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The Philosophy of Human Nature Confucianism and Emerson's

The Philosophy of Human Nature Confucianism and Emerson's

39

The of m and Emerson’s Transcendentalism

Chen -Jen

As a rule, Chinese terms are hard to define. Among them Confucianism is almost the hardest. It looks like a religion, and yet it is not. Its doctrine are firmly believed by our people with almost religious zeal. Yet in' spite of countless numbers of Confucian temples in China, Confucius is not a god. To our people he is merely "the Most Saintly Teacher". The whole writings of the Confucian scholars can be termed Confucianism. Certain ’ customs and institutions in China which are the causes or the effects of Confucianist can be t巴rmed Confucianism. It has embraced some of the more admirable elements of traditional Chinese religion, such as a respect toward and worship of ancestors. Confucius advocated that man can be sage through self-cultivation and inner enlightenment. Confucian temples stand as memorial monuments rather than functioning religious institutions such as churches. Confucianism is more than a cr巴巴 d to be professed or rejected.- It has becom 巴 a pattern worked into. the Chinese life and . As a cultural influen 間, it is probably the steering wheel of our mental and institutional development. In philosophy, Confucianism stands for an of human relationship in harmony with the universal order. In ethics, as well as in politics, it stands for a rationalized order, based upon personal cultivation. In literature and in art, it stands for the clarification of man’s experience and the crystallization of life. This is sheerly a humanistic approach, for Confucianism is nothing else than . The chief characteristic of is, in a word, humanism. It is humanism that underlines the whole stream of Chinese thought. It is humanism that forms the foundation-stone of one of the oldest of the world. Transcendentalism maintains that man has ideas that come not through the five senses or the powers of,reasoning-the result of God’s immediate inspiration or His immanent presence in the ·spiritual world. It asserts that man has a spiritual body within a physical body. The transcendentalists term 巴 d it variously as the oversoul, the conscience, or the inner light. New England Transcendentalism came into the world in 1836 when Emerson's "Nature" was published. It would be wrong to attribute New England Transcen dβntalism solely to the effect of the German Transcendentalists. It was also derived from oriental mysticism 缸1d Neoplatonic idealism. "The Americans were basically eclectic in their philosophy. They borrowed ideas from their amazingly widespread reading in such esoteric sources as the religious books of the orient (particularly the Sayings of Confucius and Bhagavad Gita of Hinduism)." 1 Then, what is New England Transcendentalism? It stimulated a “ renaissance" in 40 Journal of the College of Liberal Arts Vol. 18

American literature-a renaiss且nee whose first exponent was none other than Ralph Waldo Emerson. It was influenced by the formal philosophy of 可 but greatly modified it. It applied this philosophic id 巴 alism and religious enthusiasm to the practical reform of American social institutions. It developed the puritan religion of its own New England past in new ways. In the first paragraph of Emerson '日 famous essay on "Th 巴 Transcendentalists", he defin 巴d ;“What is popularly called Transc 巳 ndentalism among us is Idealism 刊_ 2 Emerson was a p10found Idealist who found the inexhaustible source of truth, good­ ness, and beauty at the bottom of conciousness. The chief idea which Emerson derived from Kant was the distinction between the transcendental "" and the empirical "understanding". 3 Reason described the intuiti011s of the mind itself. It was opposed not only to but to . Understanding is rational. "Reason" formed the very foundation of Emerson's transcendental philosophy. The . dualism between , the ideal and the real sugge~ted the logical paradox of Emerson's thought. In philosophy Emerson found expression in a homely 、 Yankee realism as the citizen of Concord. But by contrast he found expression in transcendental idealism as the dreamer of things. His heredity and environment linked him with the realities of nineteenth century New England. It also helped Emerson to explore th巴 mysticism of the ancient East, German philosophy, and the optimism which transcends tragedy. The mysticism of the ancient East and the religious piety of the Puritan contributed to th巴 formulation of Emerson’s ideas. But the pragmatism of the West, the realism of modern and philosophy, and the moral conservation of old New England also contributed to Emerson’s outlook of life. Emerson always tried to mediate between mysticism and practicability, between Transcendentalism and scienc巴, between romance and politics, and between nineteenth century optimism and the old puritan . Em 巳rson was a pragmatist not only in theory but in fact also. He knew that what seems for the moment efficient will be replaced by what at another moment is equally useful and perhaps closer to truth. Confucius' philosophy has played a part in the development of the social and political conceptions of the modern west. It is remarkable that the Emersonians ar 巴 a very potent factor in bringing Confucianism into American life. Confucius' views on heaven, sincerity and ' views on the goodness of human nature and chi are relative to Transcendentalism. In Emerson’s Journals for 1830 h巴 noted that the Golden Rule was to be ascribed to Confucius, and that the Confucian Classics contained "Promising definitions" of Nature, , and Instruction. Then in 1843, tlw "Sheking”, or Chinese book of odes, appears among his list of boo~s read during the year. In 1836, the date of the publication of Nature, he first read "Marshman’s Confucius 刊,' and copied many sentences ascribed to Confucius into his Journals. One of these:“How can a man remain concealed," appeared also in his first volume of Essays. In 1837, howev巴 r, in reading the Asiatic Journal. he The Philosophy of Human Nature in Confucianism and Emerson’s Transcendentalism 41

