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Home , Ai (chimpanzee), Alex (parrot), Ayumu (chimpanzee), Bonobo, Chantek, Chimpanzee

CAST OF CHARACTERS

HUMAN ADULTS Madame Abreu. Resident of Cuba who maintained a colony of ; , the Kellogg's chimp, was born in her colony on November 15,1930. She was later transferred to the Anthropoid Experiment Station of Yale University at Orange Park, Florida. allowed the Kelloggs to take Gua on June 26, 1931.

Elizabeth Bates. Linguist specializing in children's acquisition; she is sympathetic and helpful to researchers in language.

Sarah Boysen (1949-). An early associate of Duane Rumbaugh and Sue Savage-Rumbaugh, she now directs a large project (11 ) at Ohio State University, and has obtained fascinating data on chimpanzees' abil• ity to count. They can choose the smaller of two Arabic numerals in order to get a larger portion, but when the concrete food objects are presented, the ani• mals cannot resist choosing the larger portion, and hence receive the smaller.

Roger Brown (1925-1997). Student of child language; emphasized differ• ences between child and chimpanzee acquisition of language.

Janis Carter (19??-). A student at the University of Oklahoma, she became caretaker of the Temerlins' chimpanzee , and spent harrowing trying to reintroduce Lucy to the wild in The Gambia.

Noam Chomsky (1928-). Famous linguist, proponent of linguistic theory involving innate devices, and of a transformational gram• mar that expresses the "deep structure" of thought in the "surface structure" of language, and vice versa; he minimizes both language ability and the significance of language research with .

Ronald Cohn (1943-). An electron microscopist and recombinant DNA specialist, he is a long-time companion of Penny Patterson and the , , and .

281 282 Cast of Characters

Michael Crichton. Author of , a novel in which a trained in serves as an interpreter of the language of a band of renegade gorillas to an expedition of . The possibility of such interpretation had been suggested semi-seriously by Duane Rumbaugh many years ago.

Deborah Fouts (1943-). Currently at Central Washington University, she is a language researcher and co-keeper (with husband, ) of four chimpanzees: , her adopted son, , Tatu, and Dar.

Roger Fouts (1943-). Also at Central Washington University, he is a lan• guage researcher and co-keeper (with ) of the four chimpanzees. He was a student of the Gardners at Reno, and was later at Oldahoma University and the Institute for Studies directed by William Lemmon before moving to Washington. According to Eugene Linden, Fouts left liter• ally in the dead of night, perhaps because of a controversy about whether Washoe belonged to Fouts or to Lemmon.

William Henry Furness 3rd (1866-1920). Furness was a physician/ surgeon who tried, beginning in 1909, to train to speak; one learned to say "Papa" and "cup," and apparently understood that the former was to be used as Furness's name. The female orang also learned to say "th"; Furness intended to use this sound as the basis for "the," "this," and "that," but his student died before his plan could be completed. Another "refused to be educated."

Allen Gardner (1930-). Psychologist, Ph.D. from Northwestern University. With his wife Beatrix, Dr. Gardner made the first known systematic effort to teach sign language to a chimpanzee. Their first student was Washoe, who mastered 132 signs to the conservative criterion used by the Gardners. Other chimps they studied later (, Tatu, and Dar) showed similar competence.

Beatrix Gardner (1933-1995). Beatrix trained as an ethologist at Oxford under Niko Tinbergen. With her husband Allen, she made the first known systematic effort to teach sign language to a chimpanzee. She died suddenly on June 5, 1995 during a triumphal tour ofItaly with Allen. Robert Solso in her obituary reports an unbelievably poignant irony; near the end, her jaws were locked by the septicemic organism that killed her, and she conveyed her last thoughts to Allen in , which she likely would not have known except for the Washoe work. Adults 283

Richard Lynch Garner (1848-1920). In the summer of 1893, Garner spent 112 days in a cage in so that he would be protected while study• ing chimpanzees and gorillas in their native habitat. Garner may have been the first person to teach a chimpanzee to vocalize a word; he claimed that his chimpanzee, Moses, spoke a good rendition of the French word, feu, which is translated in English as "fire," and inferior versions of the German "wie" (how) and the nearly universal "mama," for which he made the lip movements but not the sound.

Jane Goodall (1934- ). is the best-known observer of chimpanzees in the wild, and is the author of many books and articles. She has followed the chimps in Gombe Stream Reserve for about 30 years, and is a committed and highly effective protector of .

Catherine Hayes. 's "mama" is the author of The Ape in our House, which describes adventures with Viki in an unpretentious and popular style. She is chided by Candland (1993) for losing scientific perspective, but the present authors cannot find fault with anyone who suffered through the life and death of a young chimpanzee.

Keith Hayes (1921-). Viki's "papa," who with Cathy Hayes raised Viki in an environment as nearly like that of a human child as possible, from near birth until Viki died of encephalitis at the age of seven.

Louis Herman (1930-). Herman is a marine expert whose Ph.D. is from Penn State, now at the University of Hawaii. He has taught dolphins to respond to visual or vocal signs, and believes that they are responding to syntactical relationships.

Maria Hoyt. Mrs. Hoyt was obviously an upper crust woman of the depres• sion whose husband retired upon their marriage, and who could afford to buy and maintain a gorilla and adapt her life style to that of the gorilla (named ). Although Toto was not given special training, Ms. Hoyt claimed that Toto understood as much Spanish as did a child of the same age. Toto, however, was not tested systematically.

Louise Kellogg. She was the wife and colleague of Winthrop Kellogg, mother of their child Donald, and adoptive mother for 9 months of the chimpanzee Gua. 284 Cast of Characters

Winthrop Kellogg (1898-1972). Kellogg was a psychologist from Indiana University who observed his child Donald being reared for 9 months with the chimpanzee Gua, and reported (with his wife, Louise) the results in a book and other publications.

Shigeru Kiritani (19??-19??). Kiritani is a contemporary Japanese scientist who publishes on the hearing and vocalizations of chimpanzees.

Nadesha Kohts (189? -19??). Kohts was a Russian woman who compared the development of a chimpanzee, J oni, during the years 1913-1916 with that of her son, Roody, during the years 1925-1929.

Shozo Kojima (19??-19??). Kojima is a contemporary Japanese scientist who publishes on the hearing and vocalizations of chimpanzees.

Karl Krall (1861-19??). Krall was a horse trainer who took over ownership of Clever Hans II from Herr von Osten, and trained Muhamed and Zarif in similar performances.

William Lemmon (1916-1986). Lemmon's Ph.D. in clinical psychology was from Ohio State University. He headed the Institute for Primate Research at the University of Oklahoma. He was a large, bald man with an unusual ability to dom• inate chimpanzees, and, if Linden, Temerlin, and Roger Fouts can be believed, even humans. He feuded with Roger Fouts over the treatment of chimpanzees.

Philip Lieberman (1934-). Leiberman is a, perhaps the, leading expert on vocal tract analysis. He has published extensively on the comparative analysis of the vocal tracts of chimpanzees, , and modern humans. His computer analyses indicate that chimpanzee vocal tracts could produce many, but not all, of the sounds of human language, enough, at any event, to sup• port a complex language. His analyses indicate that much of the difficulty with teaching chimpanzees vocal language in neural and/or muscular factors rather than solely in the anatomy of the vocal tract.

John Lilly (1915-2001). In the 1960s Lilly made extravagant claims about dolphins' ability to understand and produce human language. His claims are generally viewed with skepticism, and he acknowledged that he was unable to communicate directly with the dolphins. Schusterman prefers to explain the dolphins' and seals' performances in terms of conditional discriminations and/or simple rule-following rather than in terms of linguistic ability. Human Adults 285

Eugene Linden. Linden is the author of several books on ape language. His books are based on personal contact with several of the researchers.

Hugh Lofting (1886-1948). Lofting was an English author and illustrator; he wrote the story of Dr. Dolittle, the fictional character who could talk to animals.

James Mahoney (19??-). Mahoney is a veterinarian and was Associate Director of the Laboratory for Experimental Medicine and Surgery in Primates (LEMSIP). He is respected by those on both sides of the controversy, and is sympathetic to the plight of the chimpanzees in his care, some of whom were trained in sign language.

Julien Offray de la Mettrie (1709-1751). La Mettrie was a French philoso• pher who suggested that apes should be able to learn a vocal or sign language.

Lyn Miles (1944- ). Dr. Miles taught , an orangutan, "pidgin sign," beginning in 1978.

Jan Moor-Jankowski. Dr. Moor-Jankowski was Director of the Laboratory for Experimental Medicine and Surgery (LEMSIP) from 1965-1995. He is highly principled and sees both sides of animal rights issues. He was recently discharged as director after blowing the whistle on a researcher who was con• ducting drug addiction studies in rhesus macaques by forcing them to inhale a cocaine mist.

C. (Conwy) Lloyd Morgan (1852-1936). Lloyd Morgan was an English comparative biologist whose canon stipulates that a behavior should not be explained by a psychic function higher in the psychological scale if a function lower on the scale is sufficient; this principle is usually, though perhaps mis• takenly, regarded as an adaptation of Occam's razor.

Horapollo Nilous (ca. 500 A.D.). Nilous was an Egyptian scribe who reported that priests from ancient times tested baboons newly arrived at the temple for their ability to read and write. Their test appears to be the first formal evaluation of the ability of animals to understand human language.

