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Home , Fasting during Ramadan, Kafir

The Islamic Ritual of and its Contemporary Misinterpretation

Masaki Nagata

Abstract

Fasting during the month of Ramadan became an obligation for in the period. It is one of the most important rituals in , and the shared experience is often seen as strengthening the Muslim community's bonds. However, it is often misunderstood by both Muslims and non-Muslims alike. For example, Dae’sh (also known as ISIS - of Iraq and Syria) has called upon their followers to carry out attacks during Ramadan, even though fighting and profanity are prohibited during this holy period. This paper examines how this holy time is being misinterpreted by modern extremist groups, and how Ramadan is thus changing from a time of strengthening social bonds to one of societal division.

Introduction

The month of Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic (lunar) calendar and a period during which Muslims fast, is one of the holiest and most important times of the year in Islam. The name ‘Ramadan’ is derived from ramad, meaning burning, and perhaps alludes to the faster burning with thirst. Al-Qurtubi noted that Ramadan was so named because it originally fell in the hottest season, and also because righteous actions could burn away evil.1 During this period Muslims recommit themselves to their (), expiate their sins and strengthen their community’s social cohesiveness. They discipline themselves during Ramadan by refraining from eating, drinking or smoking during the day. However, in recent years it has become one of the most controversial and dangerous periods in the . The Islamic ritual of during Ramadan has been misinterpreted by extremist groups engaged in military against ‘false’ Muslims and unbelievers. Dae‘sh (also known as ISIS - Islamic State of Iraq and Syria)

1 has reportedly called upon its followers to attack Western nations during this holy month.2 Similarly, during Ramadan 2017 (27th May – 25th June) Boko killed at least 17 people in coordinated attacks in Maiduguri in Nigeria, according to Amnesty International;3 the Japanese Embassy in the UK warned UK-resident Japanese that there was a possibility of terror attacks during this time. This paper examines how the holy month of Ramadan is being misinterpreted by modern extremist groups; they are seemingly seeking to change it from being a time of peace to one of terror. However, there is in fact no legitimacy to their military jihads. Ramadan is aimed at strengthening social stability, while the campaigns of the extremists seek to undermine this sense of community and shared experience.

Ramadan in Shari’a

Islam asks its believers to perform certain rituals, such as praying, pilgrimage and fasting (sawm), the focus of this paper. Linguistically the word ‘sawm’ means to refrain from doing something and to remain in one’s present state.4 All Muslims over ten years old are required to hold back from eating and drinking during the day from dawn to sunset; adults are expected to refrain from sexual activity. Believers who are mentally or physically ill, at war, in physical work or travelling are excepted from these restrictions.5

Fasting is one of the most important Islamic rituals and is one of the .6 Unlike prayer however, another pillar and one which in its content specifically declares allegiance to Islam, in the Meccan era fasting was not seen as intrinsically Islamic and therefore was not prescribed through heavenly message. 7 There are actually no Meccan-era Qur’anic verses that mention it. This may be because fasting was already being widely practised in Arabia before the foundation and rise of Islam. It was only after the hijra from to Medina that verses related to fasting were prescribed and it became an obligation for Muslims.8 The passages of the Qur’an that prescribe fasting therefore date from the Medinan era, such as Verse 2:183:

O ye who believe! Fasting is prescribed to you as it was prescribed to those before you that ye may (learn) self-restraint. [Qur’an 2:183]

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The words “as it was prescribed to those before you” in this verse indicate that fasting was already being practised by other religious groups before the Prophet’s era. Ibn ‘Abbas (d. 687 CE) and others have argued that this refers to the fasting practices of the . Qur’an 2:185 expands on this requirement: “So everyone of you who is present (at his home) during that month [Ramadan] should spend it in fasting….” Allah (Yahweh/; Jews, and Muslims worship the same deity) had prescribed fasting to Jews and Christians; Islam simply adopted the principle, but altered its practise. There is some debate regarding the extent of this relationship, with some believing that Islam was influenced by the fasting practices of other religious groups; indeed, there is evidence that Islam’s establishment of Ramadan as the chosen month for fasting was based on Jewish practise.9

