SOMALI PROSODIC SYSTEMS l

John William Johnson

A recent breakthrough by two Somali scholars, lished by Andrzejewski and Lewis in their book Maxamed Xaashi Dhamac and Cabdullaahi Diiriye Somali Poetry: An Introduction (J 964). The mod­ Guuleed,2 has repopened the question of Somali em poem, which is also oral in nature and which has prosodic systems and has led to an understanding of had a powerful impact on recent Somali social and the units by which Somali classical and other poetry political life, is called the heel/o or hees. It was is scanned. These two scholars discovered, appa­ described in its historical context and examples of it rently independently, that the four classical genres were published in my book Heellooy Heel/eel/ooy: are scanned quantitatively, that is by counting tem­ The Developmel1l of the Genre Heello in Modern poral units on the line, They are not scanned by Somali Poetry (1974),' The present essay will con­ tone, or by stress patterns, or by any other method. centrate only on a detailed textual description of the What stumped us for years was the exact nature of prosodic systems of the four classical genres called the units which were to be scanned, Maxamed and gabay. jiiflO. geeraar, and buraambur. The reader Cabdullaahi discovered that the mora (also called may refer to the above mentioned books for such chronos and chroneme), and not the syllable, is the other topics as function and context of Somali oral key unit in Somali classical prosody. We shall re­ poetry. Let us put the four classical genres into turn to this unit later, but first a bit of background for perspective in relation to the rest of Somali poetry. t' the sake of orientation would be useful here. Until the advent of the two radio stations in Somalia,6 and the birth and growth of the modem The Somalis live on the eastern Hom of Africa. heello, Somali poets were non-professional as the They number somewhere around five million and great majority of them remain even today. That is to are approximately 70 to 80 percent nomadic, being say, poets did not earn their living by their skills, herders of camels, sheep and goats, and (in the Indeed, everyone was permitted and encouraged for southern regions) cattle. Their literature is almost reasons of gaining prestige to participate in this entirely oral, although there is now a growing body artistic endeavor, but, obviously, a minority were of written literature due to the government's deci­ really genius at it. The four classical genres were sion to use the Latin alphabet for transcribing the considered the highest forms of poetic expression language.3 By far the most important form of oral and were reserved for the serious political, social, literature in Somalia is some 35 (or more) genres of and philosophical com;nentary: thus, our designa­ poetry, all of which have been skillfully described tion of them as "classical" by the Somali scholar Muuse Xaaji Ismaaciil Ga­ The Somali poetic creative context is very in­ laal. 4 The most important of the traditional genres teresting to many students of oral literature and were described and examples of them were pub­ folklore in that, while oral in nature, it is not for­

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mulaic in the Perry-Lord sense of that ternl' In other aspects of prosody not dealt with here. but by other words. composition and recitation are not Somali standards only. In shon, a genre of Somali usually simultaneous. Verbatim or near verbatim poetry may be defined here as a form to which a memorization. an old topic in folkloristics recently Somali name has been assigned. reopened by Ruth Finnegan.~ is very important in First of all, as mentioned above, there is quan­ the diffusion and ultimate preservation of this type titative scansion. The numbers and combinations of of oral an. When variation of a specific poem oc­ numerical units differentiate some of the genres of curs. which is relatively rare. it usually takes the Somali poetry. Another major method is melody. In fonn of transposition or omission of entire lines Somali poetics, all genres can be sung; some may , rather than of words on a single line. Such memori­ also be recited as well as sung, while others must be ,.' zation is made possible by the incredible constraints put to music. Examples of the latter case are the j ( of prosody placed on the genres, the rules of which genres we call miniature. In Somali they are called ,I are ex plained below. wiglo. dhaaJ1lo. hirwo. and hehvo, and they last I" Exceptions to the nornlal practice of composition from two to ten lines in length. With these genres it '.1 in private occur. Friends sometimes assist a poet in is the melody that makes the difference.~ An ex­ his creative process of composition. Moreover, periment I tried with the Somali poet and playwright ""' poetic combats in Somalia often require an on-the­ Xasan Sheekh Muumin sought to prove this thesis. I spot response to a poetic challenge, which, inci­ later leamed that B. W. Andrzejewski had carried dentally, requires the same alliteration in the reply out the same experiment with the Somali scholar as was found in the challenging poem. In these Muuse Xaaji Ismaaciil Galaal some years earlier cases, license is given the poet, a license which and obtained the same results. The hypothesis was would not be permitted in other contexts. The poet this: recited, the genres could not be differentiated; is given more time to work out his lines: he is sung, the genres could be identified. The method I permitted to leave a line unfinished while he pro­ used to test this theory was simple. If melody were i ceeds wilh other lines and to return to the difficult the only factor differentiating the genres, then the I. line later; and he is permitted to "struggle through" same tex!. regardless of its generic designation, I! a line, sometimes mumbling through part of the line could be sung to any of the four melodies. This : with which he is having difficulty. In the latter case, assumption in fact turned out to be true. A wiglo text repetition is allowed, each repeat producing more was chosen, and the poet was asked to "convert" it words and fewer mumbling as the line is completed from a wig/o to a dhaanro, then to a hirwo, and and perfected. finally to a he/wo, simply by changing the melody. One result orthe normal composition in private is Other genres appear to be differentiated by a that the contexts of composition and performance combination of quantitative scansion and the appro­ I may be separated; therefore, composer and reciter priate subject matter reserved for the form. Hees­ represent two different, albeit overlapping, skills. geel. "camel-song," and hees-adhi, "sheep and Once composition of the poem is completed in pri­ goat song," are examples. Context even appears to vate, it can be recited by either the poet or by an come into play, as with such genre differentiation as agent to whom the poet has taught his poem. In this hees-wadaameed, "first camel watering song," context, authorship of specific poems may be as­ and hees-rakaadeed, "second camel watering signed and remembered. This practice in fact is a song." The first time the camels are watered, the pan of Somali poetic tradition. genre employed is rapid and rhythmic, as the We must now tum to the question of how genres workmen are not yet tired out and can keep up a of Somali poetry are differentiated, for there is more quick pace in slinging water containers up and down than one method by which this process is ac­ sometimes very deep wells dug into dry river beds. complished, and it is imponant to point out that The "second camel watering song," however, ". metrical structure is not the only method. We are finds two very tired workmen whose slower pace is designating a genre as such, not by a cross-cultural matched by a very milch slower rhythm to the song. theory, which is cenainly valid when discussing But more research is needed to be certain of these -