William of Occam (also spelled Ockham) (c. 1280-1349). Occam stated a principle called Occam's razor, also called the principle of parsimony, which forbids the multiplication of unnecessary entities in explanations. The simplest adequate explanation of any observation is to be preferred. 286 Cast of Characters

Penny Patterson (1947-). Dr. Patterson received her Ph.D. in psychology from based on her work with Koko the gorilla. She has been a devoted trainer of Koko and of Michael until he died. With Ron Cohn, she now cares for Koko and Ndume in Woodside, California, pending a move to better quarters on Maui.

Irene Pepperberg (1949- ). Dr. Pepperberg earned a Ph.D. in theoretical chemistry from the Massachusetts Institute of , but she soon turned to teaching , an Mrican Gray , to talk. She was for a time at Northwestern University, then at the , and now back at MIT. Alex can perform a number of cognitive tasks, including naming several shapes and colors, and respond in English. Alex's vocal productive vocabulary probably exceeds that of any other non-human animal.

Samuel Pepys (1633-1703). Pepys was an English author whose diary is extremely well known. He saw a "great baboone" on the docks in England on August 21, 1661, and suggested in his diary of that day that it might be taught to speak or make signs.

Oskar Pfungst (1874-1932). Pfungst was the careful student of Carl Stumpf who was assigned to Clever Hans and who demonstrated that Hans could not give correct answers unless a human was present who knew the correct answers. Hans' apparent ability to take advantage of cues given by human observers led to calling this use of cues the "Clever Hans effect" and to criticism of any performances that might be based on such effects.

Steven Pinker (1954-) Pinker is a "Chomskyian" linguist who denigrates the study of as a highly flawed enterprise. He is author of The Language , an excellent book that, as its title suggests, espouses a nativist view of human language.

Ann Prernack (1929-). She is half of the Premack team that has been studying chimpanzees' use of plastic symbols for words for about 40 years. She is the writer of Why Chimpanzees Can Write, and coauthor of several other pub• lications. She, like her husband David, has star quality, but she underplays it.

David Prernack (1925-). David Premack's Ph.D. is from the University of Minnesota. He is often regarded as brilliant, charismatic, and a little eccentric. He proposed the principle of reinforcement that became known as the Premack principle, in addition to working as a pioneer in the study of Human Adults 287 chimpanzee language with as his star pupil and Ann Premack as his primary collaborator.

Duane Rumbaugh (1929-). Rumbaugh started research with animals at the San Diego soon after earning his Ph.D. from the University of Colorado. He was one of the very early animal language researchers, and became the Director of the Language Research Center in Decatur, GA, and of the project with the chimpanzee Lana. He and von Glasersfeld devel• oped the language, and he was the first researcher to use a computer for teaching language to chimpanzees. He has since collaborated with Sue Savage-Rumbaugh on later work with Austin, Sherman, , Panzee, , and other apes.

Sue Savage-Rumbaugh (1946-). Dr. Savage-Rumbaugh is an innovative language researcher who first worked with chimpanzees at the University of Oklahoma while earning her Ph.D. She is the trainer and companion of Kanzi and other who are probably the most language-sophisticated of all animals. She is a careful, solid, and prolific researcher and publisher, devoted both to science and to her bonobos. She has produced the most careful analy• sis and empirical investigation of semanticity in animal language. She is also deeply engaged in the study and preservation of bonobos in captivity and in their native habitats.

Ronald Schusterman (1932-). Dr. Schusterman is a biological psycholo• gist whose Ph.D. is from Florida State University; he is now associated with California State University, Hayward. He trained the sea Rocky to respond to arbitrary signs, and claims that Rocky's linguistic competence is comparable to that of dolphins or chimpanzees. He prefers to explain the animals' performances as conditional sequential discriminations and/or as simple rule following rather than by using grammatical terms.

Thomas Sebeok (1920-2001). Sebeok was a linguist at Indiana University; with Jean Umiker-Sebeok, he edited a book for which he wrote an introduc• tion highly critical of, if not derisive about, the reports of animal language competence. He was at least as guilty of unsupported criticism as his victims were of unsupported claims.

Burrhus Fred Skinner (1904-1990). Perhaps the most famous psychologist of all time, Skinner was a persistent student of operant behavior, and generalized 288 Cast of Characters operant explanations to all organismic behavior. His attempt to apply an operant analysis to language in his book of 1956, Verbal Behavior, elicited an extremely hostile criticism from . However, Skinner's extremely broad definition of verbal behavior as "any behavior which requires the intervention of another organism for its reinforcement" may have made it easier for investiga• tors like the Gardners and the Premacks to consider bypassing the vocal channel in their animal language research.

Maurice Temerlin (19?1-). Dr. Temerlin was a patient and colleague of William Lemmon, "stepfather" of chimpanzee Lucy, and the author of Growing Up Human. Lucy was later returned to the wild through the incred• ible dedication of Janis Carter.

Jane Temerlin (19??-). Jane Temerlin was Lucy's "stepmother" and Maurice Temerlin's wife.

Herbert Terrace (1936-). Terrace is a Skinnerian psychologist who earned his Ph.D. at Harvard University. He was responsible for the chimpanzee Nim's training in sign language. Although he was initially very positive about teach• ing Nim through operant procedures, he concluded that chimpanzees could not construct sentences. His criticism was probably overstated and then greatly overinterpreted, and probably contributed to a downturn in interest in research in animal language. He implied at times that chimpanzees could only imitate, but his written criticisms were more limited and quantitative, and in the book, Nim, he strongly encouraged further research and recognized the limitations of his own study with Nim.

Jean Umiker-Sebeok (19 - ). Dr. Umiker-Sebeok was the co-editor (with Thomas Sebeok) of the highly critical book on animal language research.

Herr von Osten (1838-1909). Von Osten was the owner/trainer of Clever Hans, and the unwitting creator of the "Clever Hans effect." He was most likely an honest man who was, as he claimed, deceived by Hans.

David Washburn (1961- ). Dr. Washburn is a psychologist whose career has centered on Georgia State University; he is a colleague of Duane Rumbaugh, Sue Savage-Rumbaugh, Sherman, and Austin at the Language Research Center, where he is now director. He is the author or co-author of several papers on animal language, counting, and perceptual-motor performance. Chimpanzees 289

Robert Yerkes (1876-1956). Yerkes was both a researcher in primate behavior and an administrator after whom several laboratories of primate biology are named. He was one of several pioneers who suggested that vocal language might be impossible for chimpanzees, while sign language remained a possibility.

CHILDREN

Alia (July 26, 1987-). Alia is the daughter of Jeannine Murphy, who was a colleague of Sue Savage-Rumbaugh. Alia's comprehension of English sen• tences was compared to Kanzi's, beginning when she was 2 years old and Kanzi was a little over 7 1/2. They were almost equally competent.

Donald (1930-). Donald was (is?) the son ofWinthrop and Louise Kellogg, raised for 9 months with the female chimpanzee, Gua, who was 2 1/2 months younger than Donald.

Roody (1925-). Roody was Nadesha Kohts' son; she compared ,his behav• ior of 1925-1929 to that of her chimpanzee Joni from 1913-1916.

CHIMPANZEES

Aaron (1892-189?). Aaron, a kulu-kamba, was one of Richard Lynch Garner's favorite acquisitions. Garner contrasted Aaron's wonderful disposition with that of the female Elisheba, another kulu-kamba who enjoyed nothing so much as irritating Aaron, who in turn treated her in a most caring manner.

Ally (1969-). Ally is or was a language-trained chimpanzee raised for 4 years in a home, then returned to the Institute for Primate Studies in Oklahoma where he was born,. thence briefly to LEMSIP, where he became a cause celebre. Ally was then returned to Oklahoma, largely forgotten, and probably then shipped as a breeder to White Sands, New Mexico. According to Linden and to Fouts, he has probably been renamed (or un-named) and left with his signing ability unknown and unused.

Austin (1974-1996). Austin became Sherman's companion at the Language Research Center in Decatur, Georgia, and participated with him in the groundbreaking interchimp communication experiments. He remained there until his death in 1996 of causes that could not be ascertained at autopsy. 290 Cast of Characters

Bobby (1986-). A participant in Sarah Boysen's counting experiments at Ohio State University.

Booee (1967-). Booee was born at a National Institutes of Health labora• tory near Washington, D.C., and later transferred to Oklahoma, where he trained for a time on sign language with Roger Fouts. He resided at LEMSIP at last report. Booee caught Jim Mahoney in a when the latter denied hav• ing candy (because he didn't have enough for all chimpanzees present). Booee signed "Booee see sweet in pocket."

Bruno (1968-). Bruno was Booee's companion at Oklahoma, where Bruno was born, and part of the Fouts troupe learning sign language at Lemmons' Institute. He was later sent to LEMSIP.

Dar (1976-). Dar's full name is Dar es Salaam, for the capital of . He was born on August 2 at Holloman Air Force base in New Mexico, and quickly adopted by the Gardners as one of their language students. Later the Foutses took over his care, and he is still with them in Ellensburg, Washington.