The idea of a month of fasting had long been familiar to the ;10 indeed, some scholars believe that the Prophet himself was highly familiar with the practices of other religious groups. Lindsay notes that the fasting practices of the Jewish clans of Medina clearly influenced the establishment of Ramadan as the designated month for Islamic fasting, 11 and Goldhizer goes as far as to argue that all Mohammed’s doctrines, including fasting in Ramadan, were taken from and Christianity.12 Cragg argues that Islamic “is at once a product of, and a reaction against, Jewish-Christian practices”. 13 fasted, for example, as did his followers.14 To celebrate Moses’ victory over the Pharaoh the Jews of Medina observed fasting on the 10th day (‘Ashura’ – ‘10’ in both and Hebrew) of the Jewish month of Tishrei (Islamic month of Muharram), a day known as . According to Al-Bukhari, the Prophet told his Companions “You have more right to celebrate Musa’s victory than they have, so observe the Saum [sawm: fasting] on this day.”15 Consequently, Islam instituted a fast on Ashura, the tenth day of Muharram.16

The purpose of Ramadan

There are too few sources available to us to fully understand why Allah, via the Prophet Mohammed, asked his followers to practise fasting during Ramadan in a different way to that of other religious groups in Medina. Nevertheless, Islam clearly did change the practice of fasting. Rahman argues that Mohammed was directed to re-establish the

3 practice of fasting during the month of Ramadan “in its proper place and form”; this is a reference to the fact that other communities were already practising various forms of fasting.17 He stresses that this rigorous practise “strengthens one’s Faith in Allah and makes one sincere, faithful and obedient to His Command”.18

The Prophet said that sawm is a shield protecting believers from ;19 fasting during Ramadan thus both protects Muslims and gives them the opportunity to expiate their sins. Moreover, observers should avoid sexual relations and behave properly; if someone observing the fast is abused or provoked by another, he should tell the abuser that he is fasting.”20 Al-Ghazali (d. 1111 CE) notes that although fasting is a means of blocking it also impacts directly upon one’s relation with God, since subduing God’s enemies aids God; as the Prophet said “Had it not been for the fact that the hover around the hearts of the children of , the latter would have readily lifted their hearts unto the Kingdom of Heavens.”21 Fasting thus serves both as worship and protection.22

It is argued that the discipline required of the faithful in order to join and complete the fast has great spiritual value, as it brings the believer closer to God. Allah orders Muslims to fast (i.e. refrain from eating, drinking and sexual activity) in order to purify their souls and cleanse them of any evil. According to Ibn Kathı̄ r, Allah wanted Muslims to perform this obligation more obediently than earlier communities had.23 By drawing those fasting closer to God, Hourani argues that ties between believers are also strengthened. Communal meals at dawn and dusk ensure that local bonds remain strong; the belief is that a community that fasts together, and then ends the fast collectively with days of feasting and gift-giving (‘id al-fitr), is a community that stays together.24 Indeed, one of the main purposes of Ramadan is to strengthen the social stability of the Muslim community through collective fasting. Rahman notes how hunger is a “great revealing experience. It shows people what it is like to be hungry.” He argues that through common hardship, Muslims can understand and share other people’s suffering; they are brought together and community bonds are reinforced, both locally and globally. 25

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Al-Qurtubi noted how Allah differentiated fasting in two key ways from all other acts of worship, the first of these being that fasting curtails the enjoyment and appetites of the self which other acts of worship do not do. The second difference is that fasting is, or at least can be, a deeply personal ritual, an act of worship known only to God and to the person fasting, whereas other forms of devotion are visible or audible and are public declarations of faith.26 The closeness to God that fasting brings is thus amplified by the very personal nature of fasting; as Rahman notes, “fasting is observed for God and only He knows whether a person is really fasting or not”.27 Fasting is not only an obligation for Muslims, it is an individual’s private compact with God. According to al-Bukhari, the Prophet said that Allah declared “All the deeds of Adam’s sons are for them, except Saum which is for Me, and I will give the reward for it.”28 Only God can truly know whether the fast has been honoured, and this gives the act of fasting a special status within Islam.

Ramadan, war and modern extremism

The (2 AH / 624 CE), fought between Muslims and the (a tribe of unbelievers in Arabia) in Mecca during the Prophet’s era, was one of the most important military events in Islamic history and a key turning point in its development. Crucially, it fell during Ramadan. Zayd b. Thabit (d. 660CE), one of the Companions of the Prophet, stated that “On this morning, God distinguished between truth and falsehood….and on it he humbled the leaders of unbelief, and the battle of Badr was on Friday.” [Friday, 17th Ramadan, 2 AH/624 CE].29 Indeed, in an article published in the Egyptian daily Al-Ahram in July 2012, the former mufti of , Ali Gomaa, noted that many historical battles were held in the month of Ramadan, such as the (630 CE) and the Battle of Tabouk (631 CE), in addition to the Battle of Badr. He contends that this is because “When the soul grows stronger [through fasting in Ramadan] and the spirit soars, it inevitably affects the body, which grows stronger - the body is the mirror of the soul. That is why, throughout [Muslim] history, Ramadan has been a month of great conquests, which were an important factor in spreading Islam…”30

