Maranatha Baptist Bible College

Red Cloud’s War: The Northern Plains Rebellion (1866-1868)

Submitted to:

William Licht Native American History HUHI 335 February 26, 2011

By

Jason Garrison

2

Deep in the Black Hills of Montana, the Lakota tribe made quite a statement against the United States Military. As one of the few seemingly successful Indian revolts, the Northern Plains Rebellion of 1866 established Red Cloud and the Lakota Sioux

Indians as a legitimate force to be reckoned with in the west. After a series of grievances against him, the Lakota leader, Chief Red Cloud, commanded a force of warriors that not only fought, but also were victorious against the American military. Red Cloud, justified in his actions based on greedy decisions by the United States, led one of the greatest attacks on the Americans that had ever been devised by the Native Americans.

The Lakota people had a rich heritage that was intimately tied to the Black Hills.

Archeological evidence suggests that the Lakota were known for their expertise in hunting large game. With buffalo being the desired species, the Lakota were among the first to use the bow and arrow, making the spear technology of the time obsolete. In the

1700s, the Lakota tribe began to migrate with the buffalo west and settle the area now known as the Black Hills. After receiving firearms from the Europeans, they began to fiercely protect the territory by forcefully driving other Native American tribes away from the area. The foremost motivation for the Lakota to stay on the land was buffalo.1

The herds provided a constant source of food for the tribe, creating a strong tie between the herds of buffalo and the Lakota people. By the 1830s, the Lakota had total control of the Black Hills area.2 Life for the Lakota Indians was prosperous at that time, due to the constant supply of meat, as well as a reliable supply of traded goods from the trading posts that were constantly reaching farther west. The Lakota tribe migrated within the

1 Jeffrey Olster. The Lakotas and the Black Hills. New York: The Penguin Group, 2010. 14. 2 Ibid, 16. 3

Black Hills in order to accommodate seasonal changes. For instance, in the winter, they would migrate to southern points in the Black Hills to not only stay warm, but to gather animal hides not available in the northern points.3 Needless to say, the Lakota tribe was very comfortable in its region. In the eyes of the natives, they had been divinely ordained to occupy that specific portion of land until the land could accommodate them no more.

The Bozeman Trail was the precursor to conflict between the Americans and the

Lakota Indians. John Bozeman, a miner seeking gold out west, sought to establish the

Bozeman Trail, or the Virginia Road, which allowed miners and settlers to break off of the Oregon Trail and settle down or search for gold in Wyoming and Montana. The main interest for the Americans was gold as stated at a later date by President Grant:

“In regard to the Black Hills, I look upon it as very important to them (the Indians) to make some treaty by which, if gold is discovered in large quantities, the white people will be allowed to go there, and they receive a full equivalent for all that is rendered.

If gold is not found there in large quantities, of course the white people won't for the present want to go there, and their country will be left as it is now.”4

This was an excellent option for those seeking gold and settlement, but it had one defect: it cut straight through the Lakota hunting grounds.5 The traffic that came with the

3 Jeffrey Olster. The Lakotas and the Black Hills. New York: The Penguin Group, 2010. 17. 4 President Ulysses Grant as quoted in: Oklahoma State University. "The Sioux Tribe of Indians (Plaintiffs) vs. United States of America (Defendants)." Oklahoma State Digital Library. Available from http://digital.library.okstate.edu/icc/v02/iccv02p646.pdf. Internet; accessed 4 March 2011. 5 Roy E. Appleman. Great Western Indian Fights. Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press, 1960. 110. 4

Bozeman Trail disrupted the success of the Lakota hunters. Travelers either hunted the game for themselves, or scared the game away. The travelers were not the only problem for the Lakota. The United States had constructed several military forts along the trail, such as Fort Laramie, that were a cause for concern among the Native Americans. The

Lakota believed there was no legitimate reason for any white man to set foot on their sacred hunting grounds.

From the perspective of Chief Red Cloud, leader of the Lakota tribe, this trail was not only unwanted, but also considered detrimental to the livelihood of his people. Red

Cloud had won the allegiance of the Lakota Indians by his victories over the Pawnee and

Crow tribes.6 Red Cloud esteemed himself to be the warrior and ambassador that would finally put an end to the injustice suffered by the Lakota tribe. In 1865, the United States government organized a council held at Fort Laramie that would negotiate the construction of the Bozeman Trail. Before the council, Americans had already begun traveling the trail, as well as erecting forts and buildings along the way, which was very unpopular with the Lakota people.7 Red Cloud, offended at the very thought of a council and trying to make a statement about the absurdity of ceding his tribe’s precious hunting ground, neglected to make an appearance at the council. Another attempt was made the next year to negotiate the construction of the trail. Chief Red Cloud was present, along with lesser known Chiefs Spotted Tail and Big Mouth. When the negotiations began, Red

Cloud stood in contempt at the idea of the trail and said: “You are the white eagle who

6 Grace Hebard. The Bozeman Trail: Historical Accounts of the Blazing of the Overland Routes into the Northwest, and Fights With Red Cloud's Warriors. Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Company, 1922. 173. 7 Ibid, 174. 5 has come to steal the road. The Great Father sends us presents, and wants us to sell him the road, but the white chief comes with soldiers to steal it, before the Indian says yes or no! I will talk with you no more! I and my people will go now, and we will fight you! As long as I live, I will fight for the last hunting grounds of my people!”8 This reaction by

Red Cloud distanced himself not only from the United State government, but also from the other tribal leaders in attendance. Many bloody skirmishes would follow due to the differing views expressed at the council.