Erika (ca. 1972-). Erika was a wild-born chimpanzee who, at the age of about 21/2, was assigned to Sue Savage-Rumbaugh's Animal Model Project, with Sherman, Austin, and Kenton. After 18 months the demands of working with four animals proved too much for the staff, and only Sherman and Austin continued in training.

Gua (1930-????). Gua was a female chimpanzee born in Madame Abreu's colony on November 15, 1930, and raised for 9 months with their child, Donald, by Winthrop and Louise Kellogg, beginning on June 26, 1931. Gua was 2 1/2 months younger than Donald. At the end of the experiment, Gua was, according to the Kelloggs "returned by a gradual habituating process to the more restricted life of the Experiment Station".

Joni (1912-1917). Male chimpanzee kept by Nadesha Kohts from 1913 to 1916, when Joni was 1 1/2 to 4 1/2 years old.

Lana (1970-). Lana was named by the then director of the Yerkes Primate Center, Geoffrey H. Bourne. She became adept at using strings of key presses on a computer keyboard with lexigrams on the keys; the computer analyzed the strings for grammaticity, and delivered various rewards for Chimpanzees 291 correct strings. As might be expected on such a regime, Lana was more adept as a producer of lexigram strings than as a comprehender of the strings. She remains at the Language Research Center.

Loulis (1978-). His full name is Loulis Yerkes, after his place of birth on May 10. He was adopted by Washoe when he was 10 months old after Washoe's infant, Sequoyah, died at the age of about 2 months. Loulis learned 55 signs from other chimpanzees, and thus first demonstrated that chim• panzees could pass along a culture of sign language. He is still with Washoe, the other chimpanzees, and the Foutses at Central Washington University.

Lucy (1964-1988). Lucy was a chimpanzee raised as a human and trained in sign language by the Temerlins and researchers at the University of Oklahoma. She was returned to the wilds in The Gambia at the age of 13 by Janis Carter. She adapted after several years, but was killed by poachers.

Moja (1972-). Moja's full name is Moja LEMSIP, after her place of birth at the LEMSIP (Laboratory for Experimental Medicine and Surgery in Primates) lab. One of the chimpanzees with whom the Gardners worked, beginning when the chimpanzees were very young infants, she was later placed in the care of the Foutses, where she remained until her sudden death in 2002.

Moses (1892-????). Moses was Richard Lynch Garner's favorite common chimpanzee, who, Garner claimed, could say "feu" and make several inter• pretable chimpanzee vocalizations.

Nirn (1973-2000). Nim was the famous chimpanzee jokingly named "Nim Chimsky" by Herbert Terrace as a takeoff on the name of linguist Noam Chomsky. Nim was returned to the Institute of Primate Studies in Oklahoma and later, following considerable controversy, placed on a ranch in Texas.

Panzee (1985-). Panzee is a chimpanzee who was reared and compared with Panbanisha at the Language Research Center. Panzee did not begin using lexigrams as soon as Panbanisha, but Panzee did start to use them by the time she was 18 months old. She has showed a remarkable ability to direct blind observers to food hidden several hours or even days earlier, via the use of lexigrams and pointing.

Pili (1973-1975). One of the Gardner's chimps; Pili died very young of leukemia. 292 Cast of Characters

Sarah (1957- ). Sarah was the Premacks' star pupil; she constructed verti• cally arranged columns of plastic symbols that were regarded as sentences. She was with Sarah Boysen at Ohio State University as of July, 2003.

Sheba (1981-). Sheba is probably Sarah Boysen's star pupil in arithmetic at Ohio State University. She recognizes several Arabic numerals and can match them to displayed numbers of objects. She can also choose the correct numeral to represent the sum of small numbers of items placed in different locations.

Sherman (1973-). Sherman was born in and remains in Georgia at the Language Research Center. Sherman and Austin were the first to demonstrate that chimpanzees could communicate with each other to solve problems that could not be solved without the use of symbols.

Tatu (1975-). Her full name is Oklahoma Tatu, after her place of birth on December 30. She became one of the several sign language students with the Gardners who are now in the care of the Foutses. Tatu loves black, enjoys pointing out and labeling black objects and photographs, and is likely to label anything good "black."

Viki (1947-1954). Viki was the most famous of the home-reared chimpanzees, both because, as Winthrop Kellogg said, she represented "the acme of chimpanzee performance" with her four words of spoken English, and because Catherine Hayes' book, The Ape in Our House, enjoyed such popularity.

Washoe (1966-). Washoe was the first chimpanzee to be trained in the use of sign language, achieving a vocabulary conservatively estimated to be 132 or 133 signs while in Reno, and later at 170 signs while in the care of the Foutses. She probably understands many more signs. Washoe was wild-caught, moved to Reno, Nevada (which is in Washoe County) to be with the Gardners, and later accompanied Roger Fouts to Oklahoma and to Ellensburg, Washington, where she now resides. Washoe meant "people" to the Indian inhabitants of Washoe County, Nevada.

BONOBOS

Kanzi (1980-). Kanzi has demonstrated more understanding of spoken English under controlled conditions that any other non-human animal in his• tory. He comprehended almost exactly 3/4 of over 600 sentences that he had Gorillas 293 never heard before, a percentage slightly higher than that achieved by the 2 1/2--old child, Alia, with whom he was compared. Kanzi was born at the Yerkes laboratory in , but has spent most of his life with Sue Savage• Rumbaugh at the Language Research Laboratory in the Atlanta suburb of Decatur.

Matata (1970-). Matata is Kanzi's stepmother, who stole K.anzi from his real mother, Lorel, soon after Kanzi was born. Matata resides at the Language Research Center in Decatur, GA. Because she was caught in the wild, her exact date of birth is unknown.

Mulika (1983-). Mulika, like Panbanisha, a half sister of Kanzi's, was given early exposure to the use oflexigrams and began using them by the age of 1 year.

Nyota (1998-). is the son of P-Suke and Panbanisha; he has been reared largely by humans from birth, and so far seems ahead of Kanzi in pre-language development.

Panbanisha (1985-). Panbanisha is Kanzi's half sister and is, like Kanzi, a resident at the Language Research Center, where she is trained in the use of lexigrams. Her ability is comparable to I<:anzi's.

P-Suke (1975?-). P-Suke is a given by the Japanese to the Language Research Center in 1996 for breeding purposes. Although he was reared with no bonobo companions, he has succeeded in introducing his new into the bonobo population quite well, having already sired infants with Matata and Panbanisha. His name is an attempt to mimic a peculiar cry that he habitually made.

Tarnuli (1987-2000). Tamuli is another daughter of Matata. Tamuli had little exposure to human language, and ,accordingly knew none at the time of her death of heart failure in 2000.

GORILLAS

Koko (1971-). Koko (full name Hanabi Ko, for "fIreworks child"), Francine (Penny) Patterson's famous gorilla, was born on July 4, hence her full name. She started her sign language lessons when she was about a year old. Penny, unlike the Gardners, did not forbid the use of vocal English in Koko's 294 Cast of Characters presence, and Koko has considerable English comprehension, as well as the ability to produce and understand signs.

Michael (1973-2000). Michael was a male gorilla with whom it was originally hoped that Koko would mate. That did not work; however, Michael was trained in sign along with Koko, and gained considerable fame for his artistic work with acrylics.

Othello (1891-1892). Othello was a gorilla sfudied briefly by Richard Lynch Garner. Othello was about 1 year old when Garner obtained him. He died a short time after; Garner believed that his native boy had poisoned Othelio, who immediately before his death had seemed quite healthy.

Toto (193?-????). Toto was Mrs. Maria Hoyt's gorilla, who, like Koko, had a kitten and understood, according to her mistress's report, considerable spoken language. When she became too strong to keep around the house (she once broke Mrs. Hoyt's wrists in a fit of enthusiasm, and upon another occa• sion smashed the station wagon into the garage wail, although the brakes were set), she was sent to become the mate for the famous .

ORANGUTANS

Chantek (1977-). Chantek is the male orangutan engaged in sign language training by Dr. H. Lyn White Miles. Chantek was born at the Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center in Atlanta and trained for the most part at the University of Tennessee at Chatanooga, beginning when he was 9 months old. He was returned to Yerkes in 1986, but later moved to his present at the Atlanta Zoo. He learned 140 signs and invented others of his own.

Unknown Soldier (1908-19l2). This unnamed orangutan was kept by Furness for 4 years and 8 months. He was the first orangutan, so far as we know, to utter a word of human language.

DOLPHINS

Akeakamai (1977-). "Ake" was trained in a visual language in which words were represented by large-scale gestures of the and arms. The principles were similar to those used for sign used with apes and deaf humans. 295

Keakiko (197?-1977?). With Puka, "Kea" was one of the first dolphins entered in Lou Herman's language training course; she learned to respond to the nine possible sentences made up of three nouns and three verbs before being stolen and returned to the sea, where she probably died.

Puka (197?-1977?). Puka was the second of Herman's original dolphins; like Kea, she was stolen and returned to the ocean, which was probably a death sentence for both. Puka was not as advanced in her language training as Kea.

Phoenix (1977-). Phoenix learned to respond to an underwater, computer• generated set of acoustic signs. Her name symbolized the rebirth of Herman's laboratory after the theft of his original dolphins.

HORSES

Clever Hans I (189?-190?). This Hans was the first horse of Herr von Osten; little is known about Hans I.

