, throughthe delivery of companies not and arrears companiesin tax that directly specifi c capablevessel of shing fi for it, and by rewarding rfe ports. w e i v r e v O 2001 through open  rfe

. 59

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW 60    

company reliably can estimate what its fi shing quotaswill to continue operations and employees.retain Since no have the required orfunds are tempted to overpay in order sion of requisite vessels. Many established firms do not credits, “mafi a” money, or other sources)and the posses- depends on fi nancial wherewithal (whetherfrom foreign system. The purchase of auctioned quotas, however, transparent compared to the traditional opaque quota auctions, but they do seem to be relatively open and tion. It is prematurestill to the assess overall impact of most tangible enactedchange by the Putin Administra- Introducing auctions for the most valuable quotas is the ing economic viability. quotas would undermine the industry’s ofchances achiev- tors shipsto purchasein Russian-built order to procure ships. For the federal government to force opera- Russian costs and higher productivity new than Russian-built older, foreign-built hulls with lower fi xedand operating ies today previously, than and those that do are typically at high prices. Far fewer vessels are entering the shipyards generally produce inferior, inconsistent products cannot turn out competitive vessels. At present, Russian through quotas are doomed to as long fail as those yards Attempts to stimulate shipbuilding in yards Russian fleet activity. several foreign ports remain centers of offshore Russian ing operations requires and that to receive the proper licenses and permits for fi sh- ciesfi harass shermenin their attempts toearn alivelihood, complained recently that about seventeen separate agen- ofport procedures.streamlining Nazdratenko Chairman control ineconomic all sectors may work his goal against ress in Putin’sarea. this toefforts strengthen governmental ports,Russian there appears to prog-be little meaningful forAs reforming regulations to attract the fleet back to have failed in the past decade. investment in shoreside development projects in the these reasons, most attempts to attract foreign or domestic tempted to avoid by basing many operations overseas. For problemsand infrastructure that the offshore fleet has at- shoreside operation encounter will the same regulatory ucts on board, suffilacks cient quotas.In addition,any already large domestic fi shing eet,fl which processes prod- and related shoreside plants remains sinceunlikely the shoreplants. Widespread development of inshore fi sheries products be delivered to the marketRussian or to Russian advantages of international trade and insisted that seafood The strategy.realistic tion about the state of the the Soviet’s worldwide fi shing presence,and in despera- policy proposal seems to be based more on nostalgia for longer be open to Russia on an acceptable basis. in foreign andzones would dramatically changed has no  rfe T S A E R A F N A I S S U R E H T would suffer if government policy ignored the 102 rfe separate signatures. ’s stock, on than a sober and 103 102 rfe To date, This This fi sher- rfe destruction of the capacity must be implemented. The alternative may be the and enforcement improvements, measures to reduce fi shing resource alleviate problems. will In addition to managerial difficult to envision how publicallocations ofthis shrinking sia’s problematic fi sheriesmanagement and enforcement, itis clashes between base and tax overall economic Given well-being. the recent and theirshoreside families, communities, and the region’s depends. The implications are deeply troubling for fi shermen ing power outstrippedhas the resource base upon which it to the foreign and domestic capital (mostly in the form of vessels) Ironically, the tory procedures to attract the fleet back toRussian ports. requirewill reformfundamental of duties, taxes, and regula- theExpanding domestic activity of Russia’s fi shing industry rfe in crab shipped to theJapan same in was virtually The total amount of caught liveillegally red and blue king problem of enforcement remains as ofunsettled late about seafood deliveries illegal to Japan, the essential despite discussions between andRussian Japanese offi cials foreign and vesselsRussian for violating fi andsheryrules in uted some which he at assesses treasury, but in fact have “brought Russia only losses,” auctions have not brought more money to the Russian benefits tothe government: saidNazdratenko Chairman purchased. Finally, even top offi cials questionthe nancial fi tion greater of harvesting volumes illegally those than have bought quotassmall at high prices with the inten- industry observers are convinced that some companies fi shing operations. Perhaps more still,challenging many planning and fi nancing of effi cientmaintenance fl eet and be until the auctions are held, auctions complicatealso the especially especially live crab. and informationexchanging about fitrolling illegal and shing export bytightening controls Russia’s neighbors, Japan, particularly to assist in con- to amake profi withoutt illegal shing. fi It remains for agement that offers stability and opportunity for operators and campaigns more officers, butalso on providing man- enforcementcost-effective depends not only on public disruptions to legitimate operators. In the end, successful, fitheylittle shing, take note oftheir increasingly costly ment agencies to try fulfilltheir mandate to end illegal filating illegal shingcontinues. asMeanwhile, enforce- informed speculation about the role of auctions in stimu- 2000 comprisedactually a larger percentage of the catch in 1999 2001 rfe was lower because of resource depletion, crab illegal than in than in the . Since the total volume of crabthis caught in the ). 104 u.s.$190 Despite several highly publicized ofarrests rfe oblast 1999 1990 fi shingindustryamounts attractedlarge of rfe . The data for ’s most important industry. s, and succeededhas so well that fi sh- s and million in total to the budgetRussian u.s.$33 krai k r a million (the auctions contrib- i s over fi shingrights and Rus- 2001 rfe are similar, and seafood imports, 2000 2002 as . 