48 / HORN OF AFRICA Volume 2, o. 3

rules, and this research is being vigorously pursued long vowel, then, is equivalent to two morae. In­ by several scholars and their students at the Depart­ stead of counting syllables, as we tried for years to ment of Somali Language and Literature in the do, we have learned to count morae. Monosemic National University of Somalia and at the Academy units are one mora in length, while disemic units are of Somali culture,IO a research and publishing in­ two morae in length. The latter may consist of two stitute funded by the Somali government. The latter short syllables, or a long vowel, or a diphthong has accepted for publication the works on scansion followed by a consonant. 16 by the two Somalis mentioned at the beginning of The next largest unit on the classical line is the this essay]J At the moment only Maxamed's work metron or foot, which can be defined as a pen­ has seen print in the national daily newspaper, Xid­ tasemic unit. Put another way, a classical foot con­ diglQ OklOobar (October Star)12 tains from three to five syllables, equivalent to five The modem heello is delivered as a lyric to song morae. music and is differentiated from other genres by The remaining sublinear unit, the hemistich or several criteria. Every heello melody is different half line, occurs only with the gabay and the jiiflO. from every other heello melody, as with any song. Both these genres contain a caesura or pause be­ Quantitative units are not operative, as the poetic tween each half line. The caesura has a tendency to line is dominated by the melodic beat of the music. occur between clauses or smaller sense groups but is This form of prosodic constraint external to the constrained only in that it must not fall in the middle II linguistic structure of the line has been described by of a word. Charles S. Bird13 With the heello, musical instru­ As with Greek prosody, there are several catego­ I, ments are used to accompany the genre and there ries of syllables which may be described as permis­ appear to be no constraints at all on the subject sible variations to the "proper" rules of the line. matter. We have so far isolated three acceptable variations: II Finally, we come to the four classical genres, syllabula anceps, anacrusis, and truncation. If which we wish to describe in detail. As mentioned First, the anceps syllable is one which may be 'e above, it was the two Somali scholars who provided counted as long or short according to the poet's ic the breakthrough in this study by isolating the needs on any given line of poetry. At least six smallest units of this quantitative scansion. My own linguistic combinations provide anceps possibilities ~ contribution has been to isolate metron or foot pat­ for Somali. A diphthong of either a long or short v terns, thereby providing a distinct definition of the vowel, followed by the offglide, followed not by a meter ofeach genre. Altogether I analyzed scansion consonant as in the above mentioned variety, but by ~ 11 r Ii patterns of published texts of three gabays, three a vowel or by nothing at all, will allow the syllable Ii: geeraars, three buraamburs, and ajiifto, amount­ to be counted as either a monoseme or a diseme.17 II>:,,\ ing to some 6041ines. 14 Detailed statistical analyses The second anceps variation involves the prever­ " followed, and my conclusions are based on this bal pronouns which normally have long vowels. I:I! work. It must be made clear at this point that this First person aan, second person aad, and third per­ II ji ill research has only just begun, and the conclusions to son, masculine singularuu, may be counted as long i, H which we have come to date must be considered or short. The auxiliaries waa and baa normally have I,..' , rI I; tentative. long vowels but are the third anceps variation, while ,r 00. " Let us begin with a discussion of characteristics the fourth is the conjunction The other conjunc­ 'l· common to all four classical genres. Also a quick tion in Somali, iyo, incidentally, is often contracted f word on terminology. Many phenomena found in to the word preceding it by elision of the last vowel Somali scansion are also found in Greek oral poetry, in that word. Aniga iyo (five morae), "I and ...", and it is from the study of Greek and some Latin for example, may become anig'iyo (four morae). prosody that many of the terms are taken 15 The fifth anceps is the suffix -ii, a noun determiner, The smallest unit on the classical line is the mora, and the last example of anceps is the negation parti­ defined simply as the temporal duration of a syllable cle aan. It should also be pointed out that there may containing a short vowel. A syllable containing a be other anceps yet undeciphered. For the time