Clever Hans IT (190?-191?). This was Herr von Osten's second horse, the one who deceived him and the one who put Oskar Pfungst on the trail of the Clever Hans effect. Hans was evidently responding to cues unconsciously presented by humans in Hans' view who knew the correct answers to the questions given to Hans.

Muharned (190?-19??). Muhamed was a horse owned by Karl Krall, who took over the care of Clever Hans II. Muhamed's feats paralleled those of Clever Hans.

Lady Wonder (1924-1953). Lady Wonder could allegedly spell words and even exercise telepathy, for example in finding two missing children in 1953.

Zarif (190?-19??). Zarif was another talented horse owned by Karl Krall. Both Muhamed and Zarif were said to be able to spell out words on a letter board constructed by Krall.

DOGS

Don (19??-19??). Don was owned by Fraulein Ebers early in the 20th century. He was said to be able to speak six words that were "intelligible to nonfamily 296 Cast of Characters members." The words were Don (which sounded like "ong"), haben, Kuchen, Hunger, Ruhe, ja, and nein. Don could not speak on rainy days. Whether Fraulein Ebers was a ventroloquist, or whether Don understood whereof he spoke, we do not know.

Fellow (1924?-19??). Fellow responded to over 200 English vocal commands. He was tested in 1928 by the psychologists Warden and Warner; the tests indicated that some of Fellow's performances were based on the Clever Hans type of cue (the giver of commands had to be present), but in about 100 other cases Fellow obeyed the vocal command correcdy with the owner behind a screen. Warden and Warren thought it unlikely that Fellow's performance indicated true understanding of words, but thought him remark• able at discriminating different sounds.

PARROTS

Alex (1976-). Alex is an Mrican Gray parrot (Psittacus erithacus) who has a remarkable ability to use English words meaningfully (referentially). Alex was trained, beginning at the age of 13 months, by , and later by her students as well.

Griffm (198?-). Another of Pepperberg's gray , Griffin has been used primarily as a subject in experiments designed to isolate the critical com• ponents of language training.

Kyaro (19??-). Kyaro is a third Pepperberg parrot, used in a way similar to Griffin.

SEA

Gertie (19??- ). Gertie is a female sea lion, trained to carry out actions specified by the same kinds of visual signs used by Herman with dolphins.

Rocky (19??-). Rocky is the most accomplished of Schusterman's sea lions. Rocky was trained to respond to large-scale signs similar to those used by Herman with his dolphins. INDEX

Aaron (kulu-kamba), 1,22,48,49-50,173 Animal language Abreu Colony, Cuba, 57 early reports about, 45-67 Acoustic information processing, in dolphins, Clever Hans, 1,2, 50-53 121,216 in mythology, 1, 45--46 Acoustic language, of dolphins, 221-224 Richard Lynch Garner, 1, 16,22,29, Aesop, fables of, 1, 45--46 47-50, 173 Age Language: From Conditioned Response to William Henry Furness 3rd, 53-55 Symbol (Savage-Rumbaugh), 32 interpretation of, 32--41, 148-149 , in chimpanzees, 63 meaning in, 32-35 (chimpanzee), 22,162,201-202,270 overview of, 9-24 Arabic numeral use by, 205-206 Animal language research. See also Gestures, lexigram use by, 205 communicative; Lexigrams; Plastic symbol Ai Project, 201-211 language; Sign language historical background and rationale of, with apes 202-205 "Clever Hans" effect in, 255, 256 Akeakamai (dolphin), 214, 219, 220, 221-222, early investigations, 47-50, 53-57 223-224,229,230,232 evaluations of, 255-267 Akili (bonobo), 6,174 application to human language, 267-271 Akira (chimpanzee), 202 choice of for, 27-28 Alarm calls. See Warning calls chronology of events in, 1-7 Alex (parrot), 11, 193,237-253 difficulties in, 30-32 birth,S nlture of, 274-277 size, 241 implications of, 271-274 category identification ability, 242-245, rationale for, 21-23 251 response probabilities in, 226-228 courtship behavior, 238-239, 241 Animal rights, 95-96, 194,273-274 English-language comprehension ability, Animals 28 ability to learn human language, 28-29 , 238, 241, 251-252 human's changing perspectives on, 42--43, self-awareness in, 272 110 syntax use by, 252, 274 Ape Language: From Conditioned Response to vocabulary of, 28, 245, 252, 269 Symbol (Savage-Rumbaugh), 166 vocalizations, 239-240, 249 Apes. See also Bonobos; Chimpanzees; Gorillas; vocal training of, 246 Kulu-kambas; Orangutans comparison with training of chimpanzees, as food source for humans, 42, 273 247 intelligence, 199 modeling in, 270-271 lack of human language capacity, 136-137 model/rival approach in, 247-250 language research with Alex Studies (Pepperberg), 241 "Clever Hans" effect in, 255, 256 Ally (chimpanzee), 66, 89, 189, 196 evaluations of, 255-267 Altruistic behavior, in bees, 26 multimodal, 277-278 American Sign Language. See Sign language verbal language ability, 10, 11,269 Anatomy, dolphins' understanding of, 224 Aphasia patients, song-based communication by, Animal activists, 218-219. See also Animal 270 rights Apple computers, 99-100

297 298 Index

Art, created by gorillas, 109 Bonobos contd. Artificial insemination, of chimpanzees, 208 language research with, 9,10,163-165 Artificial language, development of, 146-147 Iexigram use by Asano, Toshio, 202 natural interaction in, 174 Atlanta Zoo, Atlanta, Georgia, 191-192 observational learning in, 174-176 Austin (chimpanzee), 166, 167-169 spontaneous learning in, 175 birth,S training methods in, 174-178 English-language comprehension ability, 94, vocabulary in, 176 177,256 mating behavior, 182, 183-184 lexigram use by, 137-139 physical strength, 154 criticism of, 263-264 raised with chimpanzees, 180-184 sorting and labeling in, 137-138, 168-169, verbal language of, 164, 165, 178-179 257 vocalizations, 14, 17, 164 spontaneous utterances in, 170-171 English-Ianguage/bonobo Creole, 10, response to situational cues, 256 164-165, 179 sharing behavior in, 167-168,263-264 Booee (chimpanzee), 4, 66,155,189 Autistic children Book of Genesis, 1,45 facilitated communication with, 51, 52 Boredom, in laboratory animals, 240 model/rival training of, 250 Bosonjo (bonobo), 175 sign language use by, 14 Bourne, Geoffrey, 126-127 verbal language use by, 14-15 Boysen, Sarah, 120, 179 (chimpanzee), 270 Bradshaw, G., 20 Brain Baboons, ancient Egyptians' beliefs about, of chimpanzees, comparison with dolphins' 1,45 brain, 215-216 Bates, Elizabeth, 167 of dolphins, 215-217 Batteau, Dwight, 218 comparison with chimpanzees' brain, Bees 215-216 altruistic behavior, 26 "excess," 215 communication dances, 25-26, 27, 147, language algorithms of, 162 276-277 role in production, 12-13 genetics, 26 Brain/body ratio navigational ability, 121-122 ofbonobos,27 Behavioral states, in , 26 of chimpanzees, 27 Bell, Charles L., 128, 129-130, 145 of dolphins, 215 Bever, T. G., 76, 135 role in learning, 27 Biji (orangutan), 131 Bill, Timothy v., 129-130 of chimpanzees, 135 Birds. See also Parakeets; Parrots; Pigeons of dolphins, 215, 216 communication abilities of, 25 of parrots, 241 Biting behavior Brewer, Stella, 64-65 of chimpanzees, 30-31, 63, 92-93 Brown, Josephine v., 129-130 of gorillas, 100 "Bush meat," 42, 273 "Blind" experimental design, 52 Body parts, dolphins' ability to name, 224 California State University, Long Beach, Bonobos 87 bi-species culture of, 163-165 Carter, Janis,S, 64-65 brain/body ratio of, 27 Central Washington University, Ellensburg, comparison with chimpanzees, 151, 152, 194 Washington, 65, 89-93, 157 English-language comprehension ability, 106, Chantek (orangutan), 5, 109, 173-174, 164, 177, 180-181 189-200 comparison with human children, 10, birth,S 177-178 creativity, 190, 193 , 151, 152 f1int-knapping ability, 192 of human speech by, 14 intelligence, 194 Index 299