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW  system often requires ship- the electricity grid. Russia are not connected to fi vethousandin villages the World estimates Bank ing and fi shing towns. But outpostsmilitary and min- settlements, essentially supply power to dispersed systems (see map instead designed a series of unfeasible. system in the northern constructing an integrated tainous topography made system. built the region’s energy relate to how the Soviets of summary,this but they extending beyond the scope energy morass are complex, products. est producer of refi ned KhabarovskKrai,oil,imports fuel as diesel fuel from the United States. Even the crude oil exports to purchase oil products from abroad, such refiningcapabilities. forexample, Sakhalin, uses profi ts from gion importsalso petroleum products because of inadequate of the three-quarters than Siberia generators, to fuel coal-driven which provide more such shortages, energy suppliers import fromcoal western number of people froze to death for lack of heat. To survive or power due to an inadequate and erratic supply; in gles with energy shortages. Residents are often without heat hydroelectric power from plants in Amur to China. River ( Sakhalin and Timpton Rivers ( by hydroelectric power stations on the Uchur ( ending in , through Sakhalin Japan—generated energy companies, ofdreams a power bridge from Sakha government,The Sakha together with domestic and Japanese Companies inexport also Primorskycoal. and Sakhalin production to Japan and other Asian-Pacifi ccountries. based Yakutugol, exports about some oilThe producer,fromcoal largest Sakhalin. Sakha- greatest economic hope. door, some promote oil, and gas, exportcoal as the region’s located in the oil reserves. reserves, second deposits,coal largest and eighth largest j. newell Energy The origins of the current Despite these export plans, the region continually strug- The region already exports large quantities of andcoal 110 The —Russia holds the world’s—Russia gas natural largest 111 105 Soviet planners A considerable portion of these resources are rfe rfe 2000 1 . NortheastWith energy-poor Asia next ’s moun- . 112 19 This This ) to MW). 1300 rfe 106 MW), with a third stationMW), on the rfe 108 ’s heat and power. There are plansalso to export 60 A power station belches coal soot in the arctic town of Pevek, Chukotka Peninsula. Chukotka of Pevek, town arctic the in soot coal belches station A power percent of its annual rfe 3700 109 ’s larg- The re- MW) MW) 2001 107 a reducing production. Some operating mines lack the capital ply. closed industry restructuring Coal many mines, greatly south, have power only a few hours a day. northern region. Many of even these villages, those in the becomehas acute in remote and in villages the mountainous even more costly, leading to a spotty supply. The energy crisis eral subsidies and high transport costs thesemake shipments roads become increasingly north). farther scarce Lower fed- through the southern are frozen most of the year) and poor(railroads infrastructure navigation season (the Sea of Okhotsk and the Siberian seas up to power stations. for Krai, Khabarovsk example, importedhas in again, many regions mustcoal be imported to fuel thermal per kWh). be trucked, shipped, or fl ownin, is expensive (up to largely rely on diesel generators and their fuel, since it must ping fromcoal surrounding regions. The smallest settlements area’s electricity and heating. To keep energy flthese owing, shut down the town as the enterprise may supplyalso the employ most residents, lack of deliverycoal essentially can or close. In towns where a single industrial enterprise may terprises unable to pay for are coal forced to halt production and centertrading banking of the powercauses This cuts and blackouts in Vladivostok—the transportation is too costly and workers have not been paid. Vladivostok, for example, often cannot produce because fuel to modernize and increase production. High High cost is only one reason for the erratic energy sup- Shipping tocoal the north is costly, duepartly to the short In the south, the Soviets built an electricity grid, but 85 percent of its fuel in some years. 113 rfe travel primarily west to andeast w e i v r e v O rfe . Many industrial en- 115 Coal minesCoal near 114 u.s.$0 