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,. ~ - - .-.-':. ­ _--.------IRiII!~-si. , I: Volume 2, o. 3 HOR I OF AFRICA / 49 i' i, I';' II being. they fall statistically in the catagory of "bad When these feet are employed in a classical I'I lines.' . poem. the poem may be described as an episynthe­ "n ij The second variation of the proper line is the one ton: that is 10 say, the same type of foot does not '. which permits an anacrusis or up·beal before the have to occur in each of the pentasemes on the same first fool. thus allowing six morae. but only in the line. It would be impossible [0 describe a Somali I! ~ I: first fool. The result is either an extra shan syllable poem as a tetropody in A foot, or a dipody in B foot, p. or a long voweled syllable in place of the initial because both these feet and any of the others lllay V IiI I" lllonol;emic unit on the line. occur on the same Iine and on any of the other lines :1 Finally, truncation or loss of one or more sylla­ in the same poem. In fact, the statistics indicate a bles i, permilled on the classical line. It takes sev­ tendency toward a line of at least three different " eral forms. Catalexis is the loss of one monosemic varieties of feet, the fourth one being the same as syllahle at the end of a half line or line. one of the other three. The geeraar, which is a Ii.,. Brachycatalexis is the loss of a disemic unit, which dipody, is the exception to this tendency. None of i.; can be either a long-voweled syllable or two shons. the several hundred lines we scanned in (he other L The loss of three morae may also occur and may be three genres permilled four identical feet on the classed under the general rubric of hypercatalexis. same line. To illustrate the episynthetonic nature of Initial truncation also occurs, producing an these poems, the foot occurrence patterns of the I acephalous or "headless" fool. The latter is the scanned examples given below are listed after the I, opposite of anacrusis. translations. I: Tuming to the question of meter, the gaba", the Apan from the units of quantitative scansion, I jiifio, and the bllraall1/Jur are tetropodies; that is, another constraint, which is tnily amazing about they contain four feet per line. The geeraar, on the classical and other types of Somali poetry, is its I' other hand, is a dipody with only two feet per line. alliterative pattern. The gabay, jiifTO, and geeraar ,I The metron itself, as we have indicated, is always a require that only one sound per poem may alliterate, i I pentasemic unit, and eight varieties exist for the a sound being defined as a single consonant or all classical genres. Greek names exist for all these the vowels collectively. A ISO-line gabay, for in­ Ii! :I feet, but they are somewhat inappropriate for Som­ stance, will have 300 words that alliterate with the I ali prosody .1H We have simply assigned an alphabe­ same sound. Thus we may call any given poem a tic letter to each fool. Using macrons to mark dis­ gaba." in "Q", or ageeraar in "M", or ajiifTo in emic syllables and microns to mark monosemic "vowels. " syllables, the eight feet may be transcribed as fol­ Alliteration does not occur in words that are side lows: by side on the line. The only requirement is that each half line in thegabay andjiifTO, and each Iine in the geeraar contain a word with the specified allit­ eration. The buraambur alliterates on each half of B. the line (there is no caesura in the buraambur), but this genre is an exception for another reason as well. c. Each line must have two words that alliterate with the same sound, but each new buraambur line may D. have a new alliterating sound. In this respect, the bllraambur alliteration pattern resembles that of Old E. English poetry. The tendency statistically in about half of the F. cases is for the first word on the half line to alliterate in the gaben' and jiifTo and for the first word on the G. line to alliterate in the geeraar and buraambur. Where the first word does not alliterate, at least H. some word in the first foot will do so. In 80 percent