Chantek (orangutan) contd. Chimpanzees contd. knot-tying ability, 190, 193 English-language comprehension ability, 59, ,194-195 60, 180-181 self-awareness in, 194-195 comparison with human children, 59 sign language use by, 190, 195-199 field experiments with, 207-208 weight, 191 food barks, 27 Charlie Brown (chimpanzee), 61 genetic relationship with humans, 271 Cheney, D. L., 12 gestural commmuncation among, 48,59,169 Children grooming behavior, 92 autistic home-reared, 56-65, 114, 155 facilitated communication with, 51, 52 comparison with human children, 208-209 model/rival training of, 250 release into the wild, 64-65, 66 sign language use by, 14 sexual and social behavior, 155 verbal language use by, 14-15 iconic sign invention by, 62-63 deat~ sign language use by, 266, 270 imaginary -playing, 60-61 language comprehension ability, comparison intelligence, 271 with chimpanzees, 59 joystick manipulation by, 113-114, 170 language development in, 167 laboratory-reared,114-115 language-handicapped lack of verbal human language ability, 10, application of animal language research to, 11-15 22-23 language ability, 16 comparison with chimpanzee's language language training in use, 266 effect on cognition, 119-121 language use instruction for, 270 historical background, 16 sign language use by, 270 social factors in, 155-161 repetitive word utterances by, 76 lexigram use by, 142-145 word play by, 250 in Ai Project, 204-206 Chimpanzee and Human Communication as animal-to-animal communication, 168, Institute, 97 263-264 Chimpanzees application to language-handicapped aggression in, 63 children, 171-172 artificial insemination of, 208 classification of lexigrams in, 168-169 biting behavior of, 30-31, 63, 92-93 comparison with English-language boredom in, 240 comprehension, 181 brain criticism of, 261-265 comparison with dolphins' brain, 215-216 cross-modal perception in, 141-142 size, 135 effect of lexigram colors on, 262-263 brain/body ratio in, 27 intergenerational transmission of, 270 in captivity long-term memory of, 139-140 advocacy for, 95-97 model/rival training approach in, 248 living conditions of, 95-96 representational symbol understanding in, carnivorous food habits of, 48 137-139 cigarette smoking by, 60 sentence completion in, 143 classitying ability of, 35 social factors in, 159-160 salivation versus non-salivation theory of, spontaneous utterances in, 169, 171 264 syntax use in, 139 cognitive development in, 209 life expectancy, 66 color perception in, 118, 133-134 lip training of, 58, 59 communication among, 48, 59, 158-159, mother-reared, comparison with encultured 168,263-264 chimpanzees, 181, 183 comparison with bonobos, 151, 152, 194 naming of objects ability, 34 cost of feeding and housing for, 32 non-verbal communication by, 159 cross-model perception ability, 141-142 numerical abilities, 120, 162, 205-206 culture of, 93 observational learning in, 208 destructive behavior of, 30 observational studies of, 94-95 300 Index

Chimpanzees contd. Chomsky, Noam, 3,28,29,38-39,41,149, perceptual and cognitive processes in, 262,277 203-204,205-206 Chronology, of events in animal language use by, 113-114 research, 1-7 physical strength, 30 Cigarette smoking, by chimpanzees, 60 plastic symbol language use by, 17, 113-123, Classitication, of objects, by chimpanzees, 35 202 salivation versus non-salivation theory of, 264 training techniques for, 114-115 Clever Hans, 1, 2, 50-53 vocabulary in, U5 "Clever Hans" effect, in animal language problem-solving ability, 113 research, 82 pygmy. See Bonobos with apes, 51-52,94,255,256 raised with bonobos, 180-184 with parrots, 245-246 refuges/retirement facilities for, 31, 66 Closed-class words, 224, 274 release from captivity, 64-65, 66 CNN,191 sentence completion ability, 119, 132-133 Cognition, effect of language training on, sharing among, 167-168,263,264 119-121 sign language use by, 61-63, 69-73, 75, 126 Cognitive competence, 149 "Clever Hans" effect in, 82 Cognitive development, in chimpanzees, 209 comparison with human children, 83 Cohn, Ronald, 4, 18,22,99,100,101, comparison with lexigram board use, 71 102-103,104,107,110,260-261 criticisms of, 257-261 Color perception, in chimpanzees, 118, deaf researchers' interpretation of, 133-134 257-258,260 Communication effect of enculturation on, 156-157 context ot~ 149 grammatical category understanding in, cybernetic model of, 146 80-82 facilitated, 51-52 imitation training in, 93 mathematical model of, 146 intergenerational transmission of, 91, 93 natural animal, 276-277 modeling in, 74 rate of, 18-19 molding (guidance) in, 74, 83, 156 in social species, 25 "natural" signs in, 27 Communication systems, of animals novel sign creation in, 71-72 development of, 27 operant conditioning in, 73-75, 83, 93 function ot~ 26 with other chimpanzees, 93, 94 , toward animals, 273 rCM descriptive system for, 77 Computers properties of, 76-78 communication rate of, 18-19 semantics of, 135 complex language operations of, 16 sign modifications in, 77-78, 83 Computer understanding, 39-41,42 spontaneous utterances in, 170-171 Convention of International Trade in syntax use in, 135, 136 , 201 training methods in, 72-75 Conversational ability videotaping of, 80, 258 of chimpanzees, 133-134 vocabulary in, 48, 70, 72, 78-80, 104, 105, of gorillas, 102, 106-108 181 Conversational repair, 92, 102 social interactions, 155, 156 Coolidge, Harold, 173 sound production by, 49 , of dolphins, 216 use, 207-208 Counting ability, of chimpanzees, 139-140 triadic relationships with, 209 Courtship behavior, of parrots, 238-239, 241 verbal language ability, 11, 16, 17,49, 161 Cranial capacity. See also Brain size vocalizations, 54, 58-59, 60, 62, 80 of chimpanzees, 135 emotional arousal-related, 13-14,75 Creativity involuntarynature of, 13-14 in gorillas, 109 vocal tracts, 11, 12 in orangutans, 190, 193 Chimposia, 97 Creole, bonobo-English, 10, 164-165, 179 Chinese room thought experiment, 39,40,41 Cronan, Terry, 213 Index 301

Cross-modal perception, 141-142,214,217 Dolphins contd. Cues, situational. See also "Clever Hans" effect, 51 imitation of computer-generated sounds, 10 with chimpanzees, 94 imitative behavior, 10,214,215 with parrots, 241 intelligence, 271-272 Cultural approach, to language learning in apes, language comprehension ability, 222-224 151-187 language of, 276-277 Culture, of apes lexigram boards tor, 233, 275 bi-species, ofbonobos, 163-165 self-awareness in, 217, 233, 272 of chimpanzees, 93 sleep in, 216 intergenerational transmission of, in bonobos, social reinforcement in, 193 185-186 sound production by, 214 Cybernetic model, of communication, 146 symbol recognition ability, 218 vision in, 215-216 Dar (chimpanzee), 6, 72, 76, 77-78, 79, 89, visual receptive language of, 28 91,92 vocalizations, 214, 217, 221 Darwin, Charles, 2, 17 Datu (orangutan), 189-190 Echolocation, in dolphins, 214 Deaf children, sign language use by, 266, 270 Education of Koko, The (Patterson), 261 Deaf individuals Elele (dolphin), 224 as animal language researchers, 257-258, Elephants 260 of, 42 sign language use by, 17,266,270 language, 276-277 Death vocalizations, 26 bonobos' comprehension of, 164 Elisheba (kulu-kamba), 173 gorillas' comprehension of, 172 Encephalization quotient (brain/body ratio) Deception of bonobos, 27 by chimpanzees, 62, 66, 198 of chimpanzees, 27 chimpanzees's detection of, 66 of dolphins, 215 by gorillas, 198 role in learning, 27 by orangutans, 195, 198, 199 Enculturation, effect on apes' imitative behavior, Dennett, D., 40 181, 183 De Waal, Frans, 273 English language, bonobo Creole form' of, 10, Discover, 270 164-165, 179 Discovery television channel, 179 English-language comprehension Dr. Dolittle, 2, 3,46 in apes, 29 Dr. Suess, 46 in "baboons," 17 Dogs in bonobos, 106, 164, 177, 180-181 English-language comprehension ability, 3 comparison with human children, 10, speech ability, 15 177-178 Dolittle, Dr., 2, 3, 46 in chimpanzees, 59, 60, 167, 180-181 Dolphins comparison with human children, 59 acoustic information processing ability, 121, in dogs, 3 216 in gorillas, 101, 103, 104, 106, 162, acoustic language of, 221-224 173-174 brain anatomy, 215-217 in orangutans, 173-174, 196 computer-generated acoustic language use by, Erika (chimpanzee), 166 28 Esch, Harold, 26 cross-modal matching ability, 214, 217 Essock, Susan, 134 gestural language research with, 213-235 language training techniques in, 219-221 Fantasy play, by gorillas, 107-108 linguistic terminology of, 222-223, Fields, Bill, 266 225-226 Flint-knapping, by orangutans, 192 referential understanding in, 230-232 Food barks, in chimpanzees, 27 response probabilities in, 226-228 Food location, role of communication in, syntax understanding in, 274 25-26 302 Index