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Some contemporary scholars, such as the Egyptian cleric Fuad Mukheimar, believe that fasting in Ramadan and are, or should be, associated with each other. In a November 2001 article on the topic of Ramadan, Mukheimar wrote that

Fasting is closely connected to Jihad in two aspects: First, determination and steadfastness until The Hour [Judgment Day]. Fasting is a continuous commandment, until Judgment Day….and the same is true for Jihad, because Muslim society needs it to defend [its] faith, honor, and homeland….The nation’s fasting is [itself] education for Jihad, and as long as the nation fasts it will continue to be a Jihad fighter.31

In contrast to the words and deeds of the Prophet, this supposed historical connection between Ramadan and war is now being exploited by extremists. In recent years Dae‘sh and other contemporary groups have called for military jihads during Ramadan, despite military hostilities of all kinds being prohibited during this time. In 2016 a Dae‘sh spokesman referred to Ramadan as “the month of conquest and jihad”. He continued: “Get prepared, be ready….to make it a month of calamity everywhere for the non-believers….”32 Even fellow Muslims have been killed during this period. However, these groups are employing a concept, namely that of military jihad, that is entirely man-made and did not exist in the Prophet’s time. It does not come from Shari’a, but rather was developed during the mediaeval period and was heavily influenced by the particular circumstances pertaining at the time (i.e. a state of permanent war). 33 Extremists have mistakenly treated this holy time as a time for military activities, despite the Prophet stating “When one of you fasts, you should not behave immorally nor arrogantly. If someone fights him, or abuses him, he should say: ‘I am fasting, I am fasting.’ ” 34 It is clear that Islam does not recognise any hostilities during Ramadan.

Although both jihad and fasting are seen as religious duties, the Prophet did not go to war to conquer unbelievers. All the wars the Prophet fought in were for self-defence, and he used jihad in order to seek peace with his neighbours:35 “Leave the Ethiopians alone so long as they leave you alone, and leave the Turks alone so long as they leave [you] alone”.36 A interpreted by Imam Malik (d. 795CE) noted that “People

6 continue to avoid an attack on them [the Ethiopians]”,37 implying that the Prophet’s words were still being followed many years after his era.

Modern extremist groups such as Dae’sh has employed two practices developed by the first extremist Islamic sect, the Khawarij of the 7th century. Firstly, just as the Khawarij rebelled against Caliph Ali, the fourth caliph, thus going against the Prophet’s express instructions to his followers to obey their rulers and his forbidding of war against them, Dae’sh has called for ‘true’ believers to disobey their Muslim leaders and launch military jihads.38 The Prophet’s orders were clear: all rulers should be obeyed, even those who did not follow the Prophet’s examples or ways as outlined in the Sunna, and even if a follower’s ‘back is flogged and [his] wealth is taken’.39 Secondly, they have adopted the practice of (excommunication; “a pronouncement that a particular Muslim or Muslims are unbelievers….”),40 a concept developed by the Khawarij to justify their extrajudicial killing of fellow Muslims during Ramadan.41 Takfir, however, has no legal basis in Shari‘a and is in fact prohibited by it.42 Although the term itself is not mentioned in the Qur’an its declaration clearly contradicts the Qur’an’s message, namely that individuals do not have the right to excommunicate others and that calling a Muslim ‘kafir’ (unbeliever) is prohibited:43 “… say not to anyone who greets you (by embracing Islam): ‘You are not a believer’ ” [Qur’an 4:94].44 The Prophet warned his followers “….not to declare a person a disbeliever for committing a sin, and not to expel him from Islam by an action”.45 Only God holds the right to judge whether someone is a believer, and this decision is for the hereafter;46 individual believers do not have the right to declare takfir, and such declarations are religious sins under Shari’a law.47

Indeed, contemporary acts of military jihad against ‘false’ Muslims and rulers of Muslim majority states draw comparison with the Khawarij, criticised by the Prophet as being the “the most evil of people”48 who “will kill the Muslims but will leave the idolaters”49 and “desert Islam (go out of religion) as an arrow goes through the victim’s body”.50 Modern extremist groups have made two fundamental errors with respect to their understanding of and actions during Ramadan. One is their employment of takfir, which is not recognised in Islam and has caused much hostility throughout Islamic history, and the other is their initiation of military campaigns against Islamic rulers and