. 61 21

Nikita Ovsyanikov

OVERVIEW OVERVIEW 62 � � � � Union, Chandler found “energy use in factories, apartments, developmentcal was stifl ed.Throughout the formerSoviet energy prices rarely reflcost, and ected actual ( ity because production costs were rarely important, ( economies,Stalinist ( Soviet Union: ( ing Chandler,to William an energy specialist on the former (energy per unit fi cientcountries, Russia has ahigh rate of energyintensity rfe municipal and regional budgets. enterprises require subsidies, which impoverishes further � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �

� � � � � � � � Increased energy effi ciency would helpameliorate the � � � � � � � � � � � � � ’s energy crises. oneAs of the world’s most energy-inef- � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �  � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � T S A E R A F N A I S S U R E H T � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 1 � � � � ) energy-hungry heavy industry dominated) energy-hungry � gdp � � � � � � � � � � � � � � ). There are four reasons for accord- this, � � � 2 � � � � � � � ) energy conservation was not a prior- � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 4 � � � � � � ) technologi- � � � � � � � � � � � � � 3 � ) Soviet � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � although long a coal exporter, may face a defi a face this may of cit exporter, coal a long although and, gas and oil both for market potential a is China gas. natural Sakha for market primary potential a forms and (LNG) liquefigas natural Sakhalin ed of buyer major a become may II, Sakhalin from fi oil of the shipment rst received which Korea, South project. II Sakhalin the from oil imports now and decades for coal coking RFE ported im- has Japan liquefigas, and oil of natural ed importer largest world’s the Already scenarios. growth economic medium Agency Information Energy U.S using project), gas and oil I Sakhalin the in share percent 20 ’s of because (included India and China, Korea, South defi Japan, for energy cits projected and past shows 1.5 Figure oil. Eastern Middle on dependence reduce to means a as attractive is oil Russian and fuel, emission low- a as Asia to attractive is gas Natural gas. natural and oil, coal, of supplier future a as Russia sees Asia Northeast energy-poor use, energy rising with Faced Asia Northeast in geopolitics Pipeline p. 362). 362). p. (see pipeline gas Kamchatka the about concerns similar have environmentalists and 400), p. (see rivers spawning salmon- cross will alone II Sakhalin for pipelines The tanker. by oil ship would it there, From Vladivostok. near bay small a to Angarsk from pipeline km 3,800 billion, U.S.$5 a envisions Transneft China. Datsin, to Siberia) (Eastern Angarsk from pipeline km 1,700 billion, U.S.$1.7 a build to wants Company, Petroleum National Chinese owned state- the with Yukos, Asia. to oil export to plans pipeline competing announced Transneft and Yukos giants oil Khabarovsk. of shore eastern the on De-Kastri of town the in terminal tanker existing an to Strait Tatar the across one this — pipeline undersea another build to wants company the 2005, by oil its liver China. in buyers potential with negotiating also is ExxonMobil 2008. by Japan to gas natural exporting (Japan), Hokkaido to undersea and island the across line pipe- gas a build also may I, Sakhalin of operator Mobil, Exxon- occurs. this until proceed not will plans gas; for contract long-term a secured not has Energy Sakhalin But terminal. LNG largest world’s the of site future and of port ice-free the to close Prigorodnoe, to Island Sakhalin across pipelines export gas and oil build to plans II) (Sakhalin Energy Sakhalin markets. these to gas and oil bring to necessary infrastructure the building (see fi just in years 1.5). g. fi fteen resource —JN costs. environmental with come projects These already or planning are companies Sakhalin-based 118 117 In late 2002, Russian Russian 2002, late In 116 To de- 

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g � � � � � � � � � � 63 � � � �

OVERVIEW