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SO/HORN OF AFRICA Volume 2, No.3 of the cases we scanned, the first foot contained an boundary. Thus the first hemistich contains twelve are df alliterating word. morae, while the second contains eight. Note also tics ir One final comment on classical poetry in general that an anacrusis is permissible with this genre. The is ag, concerns larger line units. Classical poetry lines are following passage, alliterating in "D", will illus· exact 20 arranged in strophes and not in stanzas. That is, trate how the gabay line scans. first, there is no set number of lines in this larger unit, ten m although one classical poet, the Sayyid Maxamed Somali text and scansion pattern: ing p: Cabdille Xasan, now honored in Somalia as the Note II: I : 1 c: I : I r :. _:.1 J~I~I.U national poet, was known to compose some of his 33. tl;;h .,;; d;bk~diy~ s;nd;hay, dflnabbadoodii ye ~I~ II.: .I.:. I. I: ~I~ I. r ~ Ir .:.1.1: \ _C Somal gabays in triplets. A strophe is easily determined, diriri ..sayeen e 34 • Oedka lll;u me li1tasn e we8. ~1.1I.:.1 ~IJ for the last syllable of the last line of the strophe is II.:.' ~I J~I.:. 1 .r.:. l'Ilsysu debo joojay? 35. Afertaa sidii Deleb La riday, held on a low note for a much longer period of time ~l_::.: J~ ~: I : I .II~ I.:. I .1:_ ~ I_C deelka kc haboW'shay? 5. Amb than is its counterpart on any internal line of a ;6. O;'d;;n k;i;; bilssbiyo miyean. ~ I .u~ I • :.1 _ I: \l.:.I~I.II~'~ '.I,~ I~ • strophe. Moreover, it is also only at the end of a Kea dils8 eebsy e 37. Me deleeyay deylqssfku .... as , 6. Dirt strophe that the audience is permitted to interrupt the performance, and only then with a reinforcing 7 .. wexe statement of appreciation, which might include re­ Translation: petition of the last half line of the last line of the 9. Me w strophe. 33. God has put out their fire and has dampened (the Turning now to specific characteristics which valour of) their heroes; 34. They are not the weakest among people and yet they which differentiate the genres, let us begin with the have not fought (at all). most popular and the most structurally constrained 35. Have I not put these four (points) one after the other, genre, the gabay. The gabay foot pattern has inter­ like the (marked) sticks in the Deleb game? Transl nal constraints and may be defined as a diseme, 36. Have I lost the alliteration in the letter D with which I followed by another diseme, followed by a began? 5. I" 37. Have j not set it out clearly? Errors and prevarication w~ monoseme, and may be symbolized by the follow­ spoil a poem' 6. We ing diagram. The spaces between the lines represent we morae, while a double vertical line indicates a foot Foot Patterns: 7. W boundary. Internal foot boundaries are of two types. mf 8. SiJ The broken line may be crossed by a long vowel, but 33. 0 - B - A - 0 (with anacrusis) yo the solid line may not. 34. A-D-B - 0 9. Ca 35. C - B - C - C tac • P 36. B - B - 0 - C (with anacrusis) • • II 10. Dc 37. C-D-D-B The foot boundary in any classical poem is easy to ga recognize, because it is the smallest unit of recur­ Foot {> rent patterns of morae on the line. Four such pat­ Thejiifto as well as the geeraar have no internal metron constraints, and thejiifto line pattern may be terns may be isolated on a gabay line, thus produc­ 5. G ing a line in tetrameter. Because of the internal foot diagramed as follows: tic boundaries for thegabay, only the first four feet, A, 6. G B, C, and D may occur in the gabay metron. Il : : : : Il : : : : UI 7. F The structure of the gabay line may be sym­ 8. F 19 9. E bolized by the following diagram: 10. E There is, however, a definite tendency for each foot sti U:\:I~:l:\u:m:IU:I:ln to begin with a short syllable, thus:

III::: Ill::: U11::: III::: II The The uniqueness of the gabay line lies in the fact that identic the caesura falls after the first diseme in the third one al foot; in other words, it does not fall at the fc All eight feet are therefore possible, but B, D, and H

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are decidedly unpopular with thejiijto, as the statis­ Iine structure may be described as half ajiijto, thus: tics indicate for the materials we analyzed. The line is again in tetrameter, but the caesura falls in the • • • . • • • • exact center, after the second foot boundary. The . • • • n • . • • II first and second hemistichs are, then, equal, with ten morae apiece. Alliterating in "0", the feilow­ Diagramming the tendency for an uncrossable ing passage will demonstratejiijto line scansion. 21 internal boundary to fall after the first monoseme Note that initial truncation occurs. will render the following change:

Somali text and scansion pattern: • • • n [ • • • n [ • • • II , • ,"

-~- The geeraar, then, scans in dimeter, with two feet 5. Amos .... eB ka clabo ~eli I dekenkiyo qaadkee, per line, a total of ten morae. It further differs from the jiifto in that its truncation is terminal. Also 6. Dirbatll haddii BBn kegs ts[';o, ansa been dabBed eh e 1 ______R interesting to note is that anacrusis and truncation 7. wexaan KS8 delbahayaa, duunJ.:ssgu VUX'Ul. qabo, ill _ may both occur. Finally, the mode of delivery is

8. Intssd de.... }ad u tBhlly 1 adi':;8a u dami1n ah e, different for these two genres. The following pas­ 1- __1 _ sage, alliterating in "C" will exemplify geeraar 9. Me wee diidi nimenJ.:aad, dabatay e i soo dbacay? I 1: 11 _ scansion.22 Ii 10. ·"axay iKB dudduubeen, may kor u dabS8sbsao? Somali text and scansion pattern: Translation.­ II