7 fellow Muslims. Both go against the main purpose of fasting in Ramadan, which is to strengthen social ties among Muslims. The Prophet was clear - war during this holy month is prohibited: “Whoever does not give up lying speech (false statements) and acting on those lies and evil actions etc., Allah is not in need of his leaving his food and drink [i.e. Allah will not accept his fast].”51

Conclusion

Some contemporary extremist groups interpret the holy month of Ramadan as an opportunity for killing their enemies or increasing their power. However, Ramadan was established in order to practice good deeds, expiate sins and strengthen Muslim society; it has no justifiable connection with military . The battles fought by the Prophet during Ramadan were for the purpose of establishing the security of Islamic society, not for killing ‘false’ Muslims or unbelievers or for spreading a particular version of Islam. The beliefs of extremist groups today, and their actions during Ramadan, completely contradict Shari’a. This holy month was intended to be a time of peace, not one of military activity. Such groups are changing Ramadan into an annual month of terror. Not only are their military jihads far from being holy or religious, their barbaric activities directly subvert the true purpose of Ramadan. Finally, the emergence of such groups and their subsequent activities enable the spread of around the world and risk global society being divided into two groups, both drawn into a vicious circle of mutual distrust and hate. Sadly, although clearly unrecognised in Shari’a, there currently seems to be no end in sight to these murderous acts of violence committed in the name of God during Ramadan.52

1 Al-Qurtubi, al-Qurtubi: Classical Commentary of the Holy Qur’an, translated by Aisha Bewley, vol. 1 (London: Dar al-Taqwa, 2003), 469. 2 Aria Bendix, “ISIS Calls for More Attacks During Ramadan: An audio clip reportedly belonging to the Islamic State names Russia, Australia, and the U.S., among other nations, as future targets,” The Atlantic (12th June 2017), available at https://www.theatlantic.com/news/archive/2017/06/isis-calls-for-more-attacks-during-ramadan/5 30061/ (accessed 27th November 2017). 3 Amnesty International, “Nigeria: ‘Various and Unlawful’ Boko Haram Attack the Bloodiest So Far This Year”, Press Release (9 June 2017), available at https://www.amnesty.org/en/press-releases/2017/06/nigeria-vicious-and-unlawful-boko-haram-a ttack-the-bloodiest-so-far-this-year/ (accessed 27th November 2017). 4 Al-Qurtubi, supra note 1 at 462. 8

5 Albert Hourani, A History of the Arab Peoples (London: Faber and Faber, 1991), 149. 6 Abu Dawud, English Translation of Sunan Abu Dawud, translated by Nasiruddin al-Khattab, vol. 5 (Riyadh: Darussalam, 2008), number 4697, at 211. 7 Shelomo Dov Goitein, Studies in Islamic History and Institutions(Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1966), 95. 8 Abu 'Abdullah Ibn Abi Zayd al-Qayrawani, A Madinan View: on the , Courtesy, Wisdom and History, translated by Abdassamad Clarke (London: Ta-Ha, 1999), 33; Al-Tabari, The History of Al-Tabari, Volume 7: The Foundation of the Community, translated by M. V. McDonald, annotated by W. Montgomery Watt, (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987), 26. 9 James E. Lindsay, Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2005), 151. 10 Goitein, supra note 7 at 94. 11 Lindsay, supra note 9 at 151. 12 Ignaz Goldziher, Muslim Studies (Muhammedanische Studien), edited by S. M. Stern; translated from the German by C. R. Barber and S. M. Stern, Vol. 1 (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1967), 21 13 Kenneth Cragg, The Call of the Minaret (New York: Oxford University Press, 1956), 113. 14 Afzalur Rahman, Islam: Ideology and the Way of Life 2nd ed (London: Seerah Foundation London, 1988), 125. 15 Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari, The Translation of Meanings of Sahih Al-Bukhari, translated by Muhammad Muhsin Khan, vol. 6 (Riyadh: Darussalam, 1997), number. 4680, at 159. 16 Carl Brockelmann, History of the Islamic Peoples, Translated by Joel Carmichael and Moshe Perlmann (London: Routledge, 1980), 21. 17 Rahman, supra note 14 at 125. 18 Ibid, pp. 130. 19 Sahih al-Bukhari, supra note 15, vol. 3, number. 1894, at 79. 20 Ibid. 21 Al-Ghazali, The Mysteries of Fasting: Being a Translation with notes of The Kitab Asrar al-Sawm of Al-Ghazzali’s “Ihya’ ‘ulum al-”, translated by Nabih Amin Faris (Lahore, Paskitan: SH. Muhammad Ashraf, 1968), 12-13. 22 Ibid. 23 Ibn Kathı̄r, al-Misbā h al-munı̄ r fı̄ tahdhı̄ b tafsı̄ r Ibn Kathı̄ r = Tafsir , abridged by a group of scholars under the supervision of Safi-ur-Rahman al-Mubarakpuri, 2nd ed., vol. 1 (Riyadh: Darussalam, 2003), 495. 24 Hourani, supra note 5 at 149. 25 Rahman, supra note 14 at 130. 26 Al-Qurtubi, supra note 1 at 462. 27 Rahman, supra note 14 at 132. 28 Sahih al-Bukhari, supra note 15, vol. 3, number. 1904, at 84. 29 Al-Tabari, supra note 8 at 28. 30 Ali Gomaa, quoted in MEMRI (The Middle East Median Research Institute), “Ramadan – The Month of Spirituality, Devotion, Jihad And Martyrdom” (29 June, 2015), available at https://www.memri.org/reports/ramadan-%E2%80%93-month-spirituality-devotion-jihad-and-m artyrdom (accessed 25th November 2017). 31 Fuad Mukheimar, quoted in MEMRI (The Middle East Median Research Institute), “Egyptian Cleric: Ramadan The Month of Jihad”, (6 December 2001), available at https://www.memri.org/reports/egyptian-cleric-ramadan-month-jihad (accessed 25th November 2017).