came in contact with what he labeled “the mountainous nonsense of Chinese diplomacy'', and this impression of China is reflected in an essay on "The Conservative" in 1841. In 1838 he was again reading "Confucius" and quoted in his Journals for that year,“Action, such as Confucius describes the speech of God." Again in 1841 he listed Confucius ; and in 1843 he read over the “自 he king’,. In that year he read for the first time a complete translati9n of The Four Books of the Chinese Classics; copying many sentences from them in his Journals. Many of these quotations reappear in his later Works--and almost, every volume includes one or two illustrative sayings taken from the Chinese Classics, His later Journals, likewise show a continued interest in them.4 For Emerson, Confucius was the greatest thinker in Chinese history. Emerson clearly shows his respect and admiration for Confucius. He quoted the sayings of Confucius, Mencius as illustratfons of his ide 且s. He copied a passage from the Chinese Classics explaining well the action of Confucius into his Journals:“Chang Tsoo and Kee Neih retired from the state to the fields on account of misrule, and showed their displeasure at Confucius who remained in the world. Confucius sighed and said, I cannot associate with birds and beasts. If I follow not man, whom shall I follow? If the world were in possession of right principles, I should not seek to change it."5 Such a passage shows what a moral staff Confucius was in helping him to stand on his own feet. Again, in his essay on "Social Aims”, Emerson quoted Confucius as saying: "If the S巴 arch for riches were sure to be successful, though I should become a groom with whip in hand to get them, I will do so. As the search may not be successful, I will follow after that which I love." One· quotation from Confucius he uses twice, and writes : “I will say with Confucius, 'If in the morning I hear of the right way, and in the evening die, I can be happy.’”6 But Emerson always felt that this "right way” of Confucius was apt to lead through so.cial convention to formalism. In his Journals he remarked ·“The Chinese are as wond 巴rful for their 巳 tiquette as the Hebrews for their piety. 叮 The tie that bound Emerson to Confucius was their common belief in the goodness of man. 8 Confucius himself said very little about Human Nature. He mentioned it once in the Analects “By natu間, men are near甘 alike ﹔ by practice, they get to be wide apart. "9 The Confucianist theory of the goodness of human nature became obvious after the appearance of Mencius. He said ; "All men have a mind which cannot bear (to S巳e the sufferings o 叮 others .... If men suddenly see a child about to fall int0 a well, they will without exception experienc巴 a of alarm and distress. (They will feel so), not as a ground on which they may gain the favor of the child’s parents, nor as a ground on which they may seek the praise of their neighbors and friends, nor from a dislike to the reputations of (having been unmoved by) such a thing." “From this case we may perceive that the feeling of commiseration is 巴sse ntial to m間, that the feeling of and dislike is essential to man, that the feeling of modesty and complaisance is essential to man, and that the feeling of approving and disapproving is essential to man." 42 Journal of the College of Liberal Arts Vol. 18