5. I will myself seek to recover the propel1Y and the loot 9. Nin habeenno casheeyay which they seized. 6. Were I to leave a single penny with them my pledge n U u would be pervel1ed. 10. Cadar aan hadh lahayn 7. What I claim from you is only what you yourself owe me; D 8. Since you are the government the responsibility is Il u yours; 11. lyo ceeryaamays ugu toosta, 9. Can you disclaim those whom you tricked into at­ tacking me? II 11 II 10. Do they not swim in the prosperity which they have gained from what they devoured of mine? 12. 00 inuu caafiyaddiisa D Foot patterns: II u ," 13. Cabbaar meel la fadhiisto I. I' 5. G - A - G - F (initial truncation on both hemis­ tichs) II lJ II I" 6. G-A- F- E I: 14. Caqligaanay gelayn e. I 7. F-G-D-E i 8. F- G-C-E I: 9. E- G-C- E l! II II I - - - - I 10. E - F - E - F (initial truncation on second hemi­ 15. Waar tolow, colka jooja~ stich) I, Translation: I i Thegeeraar's foot constraints and tendencies are I identical to those of thejiijio. Moreover, there is but 9. He who sups plentifully every night ! one alliterating word per line, so that the geeraar 10. (Whom pride and prosperity shroud like) shadeless cloud

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II. And damp misl mixed together. Translation: 12. That in his good fortune 13. He should repose in peace and tranquility I. You were the fence standing between our land and the 14. Would be hard to credi!. descendants of 'Ali, 15. Oh clansmen, stop the war l 2. ( ow in your departure) you are the sky which gives Foot patterns: no rain while mist shrouds the world. 3. The moon lhat shines no more. 9 C- F 4. The risen sun extinguished. 10. C - E or F (with brachycatalexis) 5. The dates on their way from Basra cut off by the seas. II. F - G (with anacrusis; "bad" line) Foot patterns: 12. G-C 13. F-C I E - H - B - E or F (with brachycalalexis) 14. C - E (with catalexis) ") E-H-G-D 15. H-C 3. G - H - G - E or F (with brachycatalexis) 4. G - H - G - 0 The geeraar is more popular than the )iifto tn 5. A-G - H - 0 modem times, and its meter is said to match the rhythm of riding on horseback. It is in fact a battle In closing, one can see how highly constrained poem, while thejiifto is a genre devoted largely to Somali classical poetry is, not only by foot and line philosophical and melancholic topics. The gabay pattems, but also by alliteration Knowledge of the deals mostly with politics and social commentary. intemal structure of these constraints now makes a These three genres are masculine poems, composed claim by some Somali poets and reciters much more and recited by men and without any accompaniment credible, and that is this: it is said that some reciters of musical instruments, hand clapping, or much are so skilled at memorization that they can re­ audience participation. member and recite a classical poem after hearing it The buraambur stands in opposition to the latter only once. three in that it is composed and recited by and for women. A drum and hand clapping, as well as dancing, often accompany its perfonnance. No Notes intemal foot constraints or tendencies exist for the I. A modified form of this paper was presented at the inth buraambur. All eight feet are employed; indeed Annual Conference on African Linguistics held at Michigan metron H, unpopular with the masculine genres, State University. East Lansing. Michigan. from 7 to 9 April, was the most popular foot in the examples we ana­ 1978. 2. The spelling system employed throughout this essay is the lyzed. The line, a tetrapody, looks simply like this: one officially adopled by lhe Somali government on 21 October, 1972. 1 have not. however. changed bibliographical cilalions, where the spelling remains the same as it appears on the litle page II of the work. For a history of the aClivities leading up 10 the adoption of this alphabet. and for a description of the phonemic referents of its graphemes, see Hussein M. Adam' (1968), An­ Like the geeraar, the buraambur has a tendency to drzejewski, Strelcyn, and Tubiana (1969), and Andrzejewski (l974a), (1974b), (1977b), and (1978, forthcoming). The moSl truncate, which can be observed in all but the last important innovalions in lhis alphabet are as follows: lhe symbol line of the following buraambur .23 (x) is employed for the voiceless pharyngeal [h] or [hI and (c) for its voiceless counterpart [ ]. Somali text and scansion patterns: 3. For a good description of the rise of Somali written litera· ture. see Andrzejewski (1975). a4. For a lisl of Muuse Galaal's publications. see Johnson (1969) and (1973) and Mohamed Khalief Salad (1977). 1. .Jalkeenniyo Reer ';a100 rleyr La k;;lla rr.arsho.... , 5. Published by Indiana University Press for the Research C Center for the Language Sciences. this book is now distributed 2. Cirkoo di'i .... aayay 00 dunidu ciirtayo"",,. by Humanities Press. !: n 6. For a description of the impact of the radio on Somali 3. DayvxFI nuurkiis