Fouts, Deborah, 4, 73, 87, 90, 91, 92, 94 Gestures, communicative contd. as advocate for captive chimpanzees, 95-97 of gorillas, 55 Fouts, Roger, 4, 17,87-98, 154, 157 as natural animal communication method, as advocate for captive chimpanzees, 95-97 277 Booee (chimpanzee) and, 155 use with dolphins, 213-235 Dar (chimpanzee) and, 91 linguistic terminology of, 222-223, Gardners and, 83, 87-77 225-226 at Institute of Primate Studies, 87-89 referential understanding in, 230-232 on legal rights of animals, 273 response probabilities in, 226-228 Loulis (chimpanzee) and, 91, 93 syntax understanding in, 274 Lucy (chimpanzee) and, 61, 62, 65, 66 use with marine , 17, 18 Moja (chimpanzee) and, 91,96 Gill, Timothy V, 131, 133-134, 144 Satan (chimpanzee) and, 88 Gisiner, R., 222, 225, 226, 228, 230, 231 Tatu (chimpanzee) and, 91, 96 Glossing, 32-35 Washoe (chimpanzee) and, 69, 70, 87-88, 89, Goodall, Jane, 14,95 90,91-93,97,154-155,157 Gorilla, the Journal of , William Lemmon and, 88, 89 102, 106-108, 110 Friends of Washoe, 97 Gorilla Foundation, 100, 103, 109-110 Friends of Washoe, 96 Gorillas From Sign Stimuli to Sign Language (Gardner biting behavior, 100 and Gardner), 32-33 carnivorous food habits, 47-48 Furness, William Henry 3rd, 2, 3, 53-55 conversational ability, 102, 106-108 Future, gorillas' comprehension of, 172 early research with, 47-49 English-language comprehension ability, 101, Gallup, Gordon, 61 103, 104, 106, 162, 173-174 Gambia, chimpanzee rehabilitation in, 64-65 fantasy play, 107-108 Game playing gesture-based communication, 55 by bonobos, 153, 154 home-reared, 55-56 by gorillas, 101-102 intelligence quotient, 106 by kulu-kambas, 48 memory, 162-163 by orangutans, 192-193 physical strength, 31-32 Garantua (gorilla), 31-32 rhyming ability, 108 Gardners, Allen and Beatrice, animal self-awareness in, 103-104, 109,272 language research of, 3,4,6,17-18,54, sign language use by, 101, 102, 104-109, 58,62,65,69-85,87-88,93,125,126, 162-163 154,256 criticism of, 260-261 criticism of, 38-39, U5, 257-260 novel sign creation in, 109 Dar (chimpanzee) and, 75, 76 vocabulary in, 104, 105-106, 162 evaluation of, 82-83 verbal language ability, 48 Lucy (chimpanzee) and, 65 Grammar. See also Syntax Moja (chimpanzee) and, 70, 79, 80, 81 role in language-unique functions, 120-121 Tatu (chimpanzee) and, 75, 76, 79, 81 transformational, 149 Viki (chimpanzee) and, 58 Yerkish, 129, 144, 147 Washoe (chimpanzee) and, 69-73, 74, 79, Grammatical categories, chimpanzees' 154 understanding of, 80-82 Garner, Richard Lynch, 1,2,3, 16,22,29, Grammatical networks, 37 47-50, 173 , The, 194 Gavaga (Premack), 35 Greystoke: The Legend of , Lord of the Georgia State University, 129-130, 189 Apes (film), 89 Language Research Center of, 9-10,149, Griffin (gray parrot), 238, 240 151-154 Grooming behavior, of chimpanzees, 92 Gestural theory, of language development, Grounding, 35-39,40-41 145 Gua (chimpanzee), 3, 10, 11, 14, 30, 154 Gestures, communicative comparison with human child, 3, 57-59 of chimpanzees, 48, 59, 169 Gussie (chimpanzee), U3 Index 303

Hayes, Catherine Nissen, 69-70 Jacobson, J. w., 51-52 Viki (chimpanzee) and, 4,11,14,30,48,58, Japan, in, 206 59-61,73-74,161,270 Jessie (chimpanzee), 113 Hayes, Keith, 11, 69-70, 73-74 Joni (chimpanzee), 10, 11,56-57,58,60 Herman, , 213, 217-221, 222-223, Joystick manipulation 225-229,232,233 by apes, 17, 179 Akeakamai (dolphin) and, 214, 219, by chimpanzees, 113-114, 170 220,221-222,223-224,229,230, 232 Kako, E., 224, 274 dolphin language research techniques of, 17, Kamio, Akio, 203 193,219-221 Kampong (orangutan), 189-190 Keakiki (dolphin) and, 218-219 Kanzi (bonobo),29, 31,66, 163-165, Phoenix (dolphin) and, 219, 220, 222, 223, 173-180 224,229,230 birth,6 Puka (dolphin) and, 219 bi -species culture of, 165 Hewes, Gordon, 145-146 drawing ability, 165 Hiller, Barbara, 108 English-language comprehension ability, Hillix, Gaines, 191, 192, 193 47, 106, 164, 172, 173-174, 177, Hockett, Charles F., 19, 20,28-29, 147 256 Horapollo Nilous, 1, 45 comparison with human child, 177-178 Horses grammatical network of, 37 alleged spelling ability of, 47 imitation of human speech by, 14,60,276 Clever Hans, 50-53 lexigram use by Hoyt, Maria, 31-32,42,55-57,100 criticism of, 264-265 Humor, gorilla's sense of; 108-109 observational learning in, 174-176,248, 270 Imaginary games, of chimpanzees, spontaneous learning in, 175 60-61 training methods in, 174-178 Imanishi, Kinji, 206, 207 vocabulary in, 176 Imitative behavior, 161, 195 teaching behavior in, 185-186 in chimpanzees, 60, 93, 197 tool-making ability, 165, 172 in mother-reared versus encultured vocalizations, 14, 59, 60, 164, 165, 178-179 chimpanzees, 181, 183 English-language/bonobo Creole, 10, in dolphins, 214, 215 164-165, 179 in orangutans, 195, 197, 198-199 Kathy (chimpanzee), 69 in parrots, 15 Kawai, Masao, 206 Inevitable Bond, The (Davis and Balfour), 22, Keakiko (dolphin), 218-219 165-166 Kellogg, Donald, 3, 57-59,154 Information-bearing systems, hierarchy of, Kellogg, L. A., 3, 10, 11, 14, 57-59 149 Kellogg, Winthrop N., 2, 3, 5, 10, 11, 14, Institute for Primate Studies, University of 57-59 Oklahoma, 31, 50, 63, 64, 65, 87-89, Kenton (chimpanzee), 166 189 Kewalo Basin Marine Mammal Laboratory, Intelligence Honolulu, Hawaii, 213-214 of animals, 271-272 Keyboards, symbol-embossed. See also Lexigram human compared with animal, 121-122 boards of orangutans, 194 orangutans' use of, 199-200 of parrots, 46-47, 238, 241, 252 Knot-tying, by orangutans, 190, 193 Intelligence quotient, of gorillas, 106 Kohts, Nadesha, 3,4, 10, 11, 22, 56-57, 6u, Intergenerational transmission 208-209 of apes' culture, 185-186 Kohts, Roody, 3,4,56,57 oflexigram use, 270 Kojima, Shozo, 4, 202 of sign language use, 91, 93 Koko (gorilla), 5, 66, 73, 83, 99-111 of tool-using behavior, 74, 208 English-language comprehension ability, 101, ltani, Jun'ichirou, 206, 207 103, 104, 106, 173-174 304 Index

Koko (gorilla) contd. Language Analogue Project (LANA) contd. game playing, 101-102 handicapped humans' use of, 148 naming ability, 102 reading and sentence completion physical strength, 101 component, 132-133 self-awareness in, 103-104, 172 use in human-chimpanzee conversations, sign language use by, 101, 102, 104-109, 132-133, 133-134, 136, 148 162, 171 Language Research Center, Georgia State vocabulary in, 104, 105-106, 162, 196 University, 9-10,149,151-154 Krall, Karl, 2, 3, 47 Learning Kubota, Kisou, 203 brain/body ratio in, 27 Kulu-kambas, 48, 49-50, 173 observational,74 Kuno, Susumu, 203 as "education by master-apprenticeship," Kyaaro (parrot), 238, 240 208 Kyoto University, 152, 154 social relationships in, 208 Primate Research Institute, 207 Lemmon, William, 6, 65, 88, 89, 155 Ai Project of, 201-211 Levita, Ellen, 91 Kyoro University Lexigram system, 206-207 Lexicon, 147 Lexigram boards, 9 Laboratory animals, boredom in, 240 advantages of, 275 Laboratory for Experimental Medicine and for dolphins, 233, 275 Surgery, 65, 66 future research with, 275 Lambert, Christopher, 89 handicapped humans' use of, 148 La Mettrie, Julien Offray de, 1, 17 sound-producing, 179-180,233,275 LANA. See Language Analogue Project Lexigrams, 202 Lana (chimpanzee), 5,125,172. See also artificial of, 146 Language Analogue Project (LANA) bonobos' use of, 164 color perception in, 134 criticism of, 264-265 lexigram use by,S, 33-34, 129, 131-136, natural interaction in, 174 148, 157-158 observational learning in, 174-176,248,270 criticism of, 261-263 referential understanding in, 257 long-term memory in, 139-140 training methods, 174-178 syntax understanding in, 139 vocabulary in, 176 naming ability, 148, 149 chimpanzees' use of, 142-145 numerical ability, 140-141 in Ai Project, 204-206 reward procedures with, 74-75 as animal-to-animal communication, 168, Language 263-264 cognitive competence in, 149 application to language-handicapped cognitive components, 277 children, 171-172 definition, 18-21, 146, 263, 265 classification of lexigrams in, 168-169 development in animals, 20 comparison with English-language features of, 28-29 comprehension, 181 neurological basis, 162 criticism of, 261-265 origin of, theories of, 145-146 cross-modal perception in, 141-142 properties, 147 effect oflexigram colors on, 262-263 social context, 25 intergenerational transmission of, 270 social information donation as, 29 long-term memory in, 139-140 syntactic algorithms of, 161-162 model/rival training approach in, 248 "Language acquisition device," 277 observational learning-based, 270 Language Analogue Project (LANA), 5, representational symbol understanding in, 125-150 137-139 criticism of, 261-263 social factors in, 159-160 inception of, 127-131 spontaneous utterances in, 169, 171 lexigram board technology of syntax use in, 139 development of, 127-129, 130-131 classes of, 147 grammar component, 131-132 definition, 128 Index 305