“ The feeling of commis叮ation is the principles of benevolence. The feeling of shame and dislike is the principle of . The feeling of modest and complaisance is the principle of propriety. The feeling of approving and disapproving is the principle of knowledge." “ Man have these four principles just as they have their four limbs. When men having these four principles, yet say of themselves that they cannot (develop them), they play the thief with themselves, and he who says of hi 日 prince that he cannot (develop them), plays the thief with his prince." "Since all men have these four principles in themselves, let them know to give them all their development and completion, and the issue will be like that of fire which has begun to burn, or that of a spring which has begun to find vent. Let them have their complete development, and they will suffice to love and protect all within the four seas. Let them be denied that development, and they will not suff、ice for a man to serve his parents with." 1 0 To say that “ all men have a mind which cannot bear (to see the suffering of) others,'’ is the same as saying that man's nature is good. According to Mencius, all men possess the four principles of Benevolence, Righteousness, Propriety and Knowledge. If a man develops the four principles completely, he becomes a sage. Thus Mencius said ; “ From the proper to it, it is considered for the practic巳 of what is good. This is what I mean in saying that (the nature) is good." “ If men do what is not good, the blame cannot be imputed to their natural powers." 1 1 Mencius actually meant that human nature is good. In the essay "Character" Emerson wrote:“The reason why we feel one man’s presence and do not feel another's is as simple as gravity. Truth is the summit of ; justice is the application of it to affairs. All individual stand in a scal 巴, according to the purity of this element in them. 刊 1 2 The tendency of man’s nature to good is like the tendency of water to flow downwards. Mencius said :“Water indeed will flow 叫 iffernntly to the east or west, but will it flow indifferently up or down? The tendency ot man’s nature to good is·Iike the tendency of water to flow downwards.’,1 3 Both sages were discussing the essential moral nature of man. And later in the eaasy Emerson quoted directly from the Doctrine of the Mean :“I find it more credible,'’ he worte,“that one man should know heaven, as the Chinese say, than that so many men should know the world." Then came the quotation from Mencius: The virtuous prince confronts the gods, without any misgiving. He waits a hundred,ages till a sage comes, and does not doubt. He who confronts the gods, without any misgiving, knows heaven ; he who waits a hundred ages until a sage comes, without doubtir屯, knows men. Hence the virtuous prince moves, and for 且ges shows empire the way. 1 4 Emerson read Chinese books extensively. We know it from· the significant instances used by Emerson in his essays in which Confucian thought is apparent. It is obvious that The Philosophy of Human Nature in Confucianism and Einerson's Transc 巴ndentalism 43

what Confucius gave Emerson was moral corroboration of his observations on m 巴n not the universe. It is fate that keeps the universe law-abiding. Emerson thought that the high 巴 st of which is the moral law. The following is 且 journal for 1822: Moral Sense: a rule coextensive and coeval with Mind. It derives its existence from the eternal character of the Deity ... and seems of itself to imply, and therfore to prove his Existence ... whence comes this strong universal feeling that approves or abhors actions? Manifestly not from matter, which is altogether unmoved by 缸, and the connection of which with it is a thing absurd~but from Mind, of which it is the . That mind is God. This sentiment which we bear within us, is so subtle and unearthly in its nature, so entirely distinct from all sense matter, and hence so difficult to be examined, and withal so decisive and invariable in its dictates--that it clearly partakes of another world than this, and looks forward to it in the end .... This sentiment differs from the affections of the heart and from the faculties of the mind. The affections are undiscriminating and capricious. The Moral Sense is not. 1 s Heτe the absolute nature of the moral s 巴nse is stressed. In journal during the 1860's the identification of truth and morality is clear: All the victories of religion belong to the moral sentiment ....The parson calls it Justification by Faith.... W巴 say there exists a Universal Mind which imparts this perception of duty, opens the interior world to the humble obeyer.16 The sould, as it obeys the inward law, reveres it, comes to feel that the listening after any saint or prophet were an impiety against this immediate revelation .. The Moral Sentiment ... is absolute and in every individual the law of the world.1 7 It is important to note that in Emersonian terms the moral sentiment, moral law, and moral sense are equal to the revelations of the Over-. They are also equal to duty, and to the law of the world. Man finds himself at one with the universe. And the great revelation helps man to know the difference between right and wrong. In both Confucian and Emersonian thought that the individual acts necessarily and naturally by the moral principle. It is in th 巴 nature of things. If all men are benevolent and faithful, morality is the result of its own accord. The emphasis must be laid . Confucianists did not attempt to live in touch with an Over-Soul as Emerson did. Howev缸, they regulated their social order on the basis of moral concept. Mencius considered that man has the innate good ability and innate good knowledge of morality. Filial piety is the central of Jen ; brotherly respectfulness is the most important part of . Jen and Yi are the Tao of man. And the Tao of ·man is based upon reflection on Sincerity or Hone 日ty ﹔日incerity or Honesty is the Tao of Heaven. Sincerity within a man’s self stressed by Confucius is a kind of Transcendentalism. Confucius included "sincerity" among the five qualities essential to perfect :“To be able to practise five things everywhere under heaven constitutes perfect virtue: gravity 可 generosity, sincerity, earnestness, and kindn 巴 SS. 鬥 1 8 44 Journal of the College of Liberal Arts Vol. 18