5. BDsrB tlmirti1 ka imenaysay 00 baddii xidbdho..... 7. The basic book on the formulaic theory is Lord (1960). i I Volume 2. 0.::'\ HORN OF AFRICA / 53 Ii !I I' ~. Sec Filll1c~"11 (1'171» ,,"d (1'177) for th'''''lll~h discussi"lls se(lrch (llId DoculII{'n/(llioll 8/9 (Bilmingham: African ,,.il;, nf Ihi:-o topic. Studies Association of the United Kingdom. 1975): 9. For J Ihorou~h J('~l'rirlilln of (hl.':-'~ gel1re:-.. see Johnson 7-1-1. ( IlJ7~l. ---. "The Somali Academy ofCulture." IAI Bullelill: .4.fi-i­ i! 10. Fllr ~I O\.·:-'I.."I"lplio11 of tllL' Al..-·Jdc..'Ill~. ~C'(' .A.ndrze.ic\\'~ki call Srudies NOles (llId News. Supplement to Ajric(I -17: I (I977"l. (London: International African Institute. 1977): 7. '!' Ii'I' II. Sec Clbdull""hi Diiri)'e Guuked (197~1. ---. "Five Years of \'iritten Somali: A Repon on Progress I ~. Scc M".\;II11ed """shi Dh"Ill"c ( I 971>l. and Prospects." IAI Bulle/ill: A/ikall Srudies N(){es (llId Ii, 1I 13. SCe Bird (1971) "lid (1976). News. Supplement to Africo 47:4 (London: International V 1-1. Sc"nsiull "nd "1l"lysis w"s performed on [exts in An­ African Institute.197): 4-5. drzcjews~i :lI1d Mus" H.I. G"I""I (1963) "Ild Andrzejewski "nd ---..'The Development of a National Orthography in :1 Lewis{ 191>-11.1 ,huuld li~e luth"nk the authurs "nd publishcrsof Somalia and the Modernization of the Somali Lan­ !! theSe..' 1\\'0 vlork:-. fur gr:.tl1ting perJ1li~~ion (0 reprint portions of guage." Hom aJAfrica 1:3 (Summit. ew Jersey: Horn thesc lexts "s example, in this essay. Note Ihal the spelling in of Africa Journal. July/September, 1978): 39-45. Ihese p""ages has been "ltered to conform \\ ith the new Somali Andrzejewski. B. W .. "The Role of Poetic Tradition in the llalion:i1 onhogr"phy. Modernization of the Somali Language." Heegall (Vig­ 15. Works consulted fur terminolog\' werc Maas (1962l. ilance) II (Mogadishu. Somalia: Ministry of Information Raven (196~). Rosenmeyer. Ostw"ld. and H"lporn (19631. and and National Guidance. 25 September, 1978): 4-5. Premin!!er (1965l. --. "A Survey of Cushitic Literatures. 194Q.--1975." 16. The diphthong whIch must be coulllcd "s a long vowel Elhiopiallisl NOles 2: I (East Lansing. Michigan: Michi­ may he symholized hy Ibe following formul,,: # V G C #. The gan State University African Studies Center, 1978): symhoJ # represel1ls syllable boundaries. while V SI"nds for a 1-27. long or shon vowel The letter G symbolizes the off glide. either ---. "A Survey of Cushitic Literatures Before 1940." .y/ or /w/. and C represems ~ conson"m. Nanh EaST Africall Sludies (llIcorporalillg Elhiopiallisl 17. The "ncep' dipthong may bc symbolized by the formulJ: Nares) vol. 3 (East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State # V G (V) #. The parentheses represem an optional choice. University African Studies Center, 1979). [fonhcoming] 18. Inthc spirit of the movement in Somalia 10 modernize the Andrzejewski, B. W., and I.M. Lewis,Samali Pae/r..