Lexigrams contd. Molding (guidance), in animal language training development of, 127-129, 146-147 with chimpanzees, 74, 156 iconic, 278 with orangutans, 195 Yerkish grammar of, 129, 144, 147 Monkeys Linden, E., 64, 65 proto-culmral behavior of, 206 Lip training, in chimpanzees, 58, 59 warning cries of, 18, 25, 276-277 Locke, John, 46-47 Monty (parakeet), 238 Lofting, Hugh, 2,3,4,46 Morgan, C. Lloyd, 2, 4, 33 Long Beach State, 87 Morse code, 16 Lorel (bonobo), 6,174 Moses (chimpanzee), 2, 22, 48-49 Loulis (chimpanzee), 6, 89, 91 "Motherese," 74 birth,S Motivation, 75 sign language use by Mouth-gesture theory, of language intergenerational transmission of, 74,93 development, 145 vocabulary in, 93, 94 Mulick, J. A., 51-52 Lucy: Growing Up Human (Temerline), 61 Mummification, of baboons, 45 Lucy (chimpanzee), 4,5,6,61-65,66, 113, Munsell color chips, 134 155,171,189 Murofushi, Kiyoko, 202, 203 Lying. See Deception Murphy, Alia, 6, 177-178 Murphy, Jeannine, 6, 177 Mafuca, 173 Murray, Keith, 130 Mahoney, Jim, 65, 66 Mythology, descriptions of animal language in, Mammals, communication abilities of, 25 45-46 Maple, Terry, 191 Marci (chimpanzee), 202 Nagao, Makoto, 203 Mark test, for self-awareness, 194-195 Naming, of objects Matata (bonobo), 5, 6,163,164,174-175, by chimpanzees, 34, 78-79, 122, 143, 148, 176,181,248 149,263,264 Mathematical abilities. See also Numerical by gorillas, 102 abilities of horses, 51, 52 National Instimte of Child Health and Human Mathematical model, of communication, 146 Development, 129-130 Mating, role of communication in, 25 National Instimte of Health, 95, 202 Mating behavior, ofbonobos, 182, 183-184 National Zoo, Think Tank of, 199-200 Matsuzawa, Tetsuo, 22, 162 Ndume (gorilla), 99, 103, 109-110 McCorkle, Tony, 77-78 Nelson, K., 76 McNeill, D., 217-218 Neurological factors, in speech production, McReady, Nicole, 237, 238, 240 12-13 Melodic intonation therapy, 270 New Scientist, 242 Memory New York Times, 125 in gorillas, 162-163 Nilous, Horapollo, 1,45 long-term, 139-140 Nim Chimsky (chimpanzee), 5, 6, 32, 54,135, Mercury (chimpanzee), 181 136,161,171,196,197 Michael (gorilla), 5, 7, 73, 109, 162-163 Nishida, Toshisada, 207 Miles, Lyn, 4, 17, 52, 83, 189-200 Noell, Robert, 31 recognition test, of self-awareness, 60, Northwestern University, 237 194-195,217,272 Nostradamus, 274 , acoustic, 216-217 Numerical abilities Modeling, in animal language training of chimpanzees, 120, 162,206 with chimpanzees, 93 of humans, 121 with dolphins, 219 Nyota (bonobo), 6,151,152,153-154 with parrots, 270-271 Model/rival training, 247-250, 270-271, , parrots' concepts of, 278 251 Moja (chimpanzee), 5, 6, 7, 70-71, 72, 78, 89, Observational smdies, of chimpanzees, 92,96 94-95 306 Index

Occam's Razor, 1, 33 Patterson, Francine (Penny) Odors birth of, 4 communication function of, 25 Koko (gorilla) and, 5, 17, IS, 22, 73, S3, 99, role in food location, 26 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106-10S, Olsen, Jim, 114 109-110, 162-163, 196 Open-class words, 274 criticism of, 260-261 Operant conditioning, of chimpanzees, 73-75, Pecjak, Marinka, 213 93, 126 Pecjak, Vid, 213, 214 Orangutans Peony (chimpanzee), 113 creativity, 190, 193 Pepperberg, Irene, 4, IS, 2S, 237-239, early language research with, 53-55 270-271,272 English -language comprehension ability, Pepys, Samuel, 1, 17,47 173-174, 196 Personhood intelligence, 194, 199 of embryos, 20 knot-tying ability, 190, 193 of great apes, 194-195 physical strength, 32 Petitto, R. J., 76, 135,259 self-awareness in, 194-195 Pfungst, Oskar, 2, 3, 51 sign language use by, lS9, 191, 192-193, Philosophical , 53 195-19S Phoenix (dolphin), 219, 221, 222, 223, 224, speech production in, 54 229,230 tool use, 192 Origin of the Species (Darwin), 2 apes' use of, 276 Othello (gorilla), 2,22, 47--4S average number in human languages, 16 as basis for language, 19 Panbanisha (bonobo), 6, 9-10,163-165, chimpanzees' use of, 113-114 lS0-lS4,270 joystick-generated, 113-114, 179 bi-species culture of, 165 Photographs enculturation of, lSI, IS 3 apes' interest in, 169-170 English-language comprehension ability, 164, lexigram-Iabeled, 13S 173, ISO-lSI Pigeons, 3S, 263, 264 imitation of human speech by, 14 Pili (chimpanzee), 5, 70-71 lexigram use by, 164, lSI Pinker, Steven, 4, 115, 257-25S, 259 observational learning in, 174 Pisani, Piere Paolo, 129-130, 131, 145 mating behavior, IS2, lS3-1S4 Plastic symbol language, chimpanzees' use of, metaphor use, 40 17, 113-123,202 teaching behavior, lS5-lS6 criticism of, 265-266 vocalizations, 14, 164 training techniques, 114-115 English-Ianguage/bonobo Creole, 10, vocabulary in, 115 164-165, 179 Poachers, 6, 65 (chimpanzee), SS Pointing, 167,224-225 Pancho (kulu-kamba), 50 Portielje, Anton, 173 Pan paniscus. See Bonobos Pragmatics, 21 Panpanzee (chimpanzee), lS0-lS4, 270 Predator avoidance, role of communication in, Pan troglodytes. See Chimpanzees 25 Panzee (chimpanzee), IS0-1S4, 270 Premack, Ann, 3,4, IS, 74, 113-123 Parrots, 237-253. See also Alex (parrot) Why Chimpanzees Can Read, 114 boredom in, 240 Premack, David, 3,4,17,52,63,113-123 courtship behavior, 23S-239, 241 criticism of, 265-267 imitation of human speech, 15 on grammar, 120-121 intelligence, 46--47, 23S, 241, 272 Sarah (chimpanzee) and, 63,113, 114-11S, verbal communication ability, 10, 15, 122,226 269 Pribram, Karl, 31,92-93 vocal apparatus, 11, 15 Primates, nonhuman, vocal development in, Parsimony, principle of, 1, 33 12-13 Past, gorillas' comprehension of, 172 Prince Chim, 173 Index 307

Problem-solving abilities, of chimpanzees, 113 Savage-Rumbaugh, E. Sue contd. Project Washoe, 72, 73, 126, 127. See also Austin (chimpanzee) and, 94,166,167-169, Washoe (chimpanzee) 170-171, 174 Prostheses, vocal, for apes, 179-180,275-276 on environment for ape language research, Proto-cultural behavior, of monkeys, 206 184-186 Psittacus erithacus. See Parrots Erika (chimpanzee) and, 166 P-Suke (bonobo), 6, 152 ~nzi(bonobo)and, 10, 31,37,47,60, mating behavior, 182, 183-184 173-180,248 Psychophysics, animal, 203 Kenton (chimpanzee) and, 166 Pugh, Liz, 9 Lana (chimpanzee) and, 168, 169 Puka (dolphin), 219 Lucy (chimpanzee) and, 61, 63, 65 Purdue University, 237 Matata (bonobo) and, 174,248 Nyota (bonobo) and,6, 151, 153, 154 Quine, Willard, 35 Panbanisha (bonobo) and, 9,180-184 Pancho (kulu-kamba) and, 50 Rationalization, 45-46 Panzee (bonobo) and, 181 Rattling the Cage (Wise), 99,194 Sherman (chimpanzee) and, 94,166, "Reading and Sentence Completion by a 167-169,170-171,174 Chimpanzee," 133 Schulz, Charles, 61 Referential meaning, in language Schusterman, Ronald, 17,222,225,226,228, chimpanzees' understanding of, 257 230,231 dolphins' understanding of, 230-232 Schwarz, Ernst, 51-52, 113, 173 Refuges, for chimpanzees, 31, 66 Science, 133, 202 Reiko (chimpanzee), 203 Sea lions Reinforcement, role in language, 19 computer-generated acoustic language of, 28 Repetitive word utterances, in children, 76 visual receptive language of, 28 Representation, in language, 20 Seals, language research with, 228 Rt:Vue Zoologique, 173 Searle, J. R., 39,40,41 Rhyming ability, of gorillas, 108 Sebeok, Thomas, 3,6,7,52,261,266-267 Richey, Charles, 96 Secret-keeping behavior, 9 Rickets, 96 Self-awareness Ristau, C. A., 6, 52-53 in animals, 272 Robbins, D., 6, 52-53 in chimpanzees, 61,170 Rocky (sea lion), 231 in dolphins, 217, 233 Romanes, George, 2 in gorillas, 103-104, 109 Rumbaugh, Duane, 3,9,83,90-91,92, 151, in orangutans, 194-195 154, 189, 191, 193 Serna, Inc., 95 Lana/LANA project and, 74-75, 145, 146, Semantics, oflanguage, 41-42,146 148-149 chimpanzees' use of, 135 definition of, 20 . Sanders, R. J" 76, 135 Sentence completion ability, of chimpanzees, San Diego State College, 127 119, 132-133 , 174 September Commission, 2, 51 Sanditer, Robert, 240 Sequoyah (chimpanzee), 6, 88, 92-93 Sarah (chimpanzee), 63,113,122,169-170, Serpents, mythic conversational ability of, 1,45 226,256,265-266 Seyfarth, R. M., 12 plastic symbol language use by, 114-118 Sharing, among chimpanzees, 167-168,263, training techniques for, 114-115 264 rearing of, 114 Sheba (chimpanzee), 120 Satan (chimpanzee), 88 Sherman (chimpanzee), 137-139,166, Savage-Rumbaugh, E. Sue, 4,17,18,52, 167-169,170-171,250,257,263-264, 137,148-149,165-171,266-267, 264 277,278 English-language comprehension ability, Ape Language: From Conditioned Response to 177 Symbol, 6, 166 Shumaker, R. w., 199-200 308 Index