In the Doctrine of the Mean 『 Confucius said :“Is it not just entire sincerity which marks the superior man?’, l 9 ; and it The Great Learning :“The superior man must make his sincere. 弓, 20 "Sincerity is the way of Heaven. The attainment of sincerity is the way of men. He who possesses sincerity is he who, without an effort, hits what is right 司 and apprehends, without the exercise of thought i 」1e is the sage who naturally and easily embodies the (right) way. He who attains to sincerity is he who chooses what is good, and firmly holds it fast. 2 1 The attainment of sincerity is essential to self-development. "Sincerity is that where by self-development is effected, and (its) way is that by which a man must direct himself. "2 2 Man becomes the co-operator with Heaven by means of sincerity. And he may in 日 uence and even transform others. In his essay on “ Manners" Emerson said :“It is easy to push this deference to a Chinese etiquette; but coolness and absence of heat and haste indicate fine qualities. A gentleman makes no noise; a laby is serene.'’2 3 He insisted on courtesy and manners which he found in the Doctrine of the Mean. Such words give the high moral not 巳 in both th巴 Chinese and Emerson: “ It is only he who is possessed of the most complete sincerity that can exist under heaven, who can give its full development to his nature. Able to giv巴 its full development to his own nature, he can do the same to the nature of other men. Able to give its full development to the nature of other men, he can give their full development to the natures of animals and things. Able to give their full development to the natures of creatures and things 司 he can assist the transforming and nourishing powers of Heaven and Earth. Able to assist the transforming and nourishing powers of Heaven and Earth, he may with Heaven and Earth form a ternion.''2 4 The influence of this powerful passage on Emerson’s thought is to be felt rather than demonstrated. Emerson believed that man can only become inwardly perfect in outward manner. In the passag巴 s of the essay "Spiritual " Emerson made use of a Confucian quotation. It deals with character and its selιevident nature. "No man need be dec 巴 ived who will study the changes of expression ,'、 he wrote. "When a man speaks the truth in the spirit of truth, his eye is as clear as the . When he has base ends and sp 巴 aks falsely, the eye is muddy and sometimes asquint. "2 5 It is similar to th 巴 words from Mencius : “ Of all parts of the body there is none more excellent than the pupil of the eye. The pupil cannot (he used to) hide a man’s wickedness."2 5 Mencius continued:“If within the breast, all be coτrect, the pupil is bright. If within the breast, all be not correct, the pupil is dull. Listen to a man’s words and look at the pupil of his eye. How can a man conceal his character." In “ Spiritual Laws" when Emerson wrote,“Very idle is all curiously concerning other people’s estimate of us, and all of remaining unknown is not less so," 2 6 he approximated Confucius' thought in the Analects on the same theme. The Chinese sage The Philosophy of Human Nature in Confucianism and Emerson’s Transcendentalism 45

said ;“I am not concerned that I am not known, I seek to be worthy to be known’”27 And again, closer to Emerson's thought:“I will not be concerned at men’s not knowing me; I will be concerned at my own want of ability ."2 8 The essay “ Friendship" also contains a very Confucian sentiment:“Hold faithfulness and sincerity as first principles. Have no friends not equal to yoursel 「' 2 9 was the advice of the Chinese sage. Emerson expand 巴d it when he wrote 句“ There can never be deep peace between two spirits, never mutual respect, until in their dialogue each stands for the whole world .... You shall not come nearer a man by getting into his house. If unlike, his soul only flees- the faster from you, and you shall never catch a true glance of his eye. "3 0 Emerson considered that Confucius has many contributions to the history of thought in the world. Emerson's speech in honor of the Chinese embassy at the banquet in Boston in 1868 will best express that for which he valued the Chinese : Confucius has not yet gathered all his fame. When heard that the oracle declared that he was the wisest of men, he said, it must mean that other men held th 且t they were wise, but that he knew that he knew nothing. Confucius had already affirmed this of himself: and what we call the GOLDEN RULE of Jesus, Confucius had uttered in the same terms five hundred years before. His morals, though addressed to a state of society unlike ours, we read with profit today. His rare perception appears in his GOLDEN MEAN, his doctrine of Reciprocity, his unerring insight, --putting always the blame of our misfor­ tunes on ourselves; as when to the governor who complained of thieves, he said,“If you, sir, were not covetous, though you should reward them for it, they would not steal.” His ideal of greatness predicts Marcus Antoninus. At the same time, he abstained from paradox, and met the ingrained prudence of his nation by saying always,“Bend one cubit to straighten eight."31 First, he compared the modesty of Socrates to that of Confucius-­ both “ knew that he knew nothing’,. Second, Emerson mentioned "his unerring insight". Third, he wrote "What we call the Golden Rule of Jesus, Confucius had uttered in the same terms five hundred years before". Emerson later referred to it as "the doctrine of Reciprocity ’,有 Fourth ,“ his rare perception appears in his Golden Mean". Emerson described Confucius as "glory of the nations”, "sage of the Absolute E 且仗”, "a midlle man”,“the Washington of philosophy’; , and "the Moderator of modern history’'. 3 2 Emerson took the personality of Confucius as an example of human greatness. Emerson's personal and literary effect upon younger writers of his own later years was very deep and wide. Beyond Emerson's in 日 uence on individual authors of importance, his general influence on the and thought of America was also trem 巴ndous. He stood on the thr巳 shold of modern American literature and thought. New England Transcendentalism advocated by .Emerson represents not only one of the most striking historical peaks in American culture, but also a cast of thought which is very close to Confucianism. Frederic I. Carpenter, 3 3 Arthur Christy 3 4 and 揖敵京 3 5 showed us Emerson’s interest in Oriental thought. No explicit comparison of "human nature" between Confucianism and Emerson’s Transcendentalism was made in their studies. In this paper the aspect of human nature was discussed in detail. Emerson shared Mencius; view on 46 Journal ofthe College of Liberal Arts Vol. 18