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32 Reuters Staff, “Islamic State calls for attacks on the West during Ramadan in audio message” Reuters (22 May,2016), available at https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-islamicstate/islamic-state-calls-for-attacks-on -the-west-during-ramadan-in-audio-message-idUSKCN0YC0OG(accessed 5th December 2017). 33 See Masaki Nagata and Mohamed Badar, “Modern Extremist Groups and the Division of the World: A Critique from an Islamic Perspective,” Arab Law Quarterly 31, issue 4 (2017): 305-335, at 307. 34 Abu Dawud, supra note 6, vol. 3, number 2363, at 133-134. 35 Nagata and Badar, supra note 30 at 327. 36 Abu Dawud, supra note 6, vol. 4, number. 4302 at 518. 37 Ibn Rushd, The Distinguished Jurist’s Primer: A Translation of Bidā yat Al-Mujtahid, translated by Imran Ahsan Khan Nyazee, reviewed by Muhammad Abdul Rauf, vol. 1 (Reading: Garnet Publishing, 1994), 455-456. 38 Nagata and Badar, supra note 30 at 335. 39 Imam Muslim, , translated by Nasiruddin al-Khattab, vol. 5 (Riyadh: Darussalam, 2007), number. 4785, at 181. See also, Sahih al-Bukhari, supra note 15, vol. 9, number 7143 at 162-163. Islam prohibited initiating military activities against Muslim rulers; Nagata and Badar, supra note 30 at 324-328. 40 Nagata and Badar, supra note 30 at 330-331. 41 Masaki Nagata, Mohamed Badar, and Tiphanie Tueni, “The Radical Application of Concept of Takfir”, Arab Law Quarterly 31(2) (2017): 134-162, at 143. 42 Nagata and Badar, supra note 30 at 332. 43 Ibid. 44 See also (Qur’an 6:108). 45 Abu Dawud, supra note 6, vol. 3, number. 2532, at 223. 46 Nagata and Badar, supra note 30 at 333. 47 Nagata, Badar and Tueni, supra note 41 at 139. 48 Sahih Muslim, supra note 39, vol. 3, number. 2457, at 120. 49 Sahih Al-Bukhari, supra note 15 vol. 4., number 3344, at 339-340; Sahih Muslim, supra note 39, vol. 3, number. 2451, at 114-115. 50 Sahih Al-Bukhari, supra note 15, vol. 8, number, 6163, at 106-107; Sahih Muslim, supra note 39, vol. 3, number. 2470, at 128. 51 Sahih Al-Bukhari, supra note 15, vol. 3, number. 1903, at 84. 52 For more information regarding modern extremist groups, see Mohamed Badar, “The Self-declared Islamic State (Da‘esh) and Ius ad Bellum under Islamic International Law”, The Asian Yearbook of Human Rights and Humanitarian Law, Volume 1 (2017): 35–75; Masaki Nagata, Mohamed Badar and Tiphanie Tueni, ‘The Radical Application of the Islamist Concept of Takfir’, Arab Law Quarterly 31(2) (2017): 134-162; Masaki Nagata and Mohamed Badar, “Modern Extremist Groups and the Division of the World: A Critique from an Islamic Perspective”, Arab Law Quarterly 31, Issue 4 (2017): 305-335.

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