-: All 11111'0­ lan!!u,,!!e. I feel it would be more appropriate for Somali scholars ducliall (London: Oxford University Press, 1964): pp. to ;"i~n Som"li names to these feel. Moreover. bacchiac and 167. palimb'acchi"c. named from odes to the Greek and Roman god of Andrzejewski, B.W., and Musa H.I. Galaal, "A Somali Poetic wine. are decidedly inappropriate for naming poetic feet em­ Combat," Journal of Africall Lallguages 2 (East Lans­ ployed by a Moslem society. Listing the Greek names here is for ing. Michigan: African Studies Center. 1963): I. pp. edification and reference ani)': (A) Pemabrach. (B) First paean. 15-28: II, pp. 93-100; III, pp. 190-205. (Republished in (C) Third pacon. (0) Palimbacchiac (Amibacchiacl. (E) Second monograph form by Michigan State University. n.d.). paean. (F) Bacchiac. (G) Founh paean. (H) Cretic (Am­ Andrzejewski. B. W., S. Strekyn, and 1. TUbiana, "Somalia: phimacer) The Writing of Somali," Samali."a: Anlolagia Slorico­ 19. The triple venicle line may not be crossed by a disemic Cuill/rale 7/8 (Mogadishu, Somalia: Ministry of Educa­ syllable. and it represents the caesura boundary. but it does not tion. Department of Culture, 1969): 214-34. (Reprint of necessarily occur between feel. Only with thejii{to does the triple UN.E.S.C.O. Report WS/0866.90, CTU venicle line rcpresem both caesura and foot boundaries. Bird, Charles S....Aspects of Prosody in West African Poetry," 20. The passage is from Andrzejewski and Musa H.1. Galaal in Currelll Trellds ill STylislics, ed. Braj B. Kachru and (1963), pp. 22 and 2-1. Herben F. W. Stahlke (Edmonton: Linguistic Research, 21. The passage is from Andrzejewski and Lewis (1964). Ltd., 1971): 207-15. pp.74-77. ---. "Poetry in the Mande: Its Fonn and Meaning,-' Poe­ 22. Ihid., pp.13Q.--31 lics 5 (Amsterdam: North-Holland Pub. Co., 1976): 89­ 23. Ihid.. PI'. 138-39 100. Cabdullaahi Diiriye Guuleed. "Buraanburka iyo Miisaankiisa," Xiddigra Okloobar 6:247 (Mogadishu, Somalia: Ministry Bibliography of Information and National Guidance. 8 November, 1978): 3. [For the second half of this article, see under "Hojis iyo Hooris Buraanbur.] Andrzejewski. B. W ... 'The Role of Broadcasting in the Adapta­ ---, "Dhaantadana Miisaan," Xiddigra Okloohar 6: 164 tion of the Somali Language [a Modem Needs," in (Mogadishu, Somalia: Ministry of Infornlation and Na­ Language Use and Social Change: Problems ofMullilin­ tional Guidance, 2 Au!!ust, 1978): 3. [Forthe second half gualism ""ilh Special Reference 10 Easl Africa, ed. W.H. of this article. see under "Suugaanta Soomaaliyeed."] Whiteley (London: Oxford University Press for the inter­ ---. "Gabaygeenna Miisaan." Xiddigra Ok/oobar 6: 126 national African Institute. 1971): 262-73. (Mogadishu, Somalia: Ministry of Information and Na­ ---, .. Somalia Introduces a National Orthography," Africa tional Guidance, 18 June, 1978): 3. 44:1 (London: Imcrnational African Institute. 1974): 84. ---. "Gabaygeenna Miisaan: Qaybta Labaad." Xiddigw ---, "The Introduction of a ational Orthography for Som­ Okloahar 6: 134 (Mogadishu. Somalia: Ministry of In­ ali," Africall Lallguage Srudies 15 (London: School of formation and ational Guidance, 28 June, 1978): 3. Oriental and African Studies. University of London, ---. "Geeraarka iyo Miisaankiisa." Xiddigra Okloobar 1974): 199-203. 6: 190 (Mogadishu. Somalia: Ministry of Informalion and -. "The Rise of Written Somali Literature." African Re­ ational Guidance, 2 September, 1978): 3. -