the goodness of human natur 巳. It is one of the common characteristics in oriental and .

Notes

1. "Transcendentalism’, The Encyclopaedia Americana, 1976, p.3-4. 2. Edward Waldo Emerson, ed. The Complete Works of Ralph Waldo Emerso 月, 12 vols. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1903-4 ), Vol. I, p. 2 67. 3. Frederic Ives Carpenter, Emerson Handbook (New York: Hendricks House Inc., 1953),p. 125 4. Frederic Ives Carpenter, Emerson q,nd Asia (New York; Haskell House Publishers, 1968), p. 233 5. Edward Waldo _Emerson and Forbes Waldo Emerson, eds. The Journals of Ralph Waldo Emerson. 10 vols. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1909-14), Vol. VI, p.403. 6. Emerson, Works, Vol. XII, p. 195 and Vol. X, p. 117 7. Journals, Vol. VI, p. 418 8. Arthur Christy, The Orient in American Transcendentalism (1932; rpt. New York: Octagon Books, 1972), p. 124 9. I have, for the most part, used Legge's translation in my discussion because it is probably the most available for the general reader who mightwish to read further in the Chinese. James Legg 巴, The Analects of Confucius. BK.17 『 Ch.2 10. James Legge, The Book υf Mencius, BK.2, Pt.I, Ch.6, Art. 3-7 11. Ibid., BK.6, Pt.I, Ch.6, Art. 5-6 12. Emerson, Works, III’ 95 13. Mencius, BK.6, Pt.I, Ch.2, Art. 2 14. Emerson, Works, III, I I 0 15. Emerson, Journals, Vol._I, p.186-187 16. Ibid., Vol.X, p.99-100 17. Ibid., p.192-193 18. Analecrs, BK.17, Ch.6 19. James Legge, Thi! Doctrine of the Mean, Ch. 凹, Art.4 20. James Legge, The Great Learning, Ch. 6, Art. 4 21. Doctrine of the-Mean, Ch. 妞, Art. 18 22. Ibid., Ch. 25, Art. I 23. Emerson, Works III, 137 24. Doctrine of the Mean, Ch.22 25. Emerson, Works, II, 156; Mencius, BK.4, Pt.I, Ch.15 26. Emerson, Works, II, 157 27. Analects, BK.4, Ch.14 28. Ibid., BK.14, Ch.32 29. Ibid., BK.l, Ch.8, Art.2-3 30. Emerson, Works II, 211-212 The Philosophy of Human Nature in Confucianism and Emers凹, E Transcendentalism 47

31. Emerson, Works, XI, 4 72 32. Emerson, Journals, Vol.VII, p. 126 33. See Emerson and Asia by Frederic Ives Carpenter (New York: Haskell House Publishers, 1968) 34. See The Orient in American Transcendentalism by Arthur Christy (1932; rpt. New York: Octagon Books, 1.972) 35. See " 提「四書」看聖默生思想的菌種 ’, by 楊輸車 in A Collection of Papers Presented in The First National Conference of English and American Literature (Taichung: National Chung Hsing University, 1986)