Following the treaty, the Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho tribes would follow Red

Cloud in a quest to reclaim their precious land. Red Cloud began with a series of attacks on wood trains and American fortifications located near Fort Phil Kearny. The raids were fairly successful due to Colonel Carrington’s lack of aggression towards the Indians.9

When Captain Fetterman, who greatly opposed Carrington’s Indian policy, arrived at Fort

Phil Kearny, he brought with him an attitude of disdain for the Indians, hoping to completely erase them from the region as quickly as possible. Carrington and Fetterman’s conflicting views associated with Indian relations directly provoked the actions of Red

Cloud. Fetterman boldly declared in one instance that he would wipe out the Sioux with only 80 men. The Captain, horrendously underestimating the strong will and skilled tactics of Red Cloud’s warriors, set out with a group of 81 men in an attempt to relieve

8 Chief Red Cloud, as quoted in: Grace Hebard. The Bozeman Trail: Historical Accounts of the Blazing of the Overland Routes into the Northwest, and Fights With Red Cloud's Warriors. Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Company, 1922. 178. 9 Roy E. Appleman. Great Western Indian Fights. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1960. 122.

6 the attacks on the wood train. The warriors sent a small decoy tribe to entice Fetterman to follow. After following the tribe into an ambush, more than 2,000 Indian warriors commenced the slaughter of Fetterman and his entire force.10 While Red Cloud was not present at the battle, he was essential in forming the plan to avenge Fetterman’s policy.

The victory at the Fetterman Fight was arguably the most notable Native American victory over the United States military.

After a strong statement in the Fetterman Fight, Red Cloud was not finished. In an effort to completely stop travel on the Bozeman trail, Red Cloud organized two war parties, one to attack Fort C.F. Smith and the other to take Fort Phil Kearney. After Red

Cloud sent several hundred men to attack Fort Smith, he joined his remaining force to plan the siege of Fort Kearney. In the skirmish labeled the Hayfield Fight, the warriors assigned to attack Fort Smith had a difficult time overtaking the 19 soldiers hidden in the fort, but after a rigorous battle, the Sioux were victorious. Red Cloud and his warriors, armed with mainly bows, arrows, lances, and a few firearms gained from Fetterman’s men, were poised to take Fort Kearney.11 Captain James Powell of the United States, and his 31 soldiers had barricaded themselves under several wagons in the corral adjacent to the Fort. Thanks to the Springfield rifle, a breech-loading rifle as opposed to the muzzle- loading rifles the warriors expected, Powell and his men sustained only a few casualties.

While some sources claim ridiculous figures, it is generally believed that Red Cloud lost

10 Terry C. Johnston. Sioux Dawn: The Fetterman Massacre. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990. 277. 11 Roy E. Appleman. Great Western Indian Fights. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1960. 114.

7 over 50 warriors in the Wagon Box Fight.12 After the humiliating defeat at the Box

Wagon Fight, the willful resolve of Red Cloud was stalled, but not broken.

The United States government sent representatives to Fort Laramie to again discuss the issue of peace and land cession with the Sioux. This time, Red Cloud dictated the pace and topic of the discussion. Red Cloud declared he would not attend the negotiations until American soldiers had evacuated the two forts in the Powder River region, Fort Kearney and Fort Smith.13 The negotiation, as well as his success in war with the Americans established Red Cloud as one of the greatest Indian leaders of all time. A series of past Indian land cessions caused the United States military to view the Indians as a weak foe that needed to be forcefully removed. Red Cloud and the Lakota changed this concept. His efforts caused the American army to respect his tribe, and Indians in general. For the Native Americans, Red Cloud and his warriors gave hope that land was essential to survival. He also emboldened other tribes to stand and fight, realizing that the

United States was not an invincible opponent. Most of all, Red Cloud’s legacy taught other Indian tribes to be passionate about the possessions that were most valuable to each individual culture.

Red Cloud, justified in his actions based on greedy decisions by the United States, led one of the greatest attacks on the Americans that had ever been devised by the Native

Americans. The battles of the Northern Plains, while not pleasant, were very essential for both sides. The United States gained a respect for the people who originally inhabited the land dedicated to Manifest Destiny. Indians realized that there was hope and possible

12 Ibid, 115. 13 Roy E. Appleman. Great Western Indian Fights. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1960. 119. 8 success in fighting for their tribal lands. Red Cloud’s legacy continues to be an example of high resolve, and a formula for Indian success against the American military.

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Works Cited Primary Sources 1) Appleman, Roy E. Great Western Indian Fights. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1960. 2) Hebard, Grace. The Bozeman Trail: Historical Accounts of the Blazing of the Overland Routes into the Northwest, and Fights With Red Cloud's Warriors. Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Company, 1922. 3) Johnston, Terry C. Sioux Dawn: The Fetterman Massacre. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990. 4) Olster, Jeffrey. The Lakotas and the Black Hills. New York: The Penguin Group, 2010.

Secondary Sources 5) Hebard, Grace. The Bozeman Trail: Historical Accounts of the Blazing of the Overland Routes into the Northwest, and Fights With Red Cloud's Warriors. Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Company, 1922. 6) Oklahoma State University. "The Sioux Tribe of Indians (Plaintiffs) vs. United States of America (Defendants)." Oklahoma State Digital Library. Available from http://digital.library.okstate.edu/icc/v02/iccv02p646.pdf. Internet; accessed 4 March 2011.