54 / HOR OF AFRICA Volume 2, NO.3

---. "Geeraarka iyo Miisaankiisa: Qaybta Labaad,"' Xid­ 1977): pp. 268. digra OklOobar 6: 191 (Mogadishu, Somalia: Ministry of ---, "Somali Becomes the Official Language," Information and ational Guidance, 3 September, 1978): R.P.C. V./SOMAUA Nell'sleller I: I (Pub. by Returned 3. Peace Corps Volunteers in the Somali Republic, 1979). ---, Gor(a."nta Maansada [Anal."sis oj Poetry] [forthcomin!!] (Mogadishu, Somalia: Academy of Culture, Ministry of Lord, Albert B., ~The Singer of Tales (Cambridge, Mas­ Higher Education and Culture). [forthcoming] sachusens: Harvard University Press, 1960): p. 309. ---, "Hawraarey Ninba Si Kuu Qaaday," Xiddigta Ok­ Maas, Paul, Greek Metre (London: Oxford at the Clarendon toobar 6:119 (Mogadishu, Somalia: Ministry of Infor­ Press, 1962): pp. 116. mation and National Guidance, 10 June, 1978): 3. Maxamed Xaashi Dhamac (Gaariye), "Toddobaadkan iyo Cabdullaahi Diiriye Guuleed, "Hawraarey Ninba Si Kuu Qaa­ Suugaanta: Miisaanka Maansada," Xiddigra Oktoobar day: Qabta Labaad," Xiddigta Oktoobar 6: I 20 4:2 (Mogadishu, Somalia: Ministry of Information and (Mogadishu, Somalia: Ministry of Information and 1 a­ National Guidance, 24 January, 1976): 3. tional Guidance, II June, 1978): 3. ---, "Toddobaadkan iyo Suugaanta: Miisaanka Maan· ---, "Heelladana Miisaan," Xiddig10 Oktoobar 6: 172 sada," Xiddigta OklOobar 4:8 (Mogadishu, Somalia: (Mogadishu, Somalia: Ministry of Information and a­ Ministry of Information and National Guidance, 31 tional Guidance. 12 August, 1978): 3. January, 1976): 3. ---, "Heelladana Miisaan: Qaybta Labaad," Xiddigta Ok­ ---. "Toddobadkan iyo Suugaanta: Miisanka Maansada," toobar 6: I73 (Mogadishu, Somalia: Ministry of Infor­ Xiddigta Oktoobar 4: 14 (Mogadishu, Somalia: Ministry mation and ational Guidance, 13 August, 1978): 3. of Information and National Guidance. 7 February, ---, "Hojis iyo Hooris Buraanbur," XiddiglO Oktoobar 1976): 3. 6:248 (Mogadishu, Somalia: Ministry oflnformation and ---, "Toddobaadkan iyo Suugaanta: Miisaanka Maan­ National Guidance, 9 November, 1978): 3. [For the first sada," Xiddigta OklOobar 4:20 (Mogadishu, Somalia: half of this article, see under "Buraanbur iyo Miisaan­ Ministry of Information and ational Guidance, 14 kiisa.' .] February, 1976): 3. ---, "Jiiftadana Miisaan," Xiddigta Oktoobar 6: 149 ---, "Toddobaadkan iyo Suugaanta: Miisaanka Maan­ (Mogadishu, Somalia: Ministry of Information and a­ sada,"' XiddiglO OklOobar 4:55 (Mogadishu, Somalia: tional Guidance, 16 July, 1978): 3. Ministry of Information and 'ational Guidance, 27 ---, "Jiiftadana Miisaan: Qaybta Labaad," Xiddigta Ok­ March, 1976): 3. toobar 6: 150 (Mogadishu, Somalia: Ministry of Infor­ ---, "Toodobadkan iyo Suugaanta: Miisaanka Maan· mation and ational Guidance, I7 July, 1978): 3. sada," XiddiglO OklOobar 4:73 (Mogadishu, Somalia: ---, "Suugaanta Soomaaliyeed: Qaybta Labaad," Xiddigta Ministry of Information and National Guidance, 17 Oktoobar 6: 165 (Mogadishu, Somalia: Ministry of In­ April, 1976): 3. formation and National Guidance, 3 August, 1978): 3. ---, "Toddobaadkan iyo Suugaanta: Miisaanka Maan­ (For the first half of this article, see under' 'Dhaantadana sada," Xiddigta Okroobar 4:86 (Mogadishu, Somalia: Miisaan. "] Ministry of Information and National Guidance, 3 May, Finnegan, Ruth, "What Is Oral Literature Anyway? Comments 1976): 3. in the Light of Some African and Other Comparative ---, "Toddobaadkan iyo Suugaanta: Miisaanka Maan­ Material," in Oral Literature and the Formula, ed. B.A. sada," Xidd;glO Oktoobar 4:90 (Mogadishu, Somalia: Stolz and R.S. Shannon, III (Ann Arbor, Michi!!an: Ministry oflnformation and National Guidance, 8 May, Center for the Coordination of Ancient and Modem 1976): 3. Studies, niversity of Michigan, 1976): 127-76. Maxamed Xaashi Dhamac (Gaariye). "Toodbaadkan iyo Finnegan, Ruth, Oral Poetry: Its Nature. Significance and So­ Suugaanta: Miisaanka Maansada," Xiddigta Oktoobar cial COil/ext (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 4: 108 (Mogadishu, Somalia: Ministry oflnformationand 1977): pp. 299 National Guidance, 29 May, 1976): 3. Hussein M. Adam, A Nation in Search oja Script: The Problem Mohamed Khalief Salad (comp.), Somalia: A Bibliographical oj Establishing a National Orthography (M.A. Thesis, Sun'ey (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, Makerere, Uganda: University of East Africa, 1968). 1977): pp. 468 Johnson, John William, "A Bibliography of the Somali Lan­ Pre minger, Alex (ed.), Princeton Encyclopedia oj Poetry and guage and Literature," AJrican Language Review 8 Poetics (Princeton. New Jersey: Princeton University (London: Frank Cass, 1969): 279-97. Press, 1974): pp. 992. ---, "The Family of Miniature Genres in Somali Oral Raven, D.S., Greek Metre: Anlll/roduction (London: Faberand Poetry," Folklore Forum 5:3 (Bloomington, Indiana: Faber, 1962): pp. 125. Forum Society, 1972): 79-99. Rosenmeyer, Thomas, James W. Halporn, and Martin Ostwald, ---, "Research in Somali Folklore," Research in AJrican The Meters oj Greek and Latin Poern' (Indianapolis, Literatllres 4: I (Austin, Texas: African and Afro· Indiana: Bobbs·Merrill, 1963): pp. 137. American Research Institute, 1973): 51-61. Suleiman Mohamoud Adam, The De\'elopment ojBroadcasting ---, Heel/ooy Heel/eel/oo)': The Development oJ the Genre in Somalia (Mogadishu, Somalia: Ministry of Infonna· Heel/o in Modern Somali Poetry (Bloomington, Indiana; tion, 1968): pp. 34. Indiana University Press for the Research Center for the Language Sciences, 1974): pp. 209. (Distributed pre· sently by the Humanities Press.) Laitin. David, Politics. Lal'guage and Thought: The Somali John William Johnson is an Assistant Professor of Folklore at Experience, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Indiana University in Bloomington.

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