Sign language, 194-195 Social interaction, in model/rival training, advantages of, 275 249-250 apes' use of, 202 Social modeling theory, 249 apes' use of, Pepys' on, 17 Social species, functions of communication in, autistic children's use of, 14 25 chimpanzees' use of, 61-63, 69-73, 75, 126 Sonny Carter Laboratory, 149 "Clever Hans" effect in, 82 Sound production comparison with human children, 83 by chimpanzees, 56 comparison with lexigram board use, 71 by dolphins, 214 criticisms of, 257-261 Spanish language, 56 deaf researchers' interpretation of, Speech. See also Verbal language ability 257-258,260 anatomic basis of, 11-12 grammatical category understanding in, in non-human primates, 15-16 80-82 Spelling ability, 47 imitation training in, 93 Spontaneous utterances, 169, 170-171, 197 intergenerational transmission of, 91, 93 Stanford University, 104 modeling in, 74, 83, 93 Stone-knapping, 172, 192 molding (guidance) in, 74, 83,156 Strunk, Will, 76 "natural" signs in, 27 Stumpf, Carl, 2, 4, 51 novel sign creation in, 71-72 Sugiyama, Yukimaru, 207 operant conditioning in, 73-75, 83, 93 Swartz, Karyl, 199-200 with other chimpanzees, 93, 94 Symbol-object associative responses, 137 PCM descriptive system for, 77 Symbols. See also Lexigrams; Plastic symbol properties of, 76-78 language semantics of, 135 dolphins' regcognition of, 218 sign modifications in, 77-78, 83 noncontextual nature of, 147 spontaneous utterances in, 170-171 Symposium on , 266 syntax use in, 135, 136 Syntactics, 21 training methods in, 72-75 Syntax, 161-162 videotaping of, 80, 258 animals' understanding of, 272, 274-275 vocabulary in, 48,70,72,78-80, 104, 105, chimpanzees' understanding of, 135, 136 181 definition of, 21, 161 deaf individuals' use of, Darwin on, 17 dolphins' understanding of, 222-224, gorillas' use of, 101, 102, 104, 109, 162-163 228-230 criticism of, 260-261 parrots' understanding of, 252 novel sign creation in, 109 structural algorithms of, 161-162 vocabulary in, 104, 105-106, 162 bonobos' understanding of, 165 limitations of, 275 orangutans' use of, 189, 191, 192-193, Tallal, Paula, 270 195-198 Tamuli (bonobo), 7,181 similarity to natural animal gestures, 277 Tarzan, 89 use with marine mammals, 17, 18 Tatu (chimpanzee), 5,6,72,76,78,81,89,91, versus vocal communication, 17-18 96 Signs Television watching, by apes, 169, 170 iconic, chimpanzees' invention of, 62-63 Temerlin, Jane, 61-65, 63, 64 referential meaning of Temerlin, Maurice, 61-65, 62, 63-64 bonobos' understanding of, 257 Temerline, Steve, 65 dolphins' understanding of, 230-232 Terrace, Herbert, 32, 54, 74, 76, 135, Sizemore, Judy, 130 136-137,161,197,261 Skinner, B. F., 2, 4,6, 19,263,265 Todt procedure. See Model/rival approach Sleep; in dolphins, 216 Toilet training, 57-58 Smith, Sydney, 55 Tongue, of chimpanzees, 12 Smithsonian Institution, 199-200 Tool production/use Social factors, in apes' language use, 155-161 by bonobos, 165, 172 Social information donation, 29 by chimpanzees, 207-208 Index 309

Tool production/use contd. Vocalizations intergenerational transmission of, 74, 208 by bonobos, 14, 17, 178-179 by orangutans, 192 by chimpanzees, 54, 58-59,60,62,80 Toto (gorilla), 31-32,42,55-57,100 emotional arousal-related, 13-14, 75 Towne, Robert, 89 involuntary nature of, 13-14, 75 True Friends, 95 by dolphins, 214, 217, 221, 233 Tursiops truncatus, encephalization quotient of, by elephants, 26 215 by orangutans, 54 by parrots, 239-240 Umiker-Sebeok, Jean, 6, 52, 261, 266 during model/rival training, 249 United States Department of Agriculture, 95, 96 relationship with manual dexterity, 14, 15 University of Arizona, 237 Vocal prostheses, for apes, 179-180,275-276 University of California, San Diego, 202 Vocal tract University of California, Santa Barbara, 114 of apes, prosthetic modification of, 179-180, University of Connecticut, 189 275-276 University of Georgia, 128, 129-130 of chimpanzees, 11, 12 University of Hawaii, 213 of parrots, 11, 15 University of Missouri, 114 Von Glaserfeld, Ernst, 128, 129-130, 131, University of Nevada, Reno, 62, 87 146-147,148,262 University of Oklahoma, 154-155 Von Osten, Wilhelm, 1,2,47,50-53 affiliation with Institute of Primate Studies, Von Uexkuell, Jakob, 203 31,50,63,64,87-89,189 Vowel sounds, 12 University of Pennsylvania Medical School, 53 University of Tennessee, 189 Wallman, Joe, 259-260, 261-265 Warner, Harold, 127, 128, 145 Verbal language ability Warner Brothers Studio, 89 of apes, 10, 11,269,276 Warning calls, 18, 25, 276-277 of autistic children, 14-15 Warning function, of animal communication, ofbonobos, 14, 152, 164, 165, 178-179 26 of chimpanzees, 11-15, 16, 17,48,59-60, Washburn, David, 4 80, 152, 161 Washburn, Margaret Floy, 21-22,123 of gorillas, 48 Washoe (chimpanzee), 5,48,63,65,66,69-85, of kulu-kambas, 49 78,87,90,91-92,126,154-155,171 new approaches ro, 275-276 biting behavior of, 31,92-93 of nonhuman primates, 15-16 offspring of, 6, 88, 92-93 neurological factors in, 12-13 sign language use by, 4, 37,69-73,75, 104, of orangutans, 54 115, 155 of parrots, 10, 15, 269 deaf researchers' interpretation of, Videotaping, of chimpanzees' sign language use, 257-258,260 80,258 effect of enculturation on, 156-157 Viki (chimpanzee), 4,11, 14,30,48,58-59, grammatical category understanding in, 59-61,70,73-74,80,161,270 80-82 Vision, in dolphins, 215-216 grounding in, 40-41 Vocabulary "natural' signs in, 27 ofbonobos,10 properties of, 76-78 of chimpanzees, 11,48,59-60,65,78-80, vocabulary in, 70, 78-80, 115 80,93,94,104,105,115,181 Washoe Project, 72, 73, 126, 127. See also of gorillas, 104, 105-106, 162 Washoe (chimpanzee) of orangutans, 195-196 "Wh-questions," 80-82, 117 of parrots, 11,28,245 Why Chimpanzee Can Read (Premack), 114 Vocal cords Wild Minds (Hauser), 121 of chimpanzees, 11, 12 William of Occam, 1, 33 of humans, 11-12 Wise, Steve, 99, 100, 102 Vocal development, in nonhuman primates, Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 217 12-13 Woodruff, G., 52 310 Index

Word play, 250 Yerkes Laboratory of Primate Biology, 189, 191 Writing ability, of baboons, 45 Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center, , 126-127, 130, 174 Yale University, 189 Language Analogue Project (LANA) of, Anthropoid Experiment Station, 57 126-127, 130, 144 Yerkes, Robert M., 2, 17, 57,129,173 Yerkish grammar, 129, 144, 147